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{"page": 3, "printed_page": null, "text": "♦^.\n\n'\"^d^\n\n►j!^ T^^fir.\n\n4^.\n\n>*i>\n\nm\n\n"}
{"page": 4, "printed_page": null, "text": "Digitized by the Internet Archive\nin 2007 with funding from\nIVIicrosoft Corporation\n\nhttp://www.archive.org/details/addressesproce1898natiuoft\n\n"}
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{"page": 7, "printed_page": null, "text": "oe.\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIOI^l)aSSOCIATION\n\nJOURNAL\nVol. -37\n\ne-f-'t\"lv<\n\n*\n\nOF\n\nSPECIAL.\n\nPROCEEDINGS AND ADDRESSES\nTHIRTY-SEVENTH\n\n4\n\nHELD\n\nWASHINGJON,\n\nANNUAL\n\nMEETING\n\nAT\n\nD. C, JULY 7-12, 1898\n\n^%5S^\n\n-^ft*T-r-;, ;, ;■, -;\n\nPu»li$i)ea by the Jlssocution\n\n^ \"''^'\n\n"}
{"page": 8, "printed_page": null, "text": "DATfc.\n\nL\n13\n\nan\n\nPRINTED\n\nAT\n\nZbe \"dniversltis of Cbtcago press\nCHICAGO\n\n^\nBUFFALO\n^\nPUBLIC\nLIBRABY\n\nu:;: VICES\n\n••••if.\n•• ••\n\n"}
{"page": 9, "printed_page": null, "text": "CONTENTS\nPACE\n\nConstitution,\nBy-Laws,\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n----....\n\nAct of Incorporation,\nCalendar of Meetings,\n\n--.-...\n--.-...\n\nOfficers for 1897-98,\nOfficers for 1898-99,\n\ni\n^\n5\n6\n\n.......\n\n8\n\n--------\n\n12\n\nTreasurer's Report,\n........\nReport of Board of Trustees, --..--\n\n15\njp\n\nJournal of Proceedings — General Sessions,\nMinutes of Proceedings of Board of Directors (1897-98),\n\n- '\n-\n\nMinutes of Proceedings of Board of Directors (1898-99),\nGeneral Sessions — Addresses and Discussions,\nReport of Committee on Necrology,\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n.\n\n-\n\n-\n\n\"\n\n-\n\n-\n\n■\n\n-\n\n-\n\n39\n43\n\n......\n\nDepartment of Superintendence (Chattanooga Meeting), '\nNational Council of Education :\n\n23\n^y\n\n281\n-\n\n303\n\nConstitution, --.-----Officers and Members,\n......\n\n489\n492\n\n• Secretary's Minutes, -..--.-Papers and Discussions, -----..\n\n494\n498\n\nDepartment of Kindergarten Education, Department ot Elementary Education,\nDepartment of Secondary Education,\nDepartment of Higher Education,\nDepartment of Normal Schools,\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n...\n\n-\n\n-\n\n* -•\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n-\n\n-\n\n.\n\n787\n832\n\n.\n\n.\n\n856\n893\n\n....--\n\nDepartment of Natural-Science Instruction,\n\n701\n728\n757\n\n-------\n\nDepartment of Physical Training,\n\n5^9\n620\n664\n\n-\n\n...---...\n.\n\nDepartment of Business Education,\nDepartment of Child Study,\n\n-\n\n-\n\nDepartment of Manual and Industrial Education,\nDepartment of Art Education,\nDepartment of Music Education,\n\n-\n\n-\n\n929\n\n-----\n\n959\n\nDepartment of School Administration,\nLibrary Department, -------Department of Education of the Deaf, Blind, and Feeble-minded,\n\n985\n1005\n1029\n\nActive Membership List,\n\n1061\n\n-\n\nList of Corresponding Members, Index to Active Membership List,\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-•,•'• -\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\niii\n\n-\n\n1113\n'n 4\n\n-\n\n1126\n1127\n\n-\n\nStatistical Table of Membership by States' \"for 1898,\nStatistical Table of Membership since 1884, Inventory and Price List of Publications,\nGeneral Index,\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n•\n\n-\n\n-1128\n1129\n\n"}
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{"page": 11, "printed_page": null, "text": "CONSTITUTION\nOF\n\nNATIONAL\n\nTHE\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nPREAMBLE\nTo elevate the character and advance the interests of the profession of teaching, and to promote the cause of popular education in\nthe United States, we, whose names are subjoined, agree to adopt\nthe following\nCONSTITUTION\nARTICLE\n\nI— NAME\n\nThis association shall be styled the National Educational Association.\nARTICLE\n\nII — DEPARTMENTS\n\nSection I. It shall consist of seventeen departments : First, of Superintendence;\nsecond, of Normal Schools ; third, of Elementary Education ; fourth, of Higher Education ;\nfifth, of Industrial Education ; sixth, of Art Education ; seventh, of Kindergarten Education ;eighth, of Music Education ; ninth, of Secondary Education ; tenth, of Business\nEducation; eleventh, of Child -Study; twelfth, of Physical Education; thirteenth, of\nNatural Science Instruction; fourteenth, of School Administration; fifteenth, the Library\nDepartment ; sixteenth, for the Education of the Deaf, Blind, and Feeble-minded ; and\nseventeenth, the National Council of Education.\n.■.\nSec. 2. Other departments may be organized in the manner prescribed in this\nconstitution.\nARTICLE\n\nIII — MEMBERSHIP\n\nSection i. There shall be three classes of members, namely, active, associate, and\ncorresponding.\nSec. 2. Teachers and all who are actively associated with the management of\neducational institutions, including libraries and periodicals, may become active members.\nAll others who pay an annual membership fee of two dollars may become associate members. Eminent educators not residing in America may be elected by the Directory to\nbe corresponding members. The number of corresponding members shall at no time\nexceed fifty.\nSec. 3. Any person eligible may become an active member upon application indorsed\nby two active members, and the payment of an enrollment fee of two dollars and the\nannual dues for the current year.\nAll active members must pay annual dues of two dollars, and will be entitled to the\nvolume of proceedings without \"coupon\" or other conditions. If the annual dues are\nnot paid within the fiscal year, membership will lapse, and may be restored only on payment of the enrollment fee of two dollars and the annual dues for the current year. All\n\n"}
{"page": 12, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nlife members and life directors shall be denominated active members, and shall enjoy all\nthe powers and privileges of such members without the payment of annual dues.\nAssociate members may receive the volume of proceedings in accordance with the\nusual \" coupon \" conditions, as printed on the membership certificate.\nCorresponding members will be entitled to the volume of proceedings without the\npayment of fees or other conditions.\nSec. 4. The names of active and corresponding members only will be printed in the\nvolume of proceedings, with their respective educational titles, offices, and addresses, the\nlist to be revised annually by the Secretary of the association.\nARTICLE\n\nIV— OFFICERS\n\nSection 1. The officers of this association shall consist of a President, twelve VicePresidents, a Secretary, a Treasurer, a Board of Directors, a Board of Trustees, and an\nExecutive Committee, as hereinafter provided.\nSec. 2. The Board of Directors shall consist of the President of the National\nEducational Association, First Vice-President, Secretary, Treasurer, chairman of the\nBoard of Trustees, and one additional member from each state, territory, or district, to be\nelected by the association for the term of one year, or until their successors are chosen,\nand of all life directors.\nAll past presidents of the association now living (July 10, 1895), and all future\npresidents at the close of their respective terms of office, and the United States Commis ioner ofEducation shall be life directors of the association. The President of the\nNational Educational Association, First Vice-President, Treasurer, chairman of the Board\nof Trustees, and a member of the association to be chosen annually by the Board of\nDirectors, which member shall hold office for one year, shall constitute the Executive\nCommittee.\nSec. 3. The elective officers of the association, with the exception of the Secretary,\nshall be chosen by the active members of the association by ballot, unless otherwise\nordered, on the third day of each annual session, a majority of the votes cast being\nnecessary for a choice. They shall continue in office until the close of the annual session\nsubsequent to their election, and until their successors are chosen, except as hereinafter\nprovided.\nSec. 4. Each department shall be administered by a president, vice-president,\nsecretary, and such other officers as it shall deem necessary to conduct its affairs ; but no\nperson shall be elected to any office of the association, or of any department, who is not, at the\ntime of the election, an active member of the association.\nSec. 5. The President shall preside at all meetings of the association and of the\nBoard of Directors, and shall perform the duties usually devolving upon a presiding\nofficer. In his absence, the first vice-president in order, who is present, shall preside ;\nand in the absence of all vice-presidents a pro-tempore chairman shall be appointed on\nnomination, the Secretary putting the question.\nSec. 6. The Secretary shall keep a full and accurate report of the proceedings of\nthe general meetings of the association and all meetings of the Board of Directors, and\nshall conduct such correspondence as the directors may assign, and shall have his\nrecords present at all meetings of the association and of the Board of Directors. The\nsecretary of each department shall, in addition to performing the duties usually pertaining\nto his office, keep a list of the members of his department.\nSec. 7. The Treasurer shall receive, and under the direction of the Board of Trustees hold in safe-keeping, all moneys paid to the association ; shall expend the same only\nupon the order of said board ; shall keep an exact account of his receipts and expenditures, with vouchers for the latter, which accounts, ending the ist day of July each year,\nhe shall render to the Board of Trustees, and, when approved by said board, he shall\n\n"}
{"page": 13, "printed_page": null, "text": "CONSTITUTION\nreport the same to the Board of Directors. The Treasurer shall give such bond for the\nfaithful discharge of his duties as may be required by the Board of Trustees ; and he\nshall continue in office until the first meeting of the Board of Directors held prior to the\nannual meeting of the association ne?ft succeeding that for which he is elected.\nSec. 8. The Board of Directors shall have power to fill all vacancies in their own\nbody ; shall have in charge the general interests of the association, excepting those herein\nintrusted to the Board of Trustees ; shall make all necessary arrangements for its meetings, and shall do all in its power to make it a useful and honorable institution. Upon\nthe written application of twenty active members of the association for permission to\nestablish a new department, it may grant such permission. Such new department\nshall in all respects be entitled to the same rights and privileges as the others. The formation of such department shall in effect be a sufficient amendment to this constitution for\nthe insertion of its name in Art. II, and the Secretary shall make the necessary alterations.\nSec. 9. The Board of Trustees shall consist of four members, elected by the Board\nof Directors for the term of four years, and the President of the association, who shall be\na member ex officio during his term of office. At the election of the tru.stees in 1886,\none trustee shall be elected for one year, one for two years, one for three years, and one\nfor four years ; and annually thereafter, at the first meeting of the Board of Directors\nheld prior to the annual meeting of the association, one trustee shall be elected for the\nterm of four years. All vacancies occurring in said Board of Trustees, whether by resignation or otherwise, shall be filled by the Board of Directors for the unexpired term ; and\nthe absence of a trustee from two successive annual meetings of the board shall forfeit\nhis membership therein. The Board of Trustees thus elected shall constitute the body\ncorporate of the association, as provided in the certificate of incorporation under the provisions ofthe Act of General Incorporation, Class Third, of the Revised Statutes of the\nDistrict of Columbia, dated the 24th day of February, 1886, at Washington, D. C, and\nrecorded in Liber No. 4, \" Acts of Incorporation for the District of Columbia.\"\nSec. ID. It shall be the duty of the Board of Trustees to provide for safe-keeping\nand investment of all funds which the association may receive from donations ; and the\nncome of such invested funds shall be used exclusively in paying the cost of publishing\nthe annual volume of proceedings of the association, excepting when donors shall specify\notherwise. It shall also be the duty of the board to issue orders on the Treasurer for the\npayment of all bills approved by the Board of Directors, or by the President and Secretary of the association acting under the authority of the Board of Directors ; and, when\npracticable, the trustees shall invest all surplus funds exceeding one hundred dollars that\nshall remain in the hands of the Treasurer after paying the expenses of the association\nfor the previous year.\nSec. II. The Board of Trustees shall elect the Secretary of the association, who shall\nalso be secretary of the Executive Committee, and shall fix the compensation and the term\nof office for a period not to exceed four years.\nARTICLE\n\nV— MEETINGS\n\nSection i. The annual meeting of the association shall be held at such time and\nplace as shall be determined by the Board of Directors.\nSec. 2. Special meetings may be called by the President at the request of five\ndirectors.\n\nSec. 3. Any department of the association may hold a special meeting at such time\nand place as by its own regulations it shall appoint.\nSec. 4. The Board of Directors shall hold its regular meetings at the place and\nnot less than two hours before the assembling of the association.\nSec. S. Special meetings may be held at such other times and places as the board\nor the President shall determine.\n\n"}
{"page": 14, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nSec. 6. Each new board shall organize at the session of its election. At its first\nmeeting a committee on publication shall be appointed, which shall consist of the President and the Secretary of the association for the previous year, and one member from\neach department.\nARTICLE\n\nVI — BY-LAWS\n\nBy-laws not inconsistent with this constitution may be adopted by a two-thirds vote\nof the association.\nARTICLE\n\nVII — AMENDMENTS\n\nThis constitution may be altered or amended at a regular meeting by the unanimous\nvote of the members present; or by a two-thirds vote of the members present, provided\nthat the alteration or amendment has been substantially proposed in writing at a previous\nmeeting.\n\nBY-LAWS\n1. At the first session of each annual meeting of the association there shall be\nappointed by the President a committee on resolutions ; and at the third session of such\nmeeting there shall be appointed a committee on nominations, consisting of one member\nfrom each state represented, the same to be appointed by the President on the nomination\nof a majority of the active members in attendance from such state ; provided, however,\nthat such appointment shall be made by the President without such nomination, when less\nthan three active members from a state are in attendance, and also when a majority of the\nactive members in attendance from any one state shall fail to make a nomination. The\nmeeting of active members to nominate members of the nominating committee shall be\nheld at 2 i'. M. on the second day of the meeting, at such place as shall be announced in\nthe general program.\n2. The President and Secretary shall certify to the Board of Trustees all bills\napproved by the Board of Directors.\n3. Each paying member of the association shall be entitled to a copy of its proceedings.\n4. No paper, lecture, or address shall be read before the association or any of its\ndepartments in the absence of its author, nor shall any such paper, lecture, or address be\npublished in the volume of proceedings, without the consent of the association, upon\napproval of the Executive Committee.\n5. It shall be the duty of the President, Secretary, and Treasurer of the association\nto appoint annually some competent person to examine the securities of the Permanent\nFund held by the Board of Trustees, and his certificate, showing the condition of the said\nfund, shall be attached to the report of the Board of Trustees.\n\nADOPTED\n\nBY THE\n\nBOARD\n\nOF\n\nDIRECTORS\n\nThe establishment of a special fund from surplus receipts, after the\nexpenses of the association have been paid, to be known as the \" Emergency Fund,\" was recommended by the Board of Trustees, submitted to\nthe Board of Directors at Saratoga Springs, N. Y., July 12, 1892, and the\nfollowing resolution was adopted :\nResolved, That there be established, as soon as the current expenses of the association will warrant, an Emergency Fund not to exceed $4,000. Said fund shall be subject\nto expenditure by the Board of Trustees in accordance with votes of the Board of Directors at any regularly called meeting.\nThe said fund may be used for the purpose of\n\n"}
{"page": 15, "printed_page": null, "text": "ACT OF INCORPORATION\nmeeting deficiencies of income of the association, and for such additional investigations\nand publications as may be determined by said Board of Directors.\n\nACT\n\nOF\n\nINCORPORATION\n\nAt a meeting of the Board of Directors of the National Educational\nAssociation, held at Saratoga Springs, N. Y., July 14, 1885, the following\nresolution was passed :\nResolved, That a committee of three be appointed to secure articles of incorporation\nfor the National Educational Association, under United States or state laws, as speedily\nas may be.\n\nN. A. Calkins, of New York; Thomas W. Bicknell, of Massachusetts,\nand Eli T. Tappan, of Ohio, were appointed such committee.\nUnder the authority of the resolution quoted above, and with the\napproval of the committee, and by competent legal advice, the chairman\nobtained a\nCERTIFICATE\n\nOF INCORPORATION\n\nWe, the undersigned, Norman A. Calkins, John Eaton, and Zalmon Richards, citizens\nof the United States, and two of them citizens of the District of Columbia, do hereby\nassociate ourselves together, pursuant to the provisions of the Act of General Incorporation, Class Third, of the Revised Statutes of the District of Columbia, under the name\nof the \" National Educational Association,\" for the full period of twenty years, the purpose and objects of which are to elevate the character and advance the interests of the\nprofession of teaching, and to promote the cause of popular education in the United\nStates\nTo secure the full benefit of said act, we do here execute this our certificate\nof incorporation as said act provides.\nIn witness whereof, we severally set our hands and seals this 24th day of February,\n1886, at Washington, D. C.\nNorman A. Calkins,\n[l. s.]\nJohn Eaton.\n[i.. s.]\nZalmon Richards.\n[l. s. ]\nDuly acknowledged before Michael P. Callan, notary public in and for the District\nof Columbia, and recorded in Liber No. 4, Acts of Incorporation for the District of\nColumbia.\n\n"}
{"page": 16, "printed_page": null, "text": "CALENDAR\nNATIONAL\n\nOF\n\nMEETINGS\n\nTEACHERS'\n\n1857.— PHILADELPHIA, PA.\n(Organized.\nJames L. Enos, Chairman.\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary,\n1858.— CINCINNATI, O.\nZ. Richards, President.\nJ. W. BuLKLEY, Secretary,\nA. J. RiCKOFF, Treasurer.\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n1864.— OGDENSBURG, N. Y.\nW. H. Wells, President.\nDavid N. Camp, Secretary.\nZ. Richards, Treasurer.\n1865,— HARRISBURG, PA,\nS. S. Greene, President,\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary,\nZ, Richards, Treasurer.\n\n1859.— WASHINGTON, D. C.\nA. J. RiCKOFF, President.\nJ, W. BuLKLEV, Secretary,\nC. S. Pennell, Treasurer.\n\n1866.— INDIANAPOLIS.\n\ni860.— BUFFALO,\n\n1867. — No session.\n\nIND.\n\nJ, P. Wickersham, President,\nS. H. White, Secretary.\nS. P, Bates, Treasurer,\n\nN. Y.\n\nJ. W.'BuLKLEV, President,\nZ, Richards, Secretary,\nO. C. Wight, Treasurer.\n\n1868.— NASHVILLE, TENN,\nJ, M. Gregory, President.\nL. Van Bokkelen, Secretary,\n\n1861, 1862. — No session.\n\nJames Cruikshank, Treasurer.\n1869.— TRENTON, N. J,\nL, Van Bokkelen, President,\nW. E, Crosby, Secretary,\nA, L, Barber, Treasurer,\n\n1863.— CHICAGO, ILL.\nJohn D. Philbrick, President.\nJames Cruikshank, Secretary.\nO. C. Wight, Treasurer.\n\n1870.— CLEVELAND, O,\nDaniel B. Hager, President.\nA. P. Marble, Secretary.\nW, E. Crosby, Treasurer,\n\nNAME\n\nNATIONAL\n\nCHANGED\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nTO\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n1871.— ST. LOUIS, MO.\nJ. L. Pickard, President.\nW. E. Crosby, Secretary.\nJohn Hancock, Treasurer.\n\n1876.— BALTIMORE, MD.\nW, F. Phelps, President.\nW, D, Henkle, Secretary,\nA. P, Marble, Treasurer,\n\n1872.— BOSTON, MASS.\nE. E. White, President.\nS. H. White, Secretary.\nJohn Hancock, Treasurer.\n\n1877.— LOUISVILLE, KY.\nM, A, Newell, President,\nW. D. Henkle, Secretary.\n\n1873.— ELMIRA, N. Y.\nB. G. Northrop, President.\nS. H. White, Secretary.\nJohn Hancock, Treasurer,\n\n1878. — No session.\n\n1874.— DETROIT, MICH.\nS. H. White, President,\nA, P. Marble, Secretary.\nJohn Hancock, Treasurer.\n\n1879.— PHILADELPHIA, PA.\nJohn Hancock, President\nW, D, Henkle, Secretary,\n\n1875.— MINNEAPOLIS, MINN.\nW. T. Harris, President.\nW. R. Abbott, Secretary.\nA. P. Marble, Treasurer.\n\n1880.— CHAUTAUQUA,\n\nJ. Ormond\n\nJ, Ormond\n\nWilson, Treasurer.\n\nWilson, Treasurer.\n\nN. Y.\n\nJ. Ormond Wilson, President.\nW. D. Henkle, Secretary.\nE. T. Tappan, Treasurer.\n\n"}
{"page": 17, "printed_page": null, "text": "CALENDAR\n\nOF MEETINGS\n\n1881.— ATLANTA, GA.\nJames H. Smart, President.\nW. D. Henkle, Secretary.\nE. T. Tappan, Treasurer.\n\n1890.— ST. PAUL, MINN.\nJ. H. Canfield, President.\nW. R. Garrett, Secretary.\nE. C. Hewett, Treasurer.\n\n1882.— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y.\nG. J. Orr, President.\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\nH. S. Tarbkll, Treasurer.\n\n1891.— TORONTO, ONTARIO.\nW, R. Garrett President.\nE. H. Cook, Secretary.\n\n1883.— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y.\nE. T. Tappan, President.\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\nN. A. Calkins, Treasurer.\n\n1892.— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y.\nE. H. Cook, President.\nR. W. Stevenson, Secretary.\n\n1884.— MADISON, WIS.\nThomas W. Bicknell, President.\nH. S. Tarbell, Secretary.\nN. A. Calkins, Treasurer.\n\n1893.— CHICAGO, ILL.\n(International Congress of Education.)\nAlbert G. Lane, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\n\n1885.— SARATOGA SPRINGS. N. Y.\nF. Louis Soldan, President.\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\nN. A. Calkins, Treasurer.\n\n1894.— ASBURY PARK, N. J.\nAlbert G. Lane, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\n\n1886.— TOPEKA, KAN.\nN. A. Calkins, President.\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\nE. C. Hewett, Treasurer.\n\n1895.— DENVER, COLO.\nNicholas M. Bihxer, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\n\nJ. M. Greenwood,\n\nJ. M. Greenwood,\n\nJ. M. Greenwood,\n\n1887.— CHICAGO, ILL.\nW. E. Sheldon, President.\nJ. H. Canfield, Secretary.\nE. C. Hewett, Treasurer.\n\nJ. M. Greenwood,\n\nTreasurer.\n\nTreasurer.\n\nTreasurer.\n\nTreasurer.\n\n1. C. McNeill, Treasurer.\n1896.— BUFFALO, N. Y.\nNewton C. Dougherty, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nI. C. McNeill, Treasurer.\n\n1888.— SAN FRANCISCO, CAL.\nAaron Gove, President.\nJ. H. Canfield, Secretary.\nE. C. Hewett, Treasurer.\n1889.— NASHVILLE, TENN.\nAlbert P. Marble, President.\nJ. H. Canfield, Secretary.\nE. C. Hewett, Treasurer.\n\n1897.— MILWAUKEE, WIS.\nCharles R. Skinner, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nI. C. McNeill, Treasurer.\n1898.— WASHINGTON, D. C.\nJ. M. Greenwood, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nI. C. McNeill, Treasurer.\n\n"}
{"page": 18, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nUNITED\n\nOFFICERS\n\nFOR\n\nGENERAL\nJAMES\nM. GREENWOOD\nIRWIN SHEPARD\nI.e. McNeill\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nSTATES\n\n1897-98\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nPresident\nSecretary\nTreasurer\n\nKansas City, Mo.\nWinona, Minn.\nWest Superior, Wis.\n\nVICE-PRESIDENTS\nCharles R. Skinner, Albany, N. Y.\nGeorge J. Ramsey, Clinton, La.\nJ. L. Hollow AY, Fort Smith, Ark.\nE. Oram Lyt.e, Millersville, Pa.\nJames M. Ralston, Asbury Park. N. J.\nMiss Margaret W. Sutherland, Columbus, O.\nBOARD\n\nL. D. Harvey, Milwaukee, Wis.\nW. W. Stetson, Auburn, Me.\nHiram Hadley, Albuquerque, N. M.\nW. H. H. Beadle, Madison, S. D.\nJohn E. McCahan, Baltimore, Md.\nS. T. Black, Sacramento, Cal.\n\nOF TRUSTEES\n\n(See A rt. IV, sees, g and lo, of the constitution.')\nAlbert G. Lane\nNicholas Murray Butler\nNicholas Murray Butler\nAlbertG.Lane\nJ. Ormond Wilson\nF. Louis Soldan\nJames M. Greenwood\n\nChairman\nSecretary\nNew York, N. Y\nChicago, 111\nWashington, D. C\nSt. Louis, Mo\nKansas City, Mo\nEXECUTIVE\n\nJames M. Greenwood\nCharles R. Skinner\nIrwin Shepard\nI. C. McNeill\nAlbert G. Lane\n\nChicago, 111.\nNew York, N. Y.\nTerm expires July, 1898\nTerm expires July, 1899\nTerm expires July, 1900\nTerm expires July, 1901 .\nEx officio\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\n(See Art. IV, sec, 2, of the constitution.\")\nPresident\nFirst Vice-President\nSecretary\nTreasurer\nChairman Board of Trustees\nBOARD\n\nOF\n\nKansas City, Mo.\nAlbany, N. Y.\nWinona, Minn.\nWest Superior, Wis,\nChicago, III.\n\nDIRECTORS\n\nDirectors ex offlcio\n(See Artf IV, sec. 2, of the constitution.)\nJames M. Greenwood, Kansas City, Mo.\nIrwin Shepard, Winona, Minn.\nCharles R. Skinner, Albany, N. Y.\nI. C. McNeill, West Superior, Wis.\nAlbert G. Lane, Chicago, 111.\n\nIiife Directors\n(See Art. IV, sec. 2, of the constitution.)\nBiCKNELL, Thomas W., Providence, R. I,\nBrown, Leroy D., San Luis Obispo, Cal.\nButler, Nicholas Murray, New York, N. Y.\nCanfield, James H., Columbus, O.\nCook, E. H,, Yonkers, N. Y.\nDay, L. W., Canton, O.\nDougherty, Newton C„ Peoria, 111.\nFairchild, George T., Berea, Ky.\nGarrett, W. R., Nashville, Tenn.\n\nGove, Aaron, Denver, Colo.\nGraham, H. A., Mt. Pleasant, Mich.\nGreenwood, J. M., Kansas City, Mo.\nHall, Caleb G., New Berlin, N. Y.\nHarris, W. T., Washington, D. C.\nHunt, Mary H., Boston, Mass,\nJewett, A. V., Abilene, Kan.\nLane, Albert G., Chicago, III.\nMarble, Albert P., New York, N. Y.\n\n"}
{"page": 19, "printed_page": null, "text": "•\n\n.\n\nDIRECTORS\nIjife Ji\\TeoX,OT%— continued\n\nMarshall, T. Marcellus, Glenville, W. Va.\nNorthrop, B. G., Clinton, Conn.\nParker, Charles I., South Chicago, 111.\n\nSheldon, W. E., Boston, Mass.\nSkinner, Charles R., Albany, N. Y.\nSmart, James H., Lafayette, Ind.\n\nPhelps, W. F., St. Paul, Minn.\n•\nSoldan, F. Louis, St. Louis, Mo.\nPiCKARD, JosiAH L., lowa City, la.\nStratton, C. C, University Park, Ore.\nPike, Joshua, Jerseyville, 111.\nTaylor. A. R., Emporia, Kan.\nRichards, Zalmon, Washington, D. C.\nWhite, Charles G., Lake Linden, Mich.\nRiCKOFF, Andrew J., Berkeley, Cal.\nWhite, E. E., Columbus, O.\nWilson, J. Ormond, Washington, D. C.\n\nDirectors by Election\nNorth Atlantic Division\nMaine\nNew Hampshire\nVermont\nMassachusetts\nRhode Island\nConnecticut\nNew York\nNew Jersey\n\n:\n\nJohn S. Lockk\nChanning Folsom\nMason S. Stone\nA. G. Bovden\nGilman C. Fisher\nF. E. Howard\nA. S. Downing\n\nSaco\nDover\nMontpelier\nBridgewater\nPawtucket\nBridgeport\nAlbany\n\nJamks M. Green\n\nTrenton\n\nSouth Atlantic Division\nPennsylvania\nDelaware\n\nS. T. Skidmore\nA. H. Berlin\n\nPhiladelphia\nWilmington\n\nMaryland\nDistrict of Columbia\n\nHknrv A. Wise\nW. B. Powell\n\nBaltimore\nWashington\n\nVirginia\nWest Virginia\nNorth Carolina\nSouth Carolina\nFlorida\n\nE. C. Glass\nW. H. Anderson\nCharles D. McIver\nW. H. Hand\nOscar Clute\n\nLynchburg\nWheeling\nGreensboro\nChester\nLakeCity\n\nSouth Central Division\nKentucky\nTennessee\nGeorgia\nAlabama\nMississippi\nLouisiana\nTexas\nOklahoma\nArkansas\n\nE. W. Weaver\nWharton S. Jones\nW. M. Slaton\nJohn T. Gregory\nE.E.Bass\nWarren Easton\nGeorge T. Winston\nDavid R. Boyd\nGeorge B. Cook\n\nParis\nMemphis\nAtlanta\nMobile\nGreenville\nNew Orleans\nAustin\nNorman\nHot Springs\n\nNorth Central Division\n\nOhio\nIndiana\n\nF.B.Dyer\nEdward Ayres\n\nIllinois\nMichigan\nWisconsin\nIowa\n\nJ. H.Collins\nHenry R. Pattengill\nMiss Mae E. Schreiber\nW. M. Beardshear\nCM. Jordan\nJohn R. Kirk\nW. L. Stockwell\nA. H, Avery\nC. G. Pearse\n\nMadisonville\nLafayette\nSpringfield\nLansing\nMilwaukee\nAmes\nMinneapolis\nJefferson City\nGrafton\nWoonsocket\nOmaha\n\nJohn Macdonald\n\nTopeka\n\nMinnesota\nMissouri\nNorth Dakota\n\nSouth Dakota\nNebraska\nKansas\n\nWestern Division\nMontana\n\nWyoming\nColorado\nNew Mexico\nArizona\n\nJ. E. Klock\nMiss Estelle Reel\nL.C.Greenlee\nC. M. Light\nMiss Lydia L. HimT\n\nHelena\nCheyenne\nDenver\nSilver City\nSan Carlos\n\n"}
{"page": 20, "printed_page": null, "text": "lo\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n.\n\n•\n\nDirectors by Tilection—conituueii\nIVestern Division — continued\nUtah\nNevada\nIdaho\nWashington\nOregon\nCalifornia\n\nJ. M. Tanner\nJ. E. Stubbs\nJ. C. Black\nR. S. Bingham\nE. B. McElroy\nElmer E. Brown\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nLogan\nReno\nAlbion\nTacoma\nEugene\nBerkeley\n\nOFFICERS\n\nNational Council\nCHARLES\n\nDe GARMO\n\nWILLIAM F. KING\nMiss BETTIE A. DUTTON\nB, A. HINSDALE\nJ. H. PHILLIPS\nCHARLES H. KEYES\nWALTER L. HERVEY\n\nPresident\n\nSwarthmore, Pa.\n\nVice-President\nSecretary\nExecutive Comtnittee\nExecutive Committee\nExecutive Committee\nExecutive Committee\n\nMt. Vernon, la.\nCleveland, O.\nAnn Arbor, Mich.\nBirmingham, Ala.\nHolyoke, Mass.\nNew York, N. Y.\n\nKindergarten\nMiss MARY\n\nC. McCULLOCH\n\nMiss JENNY B. MERRILL\nMiss MARY F. HALL\n\nPresident\n\nSt. Louis, Mo.\n\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nNew York, N. Y.\nMilwaukee, Wis.\n\nSlementary\nWILLIAM N. H AILM ANN\nR. H. HALSEY\nMiss HARRIET E. SMITH\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nGEORGE\nB. AITON\nMrs. may WRIGHT\nE. G.COOLEY\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nWashington, D. C.\nBinghamton, N. Y.\nMilwaukee, Wis.\n\nSecondary\nSEWALL\n\nMinneapolis, Minn.\nIndianapolis, Ind.\nLaGrange, 111.\n\nHigher\nR. H.JESSE\nA. T. ORMOND\nHENRY WADE\n\nROGERS\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nIl^ormal\n\nColumbia, Mo.\nPrinceton, N.J.\nEvanston, 111.\n\nH. H. SEERLEY\n\nPresident\n\nCedar Falls, la.\n\nMiss ROSE C. SWART\nF. B. PALMER\n\nVice-President\nSecretary...\n\nOshkosh, Wis.\nFredonia, N. Y.\n\nSuperintendence\nN. C. SCHAEFFER\nF. B. COOPER\nE. H. MARK\nW.L.STEELE\n\nPresident\nFirst Vice-President\nSecond Vice-President\nSecretary\n\nHarrisburg, Pa.\nDes Moines, la.\nLouisville, Ky.\nGalesburg, III.\n\nManual and Industrial\nEDWARD O. SISSON\nWILLIAM R. LAZENB Y\nJUDSON E. HOYT\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nPeoria, 111.\nColumbus, O.\nMenomonie, Wis.\n\nMiss HARRIET\n\nPresident\n\nOshkosh, Wis.\n\nD. R. AUGSBURG\nMiss FLORENCE B. HIMES\n\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nSalt Lake City, Utah\nAlbany, N. Y.\n\nO. E. McFADON\n\nPresident\n\nMinneapolis, Minn.\n\nMrs. EMMA A. THOMAS\nMiss S. LILLIAN BYINGTON\n\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nDetroit, Mich.\nMoline, III.\n\nArt\nCECIL\n\nMAGEE\n\nMusic\n\n"}
{"page": 21, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOFFICE A'S\n\nBusiness\nD.W.SPRINGER\nji^A. N. PALMER\nY\nW.F.LYON\nif) D.M.WILLIS\n/rt ALLAN DAVIS\n\nPresident...,\n\nAnn Arbor, Mich.\n\nFirst Vice- President\nSecond Vice-President\n'Secretary\nChairman Executive Committee\n\nCedar Rapids, la.\nDetroit, Mich.\nMorgantown, W. Va.\nWashington, D, C.\n\nChild-Study\nM. V.O'SHEA\nM iss SARAH A. STEWART\nG. W. A. LUCKEY\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nMadison, Wis.\nPhiladelphia, Pa.\nLincoln, Neb.\n\nPhysical Training\nC. E. EHINGER\nMiss R. ANNA MORRIS\nH. B. BOICE\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nWest Chester, Pa.\nCleveland,©.\nTrenton, N. J.\n\nP. C. FREER\n\nPresident\n\nAnn Arbor, Mich.\n\nC. N. COBB\nC. J. LING\n\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nAlbany, N. Y.\nDenver, Colo.\n\nScience\n\nSchool Administration\nJOHN\n\nE. BRANDEGEE\n\nPresident\n\nUtica, N. Y.\n\nKENTON CHICKERING\nCHARLES QUARLES\nWILLIAM GEORGE BRUCE\nWILLIAM S. MACK\n\nFirst Vice-President\nSecond Vice-President\nSecretary\nChairman Executive Committee\n\nOil City, Pa.\nMilwaukee, Wis.\nMilwaukee, Wis.\nAurora, 111.\n\nL. D. HARVEY\n\nPresident\n\nMilwaukee, Wis.\n\nJ. H. VAN SICKLE\nMiss MYRTILLA AVERY\n\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nDenver, Colo.\nAlbany, N. Y.\n\nIjibrary\n\nDeaf, Blind, etc.\nJOSEPH\n\nC. GORDON\n\nMiss SARAH FULLER\nMiss MARY McCOWEN\n\n0\n\n'.\n\nPresident\n\nJacksonville, III.\n\nVice-President\nSecretary and Treasurer\n\nBoston, Mass.\nChicago, III.\n\n"}
{"page": 22, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nOF THE\n\nUNITED\n\nOFFICERS\nGENERAL\nE.ORAMLYTE\nIRWIN SHEPARD\nI. C. McNeill\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nSTATES\n\nFOR\n\n1898-99\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nPresident\nSecretary\nTreasurer\n\nMillersville, Pa.\nWinona, Minn.\nWest Superior, Wis.\n\nVICE-PRESIDENTS\nJames M. Greenwood, Kansas City, Mo.\nW. W. Stetson, Auburn, Me.\nE. B. Prettyman, Baltimore, Md.\nH. C. White, Georgia.\nJoseph Swain, Bloomington, Ind.\nJ. R. Rightsell, Little Rock, Ark.\nBOARD\n\nR. S. Bingham, Tacoma, Wash.\nFrank P. Smith, Lawrence, Kan.\nE. B. McElroy, Eugene, Ore.\nMcHenry Rhoads, Frankfort, Ky.\nJ. Y. Joyner, Greensboro, N. C.\nS. N. Hopkins, Guthrie, Okla,\nOF TRUSTEES\n\n(See A rt. IV, sees, g and lo, of the constitution.)\nAlbert G. Lane\nNicholas Murray Butler\nAlbert G. Lane\nJ. Ormond Wilson\nF. Louis Soldan\nNicholas Murray Butler\nE. Oram Lyte\n\nChairman\nSecretary\nChicago; 111\nWashington, D. C\nSt. Louis, Mo\nNew York, N. Y\nMillersville, Pa\nEXECUTIVE\n\nE. Oram Lyte\n\nChicago, III.\nNew York, N. Y.\nTerm expires July, 1899\nTerm expires July, 1900\nTerm expires July, 1901\nTerm expires July, 1902\nEx officio\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\n(See Art. IV, sees. 2 and 11, of the constitution.')\nPresident\nMillersville, Pa.\n\nJames M. Greenwood\nI. C. McNeill\nAlbert G. Lane\nW. T. Harris\n\nFirst Vice-President\nKansas City, Mo.\nTreasurer\nWest Superior, Wis.\nChairman Board of Trustees . . . Chicago, 111.\nWashington, D. C.\n\nIrwin Shepard\n\nSecretary\nBOARD\n\nWinona, Minn.\nOF DIRECTORS\n\nDirectors ex officio\n(See Art. IV, sec. 2, of the constitution.)\nE. Oram Lyte, Millersville, Pa.\nJames M. Greenwood,\n\nIrwin Shepard, Winona, Minn.\n\nKansas City, Mo.\nI. C. McNeill, West Superior, Wis.\nAlbert G.Lane, Chicago, 111.\n\nXiife Directors\n(See Art. IV, sec. 2, of the constitution.)\nBiCKNELL, Thomas W., Providence, R. I.\nBrown, Leroy D., San Luis Obispo, Cal.\nButler, Nicholas Murray, New York, N. Y.\nCanfielu, James H., Columbus, O.\nCook, E. H., Yonkers, N. Y.\nDay, L. W., Canton, O.\n\nDougherty, Newton C, Peoria, 111.\nFairchild, George T., Berea, Ky.\nGarrett, W. R., Nashville, Tenn.\nGove, Aaron, Denver, Colo.\nGraham, H. A., Mt. Pleasant, Mich.\nGreenwood, J. M., Kansas City, Mo.\n\n"}
{"page": 23, "printed_page": null, "text": "OFFICERS\n\nOF THE\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nLife Directors— r<)n//M»<r</\nRichards, Zalmon, Washington, D. C.\nRiCKOFF, Andrew J., Berkeley, Cal.\nSheldon, W. E., Boston. Mass.\nSkinner, Charles R., Albany, N. Y.\nSmart, James H., Lafayette, Ind.\nSoLDAN, F. Louis, St. Louis, Mo,\nStratton, C. C, University Park, Ore.\nTaylor, A. R., Emporia, Kan.\nWhite, Charles G., Lake Linden, Mich.\nWhite, E. E., Columbus, O.\nWilson, J. Ormond, Washington, D. C.\n\nHall, Caleb G., New Berlin, N. Y.\nHarris, W. T., Washington, D. C.\nHunt, Mary H., Boston, Mass.\nJewett, a. v., Abilene, Kan.\nLane, Albert G., Chicago, 111.\nMarble, Albert P., New York, N. Y.\nMarshall, T. Mabcellus, Glenville, W. Va.\nParker, Charles I., South Chicago, III.\nPhelps, W. F., St, Paul, Minn.\nPickard, Josiah L., Iowa City, la.\nPike, Joshua, Jerseyville, 111.\n\nDirectors by Election\nNorth Atlantic Division\nMaine\nNew Hampshire\nVermont\nMassachusetts\nRhode Island\nConnecticut\nNewYork\nNew Jersey\n\nJohn S. Locke\nChanning Folsom\nMason S. Stone\nWill S. Monroe\nH. S. Tarbell\nF. E. Howard\nA. S. Downing\nJames M. Green\n\nSaco\nDover\n\n,\n\nMontpelier\nWestfield\nAlbany\nProvidence\nBridgeport\n\n.\n\nTrenton\n\nSouth Atlantic Division\nPennsylvania\nDelaware\nMaryland\nDistrict of Columbia\nVirginia\n\nGeorge Howell\nA.H.Berlin\nJohn D. Worthington\nW. B. Powell\nWilliam F. Fox\n\nWest Virginia\nNorth Carolina\nSouth Carolina\nFlorida\n\nJ.N. Deahl\nG. A. Grimsley\nJ. Frank Fooshe\nL. W. Buchholz\n\nScranton\nWilmington\nBelair\nWashington\nRichmond\n\n,\n\nWest Liberty\nGreensboro\nBlackville\nTampa\n\nSouth Central Division\nKentucky\nTennessee\nGeorgia\n\nW. H. Bartholomew\nW.R.Payne\nW. F. Slaton\n\nAlabama\nMississippi\nLouisiana\nTexas\nOklahoma\n\nJohn 1 . Gregory\nE, E. Bass\nWarren Easton\nO. H. Cooper\nDavid R. Boyd\n\nMobile\nGreenville\nNew Orleans\nCarthage\nNorman\n\nArkansas\nIndian Territory\n\nJ. L. Hollow ay\nW. A. Caldwell\n\nFort Smith\n\nNorth\n\n,\n\n. Louisville\nNashville\nAtlanu\n\nCentral Division\n\nOhio\nIndiana\nIllinois\nMichigan\nWisconsin\nIowa\nMinnesota\nMissouri\nNorth Dakota\nSouth Dakota\nNebraska\n\nC. W. Bennett\nDavid K. Goss\nE. A. Gastman\nHenry R. Pattengill\nL.D.Harvey...\nW. M. Beardshear\nGeorge B. Aiton\nJohn R. Kirk\n' W. L. Stockwell\nFrank Crane\nCarroll G. Pearsb\n\nMonuna\nWyoming\nColorado\n\nJ.P.Hendricks\nEstelle Reel\nL. C. Greenlee\n\nButte\nCheyenne\nDenver\n\nNew Mexico\nArizona\n\nMrs. E. R. Jackson\nF. S. Hafford\n\nSilverCity\nPrescott\n\nWestern\n\nPiqua\nIndianapolis\nDecatur\nLansing\nMilwaukee\nAmes\n■ Minneapolis\nJefferson City\nGrafton\nAberdeen\nOmaha\n\nDivision\n\n"}
{"page": 24, "printed_page": null, "text": "14\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nDirectors by Election— f«>«//«Kf</\nWestern Division — continued\nUtah\nNevada\nIdaho\nWashington\nOregon\nCalifornia\n\nJ. M. Tanner\nJ. E. Stubbs\nJ. C. Black\nO.C.Whitney\nJ. H. Ack^erman\nElmer E. Brown\nDEPARTMENT\n\nLxjgan\nReno\nAlbion\nTacoma\nPortland\nBerkeley\n\nOFFICERS\n\nNational Council\nA. R.TAYLOR\nJAMES H. VAN SICKLE\nMiss BETTIE A. DUTTON\nJOHN DEWEY\nNICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER\nL. H. JONES\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\nExecutive Committee\nExecutive Committee\nExecutive Committee.\n\nEmporia, Kan.\nDenver, Colo.\nCleveland, O.\nChicago, 111.\nNew York, N. V.\nCleveland, O.\n\nKindergarten\nMrs. MARIA KRAUS-BOELTE\nMiss FLORENCE LAWSON\nMiss ALICE M. PARKER\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nNew York, N. Y.\nUs Angeles, Cal.\nWashington, D. C.\n\nElementary\nWILLIAM N. HAILMANN\nJ. W. CARR\nMiss E. V. BROWN\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nDayton, O.\nAnderson, Ind.\nWashington, D. C.\n\nSecondary\nEDWARD F. HERMANNS\nW.F.WEBSTER\nRALPH R. UPTON\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nDenver, Colo,\nMinneapolis, Minn.\nChillicothe, O.\n\nHigher\nROBERT B. FULTON\nELMER E. BROWN\nG. A. TAWNEY\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nUniversity, Miss.\nBerkeley, Cal.\nBeloit, Wis.\n\nNormal\nTHEODORE B. NOSS\nMiss MARION BROWN\nJ. N. WILKINSON\n\nPresident..\nVice-President\nSecretary.....\n\nCalifornia, Pa.\nNew Orleans, La.\nEmporia, Kan.\n\nSuperintendence\nE.H.MARK\nG. H. CONLEY\nA.T.BARRETT\nJ. H. VAN SICKLE\n\nPresident\nFirst Vice-President\nSecond Vice-President\nSecretary\n\nLouisville, Ky.\nBoston, Mass.\nChattanooga, Tenn.\nDenver, Colo.\n\nManual and Industrial\nJUDSON E. HOYT\nMiss PERLA G. BOWMAN\n\nPresident\nVice-President\n\nMenomonie, Wis,\nColumbus, O.\n\nCHARLES\n\nSecretary\n\nPeoria,Ill.\n\nA, BENNE'IT\n\nWILLIAM A. MASON\nCHARLES F. WHEELOCK\nMiss M. A. WOODMANSEE\nMiss HARRIET CECIL MAGEE\nMiss GERTRUDE EDMUND\nLANGDON S, THOMPSON\n\nArt\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\nExecutive Committee\nExecutive Committee\nExecutive Committee\n\nPhiladelphia, Pa.\nAlbany, N. Y.\nDuluth, Minn.\n. . Oshkosh, Wis.\nLowell, Mass.\nJersey City, N. J.\n\nMusic\nP.C. HAYDEN\nMiss MARY A. GRANDY\nMiss LUCY ROBINSON\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nQuincy, 111.\nSpringfield, Mass.\nWheeling, W. Va\n\n"}
{"page": 25, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOFFICERS\n\nBusiness\nALLANDAVIS\nJ.O.CRISSY\nCOURT F. WOOD\nW. C. STEVENSON\nCARL C. MARSHALL\nWn.L S. MONROE\nREUBEN POST HALLECK\nMrs. ALICE W. COOLEY\n\nPresident\nFirst Vice -President\nSecond Vice-President\nSecretary\nChairman Executive Committee\nChild-Study\nPresident\nVice-President ....'.\nSecretary\n\nWashington, D. C.\nAlbany, N. Y.\nWashington, D. C.\nEmporia, Kan.\nBattle Creek, Mich.\nWestfield, Mass.Louisville,\nKy.\nMinneapolis, Minn.\n\nPhysical Training\nGEORGE\n\nW.\n\nFITZ\n\nWILLIAM O. KROHN . . .-.\nMiss ELLEN LeGARDE\nMiss REBECCA STONEROAD\n\nPresident\n\nCambridge, Mass.\n\nFirst Vice-President.\nSecond Vice-President\nSecretary\n\nHospital, 111.\nProvidence, R. I.\nWashington, D. C.\n\nScience\nCHARLES NEWELL COBB\nALBERT H. TUTTLE\nCHARLES J. LING\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nAlbany, N. Y.\nCharlottesville, Va.\nDenver, Colo.\n\nSchool Administration\nE. F. BRADT\nCHARLES BULKLEY HUBBELL\nJOHN F. HUGHES\nWILLIAM S. MACK\nWILLIAM GEORGE BRUCE\nP. N. SIGLER\n\nL. D. HARVEY'.\nJ. H. VAN SICKLE\nMiss M YRTILLA AVERY\n\nPresident\n.\nFirst Vice-President\nSecond Vice-President\nThird Vice-President\nSecretary\nChairman Executive Committee\n\nLibrary\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nIshpeming, Mich.\nNew York, N. Y.\nUtica, N. Y.\nAurora, 111.\nMilwaukee, Wis.\nDayton, O.\n\nMilwaukee, Wis.\nDenver, Colo,\nAlbany, N. Y.\n\nDeaf, Blind, etc.\nJOSEPH C. GORDON\nMrs. JENNIE BRIGHT HOLDEN\nFRANK H. HALL\nA. E. OSBORNE\nMiss MARY\nMcCOWEN\n\nPresident\nV.-Pres. Subdept.for the Deaf . .\nV.-Pres, Subdept, for the Blind\nV.-P. Subdeft. for Ment. Deficient\nSecretary and Treasurer\n\nJacksonville. 111.\nSan Francisco, Cal.\nJacksonville, 111.\nGlen Ellen, Cal.\nChicago, 111.\n\n"}
{"page": 26, "printed_page": null, "text": "TREASURER'S\nTO\n\nREPORT\n\nTHE\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nJuly i, 1897, to July i, 1898\nMEETING\n\nAT MILWAUKEE,\n\nWIS., 1897\n\nI. C McNeill, Treasurer, in account with the National Educational Association\nDr.\nTo balance from last report, in Union National Bank of Denver, unavailable\nTo balance from last report, cash in hand, available\n\n$\n\n528.59\n584.27\n$ 1,112.86\n\nTo delayed receipts from Buffalo meeting :\nNickel Plate Route\nColumbus & Hocking Railway\nBoston & Albany Railway\nFitchburg Railroad Co\nEvansville & Terre Haute Railway\nErie Railway\nCanadian Pacific Railway\n\n$1,171.00\n10.00\n232.00\n142.00\n82.00\n26.00\n12.00\n\n$ 1,675.00\n\nTo cancellation of orders 550 and 560\nm-SS\nTo memberships collected at Chattanooga, meeting of Department of Superintendence\ni44.oo\nTo moneys from chairman Board of Trustees :\nCopyright, Committee of Ten\n$\n55.80\nCopyright, Committee of Fifteen\n41.15\nInterest on Permanent Funds\n2,550.34 $ 2,647.29\nTo University of Kansas, sale of volumes\nTo redeemed railway ticket, sold to scalper at Indianapolis, February, 1897\nTo receipts from Secretary :\n774 memberships and 28 enrollment fees\nBack volumes sold\n:\nReport of Committee of Twelve, etc\nTo\nTo\nTo\nTo\n\n..\n\n$1,604.23\nii375.63\n— 453.76\n\n22.50\n19.00\n\n$ 3,433-62\n\nsundry dues collected by Treasurer\nmemberships collected by terminal lines at Milwaukee\ncash memberships and other collections at Milwaukee\nmemberships, collected by railroads, not reported to terminal lines\n\n6.00\n9,761.35\n2,345.75\n627.65\n\nTotal\n\n$22906.37\nCr.\n\nBy items due last year :\nHenry Sabin, expense Committee of Twelve (783)\nIrwin Shepard, salary March, April, May, and June, 1897 (798)\nBy expense Board of Trustees :\nH. S. Tarbell, traveling [785)\nA. G. Lane, telegrams and stationery (802)\nA. G. Lane, traveling (840)\nJ. Ormond Wilson, rent of depository (808, 813, 819, 841)\nJ. Ormond Wilson, expense, freight, etc. (808, 814, 819, 830, 841)\n\n16\n\n$\n\n$\n\n960.92\n500.00\n\n$ 1,460.92\n\n78.47\n4-75\n44-65\n100.00\n24.63\n\n$\n\n252.50\n\n"}
{"page": 27, "printed_page": null, "text": "TREASURER'S\n\nREPORT\n\nI7\n\nBy expense Department of Superintendence, Chattanooga, Tenn. :\nPresident N. C. Schaeffer (836)\nR. P. Felch. stenographer (846)\nUniversity of Chicago, 1,000 reports of meeting, Department of Superintendence\n(851)\n\n$\n\n76.80\n4.00\n427.75\n$\n\nKy expenses Milwaukee\n\n508.55\n\nmeeting:\n\nDavid S. Geer, stenographer (787)\n\n$\n\nMiss F, A. Elmer, clerical help, Secretary's office (797)\nPrinting, stationery, and telegrams (799, 792, 788, 789, 803)\n\n108.55\n21.00\n201.08\n\n..\n\nTwenty-two clerks. Treasurer's department (796)\nState managers (807, 811)\nRefunded memberships (804, 810, 823, 843)\nDepartments (806)\n\n694.00\n5SI.3S\n132.00\n282.85\n\n$ 1,984.83\n\nBy expenses members of Executive Committee:\nPresident Charles R. Skinner, clerical help, telegrams, traveling, etc. (800, 805,\n825)\nVice-President N. C. Dougherty, traveling (794)\nPresident J. M. Greenwood, stenographer, 8 months (821, 842)\nTraveling, stationery, telegrams, etc. (820, 839)\nSecretary Irwin Shepard:\n,\nPostage\nTelegrams\nStationery and miscellaneous office expense\nExpress and freight\nStenographers and clerks\nTraveling (795, 801, 816,826,837, 844)\nTreasurer I. C. McNeill, traveling\nPostage, telegrams, stationery, etc. (812, 823, 843)\n\n$\n\n250.29\n68.10\n120.00\n99.60\n335.03\n79-83\n79.o4\n59-76\n4S7.oo\n156.83\n141.80\n24.57\n\n$ 1,871.8s\n\nBy expenses of volume and circulars :\nUniversity of Chicago, volume, index, etc. (784, 786, 818, 83X, 832)\nJones & Kroeger, circulars (790, 817. 827, 845)\nR. R. Donnelley & Sons, printing lists of members (829, 835)\nExpress on volumes and circulars (703, 828, 833, 834, 847)\n\n$5-219-35\n503. to\n168.78\n1.696.33\n\n$ 7.587.56\n\nBy salaries of officers :\nSecretary Irwin Shepard (815,838,849)\nTreasurer I. C. McNeill (824, 848)\n\n$1,500.00\n75o.<»\n\n$ 2,250.00\n\nBy expense Treasurer's bonds :\nSunderland & Ostrander (.809)\nBy transfer to permanent funds {822, 850)\n\n$\n\n5o-<»\n4-73ot25\n\n$20,704.46\n\nDisbursements\n\nSUMMARY\n\n$20,704.46\n\nBy total disbursed as above\n*By balance, cash unavailable (Denver)\nBy balance, cash in hand\n\n$\n\n132.23\n2,069.68\n\n$ 2,201.91\n\n$22,906.37\n\nTotal\nRespectfully submitted,\nI. C. McNeill.\n\nTreasurer, National Educational Association.\nhundred\n* The Union National Bank of Denvei during the year declared dividends to the amount of three\nninety-six and ^ dollars ($396.36), leaving the unavailable balance mentioned above.\n\n"}
{"page": 28, "printed_page": null, "text": "I8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\nWest\n\nTo the Board of Trustees of the National Educational\n\nSuperior, Wis., June 30, i8g8.\n\nAssociation:\n\nI hereby certify that I have personally examined the books of I. C. McNeill, Treasurer, that I have compared them with accomplished checks, and orders issued by the chairman of the Board of Trustees, and find\nthem and this report correct to the best of my knowledge and belief.\n(Signed)\nOscar Halverson,\nAccountant.\nSworn and subscribed in my presence this 30th day of June, 1898.\n(Signed)\n\nLeona Pinkham,\nNotary Public.\n\nNOTES\nThe figures in marks of parenthesis refer to the numbered orders issued by the chairman of the Board\nof Trustees.\nNo bills are paid except on such orders.\nDuring the past three years the sum of $21,515.30. nearly one-third of the permanent funds, has been\nturned over to the Board of Trustees.\nThe total income for the past three years is $72,681.70, of which over $12,000 maybe properly credited to\nmethods of collection of revenues employed.\n\n"}
{"page": 29, "printed_page": null, "text": "TWELFTH\n\nANNUAL\nREPORT\nOF\nOF TRUSTEES\n\nTo the Board of Directors of the National Educational\n\nTHE\n\nBOARD\n\nAssociation:\n\nThe Board of Trustees presents the following report of the Permanent Fund of the National Educational\nAssociation, and its income, for the year ending June 30, 1898 :\nPermanent Fund, July i, 1897\n\n$59,261.75\n\nIn the following items:\nMortgage on real estate\nKansas school and municipal bonds\nIllinois, Indiana, and Missouii school bonds\n\n$ 3,000.00\n331337.00\n31,500.00\n\nTotal investment\n\n$571837.00\n\nCash\n\n1,434.75\n\nCash transferred to Permanent Fund from proceeds of Milwaukee meeting and from\nincome of Permanent Fund\n\n$59,361.75\n\n$ 4.738-25\n\nTotal in Permanent Fund, July i, 1898\n\n$64,000.00\n\nIn the following items :\nMortgage on real estate\nKansas school and municipal bonds\nIllinois, Indiana, and Missouri school bonds\n\n$ 8,000.00\n3'i737-<^\n30,500.00\n\nTotal\n\n$61,337.00\n\nCash on hand for investment\n\n3,763.00\n\nTotal\n\n$64,000.00\nIncome Statement\nreceipts\n\nReceived interest on Permanent Fund\n\n$ '1568.47\nDISBURSEMENTS\n\nPaid exchange for coupon collections\n\n$\n\nPaid rent of box in Merchants' Safe Deposit, Chicago\nPaid express charges for transfer of bonds to Chicago\nPaid for exchange\n\n3'08\n10.00\ni.45\n3-^\n\nTotal\n\n$\n\nPaid I. C. McNeill, Treasurer, balance\n\n18.13\n2.SSO-34\n\n$ 3.568.47\n\n$57|837.<»\n\nInvestment, July i, 1897\nBonds paid during the year :\nCrawford Co., Kansas, District No. 4\nChicago, Districts Nos. 5, 37, 14\nScott Co., Kansas, District No. 6\nDouglas Co., Kansas, Eudora City, Bond No. 6\n\n*\n^\n\n100.00\n1,000.00\n400.00\n'°o.oo\n\n$ 1,600.00\n\nInvestments during the year:\n\nFirst mortgage, No. 1919 Wabash Ave., Chicago\n\n$56,937.00\n* 5,000.00\n\nInvestment, July i, 1898\n\n$61,337.00\n\n"}
{"page": 30, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\nStatement\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nof Securities and Bonds Belonging to the Permanent\nEducational Association, July i, 1897\nKANSAS\n\nschool BONDS\nRate of\ninterest,\n\nNumber of\nschool\n\nCounty\n\ndistrict\n\nInterest\n\nEllis,t\n\nBond due\n\nper cent.\n\n143\n14\n\npayable\nJan'y and July\n\n66\n\nBarton,\nClark,\nClark, Cowley,\nCrawford,\nDecatur, Ellis,\n-\n\nFund of the National\n\n100\n\n60\n120\n\n$330\n200\n\nJanuary, igoo\nJuly I, igoi\nJanuary i, igoi\nanuary, igo3\n\n35\n\n-\n\n43\n\nEllis,\nGarfield,*\nGreenwood,\nMitchell,!\nMitchell,\nNess,\n\nf>3\n\n42\n\n106\n\nJuly, 1901\nJuly, igoo\ng6\nJuly, i8\nJu,ly I, igoi\ny,\noo,igi8\nigly\nJu\nnuarJu\niogg\nJa\noo\n$2ly\nJuly, i8g5\nJanuary, igo2\n\n500\n800\n800\n800\n360\n200\n440\n\n475\n\n350\n\n, i8g8\nJuly\n$200, igo2\nJuly, igo3\n\n95\n\nNess,\nNorton,\nOsborne,\nPhillips, Pratt.\nReno, -\n\nrag\n\n200\nSCO\n272\n400\n\n, ryig,o2 igoo\nlyua\nJuan\n\n500\n310\n100\n\nuly, igoi\nuly, igo2\nanuary, igo2\ny\nnuar\nJari\nly, i8i,ggigo2\nAp Jul I, igo2\n\nlog\n\nReno,\nReno, Sheridan,\nSmith,\nWashington,\n\n41\n22\n70\n\n136\n52\n\n500\n500\n$10,337\n\n36\n51\n5t\nt Principal in default.\n\n* Interest in default,\n\nJuly, 1898\n\n500\n300\n400\n\no2\n\nJuly, ig\n\n500\nKANSAS,\n\nCounty\n\nKind of bond\n\nCOUNTY\n\nBond\nNos.\n\nAND\n\nMUNICIPAL\n\nAmount\n\nBONDS\n\ninterest,\nRate\nof\n\nInterest payable\n\nBond due\n\nper cent.\n\nCloud,\nDouglass, Grant,* Hodgeman.\nKingman,\nLane,*\nMarion,*\nMcPherson,\nMontgomery, Reno,*\nSeward,f\n\nCity of Concordia,\nEudora City\nCounty\nCounty\n\n35 to 40\n7 to 20\nI to1 7\n\nAid bonds\nCounty\n\n47.48\n11\nto 13\n\nCity of Marion\nSharp's\nCaneyCreek\nTp. Tp.,\nCity of South\nHutchinson\nWith Bentley &\nHatfield.Kan.\nWichita,\n\n6\n6\n\nJanuary and July\nM arch\nJanuary and July\nJanuary and July\nJan'y 31 and July\nJanuary and July\nMarch and Sept.\nJanuary and July\nApril and October\n\nFebruary,\nyear\nMarch igzo\nI\nJuly\nI, igig\nAugust\n31, igig\n\n1,000\n7,000\n1,000\n\n6\n6\n6\n6\n5^\n6\n6\n\n1,000\n3, 00\n\n7\n\nFebr'y and August\n\nApril, igo8\n\n1,400\n$3,000\n2,000\n1,000\n\nI\nI\n\nI) 2\nI> 2\n\n1,000\n1,000\n\n$22,400\n\n*Interest in default,\n\nf Principal in default.\n\nobtained.\nJudgment\n\nOne due\neach\nJuly\nI, 1918\n\nMarch 1, igoo\nJuly, igi8\nSept. I, i,igi6\nOctober\n1916\n\n"}
{"page": 31, "printed_page": null, "text": "REPORT\n\nOF THE\n\nBOARD\n\nOF TRUSTEES\n\n21\n\nMISCELLANEOUS\n\nRate of\ninterest,\n\nCounty\n\nInterest payable\n\nBond due\n\n5\n6\n5\nS\nS\n6\n5\n\nJanuary and July\nMarch and September\nJanuary ana July\n\nMarch 10, 1899\n\nS\n\nJune and December\n\nAmount\nper cent.\n\nJackson, Kansas City, Mo.,\nCook, Chicago, 111.,\n....\nNoblesville,Ind.,\n....\nDeKalb. 111.,\nCook, Village of Morgan Park, HI., Providence real estate, first mortgage.\nChicago real estate, first mortgage.\nLemont, 111., School, Nos. 4, 6, 8, 12,\n14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 30, 32,\n\n$2,000\n1,000\n5,000\n3,000\n3.S00\n3,000\n6,000\nS,ooo\n$28,500\n\nMarch and\nAprilSeptember\nI\nMay and November\n\nJuly 1, 1901\nluly I, 1900\nApril I, iqoo\nSeptember,\n1905\nMay, 1903\nI Issueid $16,000\n< $1000 due each\n( year, J une i\n\nRKCAPITin-ATION\n\nKansas bonds\nMiscellaneous bonds and real estate mortgage\n\n$33,737\n28,500\n\nTotal investment in bonds\n\n$61,237\nAlbert G. Lane, Chairman.\nNicholas Murray Butler.\nJ. Ormond Wilson.\nF. Louis Soldan.\nJ. M. Greenwood.\n\nThe foregoing securities were examined at the Merchants' Safety Deposit Vaults, Chicago, July 5,\n1898, and I certify that it is a correct statement of the investments belonging to the Permanent Fund of the\nNational Educational Association in the custody of A. G, Lane, chairman of the Board of Trustees.\n(Signed)\n\nOrvhlle T. Bright.\n\n"}
{"page": 32, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 33, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL\n\nOF PROCEEDINGS\nOF\n\nTHIRTY-SEVENTH\nOF\n\nNATIONAL\n\nTHE\n\nANNUAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nWASHINGTON,\n\nFIRST\nCONVENTION\n\nDAY'S\n\nMEETING\n\nTHE\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nD, C, JULY 7-12, 1898\n\nPROCEEDINGS\n\nHALL.— Friday Evening, July 7\n\nThe association was called to order by President Henry F, Blount of the Local\nCommittee, Washington, D. C.\nRev. Frank M. Bristol, of the Metropolitan M. E. Church of Washington, invoked\ndivine blessing.\nMusic by the Marine Band.\nAn address of welcome was made by the president of the Local Committee, Henry F.\nBlount, of Washington, who also read the following letter from the president of the\nUnited States :\nExecutive Mansion, Washington, July 7, 1898.\nMy dear Sir:\n\nI very much regret that the pressure of official duties will prevent the acceptance of the\n\ncordial invitation extended through yourself to attend the opening of the convention of the National Elducational Association this evening. It would have been a pleasure to me to have been able to meet the wishes of\nthe association in this respect, and to have welcomed its members to Washington.\nIn the important educational work which the association has done so much to encourage I have the\ndeepest interest, and believe that the best results must come from such meetings, with their inspiration to even\ngreater achievements than have characterized its work in the past.\nPlease convey to the members of the association and to your colleagues my best wishes for a most\nsuccessful convention.\nVery sincerely yours,\nWilliam McKinlev.\nMr. Henry F. Blount,\nPresident Local Committee,\nNational Educational Association,\nWashington, D. C.\n\nAddresses of welcome were also made by Hon. John W. Ross, member of the\nBoard of Commissioners, Washington, D. C. ; Dr. B. L. Whitman, president of the\nColumbian University, Washington, D. C. ; William T. Harris, United States Commissioner of Education ; Hon. Webster Davis, assistant secretary of the interior, Washington, D. C.\nThe President of the association, James M. Greenwood, of Kansas City, Mo., delivered the annual presidential address.\nHon. Charles R. Skinner, superintendent of public instruction, Albany, N. Y.,\n23\naddressed the association on the \" Life and Character\nof Edward Austin Sheldon.\"\nPresident Greenwood appointed the following committee on resolutions :\nNicholas Murray Butler, New York, chairman.\nLivingston C. Lord, Minnesota.\nEdwin F. Seaver, Massachusetts.\nR. B. Fulton, Mississippi.\nO. T. Corson, Ohio.\n\nAndrew S. Draper, Illinois.\nOscar H. Cooper, Texas.\nJames M. Green, New Jersey.\nJ. H. Miller, Nebraska.\nE. A. Alderman, North Carolina.\n\n"}
{"page": 34, "printed_page": null, "text": "24\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nThe Secretary read the following announcement :\nThe Board of Directors, at its meeting today, has considered , approved, and unanimously recommended\nfor adoption an amendment to the constitution providing for the election of the Secretary of the association\nfor a term of years by the corporate body of the association, and for constituting the United States Commissioner of Education ex officio a member of the Executive Committee.\nAnd notice is hereby given that the same will be presented for the consideration of the active members\nof the association at the business session to be held at the Grand Opera House on July 9, at 12 o'clock m.\n\nThe audience joined in singing \" America,\" with accompaniment by the Marine\nBand.\nAdjourned to meet at 9 : 15 A. M., July 8, at the Grand Opera House and the New\nNational Theater, Washington.\n\nSECOND\nGRAND\n\nOPERA\n\nDAY'S PROCEEDINGS\nHOUSE.— Friday, July 8, 9 : 15 a. m.\n\nThe convention was called to order by the First Vice-President, Charles R. Skinner,\nof New York.\nInvocation by Father D. J. Stafford, of Saint Patrick's Church, Washington, D. C.\nPrincipal W. F. Gordy, of Hartford, Conn., addressed the association on \" The\nEssentials in. United States History to be Taught in Elementary Schools.\"\nPresident H. H. Seerley, State Normal School, Cedar Falls, la., spoke on \" The\nEssentials in United States History to be Taught in Secondary Schools.\"\nMusic — \"The Star-Spangled Banner\" — by Miss Lillian Sefton, of Washington, D.C.\nMr. U. G. Palmer, county examiner, Oakland, Md., discussed the paper of Principal\nGordy.\nPrincipal W. G. Lansdon of the high school. Fort Scott, Kan., discussed President\nSeerley's paper.\nThe subject of the morning was further discussed by Superintendent R. K. Buehrle,\nof Lancaster, Pa.; Hon. E. B. Prettyman, of Maryland ; Superintendent L. E. Wolf, of\nKansas City, Mo.; Superintendent David K. Goss, of Indiana; Dr. Charles A. McMurry,\nof Illinois, and William H. Beach, of Milwaukee, Wis.\nAdjourned.\nNEW\n\nNATIONAL\n\nTHEATER.— July 8, 9 : 15 a. m.\n\nThe session was called to order by President Greenwood.\nRev. Lucien Clark, of Foundry M. E. Church, opened the session with prayer.\nPresident Greenwood then surrendered the gavel to Vice-President George J. Ramsey, of Louisiana.\nDr. Edward R. Shaw, dean of pedagogy. New York University, New York city,\nread a paper on \" The Essentials of English Composition to be Taught in Elementary\nSchools.\"\nProfessor C. C. Thach, State Polytechnic Institute, Auburn, Ala., read a paper on\n\"The Essentials of English Composition to be Taught in Secondary Schools.\"\nThe discussion of the first paper was opened by Superintendent F. S. Hafford, of\nPrescott, Ariz.\nMiss Lillian Sefton, of Washington, sang \" The Star-Spangled Banner.\"\nAdjourned to 8 P. M., >uly 8\nGRAND\n\nOPERA\n\nHOUSE.— Friday, July 8, 8 p. m.\n\nThe session was called to order by Hon. John R. Kirk, of Missouri.\nDr. A. S. Draper, president of the University of Illinois, delivered an address on\n\" American Universities and the National Life.\"\nThe Committe on Nominations was announced as follows\n\n"}
{"page": 35, "printed_page": null, "text": "Journal\n\nOF PROCEEDINGS\n\nNOMINATING\nAPPOINTED\n\nIN ACCORDANCE\n\n25\n\nCOMMITTEE\nWITH\n\nSBC. I OP THE\n\nBY-LAWS\n\nN»rtk Atlantic Division\nMassachusetts\n\nWiliam E. Sheldon, chairman\n\nMaine\nNew Hampshire\nVermont\n\nJohn S. Locke\nJ. A. Russell\nMason S. Stone\n\nRhode Island\n\nWalter Ballon Jacobs\n\nConnecticut\nNew York\nNew Jersey\n\nF\". E. Howard\nCharles R. Skinner\nH. Prewster Willis\n\nSouth Atlantic Division\nPennsylvania. '.\nDelaware\nMaryland\nDistrict of Columbia\nVirginia\n\nNathan C. Schaeffer\nA. H. Berlin\n\nWest Virginia\nNorth Carolina\n\nT. Marcellus Marshall\nCharles D. Mclver\n\nJohn E. McCahan\nJ. Ormond Wilson\nWilliam F. Fox\n\nSouth Carolina\nFlorida\n\nW. H. Hand\nW. N, Sheats\n\nSouth Central Division\nKentucky\nTennessee\n\nW. H. Bartholomew\nW. R. Garrett\n\nI^uisiana\nTexas\n\nMiss H. A. Sutor\nR. E. Miller\n\nGeorgia\nAlabama\nMississippi\n\nW. M. Slaton\nJ. B. Cunningham\nJ. C. Fant\n\nOklahoma\nArkansas\n\nD. R. Boyd\nGeorge B. Cook\n\nNorth Central Division\nOhio\nIndiana\nIllinois\nMichigan\nWisconsin\nIowa\n\nS.T. Dial\nDavid K. Goss\nJ. H. Freeman\nJason E. Hammond\nWilliam George Bruce\nJ. T. Merrill\n\nMontana\nWyoming\nColorado\n\nJ. P. Hendricks\nMiss Estelle Reel\nL. C. Greenlee\n\nMinnesota\nMissouri\nNorth Dakota\nSouth Dakota\nNebraska\nKansas\n\nF. V. Hubbard\nF. D. Tharpe\nMrs. Helen H. Stockwell\nA. H. Avery\nJ- I- Reed\nJohn MacDonald\n\nWestern Division\n\nNew Mexico\nArizona\nOregon\n\nMrs. Elizabeth R. Jackson\nF. S. Hafford\nE. B. McElroy\n\nWashington\nUtah\nCalifornia\n\nO. G. Whitney\nJ. F. Millspaugh\nJ. A. Foshay\n\nIndian Territory\nNevada\n\nL. W. Williams\nWalter C. Gayhart\n\nAdjourned to meet at 9:15 A. M , July II.\nNEW\n\nNATIONAL\n\nTHEATER.— Friday, July 8, 8 p. m.\n\nThe meeting was called to order by Dr. E. O. Lyte, Vice-President for Pennsylvania.\nHon. William T. Harris, United States Commissioner of Education, spoke on \"Our\nEducational Exhibit at the International Exposition in Paris in 1900.\"\nMusic by Chicago Quartet Club.\nHon. W. W. Stetson, state superintendent of public instruction, Auburn, Me.,\naddressed the association on \"The Educational Outlook.\"\nThe Committee on Nominations, as noted above, was announced by Vice-President\nLyte.\nAdjourned to 9:15 a. m., July 9.\n\nGRAND\n\nTHIRD\n\nDAY'S PROCEEDINGS\n\nOPERA\n\nHOUSE.— Saturday, July 9, 9 = 15 a. -m.\n\nThe meeting was called to order by Hon. W. W. Stetson, Vice-President for Maine.\nMusic --\"Hurrah for the Schools of Ohio \"—rendered by a chorus of Ohio teachers,\nunder the leadership of Dr. A. J. Gantvoort, of Ohio.\nInvocation by Rev. J. G. Butler, of Luther Place Memorial Church.\nProfessor Jacques W. Redway, geographer. Mount Vernon, N. V., addressed the\n\n"}
{"page": 36, "printed_page": null, "text": "26\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nassociation on the \" Influence of Topography and Climate on the Historical Development\nof the United States.\"\nMr, W. J. McGee, vice-president of the National Geographic Society, Washington,\nspoke on the subject of \" The Geospheres.\"\nMusic — cornet solo.\nThe subject of the morning was discussed by Professor George T. Murphy, assistant\nsuperintendent of schools, St. Louis, Mo.; Hon. William Stryker, state superintendent of\npublic instruction, Topeka, Kan.; Professor David W. Hoyt, principal English High\nSchool, Providence, R. I.\nMr. Luckey, of Pittsburg, offered the following resolution, which, after discussion by\nT. Marcellus Marshall and others, on motion of Mr. Ossian Lang, of New York, was\nreferred for consideration to the Committee on Resolutions, appointed by the President\nof the association.\nWhereas, The commercial interests of the United States with her sister republics on this continent are\nrapidly increasing in importance, and\nWhereas, Present occurrences indicate that our trade will soon need fostering in the islands of the sea,\nand\nWhereas, All these republics and islands speak the Spanish language ; therefore\nResolved, That the attention of the educational authorities is hereby called to the importance of adding\nthe Spanish language to the course of study in all the advanced schools of the nation.\n\nDr. Mary Walker, of Washington, offered a resolution, which, on motion, was referred\nto the general Committee on Resolutions,\nAdjourned to 8 P. M., July 9.\nNEW\n\nNATIONAL\n\nTHEATER.— Saturday, July 9, 9 : 15 a. m.\n\nA. S. Downing, supervisor training schools. New York, presided.\nPrayer by Rev, Frank Sewall, Swedenborgian Church.\nDr. W. O. Krohn, psychologist. Eastern Illinois Hospital for the Insane, addressed\nthe association on \" Minor Mental Abnormalities in Children as Occasioned by Certain\nErroneous School Methods.\"\nMusic —vocal solo — Miss May Adele Levers,\nN. A. Harvey, professor of natural science. State Normal School, West Superior,\nWis., spoke on \" The Latest Practical Discoveries in Biological Science, and Their Bearing on Education.\"\nSuperintendent L. C. Greenlee of School District No. 2, Denver, Colo., led in the\ndiscussion.\nSuperintendent R. K. Buehrle, of Lancaster, Pa., offered the following resolution,\nwhich was carried :\nResolved, That the attention of the Commissioner of Education be directed to the paper of Dr. Krohn,\nand that he be requested to publish and circulate the same as a circular of information for the people.\n\nMusic by Miss May Adele Levers.\nAdjourned to 9: 15 A. M., July II.\n\nMINUTES\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nGRAND\n\nANNUAL\nACTIVE\nOPERA\n\nBUSINESS\nMEMBERS\n\nMEETING\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nHOUSE.— Saturday, July 9, 12 m.\n\nIn the absence of the President, the meeting was called to order by First VicePresident Charles R. Skinner, of New York.\nA quorum being present, on the call for unfinished business and under the notice of\nproposed amendments to the constitution offered by the Board of Directors, Dr. Nicholas\nMurray Butler, of New York, was recognized, and spoke as follows :\n\n"}
{"page": 37, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL\n\nOF PROCEEDINGS\n\n27\n\nMr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen of the Association : ITie Board of Directors of this association,\nin regular annual meeting held on Thursday afternoon last, gave consideration to a proposition which I then\nbrought forward, and after full and free discussion they unanimously adopted it and recommended it to the\nassociation for incorporation in the constitution. I ask your attention for a few moments in order that I\nmay now explain, on behalf of the Board of Directors and as the mover of the proposition, its scope and\ncharacter.\nI shall then move, for your consideration, that this amendment be adopted.\nThe amendment is, in my judgment, one not only of high importance, but of vital interest to the future\ndevelopment of this association, if it is to go forward on the lines that it has recently pursued. I refer to iu\ngreatly increased size, to the succession of large and well-attended meetings, and to the increasing complexity\nof its business administration, involving time, labor, and special knowledge that but very few of us have in\nour possession or, having it in our possession, would be able to give. It is an amendment to except hereafter from the list of officers to be annually elected by the association the office of Secretary, and to make that\nofficer a paid and permanent servant of the association. By paid and permanent I mean suitably compensated for his services and elected for a term of years.\nThis proposition is not new in any sense. It has been before the Board of Directors for many years.\nIt has always been favorably considered in principle, but the moment of its adoption has been postponed for\ntwo reasons : first, because the time did not seem to have come when our financial condition made it possible ;\nand, second, because some of us (I, for one) have steadfastly opposed the creation of this office, at a time\nwhen it was being sought by any active candidate. The time, however, has now come when, as I shall show\nin a moment, our financial development has put us in a position to sustain this charge, and to sustain it to our\nown ultimate profit. In addition, the time has come (and I say this on my own responsibility) when I am\nentirely confident that we shall be able to secure, as our Secretary, the one man whose years of service and\nwhose distinguished fidelity to the interests of this association have put his name upon every lip.\nThe constitution of this association was amended at the Denver meeting, after careful consideration. We\nthen entered upon a new policy. The distinction then drawn between active and associate members and the\nqualifications then established for active membership meant that thereafter the business affairs of this association, its high reputation as representative of the teachers of the country, and its distinguished service in conducting three great educational investigations should not be put in jeopardy by being open to assault from any\nbody of excursionists who might happen to buy our railroad tickets and attend one of our great annual gatherings. The line was drawn so that new active members have at all times easy admission to our ranks, but they\nmust always be persons engaged in educational work. This policy distinguished active from associate membership, gave dignity to the active membership, and has made it possible to appeal to men and women who\nhave attended one or more of our meetings in the past, and who have been irregular in attendance, to complete\nthe payment of the fee for the omitted years, and to restore their names to the active list and so join our\nranks permanently. In addition to that, we have had made a careful and scientifically prepared analytical\nindex of our back volumes of proceedings, thousands of which are stored in our depository in this city, and an\neffort has been made to distribute these by sale to new and old members. From these sources a steady income\nis now derived.\nMy object in rehearsing these facts, familiar to some of you, but not to all, is to conclude the discussion of\nthis point by saying that during the last three years we have secured an income for the association of twelve\nthousand dollars ($12,000) — averaging $4,000 a year — from these sources, by reason of the activity of the Secretary, and by reason of the skill shown by the Treasurer in auditing railroad accounts and in collecting coupons\nthat would otherwise have been lost. In other words, we have made $12,000 by good business administration. We have, however, done that at the expense of the gentlemen who have served us. We have asked\nmen to give us time, service, and attention of the most exacting kind, long continued for many months in the\nyear, and we' have voted them a small stipend that is ridiculous in comparison with the work they have performed. shall\nI\nnot pass from this phase of the subject without saying that the National Educational Association today is indebted to Irwin Shepard and I. C. McNeill, in a way that we cannot afford to overlook or fail\nto recognize. I have been, thru your kind indulgence, in a position for some years to know something about\nthe administration of our business affairs, and I wish to say, for your comfort and satisfaction, that if there is\nan honester, a better, and more wisely conducted voluntary association than ours in existence, it has not\nattracted my observation.\nBut it is undignified, gentlemen, it is unbusiness-like, for us to go on indefinitely, trusting to Providence\nand to two of his chosen agents. It is necessary that we should act as any other sensible body of business\nmen\n\nwould act, and put our affairs on a business basis. Therefore, the Board of Directors has considered the proposition that the constitution be amended to make this possible, and has, by unanimous vote,\nmore than thirty members being present, recommended the adoption of the amendments to the constitution,\nwhich I shall now read :\n1. Amend Art. IV, sec. 3, by inserting in the first line, after the word \" association,\" the words \" with the\nexception of the Secretary.\"\nThe effect of this, you will see, is to except the Secretary from the officers to be elected annually.\n2. Amend Art. IV, sec. 3, by altering the second section so as to make it read: \"The officers so chosen\nshall continue in office,\" etc.\nThe object here is to make it clear that the limitations imposed by the second section do not apply to the\nSecretary.\nThese are mere verbal amendments, eliminating the Secretary from the elective officers as they\n\n"}
{"page": 38, "printed_page": null, "text": "?8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nexist at present, and leaving the matter open to be placed in other hands.\nread:\n\nThen the amended section would\n\n\" The elective officers of the association, with the exception of the Secretary, shall be chosen by the active\nmembers of the association by ballot, unless otherwise ordered, on the third day of each annual session, a\nmajority of the votes cast being necessary to a choice. The officers so chosen shall continue in office until\nthe close of the annual session subsequent to their election, and until their successors are chosen, except as\nhereinafter provided.\"\n(Art. IV, sec. 3.)\nIn providing for the election of the Secretary, who shall hold office at a compensation and for a term, it\nis necessary for us to protect his interests as well as our own. We do not care, I take it, to elect a Secretary\nwho needs an office, or who at this moment would be glad to be sheltered beneath our constitutional protection. We desire to be free to go out and select the man who has demonstrated himself to be the best in the\nUnited States, if such can be found, and to ask him to come to us from any other form of educational work in\nwhich he may be engaged. To do this means that we must have him elected by a responsible and corporate\nbody, one competent to make a contract, able, if necessary, to sue and be sued, and in control of the funds\nnecessary to make the payment for his compensation. That is so plain a business proposition that I shall not\nextend my explanation of it any farther.\nThere exists in this association, within the whole range of its organization, but one such responsible body.\nThe Board of Trustees is, by the constitution of the association and by law, the body corporate of the association. It keeps the seal, it holds the permanent funds, and it alone can make a contract. It alone can sue and\nbe sued. No responsible man would surrender an income-producing position for an election by any other\nportion of this organization. The President, the Executive Committee, the Board of Directors, the association\nas here assembled, are all, in a legal sense, entirely irresponsible. That being the case, it follows as a matter\nof logical necessity and as a business proposition that the Secretary must be elected by the Board of Trustees,\nThe Board of Trustees, as you remember, consists of five men, one of whom, the President of the association,\nserving for a year's term, is chosen from year to year by this body, on the action or recommendation of the\nnominating committee. The four elected trustees are chosen, each for the term of four years, one expiring\neach year, by the Board of Directors, which is chosen by this body on the recommendation of the nominating\ncommittee. It is my proposition, which has received the unanimous indorsement of the Board of Directors,\nthat to this body corporate, so constituted, should be committed the task of selecting our Secretary and fixing\nhis compensation and his term of office, providing the term shall not exceed four years.\nOne other point arises. The Secretary of the association is by existing constitutional provision a member of our Executive Committee. That committee consists of the President, the First Vice-President, the\nSecretary, the Treasurer, and the chairman of the Board of Trustees. These five men have important duties\nto perform during the year. Among other things, they virtually select, after the vote of recommendation\nby the Board of Directors has been had, the place of our next meeting, and they conclude in our behalf all of\nthe difficult and often involved local arrangements. It was suggested in the meeting of the directors that\nit would probably not be wise to continue the paid Secretary of the association in that responsible position\nwith a vote, while he was an employed officer. At the same time, it was fully understood there that, of course,\nthe Executive Committee could not transact any business intelligently without his presence, his experience,\nand his skilled personal knowledge. Therefore it is provided in our proposed amendment that the Secretary of the association shall also be secretary of the Executive Committee. Another verbal amendment is\nsuggested, striking his name out ot the Executive Committee as a voting member, and inserting a provision\nfor a fifth officer to take his place, making the voting body uneven in order that there may not be a deadlock at any time. In other words, these ends are met by amending Art. IV by the addition of an entirely\nnew section, to be numbered 11, and which will read :\n\" Sec. II. The Board of Trustees shall elect the Secretary of the association, who shall also be secretary\nof the Executive Committee, and shall fix his compensation and his term of office, for a period not to exceed\nfour years.\"\nAs to the fifth member of the Executive Committee, there were two propositions before the Board of\nDirectors. One was that the fifth man should be a representative of the Board of Directors elected annually\nby that board to serve for a single year. While that section, however, was under discussion, it was amended\nso as to constitute the Commissioner of Education, ex officio, the fifth member of the committee, and the\namendment, as I hold it in my hand, passed in that form, and it is in that form that I now present it to you on\nbehalf of the Board of Directors.\nNow, gentlemen, I have taxed your patience sufficiently, but I believe in the fullest explanation of any\nimportant action that is to be taken, in order that no member of the association may feel afterward that he has\nbeen asked to vote upon any proposition without an opportunity being first given to understand it fully. If I\nhave failed in any way to make this proposition perfectly clear, I wish to be given the privilege of answering\nany questions that any member of the association may desire to ask.\nBefore taking my seat, let me add a word. In my judgment this Secretary, at any compensation that\nwe are likely to pay, will earn an income for this association. We have been appropriating for three years\npast a small sum to the Secretary to secure his services in the way that I stated ; that sum, as you know from\nour records and reports, has been $1,500. We have also provided for the payment of $750 to the Treasurer for\nhis services and clerical expenses. It will be possible — and this fact has come out in conference with the\npresent Treasurer — if this amendment is adopted, to put upon the paid Secretary of the association all those\nmatters of detail which have hitherto occupied, and to a certain extent embarrassed, the Treasurer, and leave\n\n"}
{"page": 39, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL\n\nOF PROCEEDINGS\n\n39\n\nhim simply the bonded officer to hold our current funds and to issue checks against the same in payment of\nduly audited bills and drafts. We shall, therefore, cease to appropriate the $2,350 now appropriated for him\nand the Secretary, and the Secretary in return will bring into the association, by working along the lines that\nI indicated a few moments ago, an increasing annual income, which I am confident will make us better off,\nfrom a pecuniary standpoint, than ever before,\nMr. President, I have now said everything that it occurs to me to say in order to make this proposition\nclear. On behalf of the Board of Directors, I move that, after such discussion as members care to offer, this\nassociation do adopt and ratify these amendments to the constitution as they have been read, and that they do\nbecome part of the same.\n,\n\nThe motion of Dr. Butler was seconded by Dr. F. Louis Soldan, of St. Louis, Mo.\nUpon motion of A. S. Downing, of New York, it was ordered that the proposed\namendments be acted upon separately.\nUpon motion of Superintendent Aaron Gove, of Colorado, the first section of the\nproposed amendment was unanimously adopted as follows :\nTo amend Art. IV, sec. 3, of the constitution by inserting in the first line, after the word \" association,\"\nthe words, \" with the exception of Secretary.\"\n\nUpon motion of Mr. Gove, of Colorado, the second proposed amendment was unanimously adopted as follows :\nSec. II. The Board of Trustees shall elect the Secretary of the association, who shall also be secretary\nof the Executive Committee, and shall fix the compensation and the term of office for a period not to exceed\nfour years.\n\nThe Secretary then read the third proposed amendment, to wit :\nThe President of the National Educational Association, the First Vice-President, the Treasurer, the chairman of the Board of Trustees, and the United States Commissioner of Education shall constitute the Executive\nCommittee.\n\nMr. Cobb, of Massachusetts: I move to strike out the words \"Commissioner of\nEducation,\" and substitute therefor, \"a representative to be chosen annually by the Board\nof Directors, which representative shall hold office for one year.\" We cannot tell who\nthe future Commissioner of Education may be.\nSui'ERiNTENDENT C. G. Pearse, Omaha, Neb. : As a member of the Board of\nDirectors who acted upon this matter, and after listening to many of the views of other\ndirectors, I desire to second the motion just made.\nPresident A. R. Taylor, of Kansas: I hope that this proposed amendment will\nnot prevail.\nMr. Pearse, of Nebraska: I trust that I am not misunderstood. No one has a\nhigher respect for the United States Commissioner of Education than I, but I am in favor\nof this motion as a safeguard for the future.\nMr. A. S. Downing, of New York; Superintendent H. E. Dawes, of Nebraska, and\nSuperintendent C. B. Gilbert, of New Jersey, spoke in favor of the pending motion.\nPresident John W. Cook, of Illinois : It does not seem to me this is a matter of\nsuch grave importance as some members think. In the first place, the Commissioner of\nEducation will always be a man familiar with details with which we must have a great\ndeal to do.\nMr. S. Y. Gillan, of Wisconsin, and T. Marcellus Marshall, of West Virginia, spoke\nin favor of the pending motion.\n\nOn a rising vote, the motion of Mr. Cobb was adopted by eighty-one in the affirmative and forty-one in the negative.\nChairman Skinner : The question now recurs on the adoption of the amendments\nas a whole.\n\nAnd thereupon the recommendations of the board as amended were unanimously\nadopted as follows :\nAmend Art. IV, sec. 2, last paragraph, so as to read :\nThe President of the National Educational Association, the First Vice-President, the Treasurer, the\nchairman of the Board of Trustees, and a member of the association to be chosen annually by the Board of\nDirectors, which member shall hold office for one year, shall constitute the Executive Committee.\n\n"}
{"page": 40, "printed_page": null, "text": "30\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nAmend Art. IV, sec. 3, by inserting in the first line, after the word \" association,\"\nthe words, \" with the exception of the Secretary.\"\nAmend Art. IV, sec. 3, by altering the second sentence so as to make it read, \" The\nofficers so chosen shall continue in office,\" etc. The amended section would then read as\nfollows :\nSec. 3. The elective officers of the association, with the exception of the Secretary, shall be chosen by\nthe active members of the associatian by ballot, unless otherwise ordered, on the third day of each annual session, a majority of the votes cast being necessary to a choice. The officers so chosen shall continue in office\nuntil the close of the annual session subsequent to their election, and until their successors are chosen, except\nas hereinafter provided.\n\nFurther amend Art. IV by adding a new section, as follows :\nSec. II. The Board of Trustees shall elect the Secretary of the association, who shall also be secretary\nof the Executive Committee, and shall fix his compensation and his term of office for a period not to ej£ceed\nfour years.\n\nMr. William E. Sheldon, of Massachusetts, chairman of the Committee on Nominations, submitted the report of the committee as follows :\nREPORT\n\nOF COMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nNOMINATIONS\n\nPresident\nSecretary\nTreasurer.-\n\nE. ORAM LYTE\nIRWIN SHEPARD\nI. C. McNEILL\n\nMillersville, Pa.\nWinona, Minn.\nWest Superior, Wis.\n\nFirst Vice-President\nSecond Vice-President\nThird Vice-President\nFourth Vice-President\nFifth Vice-President\nSixth Vice-President\nSeventh Vice-President\nEighth Vice-President\nNinth Vice-President\n\nJ AMES M. Greenwood\nW. W. Stetson\nE. B. Prettvman\nH.C.White\nJoseph Swain\nJ. R. Rightsell\nR. S. Bingham\nFrank P. Smith\nE. B. McElrov\n\nKansas City, Mo.\nAuburn, Me.\nBaltimore, Md.\nGeorgia\nBloomington, Ind.\nLittle Rock, Ark.\nTacoma, Wash.\nLawrence, Kan.\nEugene, Ore.\n\nTenth Vice-President\nEleventh Vice-President\nTivelfth Vice-President\n\nMcHenrv Rhoads\nJ- Y. Joyner\nS. N. Hopkins\n\nFrankfort, Ky.\"\nGreensboro, N. C.\nGuthrie, Okla.\n\nVICE-PRESIDENTS\n\nDIRECTORS\nNorth\nMaine\nNew Hampshire\nVermont\nMassachusetts\nRhode Island\nConnecticut\nNew York\nNew Jersey\n\nAtlantic Division\n\nJohn S. Locke\nChanning Folsom\nMason S. Stone\nWill S. Monroe\nH. S. Tarbell\nF. E. Howard\nA. S. Downing\n\nSaco\nDover\nMontpelier\nWestfield\nProvidence\nBridgeport\nAlbany\n\nJames M. Green\n\nTrenton\n\nSouth Atlantic Division\nPennsylvania\nDelaware\n\nGeorge Howell\nA. H. Berlin\n\nScranton\nWilmington\n\nMaryland\nDistrict of Columbia\n\nJohn D. Worthington\nW. B. Powell\n\nBelair\nWashington\n\nVirginia\nWest Virgiftia\nNorth Carolina\n\nWilliam F. Fox\nJ. N. Deahi\nG. A. Grimslev\n\nRichmond\nWest Liberty\nGreensboro\n\nSouth Carolina\nFlorida\n\nJ. Frank Fooshe.\nL. W. Buchholz\n\nBlackville\nTampa\n\nSouth Central Division\nKentucky\nTennessee\n\nW. H. Bartholomew\nW. R. Payne\n\nLouisville\nNashville\n\nGeorgia\n\nW. F. Slaton\n\nAtlanta\n\n"}
{"page": 41, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL\nSouth\nAlabama\nMississippi\nLouisiana\nTexas\nOklahoma\nArkansas\n\nOF PROCEEDINGS\n\nJohn T. Gregory\nE. E. Bass\nWarren Easton\n(X H. Cooper\nDavid R. BovD\nJ. L. Hollowav\nNorth\n\nOhio\nIndiana\nIllinois\n\nMobile\nGreenville\n\nNew Orleans\nCarthage\nNorman\nFort Smith\n\nCentral Division\n\nC. W. Bennett\nD, K. Goss\nE, A. Gastman\n\nPiqua\nIndianapolis\nDecatur\n\nHenry R. Pattengill\nL. D. Harvey\nW. M. Beardshear\n\nLansing\nMilwaukee\nAmes\n\nMinnesota\nMissouri\nNorth Dakota\nSouth Dakota\nNebraska\nKansas\n\nGeorge B. Aiton\nJohn R. Kirk\nW. L. Stockwkll\nFrank Crane\nCarroll G. Pearse\nFrank R.Dyer\n\nMinneapolis\nJefferson City\nGrafton\nAberdeen\nOmaha\nWichita\n\nMontana\nWyoming\nColorado\n\nJ. P. Hendricks\nEstelle Reel\nL. C. Greenlee\n\nButte\nCheyenne\nDenver\n\nNew Mexico\nArizona\nOregon\nWashington\nUtah\nCalifornia\nNevada\nIdaho\n\nMrs. E. R. Jackson\nF. S. Hafford\nJ. H. Ackerman\nO. C. Whitney\nJ. M. Tanner\nE.E.Brown\nJ. E. Stubbs\nJ. C. Black\n\nSilver City\nPrescott\nPortland\nTacoma\nLogan\nBerkeley\nReno\nAlbion\n\nMichigan\nWisconsin\nIowa\n\n'....\n.\".\n\n31\n\nCentral Division — continued\n\nWestern\n\nDivision\n\nOn motion, the Secretary of the association was instructed to cast the unanimous ballot of the association for the election of the officers designated in the report of the Committee on Nominations.\nThe Secretary announced that the ballot had been cast in accordance with the\nmotion.\nWhereupon the chairman announced that the officers named in the report of the\nCoinmittee on Nominations had been duly and legally elected as officers of this association for the ensuing year.\nThe newly elected President, E. O. Lyte, of Pennsylvania, being called for, acknowledged the high compliment which had been paid to his state and to himself.\nSuperintendent A. G.Lane, of Illinois, chairman of the Board of Trustees: I was somewhat surprised, at the close of the meeting in Milwaukee, to read in some of the public school journals statements\nregarding the financial condition of the funds in the custody of the Board of Trustees. I made several full\nstatements to the Board of Directors, and a complete statement has been published in the printed proceedings\nof the last two years, and will be printed in the proceedings of this meeting, giving the fullest possible\ninformation to the members of this association. Some question has been raised about some of the funds, notably the deferred payments of interest and principal ; but all those were investments made before any of the\npresent members of the Board of Trustees had to do with the funds. They were investments made in good\nfaith at the Topeka meeting of 1886 and the Chicago meeting of 1887. The trustees are using due diligence\nto collect these amounts. If there are any members of the association who desire information in regard to\nthe condition of the funds of which I am custodian as chairman of the Board of Trustees, I want to give it to\nthem now on this floor.\n\nNo request for the information offered by Superintendent Lane was made.\nThere being no further business, the annual meeting of the active members of tiie\nassociation was adjourned sine die.\n\n"}
{"page": 42, "printed_page": null, "text": "32\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nFOURTH\nGRAND\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nDAY'S PROCEEDINGS\n\nOPERA\n\nHOUSE.— Monday, July ii, 9: 15 a. m.\n\nThe meeting was called to order by L. D. Harvey, Vice-President for Wisconsin.\nInvocation by Rev. Samuel H.Green, of California Baptist Church.\nProfessor Josiah Royce, of Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass., delivered an\naddress on the \" Social Basis of Conscience.\"\nMusic — solo by Miss Eleanore Simonds, of Washington.\nThe subject of the morning was discussed by H. E. Kratz, superintendent of public\nschools, Sioux City, la.; George J. Ramsey, of Louisiana ; Miss Marsh, of Michigan;\nMr. F. B. Brandt, of Philadelphia ; Mr. Ewing, of Ohio ; Professor A. T. Ormond, of\nNew Jersey ; Mr. Rowe, of Connecticut ; Mr. H. R. Sanford, of New York, and Mr. F. B.\nDyer, of Ohio.\nProfessor Royce closed the discussion, and the convention adjourned to 8 P. M.\nNEW\n\nNATIONAL\n\nTHEATER.— Monday, July ii. 9: 15 a. m.\n\nPresiding, Professor J. N. Wilkinson, State Normal School, Emporia, Kan.\nPrayer by Rev. J. Albert Johnson, African M. E. Church.\nAddress, \" The Culture Value of the Higher Mathematics,\" Professor W. B. Smith\nTulane University, New Orleans, La.\nMusic — contralto solo — Miss Eleanore Simonds.\nThe subject of the morning was discussed under the following heads :\n\" The Constants in Mathematics,\" Dr. Edward\nschools, Philadelphia, Pa.\n\nBrooks, superintendent of public\n\n\"Is the Science of Mathematics Qualitative as well as Quantitative ?\" Frank H. Hall\nsuperintendent State Institution for the Blind, Jacksonville, 111.\n\"The Practical Value of the Study of Mental Arithmetic,\" A. S. Downing, supervisor\nof teachers' institutes and training classes. State Department of Public Instruction,\nAlbany, N. Y.\n\"Educational Value of Geometry,\" Kelly Miller, professor of mathematics, Howard\nUniversity.\nGRAND\n\nOPERA\n\nHOUSE.— Monday, July ii, 8 p. m.\n\nThe meeting was called to order by Dr. Elmer E. Brown, of the University of\nCalifornia.\nDr. E. E. White, Cincinnati, O., addressed the association on \" The Duty of the\nState in Education.\"\nWilliam E. Sheldon, of the Committee on Necrology, presented the report of that\ncommittee.\nREPORT\n\nOF THE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nNECROLOGY\n\nThe Committee on Necrology for 1898 begs leave to submit the accompanying report. Of twenty persons\nwho have died since a report was made, we have not been able to obtain reliable information in regard to N.\nB. Thompson, of Kansas, whose membership began in 1895; L. A. Gray, of Maine, 1893; George R. Fowler,\nof Massachusetts, 1895, and Anna A. ^ ummins. New York, 1896. Of the sixteen others we respectfully submit brief sketches, in order to pay a fitting tribute to their memory. That these sketches are not as complete\nand full as could be desired is owing to the fact that it seemed best to the committee to include in this year's\nreport the names of all who have not heretofore been reported upon. This has made the list larger than\nusual, and has compelled the committee to make short and concise statements.\nRespectfully submitted,\nHenry Sabin.\nE. E. White.\nW. E. Sheldon,\nA. R. Taylor.\nE. C. Hewett.\n\n"}
{"page": 43, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL\n\nOF PROCEEDINGS\n\n33\n\nThe report was, by general consent, not read, but was ordered filed and printed in\nthe volume of proceedings.\nAdjourned to g: 15 A. M., July 12.\nNEW\n\nNATIONAL\n\nTHEATER.— Monday, July ii, 8 v. m.\n\nThe meeting was called to order by Hon. John R. Kirk, of Missouri.\nDr. E. M. Gallaudet, president College for the Deaf, Washington, D. C, delivered\nan address on \" The Deaf and Their Possibilities.\"\nCornet solo by Edwin S. Tracy, Washington, D. C.\nHon. John Eaton, ex-United States Commissioner of Education, Washington, D. C.\nspoke on \"Education and Gold in Alaska.\"\nThe address of Mr. Eaton was translated, as delivered, into the sign language by\nDr. Gallaudet, for the benefit of the deaf-mutes in the audience.\nRev. A. D. Mayo, of Washington, D. C, addressed the association on \"Lessons from\nAmerican Educational History.\"\nHon. N. C. Schaeffer, state superintendent of public instruction of Pennsylvania,\nspoke on \" Man as the Symbol User.\"\nSoprano solo by Miss Fannie At Lee, of Washington, D. C.\nAdjourned to 9: 15 A. m., July 12.\n\nGRAND\nOhio.\n\nFIFTH\n\nDAY'S\n\nOPERA\n\nHOUSE.— Tuesday, July 12, 9:30 a. m.\n\nPROCEEDINGS\n\nMeeting was called to order by Miss Margaret W. Sutherland, Vice-President for\nRev. S. N. Brown, of Park Temple Congregational Church, invoked divine blessing.\nMiss Sarah L. Arnold, supervisor of schools, Boston, Mass., addressed the association\n\non \" The Duties and Privileges of a Supervisor.\"\nMiss Margaret J. Evans, Carleton College, Northfield, Minn., spoke on \" Women's\nClubs as an Educational Factor.\"\nMiss Bettie A. Dutton, principal Kentucky Street School, Cleveland, O., spoke on\n\"Woman as a Supervisor of Women.\"\nMiss Sara J. Walters, State Normal School, Willimantic, Conn., addressed the association on \" Teachers' Course of Study.\"\nMiss Lillie A, Williams, of the State Normal School, Trenton, N. J., spoke on \" The\nTeacher as a Traveler.\"\nAnnouncements by the Secretary of the association.\nThe several subjects of the meeting were discussed by Miss Fruchte, of St. Louis.\nMo., and Mr. Tracy B. Matthews, of Darlington, Md.\nHon. Alexander Hogg, of Texas, offered the following resolution, which was adopted:\nAppreciating every effort to give woman in her sphere every opportunity for advancement — to give\nher a fair chance with her brother, intellectually and socially ; therefore be it\nResolved, That the National Educational Association heartily indorses the movement lately set on foot\nto found and endow an institution of learning for the higher education of the daughters of the confederacy —\nlately undertaken by the patriotic and philanthropic citizens of Texas and other southern states.\n\nAdjourned to meet at Convention Hall, 8 P. M., July 12.\nNEW\n\nNATIONAL\n\nTHEATER.— Tuesday, July 12, 9 : 15 a. m.\n\nSuperintendent John E. McCahan, Vice-President for Maryland, presided.\nPrayer by Rabbi L. Stem, Washington Hebrew Congregation.\nThe report of the Committee on Normal Schools was submitted by Z. X. Snyder,\npresident State Normal School, Greeley, Colo., as follows :\n\n"}
{"page": 44, "printed_page": null, "text": "34\n\nNATIONAL\n\nMr. Chairman\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n: The committee appointed at the last session of the National Educational Association\n\nto investigate the subject of normal-school work has no formal report to make at this session. There are two\nreasons for this condition of affairs. First, on beginning the investigation, we found the subject was larger than\nwe had anticipated, and we did not care to make a report that should not be thoro. Second, the apprd|)riation\nfor carrying on the investigation was not assured us until the meeting of the superintendents in February, and\nthe time since then has been too short to admit of a complete investigation. We have, however, begun the\nwork and shall be prepared to submit a formal report at the next annual meeting of the association.\n\nThe report was accepted and ordered filed.\nEdwin P. Seaver, superintendent of public schools, Boston, Mass., addressed the\nassociation on \" Democracy and Education.\"\nMusic by Miss A. B. Fisher.\nSuperintendent McHenry Rhoads, Frankfort, Ky. ; Superintendent Richard Hardy,\nIshpeming, Mich., and President Charles D. Mclver, State Normal and Industrial College,\nGreensboro, N. C, discussed the subject of the morning.\nAdjourned to meet in Convention Hall, 8 P. M., July 12.\n\n,\n\nCLOSING\n\nCONVENTION\n\nSESSION\n\nHALL.— Tuesday, July 12, 8 p. m.\n\nPresident James M. Greenwood, of Missouri, called the convention to order.\nRev. Tennis S. Hamlin, Church of the Covenant, invoked divine blessing.\nMusic by the National Guard Brigade Band, of Washington.\nThe following were the speakers and subjects of the evening's program :\nSuperintendent J. F. Millspaugh, of Salt Lake City, Utah, \" Sociology's Demand\nupon the Schools.\"\nSuperintendent C. G. Pearse, of Nebraska, \" Between Day School and Reform\nSchool.\"\nPrincipal G. N. Grisham of the Lincoln High School, Kansas City, Mo., \"The\nProper Education of an American Citizen.\"\nDr. A. E. Winship, editor of New England Journal of Education, Boston, Mass.,\n\" The School of the Future.\"\nPrincipal James M. Milne, State Normal School, Oneonta, New York, \" The Personality ofthe Teacher.\"\nDr. Elmer E. Brown, University of California, \" The Larger University Idea.\"\nDr. Nicholas Murray Butler, of New York, chairman of the Committee on Resolutions,\noffered the following declaration of principles, which was unanimously adopted :\nThe National Educational Association, representing the teachers of the United\nStates at this its thirty-seventh annual convention, makes the following declaration :\nThe integrity of our educational system can be threatened only by ignorance and by\npolitical corruption. A sound and intelligent public opinion must be in the future, as it\nhas been in the past, the support of every movement to elevate the ideals and to strengthen\nthe efficiency of our schools, public and private, higher and elementary, general and\nspecial. To labor unceasingly to produce such a public |opinion is a main duty of the\nteaching profession, and to stimulate and instruct it a leading purpose of our professional\ngathering. We ask our fellow-citizens to give heed to the needs of our educational system, to protect and develop it, and particularly to guard it from damage thru parsimony\nand political chicane. The suffering and loss so inflicted fall not chiefly upon the teachers\nor upon the citizens themselves, but upon the nation's children, who are in due time to\nassume the responsibility for the preservation of our institutions. To limit their opportunities for a sound education is to strike a deadly blow at the republic itself.\nWe deplore and resent the tendency, manifest alike in cities and in rural districts, to\ntreat the public-school service as political spoils, and to attack the reputation and professional standing of teachers and superintendents for political reasons alone.\nPolitical\n\n"}
{"page": 45, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL\n\nOF PROCEEDINGS\n\n35\n\npreferences and religious faith have no place in estimating professional efficiency, and we\ndemand that the selection, promotion, and displacement of school officers and teachers be\nmade on professional grounds alone.\nWe are glad to recognize that the schools exist solely for the education of the pupils,\nand not as a means of support for teachers ; yet, because of the increasing demands made\nupon teachers, and the exacting character of their preparation and work, it is in the public\ninterest that their compensation be so adjusted as to encourage them to make teaching a\nlife work, and to secure recognition for long-continued service and efficiency.\nWe invite attention to the dangers to the public health that result from the contact\nof children in crowded schools, unless both the children and the community are protected\nfrom the spread of contagious diseases by constant medical inspection, and the skilled\noversight of sanitary and hygienic conditions. It is the duty of every community, particularly ofevery large city, to make provision for such inspection and oversight. This\npolicy is not only one of true economy, but also of enlightened self-interest.\nThe forward movement in education has our unwavering and enthusiastic support.\nEducation is that social function by which the products of civilization are transmitted and\nenriched, and in this process the school plays a leading part. Insight into the forces that\nhave shaped human development and the sympathetic study of the growing child are the\nmainsprings of its work. We urge upon teachers generally the appreciation of this fact,\nas well as the necessity for so shaping their studies and reading as to increase their\nknowledge in both of these directions.\nThe accepted division of the work of instruction into elementary, secondary, and\nhigher is a convenient classification for administrative purposes, but it must not be allowed\nto concealthe fact that intellectual and moral development are constant and continuous,\nand that all education is essentially a unit. Every type or class of school is affected by the\nefficiency or the inefficiency of other schools associated with it in the educational system.\nThe best interests of elementary education require association with, and support from,\nsecondary and higher educational institutions that are freely open to the children of the\npeople, in order that the standard of our civilization may be constantly raised by an\nincreasing number of men and women trained for leadership.\nWe welcome every new step in the steadily advancing movement to increase the\nnecessary qualifications of teachers. A high-school education, and at least one additional year's professional study of the history, principles, and practice of teaching, should\nbe the minimum toward the establishment of which we should work.\nWe tender to the president and to the other officers of the government an expression\nof our sympathy and patriotic support in the unhappy contest in which our country is\nengaged. Much as war is to be deplored, the teachers of the United States recognize\nthat the present struggle now being so triumphantly prosecuted has been entered upon in\nthe most unselfish spirit, and from the loftiest motives. The cause of freedom and\nhumanity is promoted, and the solidarity both of the American people and of the AngloSaxon race vastly increased, by an armed contest conducted in such a spirit, for such\npurposes, and with such determination and valor. The nation's great army of peace\nextends to the nation's soldiers and \"sailors its congratulations and its grateful appreciation for the manifestation of the high qualities of courage and of skill that have won\nso brilliant a succession of victories for the American arms, both on land and on sea.\n\nDr. Nicholas Murray Butler, in behalf of the Committee on Resolutions, offered the\nfollowing resolution, which was unanimously adopted :\nResolved, That the thanks of the National Educational Association are due, and are hereby inost cordially tendered, to all individuals and organizations which have contributed so largely to the size, comfort,\nand convenience of this meeting. We may in particular express our obligations to Colonel Henry F. Blount,\npresident of the General Committee ; to President B. L. Whitman, D.D., chairman of the Executive Commit e ;to William B. Powell, A.M.. superintendent of schools, and to the several chairmen and members of\nthe various subcommittees, the fruit of whose abun4ant labors has been so manifest on every side.\nTo the citizens of Washington for their cordial welcome ; to the newspapers of the city for their full and\n\n"}
{"page": 46, "printed_page": null, "text": "36\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\naccurate repwrts of our proceedings; to the railroads and transportation companies for their generous and cordial co-operation, and to Messrs. Wyckoff, Seamans & Benedict, proprietors of the Remington Standard\nTypewriter, for generous and efficient service to executive officers and members of the association, we are\nunder obligations that we most cordially recognize.\n\nDr. Butler : I am instructed by the Committee on Resolutions to ask you, Mr. Secretary, to put this motion :\nResolved, That we tender our retiring President, Dr. James M. Greenwood, this expression of our affection and respect, and our high sense of appreciation of his services to education and to this association.\n\nThe Secretary put the motion of Dr. Butler, and the resolution was unanimously\nadopted.\nPresident Greenwood :\nLadies and Gentlemen : It becomes my duty at this moment to return to you the\ncharge as President of the National Educational Association of the United States which\nyou intrusted to me a year ago. To you, President Lyte, I will say that I trust, during\nthe coming year, the duties of your office will fall upon you as pleasantly as they have\nfallen upon me. I am sure that you appreciate the responsibility you are about to\nassume. I trust the members of the association will give you their generous support,\nas they have given it to me. I trust you will have as good fortune in the selection of\nthe place of meeting and of a local committee in the coming year as I have had in the\npast. I- do not know of an occasion in the history of this association when the general\nprogram, as well as the programs of the various departments, have been as perTect\nin every respect as they have been here in this beautiful city, the capital of our country.\nIt is no small incentive to remember that there is no such organization in the world as\nthe one that I now turn over to your hands. I trust the year will be a successful one to\nyou as the President-elect of the National Educational Association.\nPresident Lyte responded as follows :\nI appreciate very highly the honor that has been conferred upon me. I appreciate\nalso the responsibilities devolving upon anyone who assumes even a part of the direction\nof this association, and I promise you here and now to perform my duties to the best of\nmy knowledge and ability. It must be remembered, however, that the highest degree of\nsuccess can be achieved only by hearty co-operation of all of the officers and members ;\nand I trust we shall have your co-operation, in order that the next meeting may be a fit\nsuccessor to the great meeting just closing in this beautiful city, where we have been\nconsidering great questions concerning the molding of the educational thought of this\ncountry ; where we have, in some degree at least, determined the educational policy of\nthis, the greatest nation in the world — in the language of Dr. Winship, \"this imperial\nrepublic,\" a nation without a peer in the intelligence and valor of its sons, and in the\nvirtue and nobility of character of its daughters.\nIt is especially appropriate at this time when the boys of the sunny South laugh at\nbeing called \" Yankees ;\" when the boys from the North fall in line and march to the\ntuneof \"Dixie ;\" when the teachers from the North, South, East, and West are all engaged\nin rubbing out \" Mason and Dixon's line ;\" when in this country there is no North, no\nSouth, no East, no West, but a united land — it is especially appropriate that this great\nbody should adjourn with the national hymn, \"My Country, 'Tis of Thee.\"\nWe shall ask the band, therefore, to lead us in that hymn, after which we shall be dismissed with benediction by Rev. Dr. Whitman, of Columbian University.\nThe audience arose and sang \"America,\" with accompaniment by the National\nGuard Brigade Band. Dr. Whitman pronounced a benediction, and the thirty-seventh\nannual meeting of the National Educational Association was declared adjourned sine die.\n\nIrwin Shepard,\nSecretary.\n\nJames M. Greenwood,\n'\nPresident.\n\n"}
{"page": 47, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF THE MEETINGS OF THE\nOF DIRECTORS FOR 1897-98\n\nBOARD\n\nCOSMOS CLUB. —Thursday. July 7, 3 v. m.\nThe Board of Directors of the National Educational Association was called to order\nby President J. M. Greenwood in the assembly hall of the Cosmos Club, Washington,\nD. C, at 3 p. M., Thursday, July 7, 1898.\nOn the call of the roll by the Secretary, the following named directors responded :\nJames M. Greenwood, Missouri ; Nicholas Murray Butler, New York ; W. R. Garrett, Tennessee ; I. C.\nMcNeill, Wisconsin ; Albert G. Lane, Illinois ; Charles R. Skinner, New York ; Newton C. Dougherty, Illinois; Aaron Gove, Colorado; W. T. Harris, Washington, D. C. ; Albert P. Marble, New York; Charles I.\nParker, Illinois; A. R. Taylor, Kansas; John S. Locke, Maine; A. S. Downing, New York; S. T Skidmore, Pennsylvania; W. B. Powell, District of Columbia; Mae E. Schreiber, Wisconsin; John R. Kirk,\nMissouri; A. H. Avery, South Dakota; John MacDonald, Kansas; R. S. Bingham, Washington; W. E.\nSheldon, Massachusetts; J. Ormond Wilson, District of Columbia ; F. E. Howard, Connecticut; James M.\nGreen, New Jersey; A. H. Berlin, Delaware; W. H. Anderson, West Virginia; W. M. Beardshear, Iowa;\nW. S. Stockwell, North Dakota; C. G. Pearse, Nebraska; L. C. Greenlee, Colorado; F. Louis Soldan, Missouri; Irwin Shepard, Minnesota.\nPresent, thirty-two.\n\nOn motion of Director Dougherty, of Illinois, the reading of the minutes of the\nlast meeting of the board was dispensed with, and the minutes as printed in the volume\nof proceedings for 1897 were approved as printed.\nTreasurer I. C. McNeill presented his report, and explained in detail the various\nitems thereof.\nOn motion of Director Skinner, the report of the Treasurer was received, approved,\nand ordered printed in the volume of proceedings for 1898 ; and the thanks of the Board of\nDirectors were tendered to the Treasurer for his fidelity to the interests of the association.\nIn response to an inquiry by Director MacDonald, the Secretary explained that the\nenhanced cost of publishing the bound volume of proceedings was due to an increase\nin the amount of matter which became necessary from year to year, owing to the addition\nof new departments, and also to the larger editions demanded to meet the steady annual\nincrease in the number of calls for the volume.\nOn motion of Mr. Vaile, the Board of Directors, after full discussion, concurred in the\naction of the committee of the Department of Supermtendence, and approved the\nadoption of the following amended spellings for use in the proceedings of that department, as follows :\nProgram (programme), tho (though), altho (although), thoro (thorough), thorofare (thoroughfare), thru\n(through), thruout (throughout), catalog (catalogue), prolog (prologue), decalog (decalogue), demagog\n(demagogue), pedagog (pedagogue).\n\nOn motion of Director Kirk, of Missouri, the following resolution was adopted :\nResolved, That in publishing the proceedings of this and other meetings of the National Educational\nAssociation, until it is otherwise ordered, the Secretary be directed to use the simplified spellings recommended\nby the committee appointed at the Indianapolis meeting of the Department of Superintendence.\n\nDirector Lane, chairman of the Board of Trustees, submitted the annual report of\nthe Board of Trustees and explained the several items thereof; which, after discussion by\nthe directors, was received, approved, and ordered printed in the volume of proceedings\nfor 1898.\n\nDirector Nicholas Murray Butler presented certain proposed amendments to the\nconstitution of the association, which, after discussion and amendment, were unanimously\nconcurred in and recommended to the general association for adoption.\n37\n\n"}
{"page": 48, "printed_page": null, "text": "38\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nThe proposed amendments, as recommended by the Board of Directors, were as\nfollows :\nAmend Art. IV, sec. 2, last paragraph, so as to read :\nThe President of the National Educational Association, the First Vice-President, the Treasurer, the\nchairman of the Board of Trustees, and the United States Commissioner of Education shall constitute\nthe Executive Committee.\n\nAmend Art. IV, sec. 3, by inserting in the first line, after the word \"association,\"\nthe words \" with the exception of the Secretary.\"\nAmend Art. IV, sec. 3, by altering the second sentence so as to make it read, \"The\nofficers so chosen shall continue in office,\" etc. The amended section would then read\nas follows :\nSec. 3. The elective of)icers of the association, with the exception of the Secretary, shall be chosen by\nthe active members of the association by ballot, unless otherwise ordered, on the third day of each annual session, a majority of the votes cast being necessary to a choice. The officers so chosen shall continue in office\nuntil the close of the annual session subsequent to their election, and until their successors are chosen, except\nas hereinafter provided.\n\nFurther amend Art. IV by adding a new section, as follows :\nSec. II. The Board of Trustees shall elect the Secretary of the association, who shall also be secretary of\nthe Executive Committee, and shall fix his compensation and his term of office for a period not to exceed four\nyears.\n\nOn motion of Director Butler, the following distinguished educators were unanimously elected as corresponding members of this association ; and the Secretary of the\nassociation was instructed to have prepared suitably engrossed certificates of membership,\nto be signed by the United States Commissioner of Education, the President and Secretary of the association, and transmitted to the respective corresponding members :\nMiss Dorothea Beale, principal of Ladies' College, Cheltenham, London, England.\nSiGNOR LuiGi BoDio, direttore generale della Statistica del Regno, Roma, Italia.\nProfessor Ferdinand\n\nBuisson, professor of education at the Sorbonne, Paris, France.\n\nGabriel CompayrS, rector of the University at Lyons, France.\nSir Joshua G. Fitch, LL.D., formerly her majesty's inspector of training colleges and lecturer on education at the University of Cambridge, 13 Leinster square, Bayswater, W., London, England.\n* S. S. Laurie, LL.D,, professor of the history and institutes of education in the University of Edinburgh,\nScotland.\nDr. E. Levasseur, professor at the College of France, president of the Statistical Commission for Primary Instruction.\nFriedrich\nGermany.\n\nPaulsen, Ph.D., professor of philosophy and education in the University of Berlin,\n\nMichael Sadler, A.M., director of special inquiries and reports, Department of Education, Whitehall,\nS. W., London, England.\nHon. E. Lvulph Stanley, member of the London school board.\n\nAll business having been completed, the board adjourned,\nIrwin Shepard,\nJames M. Greenwood,\nSecretary.\nPresident.\n\n"}
{"page": 49, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF A MEETING OF THE\nBOARD\nDIRECTORS FOR 1898-99.\nCOSMOS\n\nOF\n\nCLUB. — Saturday, July 9, 3 p. m.\n\nThe board was called to order by President-elect E. Oram Lyte in the assembly\nhall of the Cosmos Club, Washington, D. C, at 3 p. m., Saturday, July 9, 1898.\nOn the call of the roll by the Secretary, the following named directors responded :\nNicholas Murray Butler, New York ; James M. Greenwood, Missouri ; Newton C. Dougherty, Illinois ;\nGeorge T. Fairchild, Kentucky; W. R, Garrett. Tennessee; Aaron Gove, Colorado; Albert G. Lane, Illinois; Albert P. Marble, New York; Marcellus T. Marshall, West Virginia; W. E. Sheldon, Massachusetts;\nCharles R. Skinner, New York; F. Louis Soldan, Missouri; J. Ormond Wilson, District of Columbia ; E.\nOram Lyte, Pennsylvania; I. C. McNeill, Wisconsin ; Will S. Monroe, Massachusetts; A. S. Downing, New\nYork; James M. Green, New Jersey; George Howell, Pennsylvania; A. H. Berlin, Delaware; John D.\nWorthington, Maryland; W. B. Powell, District of Columbia ; William F. Fox, Virginia; G. A. Grimsley,\nNorth Carolina; John T. Gregory, Alabama; J. L. Holloway, Arkansas; D. K. Goss, Indiana; H. R. Pattengill, Michigan ; L. D. Harvey, Wisconsin ; W. M. Beardshear, Iowa ; George B. Aiton, Minnesota ; Frank\nCrane, South Dakota; J. E. Hendricks, Montana; Miss Estelle Reel. Wyoming; F. S. Hafford, Arizona;\nJ. H. Ackerman, Oregon; J. E. Stubbs, Nevada; J. C. Black, Idaho.\nPresent, thirty-eight.\n\nThe minutes of the last meeting of the board were read and approved.\nThe President announced the first business of the meeting to be the election of a\nmember of the Board of Trustees to succeed Dr. Nicholas Murray Butler, of New York.\nDirector Lane, of Illinois, nominated Dr. Butler, of New York, to succeed himself\nas a member of the Board of Trustees of the association.\nThere being, no other nominations, the Secretary, under instruction of the board,\ncast the unanimous ballot for Dr. Butler, and he was declared duly and legally elected as\na member of the Board of Trustees for the term of four years.\nPresident Lyte appointed the following committee to consider names suggested by\nthe board to fill existing vacancies in the National Council of Education :\nDirector James M. Green, New Jersey.\nDirector A. R. Taylor, Kansas.\nDirector A. P. Marble, New York.\n\nThe committee retired and subsequently submitted the following recommendations\nfor election to the National Council, the term of each to expire in 1904 :\nRichard G. Boone, Ypsilanti, Mich., to succeed himself.\nF. Louis Soldan, St. Louis, Mo., to succeed himself.\nJames H. Canfield, Columbus, O., to succeed himself.\nFrank Rigler, Portland, Ore., to succeed Joseph H. Baldwin, of Texas.\nL. D. Harvey, Milwaukee, Wis., to succeed Walter L. Hervey, of New York.\n\nOn motion of Director N. C. Dougherty, the report was accepted and adopted, and\nthe gentlemen named in the report of the committee were declared duly and legally\nelected as members of the National Council for the ensuing six years.\nPresident Lyte called for nominations to fill one vacancy in the Executive Committee, in accordance with the recently adopted amendment to the constitution.\nThe names of Director William T. Harris and Director C. G. Pearse were placed in\nnomination for election as member of the Executive Committee.\nBallots were cast with the following result :\nFor William T. Harris\nForC. G. Pearse\n\n«>\n'«\n39\n\n"}
{"page": 50, "printed_page": null, "text": "40\n\n.NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nWhereupon William T. Harris was declared duly and legally elected as a member\nof the Executive Committee of this association for the period of one year.\nS. Y. Gillan presented to the directors a communication from the Educational Press\nAssociation concerning the publication of the program and official notices from the\nofficers of the association, which was freely discussed.\nOn motion of Director. Butler, it was unanimously resolved that the Board of\nDirectors take no action on the subject-matter of Mr. Gillan's communication.\nDirector L. D. Harvey, of Wisconsin, offered the following resolution :\nResolved, That the sum of $500 be appropriated by the Board of Directors from the funds of the National\nEducational Association to be used by the Library Department of the National Educational Association in\ninvestigating the relations of the public schools and publiclibraries, and in the preparation and dissemination\nof a report upon said relations ; said fund to be available for use by said department during the year 1898-99.\n\nAt the request of Director James H. Baker, of Colorado, Director Harvey yielded\nthe floor.\nDirector Baker thereupon read the following communication :\nThe National Council of Education, at its executive session on July 7, appointed the undersigned to present to the Board of Directors of the National Educational Association the following resolution :\nResolved, That the president of the Council be instructed to associate with himself two other members,\nthe three to constitute a committee that shall seek from the Board of Directors of the National Educational\nAssociation favorable action on the following propositions :\n1. That the said board refer all propositions relating to educational investigations that call for the\nexpenditure of the funds of the association to the Council for its consideration and advice, and that the board\nrefuse to take final action in such cases until the Council has expressed its judgment. Furthermore, that all\ninvestigations for which such funds are appropriated shall be conducted under the direction of the Council.\n2. That the said board appropriate $250 for the coming year to enable the Council to carry on its work.\nCharles De Garmo, President of Council.\nB. A. Hinsdale.\nJames H. Baker.\n\nDirector Baker moved the adoption of the resolution read, which' motion was duly\nseconded and, after some discussion, adopted.\nAt this point Director Harvey renewed his motion appropriating #500 to the Library\nDepartment, which motion was duly seconded. After discussion, the matter was referred\nto the National Council of Education for consideration and recommendation, in accordance with the resolution previously adopted.\nDirector F. Louis Soldan, of St. Louis, presented a resolution concerning preparations for an educational exhibit at the Paris exposition in i goo, which, on motion of Director\nA. S. Downing, of New York, was laid upon the table until the next meeting of the\nboard.\nOn motion, the Board of Directors adjourned to meet at the Cosmos Club at 2 P. M.,\nJuly II, i8g8.\nCOSMOS\n\nCLUB. — Monday, July ii, 2 p. m.\n\nThe adjourned meeting of the Board of Directors was called to order by President\nE. Oram Lyte, of Pennsylvania.\nOn the call of the roll by the Secretary, the following directors responded :\nNicholas Murray Butler, New York ; W. R Garrett, Tennessee ; Aaron Gove, Colorado ; T. Marcellus\nMarshall, West Virginia ; Charles R. Skinner, New York; J. Ormond Wilson, District of Columbia; A. S.\nDowning, New York; James M. Green, New Jersey; John D. Worthington, Maryland; J. N. Deahl, West\nVirginia; D. K. Goss, Indiana; L. D. Harvey, Wisconsin; George B. Alton, Minnesota; John R. Kirk,\nMissouri; W. L. Stockwell, North Dakota; C. G. Pearse, Nebraska; Frank R. Dyer, Kansas; J. B. Hendricks, Montana; L. C. Greenlee, Colorado; Mrs. E. R. Jackson, New Mexico; F. S. Hafford, Arizona; J.\nH. Ackerman, Oregon; O. C. Whitney, Washington; J. M. Tanner, Utah; E. E, Brown, California; W. A.\nCaldwell, Indian Territory.\nPresent, twenty-six.\n\n"}
{"page": 51, "printed_page": null, "text": "PROCEEDINGS\n\nOF THE\n\nNEW\n\nBOARD\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\n41\n\nThe Secretary announced the receipt of a letter of resignation from Director F. B.\nDyer, of Ohio, and, on motion, Mr. C. W. Bennett, of Ohio, was elected as a director, vice\nF. B. Dyer, resigned.\nThe Secretary also read a letter from Mr. Hand, stating that Mr. J. F. Brown, elected\nas a director for South Carolina, could not serve ; and, on recommendation of Mr. liand,\nMr. J. Frank Fooshe, of Blackville, S. C, was elected a director, vice Brown, resigned.\nDirector Dougherty, of Illinois, called from the table the resolution of F. Louis\nSoldan, of Missouri, offered at the meeting of July 9, and the resolution was unanimously\nadopted, as follows :\nResolved, That the Board of Directors appoint a general committee, whose duty it shall be to promote\nin suitable ways the preparation of an exhibit of education, showing its condition and progress within the\nUnited States; said committee to be formed in such a way as to represent all educational interests and admit\nof easy division into subcommittees for special work ; such committee to consist of ten state superintendents,\nten city superintendents, ten presidents of colleges or universities and normal schools, ten representatives of\nprivate or denominational schools, five librarians of public libraries, and five representatives of public institutions\nfor the education of special classes, including asylums for orphans, the deaf and dumb, the blind, and also\nstate reform schools ; said committee to be appointed by the Board of Directors of the National Educational\nAssociation, and to meet in November upon the call of the President of the National Educational Association.\n\nOn motion of Director Dougherty, the President appointed the following committee,\nto whom the resolution of Director Soldan and all matters pertaining thereto were referred,\nwith power to act :\nDirector William T. Harris, chairman; the President of the association ; Director N. C, Doiigbcrty, of\nIllinois; Director C. G. Pearse, of Nebraska, and Director James M.Green, of New Jersey.\n\nDirector Sheldon made an informal report from the National Council to the effect\nthat the application of the Library Department for the appointment of a committee and\nan appropriation of ;S5500, in accordance with the resolution of Director Harvey, of Wisconsin, offered at the meeting of the directors held July 9, had been duly considered ; that\nthe Council had voted to authorize the president of the Council to appoint the desired\ncommittee and had further voted to recommend that the Board of Directors grant an\nappropriation of $500 for the expenses of this committee.\nA motion was made and seconded that the appropriation recommended by the\nCouncil be granted.\nDirector E. E. White requested information as to the amounts already appropriated\nfor similar work now in progress.\nDirector A. G. Lane, chairman\nauthorized appropriations :\n\nof the Board of Trustees, reported the following\n\nFor the Secondary Department\nFor the Normal Department\nFor the National Council\n\n$500\n5°\"\n'5°\n\nRequested for the Library Department\n\n5°°\n\nAfter brief discussion, the motion was unanimously carried.\n\n$i,7SO\n\nDirector L. D. Harvey, at the request of the Wisconsin delegation of active members,\noffered the following resolution, which was ordered to lie over for one year under the\nrule :\nResolved, That the Board of Directors recommend to the general association that the constitution be\namended as follows:\nAmend\n\nArt. Ill — Membership — by striking out sec. 3 and substituting therefor the following:\n\n\" Any associated member eligible for active membership may become an active member upon the payment of the annual dues for the current year.\"\n\nThe board received invitations to hold the next anuual meeting of the association in\nLos Angeles, Cal.; Salt Lake City, Utah ; Portland, Ore.; and Tacoma, Wash.\n\n"}
{"page": 52, "printed_page": null, "text": "42\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nAJiSOCIATJON\n\nRepresentatives from each locality were allowed a limited time for presenting the\nadvantages of their respective cities.\nThe result of an informal ballot on choice of place for the next meeting was as folfows :\nist choice\n\n2d choice\n\n3d choice\n\nLos Angeles, Cal\n\n20\n\n9\n\n6\n\nSalt Lake City, Utah\n\n12\n\n11\n\n14\n\nPortland, Ore\n\n8\n\n14\n\n12\n\nTacoma, Wash\n\n3\n\n4\n\n3\n\nOn motion, the entire subject of place for holding the next convention was referred to\nthe Executive Committee, with power to act.\nMr. D. W. Springer, of Ann Arbor, invited the association to meet at Detroit in\n1900.\n\nDirector William E. Sheldon, of Massachusetts, of the Committee on Necrology,\nstated that Henry Sabin, of Iowa, chairman of the committee, had forwarded the report\nto him, with the request that it be presented to the Board of Directors, and finally to the\nassociation, and Mr. Sheldon moved that, when this report is presented to the association,\nit be given in abstract by the committee, and that the report be printed in full in the\nvolume of proceedings of this convention.\nSeconded ; carried.\nOn motion, the Board of Directors adjourned sine die.\nIrwin Shepard,\nE. Oram\nSecretary.\n\nLyte,\nPresident.\n\n"}
{"page": 53, "printed_page": null, "text": "GENERAL SESSIONS OF THE ASSOCIATION\nADDRESSES\nHON.\n\nJOHN\n\nW.\n\nROSS,\n\nOF\n\nMEMBER\nOF\nWASHINGTON,\n\nWELCOME\nBOARD\nD. C.\n\nOF\n\nCOMMISSIONERS,\n\nWithin a decade the people of the District of Columbia have welcomed and entertained such distinguished assemblages as the Grand\nEncampment of Knights Templar of the United States, the Grand Army\nof the Republic, the Knights of Pythias, the Christian Endeavor Association ofthe United States, and many other national organizations. But\nno event of recent years has excited a more general interest or aroused\na more genuine enthusiasm among our people than does the meeting of\nthis great convention.\nFor the first time in its long and honorable history, the National\nEducational Association comes to the federal capital. During many\nmonths past the people of Washington have been preparing for your\nreception. Our citizens, prominent and influential as educators and in\nthe business world, have cheerfully given time and attention from their\nown pressing business engagements, in order to make your entertainment\nworthy of the national capital and in keeping with the dignity of the\ncause you represent.\nThere is no community in all the land where the public school is\nmore highly regarded than in your capital city. You are, doubtless,\naware of the fact that no public money can be used in the District of\nColumbia, for any municipal purpose, which has not been specifically\nappropriated therefor by an act of Congress. But the Congress, in\nresponse to an overwhelming public sentiment, has provided for the\n44,000 children enrolled in our public schools a corps of 1,143 teachers,\nand has increased the number of school buildings owned by the district\nto 117.\nFor many years a special feature of our school system has been its\ninstruction in manual training. This system has been so successfully\ntaught under adverse circumstances that the Congress, at the session now\nclosing, has authorized the erection and equipment of a building to be\nused solely for manual training purposes, to cost $125,000. Whatever of\nefficiency has marked the methods in vogue in this district may be justly\nattributed to the wise liberality of Congress in making appropriations for\nthe schools ; to an able, non-partisan school board ; to faithful and efficient superintendence ; and, last but not least, to the impartial enforce43\n\n"}
{"page": 54, "printed_page": null, "text": "44\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\ninent of the merit system in the appointment, the retention, and the\npromotion of teachers.\nWe all recognize the truth that the art of teaching is susceptible of\nunlimited growth and advancement ; that the teacher can and should be\nconstantly taught new and better methods of instruction ; and that,\ntherefore, such a conference as that now about to begin, involving an\ninterchange of experiences and observations by the able minds her^\nassembled, must be of incalculable value to all who are privileged to be\npresent and to take a part in your discussions. In many respects your\nconvention will be one of the strongest incentives to intellectual growth\nand activity incident to these closing years of the nineteenth century. As\neducators you are endowed with the great privilege and charged with the\nvast responsibility of training the minds and molding the characters of\nthe future citizens of a republic which seems destined to enact a new and\nuntried role upon the stage of national achievement. You assemble at\nthe only period in our history when the boys of our homes and of our\nhearts have carried the flag, under whose protection they were trained in\nour schools, into distant foreign lands. Within a few short weeks their\nvalor and their heroism have changed the current of human events, and\nhave given to the young republic of the West a new place among the\nnations of the world. They have won victories, not alone by reason of\nthe justice of the cause for which they fought; not alone by reason of\nthe fact that they come of a stock not accustomed to defeat ; but, also,\nbecause they have been trained and disciplined as American freemen in\nAmerican schools. And if, as now seems inevitable, it is a manifest\ndestiny that our flag shall not be hauled down in the foreign lands where\nit has been planted, our people will require new lessons in statecraft and\nnew instruction as to the duties which will devolve upon them in their\nchanged relations with the world's great powers. Heretofore we have\ntaken lessons only in the art of governing ourselves. Another kind of\nknowledge will now be required in dealing with the people who dwell in\nthe islands of the sea.\nAnd so, day by day and hour by hour, your responsibilities, educators\nof America, are broadening and deepening. In your care and keeping\nare the future presidents, legislators, judicial officers, and diplomatic representatives ofthe United States. It follows that, in the whole line of\nhuman avocations, there is not one more useful, more influential, or more\nhonorable than that one to which you have devoted your lives.\nThe entire people of the District of Columbia extends to you a heartfelt greeting. May your sojourn in the capital city be to yourselves\npersonally, and to the cause which you represent, fruitful of good results ;\nand may you carry with you to your homes and to your various fields of\nlabor renewed love for and devotion to the government of the United\nStates.\n\n"}
{"page": 55, "printed_page": null, "text": "Session^]\n\nADDHESSES\n\nB.\n\nPRESIDENT\nCOLUMBIAN\nUNIVERSITY,\nCHAIRMAN\nCOMMITTEE,\nN. E. A., WASHINGTON,\nD. C.\n\nL.\n\nWHITMAN,\nD.D.,\nLOCAL\nEXECUTIVE\n\nOF\n\nWELCOME\n\n45\n\nOF\n\nThis is a happy hour for Washington. You will hardly take it amiss\nif we tell you over and over that you make us happy. Who of us does\nnot sympathize with George Eliot when she says: \"I like not only to be\nloved, but to be told that I am loved. The realm of silence is large\nenough beyond the grave\" ? Our honored commissioner has already\nassured you that you are welcome. But .one does not quickly tire of being\nassured that one is welcome, and it is my glad privilege to repeat the\nword. The nation's teachers are welcome in the nation's capital.\nThe place, the hour, and the man are well met in this convention.\nBy the place I mean Washington. It is the home of the nation.\nThe heart of the patriot thrills at the word. Wherever his citizenship\nmay be, his home as a patriot is here. Because he is a patriot, he will\ngive himself without stint to the municipal and state obligations that rest\nupon him as a citizen, but he will never forget that the shrine of his\ndevotion and the embodiment of his hopes lie here. There is scarcely a\nstate in the union that has not placed its mark upon the city somewhere —\nMassachusetts avenue. New York avenue, Pennsylvania, North Carolina,\nSouth Carolina, Florida, Wyoming, California avenues, and others by the\nscore. As you walk about, you will find yourselves on familiar ground.\nIt will be hard to find in the city a spot of purely local interest. Upon\nthe same street you will find the homes of citizens from the four quarters\nof the country. The parks record national history — Dupont and Scott\nand Thomas and McPhersonand Farragutand Lafayette. The buildings,\nhouses, are not local, but national, enterprises. The tides of interest are\nnot local, but national. Your coming does not increase the number of the\nelements of which our city's life is composed — every day in the year the\nstates from which you come are represented here. Your numbers simply\nmake the representation more adequate. As you exchange greetings, you\nillustrate the fellowship of the states in their common center, forgetting time and space and difference. By the map it is forty miles from\nWashington to Baltimore, and 3,200 from Washington to San Francisco.\nSympathetically it is no farther to the Pacific slope than to our sister\ncity, for in both East and West love of country creates kinship which\nignores geographical boundaries and makes citizenship a bond of brotherhood under which the interest of each becomes the interest of all. The\nstory of the imperishable things in our national history is recorded here.\nOne bares the head and walks softly in presence of them. Typical of\nthem all is the sacred memory awakened by the city's name, repeated by\nthe shaft that watches by the river he so loved and by whose peaceful\nwaters he now sleeps, pledging the brotherliness of all citizens for all\ntime by the name a nation's devotion gave him — the Father of his\nCountry.\n\n"}
{"page": 56, "printed_page": null, "text": "46\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nBy the hour I mean the present.\n\" We are living, we are dwelling,\nIn a grand and awful time.\nIn an age on ages telling.\nTo be living is sublime.\"\n\nBehind the flare of rockets and the small boy's din, last Monday, was\na spirit seen by no Fourth of July since the nation began to be. Events\nof the last few weeks have been i;ecording themselves upon the pages of\nhistory. More yet, they have been weaving themselves into the warp and\nwoof of a nation's life. Great as they seem to us, it may be questioned\nwhether we appreciate their greatness. We are still too near them to get\ntheir proportion. Their greatest significance lies in the development of\nnational spirit. Our country is more completely one, today, than ever\nbefore. That means that we are more a nation, today, than ever before.\nNo nation can be strong which reads its history by sections. No nation\ncan be strong that presents too clearly recognizable types. Deplore it as\nwe may that war is in the air, and that blood must be shed — we cannot\nclose our -eyes to the fact that, in its latest undertaking, it is the whole\nnation that has set its hand to the work. It is not a month since I heard\nSouth Carolina men talking about being called Yankees by the Spaniards,\nand actually glorying in the name. \"Dixie\" stirs the people today to as\nwild enthusiasm in Boston as in Richmond. And in every hamlet, by\nevery fireside, grizzled veterans and little children sing the national\nhymn, as it was never sung before.\n\" My country, 'tis of thee,\nSweet land of liberty,\nOf thee I sing ;\nLand where my fathers died,\nLand of the pilgrim's pride.\nFrom every mountain side\nLet freedom ring.\"\n\nAnd that is the best of it all. Our nation has been discovering itself\nby the larger discovery of its mission and destiny. Liberty under law is\nits central idea. For a hundred years we have been at work on that idea.\nAt last it seems to be coming clear. Then only is a man free when he is\nable to discharge his duty as a man — no bondage without making him\nphysically a tool, and no bondage within making him spiritually a slave.\nIt is with a nation as it is with a man. Independence of external domination and mental and moral self-control alone mark a nation as free.\nBut such freedom destines a nation to be a leader in the world's life.\nThe life of a free man is a call to men everywhere to be free. The life\nof a free people is a call to peoples everywhere to be free. When the\nfeet of our fathers pressed Plymouth rock, a beacon was raised that ever\nsince has blazed for the whole world.\nEver since that moment the\n\n"}
{"page": 57, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nADDRESSES\n\nOF\n\nWELCOME\n\n47\n\necho of the bells of San Bias has been bearing its message of the new\ndawn:\n\" Out of the shadows uf night\nThe world rolls into light ;\nIt is daybreak everywhere.\"\n\nThat is the secret of the present march of events. That is the meaning of Manila and Santiago. We are mistaken if we suppose that we have\ngone to war to feed and clothe a handful of sufferers in Cuba and the\nPhilippines. We are mistaken if we think that all we desire is to whip\nSpain. Back of Spain is the power we fight — ignorance and cruelty\nand defiance to human rights. Back of Cuba and the Philippines are the\nthings for which we strive — liberty for body and soul, truth, and hope\nfor the downtrodden heart of man. The spectacle of unselfish effort for\nothers is so new to political vision that the world does not understand it\nyet. We scarcely understand it ourselves. Where it will end we cannot\nyet see clearly. But the hands and minds and hearts which guide our\ndestinies are the hands and minds and hearts of men brave and wise and\ntrue. Congress has shown itself worthy of the confidence of the country.\nA gentleman, a soldier, a statesman, a Christian represents the nation in\nthe White House. Never before in a hundred years have we so nearly\nrealized the immortal words of the farewell address : \" Let us raise a standard to which the wise and honest may repair. The event is in the hands\nof God.\" The heart of the patriot leaps at the thought that it is precisely the raising of that standard that has given us, in these closing years of\nthe century, the realization of the vision cherished thru all the years —\na land unbroken by discord or sectional interest ; no North, no South,\nno East, no West ; one country, one flag, beneath which the citizen may\nbe proud to stand in the presence of the whole world and say : \"I am an\nAmerican.\"\nBy the man I mean the teacher. In a republic the influence represented bythe teacher is, to the last degree, important. Here personality\nsupersedes authority. More than we think, the personal touch is shaping\nthe life of our nation. The more a nation controls by intelligence and\nmoral weight, the more important are its schools. It is a lesson we have\nbeen slow to learn, but we are learning it rapidly in these days, that a\nnation's greatness lies, not in things, but in men. We need not have\nbeen so long in learning it, for our history is full of it. The strength of\nNew Hampshire is not her granite hills, but Webster. Vermont is greatest, not by her green mountains, but by Dewey. Massachusetts takes\npride, not so much in her manufactures as in Winthrop and the Adamses\nand Horace Mann. Pennsylvania is rich, not so much by her oil as by\nPenn and Franklin. Virginia boasts, not so much her tobacco plantations as Patrick Henry and Thomas Jefferson. South Carolina boasts,\nKentucky's pride is not so much\nnot her rice fields, but Calhoun.\n\n"}
{"page": 58, "printed_page": null, "text": "48\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nin her blue grass and blooded horses and whisky as in Justice Harlan\nand Henry Clay. Ohio, if asked to name her most precious possessions,\nwould name, not her gas wells, her rolling mills, her wool, but Hayes and\nGarfield and McKinley. And when the -account of American greatness\nis made up in the days to come, the pride of the American citizen will\nrise most, not at the record of boundless territory, teeming population,\nand uncounted wealth, but at the names that are engraved beyond effacement on the crown of American glory — Grant and Lincoln and Washington.\nIf this means anything, it means that we are face to face with the\ngreatest opportunity teachers ever had. The world has discovered that\nits riches lie, not in material resource, but in life. Material good is good\nonly as it contributes to life. To sound this note until the whole range\nof human experience answers back to it is our first task. It is all-important that we get the conception clearly ourselves. We are forever in danger of falling into the error of supposing that educational progress consists\nsolely or mainly in the perfecting of material appliances. It is to be\nsought rather in improvement of teacher and teaching power. This will\nparticularly appear in larger knowledge of life and acquaintance with its\nlaws — sympathy, insight, skill, tact, adaptability. Our second task is the\nprivilege of securing to common life its heritage. The achievements of\ngenius illumine every page of our history. Such achievements will never\nbe lacking. The pinnacles of fame will never remain long unoccupied.\nThe world is only too glad to accord its meed of praise to Dewey and\nMerritt and Sampson and Schley and Hobson and Miles and Shafter and\nJoe Wheeler and Fitzhugh Lee. This is well. But there is merit that\nnever gets into government reports or newspaper dispatches. There are\nheroes who are never promoted. We must not forget the value of the\ncommonplace. Let us be true to unheralded worth ! Let us, honor the\nheroes of the picket and of the stoke hole !\nNot only so. Our country needs just now emphasis laid upon the\nfact that patriotism is not confined to carrying a sword. \" Peace hath\nher victories not less renowned than those of war.\" The peaceful walks of\nlife need to be trod patriotically. There is a patriotism of the countinghouse, the factory, the farm, the church, the fireside. To be loyal to the\nprinciples of sound government ; to be faithful to the demands of citizenship ;to be honest in the discharge of social obligations ; to be clean and\npure and true — that is patriotism. Teach that to every scholar, from the\nkindergarten to the school of philosophy. Out from the schoolroom it\nwill find its way up and down the land. The millionaire will learn it\nand will administer his wealth as a patriot. The statesman will learn it\nand will discharge his office as a patriot. The plow boy will learn it\nand will turn his furrow as a patriot. Fatherhood will learn it and will\ncount it joy to be proved worthy of so holy a task.\nMotherhood will\n\n"}
{"page": 59, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nADDRESSES\n\nOF\n\nWELCOME\n\nlearn it and will teach the lips that lisp their evening prayer to frame the\nname of their country, making of their country and themselves a daily\noffering to God. So the boyhood and girlhood of today, which your\nfaithful work is preparing for- the larger tasks of tomorrow, will offer to\nthe world the manhood and womanhood that make the strength of\nnations, and furnish the largest guarantee that our faith in our institutions is not misplaced*\n\nW. T. HARRIS,\n\nUNITED\n\nSTATES\nCOMMISSIONER\nWASHINGTON, D. C.\n\nOF EDUCATION,\n\nIt is fitting that you hold this annual session at the capital of the\nnation. You meet here at an important epoch in the history of the\ncountry. The annual census of the United States in 1880 showed for\nthe first time an aggregate of over fifty millions of inhabitants. It was a\ntrue remark, then made by one of us in a session of the Department of\nSuperintendence, that America had now, for the first time, ascended\nabove the horizon of Europe. We had become visible to Great Britain\nand its peers on the continent as a nation of equal rank, and to be taken\naccount of in future adjustments of the powers of the world. In that\nyear we had reached the full stature of national manhood, and were as\nstrong as the strongest nations of Europe in numbers and wealthproducing power.\nAfter another ten years, in 1890, we found that, in effective size and\nstrength, we surpassed in wealth-producing power and in numbers the\nlargest of them.\nIt has been only a question of time when we should take our place\namong the nations as a real power in the management of the affairs of\nthe world ; when we should be counted with the great powers of Europe\nin the government of Asia, Africa, and the isles of the sea. It was a\nmoment to be postponed rather than hastened by the patriotic citizen.\nWhen our power of producing wealth is increasing out of proportion\nwith the rest of the world, and when our population is swelled by waves\nof migration from Europe, why should we be in a feverish haste to\nprecipitate the new era — the era of close relationship with the states of\nEurope ? For here is the parting of the ways, and the beginning of an\nessentially new career. Most of what is old and familiar to us must\nchange and give place to new interests. Once the United States enters\nupon this career, all its power and resources must be devoted to adapting\nit to the new situation and defending its line of advance. For it cannot\nmove back without national humiliation.\nAnd it is this very summer that the hand on the dial of our destiny\nhas pointed at twelve, and for better or worse we have now entered upon\nour new epoch as an active agent in the collected whole of great powers\n\n"}
{"page": 60, "printed_page": null, "text": "50\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n|General\n\nthat determine and fix the destiny of the peoples on the planet. This\nnew era is one of great portent to the statesmen of America. All legislation hereafter must be scrutinized, in view of its influence upon our\ninternational relations. We cannot any longer have that smug sense of\nsecurity and isolation which has permitted us to legislate without considering the effect on foreign nations. Hereafter our foremost national\ninterest must be the foreign one, and consequently our highest studies\nmust be made on the characters, inclinations, and interests of foreign\npeoples. It is obvious that this study requires a greater breadth of\neducation, more specializing in history, and in the manners and customs\nof European nations ; their methods of organizing industries, as well as\ntheir methods of organizing armies and navies. We must even master\nforeign literatures and see what are the fundamental aspirations of the\npeople. This points to the function of the system of education in the\nfuture of this country. This indicates the vocation of the schoolmaster\nin the coming time.\nThe new burden of preparing our united people for the responsibilities\nof a clos.er union with Europe, and for a share in the dominion over the\nislands and continents of the Orient, this new burden will fall on the\nschool systems in the several states, and more particularly on the colleges\nand universities that furnish the higher education. For it is higher\neducation that must furnish the studies in history and in the psychology\nof peoples which will provide our ministers and ambassadors abroad with\ntheir numerous retinue of experts and specialists, thoroly versed in\nthe habits and traditions of the several nations. The knowledge required\nby our members of Congress and our executive departments will make a\ndemand upon higher education for post-graduate students who have concentrated their investigations upon points in international law and the\nphilosophy of history. I»iplomacy will become a great branch of\nlearning for us.\nThis has been felt for some time, altho it has not been consciously\nrealized. In the past twenty-five years the enrollment in higher education,\nin college work alone, has increased from 590 to 1,215 in the million;\nit has more than doubled in each million of people. The post-graduate\nwork of training experts or specialists has been multiplied by twenty-five ;\nfor it has increased from a total of 200 to a total of 5,000 in the nation.\nThe education of the elementary school fits the citizen for most of his\nroutine work in agriculture, manufactures, commerce, and mining. But\nthe deeper problems of uniting our nation with the other great nations,\nand harmonizing our unit of force with that greater unit, must be solved\nby higher education, for it alone can make the wide combinations that\nare necessary. Shallow elementary studies give us the explanation of\nthat which lies near us. They help us to understand our immediate\nenvironment, but for the understanding of deep national differences, and\n\n"}
{"page": 61, "printed_page": null, "text": "KessionsJ\n\nADD/iESHES\n\nOP\n\nWkLCOME\n\nJI\n\nfor the management of all that is alien to our part of the world, deeper\nstudies are required. The student must penetrate the underlying fundamental principles of the world history in order to see how such different\nfruits have grown on the same tree of humanity. We must look to our\nuniversities and colleges for the people who have learned to understand\nthe fashions and daily customs of a foreign people, and who have learned\nto connect the surface of their everyday life with the deep national\nprinciples and aspirations which mold and govern their individual and\nsocial action. Hence the significance of this epoch in which you are\nassembled to discuss the principles of education and its methods of\npractice. There have been great emergencies, and great careers have\nopened to American teachers, in our former history; but you stand today\non the vestibule of a still more important age, the age of the union of\nthe new world with the old world.\n\nHON.\n\nWEBSTER\n\nDAVIS,\n\nASSISTANT\nINTERIOR,\n\nSECRETARY,\nWASHINGTON,\n\nDEPARTMENT\nD.\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nC.\n\nMr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen :\nFor many years it has been my pleasure to know personally President\nGreenwood of your association. No man in the West has done more for\nthe cause of education than he. It was largely thru his efforts that\nthe public schools of Kansas City, Mo., became famous thruout the\ncountry for their high standard and excellence. And his countless deeds\nof charity and acts of kindness toward poor, unfortunate boys and girls,\nstruggling for education in the years of the past, will live in the\nimmortality that blooms beyond the grave. This association is to be\ncongratulated on having such a noble president.\nDoubtless the reason for my name appearing on the program\ntonight is because the Department of the Interior is especially friendly\nto school-teachers. Secretary Bliss, tho a very handsome man, is much\nolder than I, and married, too ; hence he has not the nerve that I\nhave in facing good-looking schoolma'ams. But, nevertheless, he and\nPresident McKinley are about the best friends they have in this country ;\nfor not long ago, after putting their heads together for a moment, they\nconcluded to break the record by appointing a western schoolma'am to\nthe distinguished and responsible position of superintendent of Indian\nschools. And this is all right, for any administration that recognizes\nwoman's right to make an honest living, if she is compelled to, by hard\nwork, and then offers a reward for her honest toil, makes no mistake.\nI have always had great sympathy for the teachers in our public\nschools; for I came very near becoming one once, but failed to pass the\n\nexamination fo? a certificate^ iButs seiiioas^', they '^o\" deserve sympathy;\nfor a harder working, more patient lot ot men and women cannot be\n\n"}
{"page": 62, "printed_page": null, "text": "52\n\nNATION AL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nfound. And they are the poorest-paid laborers, for the amount of hard\nwork they do, in the world's vineyard. I have known good teachers who\nwould walk two or three miles into the country each morning, during the\ncoldest winter weather, to the district schoolhouse, carry in the wood and\nbuild the fires, and labor hard all day teaching the good little boys and\ngirls, and thrashing the bad ones, all for the munificent salary of twenty\ndollars a month, and board themselves.\nWhile we honor the noble school trustees, who without salary look after\nthe schools, yet we do believe that all teachers in the public schools thruout\nour country should be better paid. But we should not be discouraged with\nour lot in this world, for all things will be better by and by. To be\nsure, everyone at some time in this life feels that every fond ideal that\ngleams like a star on life's wave is wrecked on the shores of the real,\nand sleeps like a dream in a grave.\nAnd we often realize that —\n\" In the spring the small boy's fancy\nLightly turns to ponds and brooks,\nWith about a quart of angleworms\nAnd a nickel's worth of hooks ;\nAlso a ton of patience,\nAnd of faith an ample store,\nTo withdraw the wary bullhead\nFrom his covert to the shore.\nAnd that fancy never leaves us,\nAs we stand beside life's sea.\nWith painted bobs seducing\nGreat results that ne'er can be ;\nTo discover, late at sundown.\nWe have not attained our wish,\nBut have traded off two pounds of worms\nTo get one pound of fish.\"\n\nHowever, the true, brave-hearted man or woman goes forward, regardless of the smarting cuffs administered by Dame Fortune in her peevish\nmoments, to meet the demands of the age, the true exponent of\ncommon sense, wisdom, pluck, and real grit; devoting their time and\ntalents to the actual needs and necessities of their country and its people.\n, It is upon the education of the masses that this country must depend\nfor its still greater progress in the future. Not that education whose aim\nis especially to make experts ; not simply to make a man a great navigator, to be able to plow the waters of unknown seas in search of unknown\nworlds, and nothing more; or simply to enable him to become a great\nclassical scholar, to have at his tongue's end the writings of those wonderful geniuses who are enshrined in history and have been adorned by the\npoets with their rhythmic flowers ; not to become an expert and exact in\nchemistry or higher mathematics ; or to become a great geologist, to delve\ninto the recesses of the e:a,vt}i;ai'd read its history ifi Hs* layers of rock,\nclay, granite, and mineral\"; .<5f to become a gi6at ge'o'grapher, and able to\n\n"}
{"page": 63, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sewions]\n\nADDRESSES\n\nOF\n\nWELCOME\n\n53\n\ngive the dimensions of mountains, plains, or valleys, and the extent of\nrivers, lakes, and seas ; or to become an expert philosopher, who can with\nease read and interpret the phenomena of nature, and place her marvelous wonders before the minds of men, and cause her to contribute of her\nstores to the comfort and happiness of mankind ; or to become a great\nexpert astronomer, whose comprehensive mind is able to scan the universe,\nwhose heaven-aspiring spirit is able to soar beyond the boundaries of\ntime and discover new worlds revolving in the realms of space, to watch\nthem in their journeys, to view them in their grandeur, to tell the story\nof their past history, and to prophesy of their future. It should not be\nthe object of education to tax to the utmost the tender minds of the\nyoung by drilling into them Greek and Latin, compelling them to wrestle\nwith Xenophon's Anabasis and Caesar's Commentaries, before they can read\nMcGuffey's old English second reader ; or require them to master Horace\nand Livy, Virgil and Homer, before they can understand the pure English\nof Hume or Macaulay, Shakespeare or Milton, or before they are able to\nread intelligently the federal constitution and the Declaration of Independence. Nor is it the aim of education, as Professor Huxley would\nteach, to make a clear, cold, lo^ engine of a man or woman ; for that\nalways wrecks manhood and womanhood ; or, as Matthew Arnold would\nteach, to make a man a Greek of the age of Sophocles, to bring in by\nliterary culture that old age of \"sweetness and light\" and of \"sweet\nreasonableness.\"\nNo, it is not the aim of education to make of man or woman a\nshriveled, selfish, dyspeptic, sniveling, hunchbacked, intellectual genius ;\nbut its real object is to develop human power, to make complete, thoroly\nfinished men and women ; to make the intellect the best inspirer of\nthe heart and the servant of the will in all noble work ; in short, to\n\nmake good, first-class men and women, who are able tg hold their own in\nin its\nthe great battle of life. For a nation's wealth consists, not alone virtue\nbroad domain and its natural resources, but in the intelligence and\nof its citizens. Its nobles are not the men of royal birth, but the men of\n'\nsober thoughts and righteous deeds.\nbe\nmust\n• In the public schools of this country the men and women\neducated who, under God, are to guide the old ship of state to a still\nmore glorious destiny thru the beckoning seas of the future. That\nfuture demands that these schools shall be liberally supported, so that all\ncitizens shall be sufficiently instructed to fit them for the manifold duties\nof good citizenship.\nit\nThe public school is, indeed, a priceless boon to every poor man, for\npolitical\nand\nsocial\nour\nin\nelevation\nfor\nchance\nwill give his children a\nthat it is\nsystems. And the American farmer and laborer should realize\nmay\nones\nlittle\nhis\nwhich\nacross\nbridge\nthe very ark of his safety, the\nindeed,\nis,\nIt\nlife.\nin\ns\nusefulnes\nof\nplanes\nreach place and power and higher\n\n"}
{"page": 64, "printed_page": null, "text": "54\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nthe Aladdin's cave wherein they can find the bright jewels of education\nthat will fit them to be sovereigns and rulers in the grandest of republics.\nParsimony to the public schools means death to all the grand hopes\nof free labor ; death to all the wonderful possibilities in store for the\nchildren of those who toil. Liberty is not the child of ignorance, superstition, and barbarism, but the child of intelligence and of education.\nThe love of liberty is a passion that has been wont to spring in the hearts\nof men since time began ; so soon as their minds began to expand under\neducation, however crude, in their breasts the fires of liberty began to\nburn. In all centuries and in all lands that passion has lived and defied\nrocks and chains and dungeons to crush it. It has strewn the earth\nwith its monuments, and shed undying luster on a thousand fields\nwherein it has battled thru the night of ages.\nAnd there seems to be something in the scenes of nature in this new\nrepublic, something in its beautiful landscapes, in its cascades and cataracts, in its luxurious vineyards, and orchards full of bud and blossom, in\nits waving fields, and in the dim vistas of its mighty woodlands ; in the\nbeauty of bud, of bird, of tree and flower, and in the pure and exhiliarating air of its hills and mountains, that kispires its children with an ardent\nlove for liberty and knowledge. As in the olden days, when the imperial\neagle looked down upon a consolidated empire, from the Orient to the\nOccident all roads led to Rome, so now in the passing centuries, in this\nnew world of vaster extent and more varied interests, all roads lead to\nthis republic ; whatever there is elsewhere of thrift, of energy, of education, of culture, and of progress — this republic gathers tribute of the\nharvest. Here is the reservoir of the world's wealth, and of the world's\nenergies. Here are collecting the ■ great intellectual forces of the\nnations. Why is it that Egypt, with her pyramids and temples, stony\nrecords of the dawn of history ; Greece, with her wondrous works of\nart, her power and renown, with her temples and statues crowning the\nAcropolis, and the golden splendor of her Athens ; and Rome, with her\ngrandeur and might as an empire, when contrasted with this republic, in\nthis evening of the nineteenth century, dwindle into mere fragments of\nhistory ? The answer is to be found in the ever-increasing intelligence of\nthe people, behind whom stand the public schools.\nWith continued efforts to increase the opportunities, and to stimulate a stronger desire in the minds of the people, for education, what\nmarvelous progress may we not expect of the generations of the future?\n\" Oh, royal mind, nor cease thy flight,\nWhile sun and stars dispense their light,\nAnd roll in grand array ;\nAnd when those orbs shall cease to shine,\nWhen suns decay and stars decline,\nLet onward progress still be thine,\nAnd upward hold thy way.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 65, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nADDRESSES\n\nOF\n\nWELCOME\n\n55\n\nAll honor to the noble men and women who toil in these public\nschools. Let a grateful nation show a due appreciation of their work by\ncherishing those institutions still more in the future than in the past.\nAnd let us love our country and all its institutions more and more as the\nyears are lost in the eons of time.\nAnd let us rejoice today that sectional lines have entirely disappeared,\nand that we are a reunited people in fact as well as in name. For our\nsoldier boys — God bless them !— the sons of men who marched in ragged\nblue and tattered gray along war's crimson highways, are now fighting\nside by side in foreign lands for the same country and the same starry\nflag.\nSome of those boys left their northern homes to go to the front singing:\n\" The star-spangled banner, oh, long may it wave\nO'er the land of the free and the home of the brave ! \"\n\nAnd some went away from their happy homes in the sunny South with\nthe sweet melody upon their lips :\n\" Away down south in Dixie,\nIn Dixie's land we'll take our stand.\nTo live and die in Dixie.\"\n\nBut when the war is over, and the God of our nation has brought the\neagle of victory to nestle with the sweet dove of peace upon the banner\nof the stars and stripes, our brave boys will return to the land they love,\nand a grateful nation will join them in a mighty anthem that shall fill\nthe world with melody, until the forest isles will echo the strain, and\nmountains and valleys reverberate the glorious song ; until it will be heard\nby the liberty-loving people in the islands of the seas, and will startle\ntyrants on foreign thrones, as we shout our jubilee :\n\"The union of lakes, the union of lands,\n.\nThe union of states none can sever,\nThe union of hearts, the union of hands.\nAnd the flag of the union forever.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 66, "printed_page": null, "text": "56\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nADDRESSES\n\nBY J. M. GREENWOOD,\n\nPRESIDENT'S\n\nADDRESS\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF SCHOOLS,\n\nKANSAS\n\nCITY, MO,\n\nThe present educational tendencies in the United States, so far as an\nactive sentiment has formulated them, are fitly expressed by the word\n\"tempest-tossed.\" They may also be likened to a series of half-finished\nanatomical sketches, rather than to a gallery of well-arranged and acceptable portraits. All educational movements are felt more as a pervading\nand permieating force than as a formula of definite convictions, logically\nwrought out and broadened and deepened by an enlightened process of\nintelligetit discrimination. Out of this ferment good will come, as the\nsettling-down and purifying process is carried forward scientifically. No\nAmerican educator has been bold enough yet to clamp copyright on all\nthese collisions. While we may not be very far from the vanishing point\nof positive knowledge in some directions, yet, by a method that is very\nsimple and very hard, we are certainly striving for knowledge that is very\nhigh and very low. Movements and countermovements mark the general upward tendency on the dial plate of progress. Have we not done\nwonderful things with coal, iron, the vapor of water — with chemistry to\npaint pictures, and electricity to talk for us ? Is not the human mind, in\nall its aspirations, the fabled octopus ? Is it not, also, at times, verging\nnear the unhinged intellect of England's aged king — loosened from all\nlaw, delivered from all fear, and asking strange and unbidden questions\nof Deity himself ?\nProverbial as is our genius for invention and adaptation, it is\nnot a matter of surprise, but rather of congratulation, that the thinkers\nof America should attack simultaneously the same educational problems\nfrom different viewpoints. A thousand minds begin at once to examine\nany new issue as it is raised, oftentimes without taking pains to ascertain\nwhether it be a recent discovery, or an old device under a new garb. It\nis an inspiring spectacle to see a young and vigorous nation, moving\nwithin the domain between ignorance and vast knowledge, impelled by a\nconviction that somehow the destiny of humanity is borne forward on its\nshoulders. Such a nation, then, as ours is now becomes the channel\nthru which a lofty influence is transmitted to other nations.\nYet, after a careful analysis of the trend of the best educational\nthought in this country, it must be admitted that we have settled only a\n\n"}
{"page": 67, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nPRESIDENT'S\n\nADDRESS\n\n57\n\nvery few issues of any permanent value ; but that we are adjusting the\nchild to his new conditions, and yet holding in trust his spiritual possessions bequeathed from former civilizations. We are beginning to discern\nwhat those possessions are, and how they are adapted to the entire\n' circle of human knowledge. Like the swans on St. Mary's lake, \" each\ntheory floats double,\" each birth is twin. But, on matters educational, the\nAmerican mind too often partakes of the nature of skates — hard to\nsteer. Better thus than where members sit in rows and knowledge flows\nin uninterrupted streams from worn-out sources.\nA nation, like an individual, may manifest great energy in many\ndirections, or only in a limited sphere, as did the prophets of old. The\ngeneral trend of educational thought in the United States has been, with\nrare exceptions, more in the line of practical affairs and the general leveling up of the masses than taking into account a very high grade of\nscholarship of those who would be the recognized leaders in the most\nadvanced departments of intellectual research.\nThe general diffusion of knowledge among all classes has been the\nmeans of giving a broader degree of intelligence and a sturdier form of\nindependence to the great mass of the American people than any other\ncourse that might have been chosen. As a nation of intelligent men and\nwomen, the Americans are probably the most versatile; but width does\nnot always imply depth. Few, comparatively, possess what may be technically called the scholarly instinct. While the nation has displayed\nremarkable energy in many practical fields of industrial and commercial\nactivity, it has put the educational machinery in motion and left it to run\nlargely by virtue of its own momentum. The argument is usually made\nthat we have been too much occupied in providing the necessaries and a\nfew of the luxuries of life to raise up any considerable number of\nscholars ; that our brightest minds have turned to other fields that promised fuller and more substantial returns. Such, for instance, as in statesmanship ;power to project gigantic enterprises, where immense sums of\nmoney are required ; to subjugate nature ; to bring distant countries\nnear together ; to make new discoveries in the applied sciences and\nindustrial arts ; to build uj) a S3^stem of complex institutions, requiring\nthe highest degree of governmental administrative functions ; to shape\ninto permanence a nation of marvelous resources in all the practical\ndetails of many-sided life. Disjointed as the words in a dream, yet,\nwhen we put the resources of this nation together, their greatness has\nhardly yet dawned upon us. Whether it be owing to the fact that we\nhave not that' leisure class which can devote its time to thoughtful investigation, or an indifference to such subjects, is a question that well deserves\nmore than a passing notice. Possibly in some remote manner this condition isdependent upon our form of government. However, the preservation of our own country depends upon that deep, abiding hope, fed\n\n"}
{"page": 68, "printed_page": null, "text": "58\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nby a perpetual desire for national immortality, which burns in every American heart.\nOn the other hand, there has grown up with our history a sort of\npractical belief that, unless an education can be converted at once into a\npecuniary value, it is hardly worth striving for. It has not been held,\nuntil very recently, that the highest order of scholarship was the goal to\nwhich the American youth should strive. Our colleges and universities\nat first did not propose to establish such severe tests as were required in\nthe old world for graduation. This had its influence on the public mind.\nThen came the era of elective studies — rather an easy way of letting one\nget a degree somewhat cheaply. Whether this departure is in the direction of sound scholarship will be fully determined by results. As the\ncase was tersely put a year or two ago, \" to do nothing, or to do nothing hard,\" is a question of some magnitude.\nWhen an American student goes to one of the great European universities, if qualified when he matriculates, he is as capable of doing the\nwork required as any of the young men of foreign birth. Admitting\nthis to be a correct statement as to the natural ability of our young men,\nthen the difficulty lies in what is required in our leading institutions of\nlearning. Whether our higher institutions of learning have not indirectly\ncontributed somewhat to\" this condition of affairs by opening wide the\ndoors for the admission of all kinds of students may well be questioned.\nThe tendency at present is to foster more profound investigation, and to\nsecure a higher grade of scholarship. This tendency is regarded as a\nfavorable omen everywhere.\nHow far a still more complex civilization can be ingrafted upon\nthe people of this country, and they continue to retain those elements\nthat have produced our civic and material greatness among the nations\nof the earth, is a subject that challenges the best thought of this country.\nWhether a civilization should be something imposed from the outside by\nexternal agencies, or the expression of energy inherent within the people\nthemselves — an outburst of their own nature into a substantial growth —\nmarks the broad lines which distinguish national vigor from decay.\nHistorians for centuries have busied themselves in marshaling facts\nto show what elements had crept into the lives of ancient and modern\nnations that produced decay and death. Nearly all records preserved of\nolden times are but a series of guesses at the same great law. Startling\ntheories are advanced in some quarters now, and boldly maintained, that\nwe are deteriorating with a rapidity never before known in the world's\nhistory. It would seem that one result is inevitable — to bury the nation\nand pronounce the funeral oration, according to the philosophy of these\npessimists. Such argue that competition is so keen, excitement is so\nintense, and individual life is so burnt down to aches, pains, and disappointments, that nothing is left us but to die decently.\nFrom the strained\n\n"}
{"page": 69, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nPRESIDENTS\n\nADDRESS\n\n59\n\nand broken intellectual and physical relations it is argued that the nation\nis on the verge of collapse, and national death is written in large letters\nover the faces of our people. While the external conditions of our people\nmay be changed in many different directions, the social life remains\npractically unimpaired. But when the social conditions are changed or\ngreatly modified, a complete transformation becomes possible, and serious\nconsequences may ensue.\nIf it be true that the changes which have occurred have uprooted the\nold vitality which they displaced in the social life of our people, then it\nwill have, if it has not already had, a deleterious effect on the nation at\nlarge. Whether a change has been beneficial or hurtful, or will be beneficial or hurtful, the simple test is whether it had its origin in the minds\nof the people themselves, or was it imposed by an outside agency ? The\nmost highly developed systems of civilization are the highly artificial ones\n— the farthest removed from the natural man. No nation living close to\nnature has ever borne the burden of a complicated civilization and prospered. As a distinguished writer well said : \" We may make a dead\nhouse and call it civilization.\" This subject apparently resolves itself\ninto one chiefiy of brain activity and mental comprehension. To state\nthis principle under another form : how much more education can a\nnation receive than its immediate ancestors ? or, passing to the individual, how much more education can he acquire than his father had, or\nwas capable of receiving ? This answer will be modified by particular\ncircumstances ; but when it is applied to the mass, the answers would be\ntolerably uniform. Very careful researches tend to establish that from a\ntenth to a quarter more ideas may be put into each generation without\nany appreciable deterioration of mind or body. Granting this to be\ntrue, then any attempt to force a large number of ideas into the brains of\none generation in excess of that of the previous generation will produce\nweakness instead of strength, and especially when nearly all the new ideas\nare of a quantitative nature. What effect our new inventions and improvements may produce upon the thoughts and habits of the American people\nI will not attempt to predict. It is the effect upon the average mind\nthat I am concerned with just now, and the vast majority in this country\nare average men and women.\nWhether a nation can be developed in its brain power beyond a certain degree without great danger is a physiological question which is\nnow engaging the attention of specialists everywhere. They will answer\nthe inquiry in due time.\nReal education, no doubt, can lead the mind out to a natural growth,\nbut what kind of leading this should be in order to preserve the people\nfrom weakness is getting to be a very serious matter, which requires the\nmost consummate skill to handle wisely. Is there an education which\ncauses deterioration of brain power ? Can it be judged of by its effects\n\n"}
{"page": 70, "printed_page": null, "text": "6o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nupon those races which are regarded as being lower in the scale of living\nthan are the nations of Europe and their descendants in America?\nWhatever \"accomplishments have been imposed upon them by a superior race -have not materially improved their condition. The contact of\nEuropean civilization with lower races has proved, in most cases, a detriment. This fact is significant. If lower natures copy the faults of the\nhigher ones, and not their virtues, then they have been leveled upward in\nthe wrong direction. If deterioration is produced by putting too great a\nstrain on the mental powers of the lower races, by a like parity of reasoning, the brain power of the highest and most civilized races will deteriorate when unduly stimulated beyond the point of effective resistance.\nInstead of judging other nations by our own standard of civilization,\nand attempting to have them conform to our ideals, it would be a safer\nmethod for us to study more carefully the present civilizations of other\nnations, and, if they are declining, to ascertain the causes thereof, and\nthen to fortify our weakest lines accordingly. Our civilization is one\namong many others, and while it may be strong in many directions, and\nthe best one adapted to our needs, it would require modifications before\nfitting it to others, influenced by different circumstances. Evidently the\nsuccess of any civilization depends far less upon any preconceived theories\nthan upon the condition and receptivity of the people themselves.\nAnother element of weakness in our educational system, as it is\nadministered, is that of instability ; and, by virtue of the presence of this\nfact, it is one of the most serious drawbacks to uniform progress, and it\nresults from a lack of standing on a firm basis of authority which introduces a certain degree of incoherence into its actions, and prevents the\nestablishment of that kind of an organization which works with regularity,\nprecision, flexibility, and caution. Under such restraints, clearness and\nprecision of will and intelligent guidance of all educational efforts are\nenfeebled, leading to indecision as to aims and purposes, and hindering\nthat exercise of carefully planned work, and prohibiting and greatly\nrestricting that degree of forethought, which are necessary to eminent success in all great undertakings.\nIn theory the school represents the whole body of citizens, but this\nimpartiality is, in part, illusory, owing to the very nature of our mode of\nadministering affairs. While the schools are maintained and administered ostensibly in the interest of the whole, they are largely in the hands\nof a majority, oftentimes weak, precarious, and variable, and existing conditions are always threatened by a rival and tinged by a constant dread\nof losing what has already been accomplished. Here enter rival claims\nand conflicting interests, and whichever set succeeds, no difference how\nhigh-minded and how far they stand above any purely personal or pecuniary interest, they can hardly escape making some sacrifices to the party\nwhich elevated them into power.\n\nEveryone knows how fatal such pre-\n\n"}
{"page": 71, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nPRESIDENT'S\n\nADDRESS\n\n61\n\ncarious possession is in any undertaking which requires the very highest\nqualities of human insight, when it has to deal with an administrative\norganization designed to affect helpfully large masses of people. When\nall the interests of society, on^ the one side, are balanced against the property interests of a division of this same class, on the other, and the interests\nof all the children are set over against the former class, while the property\ninterests also are guarded^ it is evident that immediate and present interests\nwill invariably overbalance those higher and more important interests\nwhich lie somewhat distant in the future. When present interests run\ncounter to future interests, tho the future may be far more desirable as\nwell as more beneficial, except in those rare cases in which educational\nbodies hold practically a life tenure, as the officers of endowed colleges\nand universities, a temporary expedient is invariably chosen as the one\nto bridge over the present emergency.\nThere is one compensating principle, always active, that needs to be\nconsidered in all public work bearing on this point, and that is the sentiment of honor with which many school officers and teachers are inspired.\nThey are aware of the presence of the opposite party, severely critical and\noftentimes merciless, and this puts those inside on their best mettle in\norder to deserve and to hold public confidence and respect. As powerful\na stimulant as this motive is, and while it ought to be operating all the\ntime, yet it is not conducive to the development of those scholarly traits\nwhich foster sound learning for its own sake.\nFrom the foregoing reflections it is inferred that, until the public\nschools are freed largely from this impediment, clashing of interests will\nprevail to such an extent as to preclude the highest and completest form\nof educational work in this country.\nCIVIC\n\nINFORMATION\n\nOught there to be a time for practical, political instruction in the\nschools of this country, at which time the boys and girls should be\ntaught certain duties in regard to civic life? At the close of the rebellion the constitutional side of this question came into prominence, and it\nstill holds its interest.\nFlippantly we speak of rights', duties, and privileges, without stopping\nto analyze closely what these terms mean when applied to an individual\nin a private or public capacity. Each child in America is born into a\nlegally constituted government. He comes more or less in contact with\nthe institutipns popularly called government. As soon as he is able to\nrun about, he meets restraints, and he learns of uses and limitations. At\nthe postoffice he gets a glimpse of the national government thru the\npostmaster, the letter carriers ; and his knowledge is widened, too, by\nseeing stamps, letters, postal cards, papers, etc. Thru policemen, constables, justices of the peace, judges, 'and other officers, a confused\n\n"}
{"page": 72, "printed_page": null, "text": "62\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nnotion of the power and the authority of the state — how laws are enforced,\n'and how lawbreakers are punished — a vague concept of duty and its\nresponsibilities, is formed in the child's mind. Not far from this period,\nnotions of trespass, larceny, and other crimes, civil and criminal, emerge\ninto consciousness, and from choosing persons to assist him or to work\nagainst him in his plays and games a crude knowledge of the formation\nof political machinery is developed. All these things come to the child\nby degrees — steps from which he must infer a great deal. At election\ntimes he hears much said about this party or that one, this candidate or that\none, and this party vote and the other, and so on. But as he advances\nin years, he may not advance in wisdom in those smaller things which\ntouch life on many sides. He may learn from, the constitution of the\nUnited States, or from the constitution of his own state, in a general way,\nhow the Senate and House of Representatives are organized, but as to the\nactual working of either body he may remain in dense ignorance all his\nlife. Legislative bodies have their methods of working thru committees and otherwise, which the average citizen never understands, much\nless the child, unless he gets other knowledge than is usually written in\nbooks. To illustrate this more fully and forcibly : How widely different\nare our laws in regard to elections from the actual details in preparing\nall the machinery, conducting the campaign, selecting voting places,\npoll-books; appointing judges, clerks, challengers; numbering, distributing, scratching, folding, depositing, and counting ballots ! No\ndescription can convey this information adequately ; one must go thru it\nto know it, and familiarize himself with all the details.\nIn parliamentary and legislative matters working bodies should be\norganized in the upper grades, and a bill pushed thru its various stages\ntill it becomes a law. In short, let the children assimilate this kind of\nknowledge and convert it into the faculty of doing, remembering, as\nEmerson says : \"When the soul breathes thru the intellect of man, it is\ngenius ; when it breathes thru his will, it is virtue ; when it flows thru his\naffections, it is love.\"\nART\n\nEDUCATION\n\nThere is a rapid awakening of the American people in all sections of\nour country on the subject of fine and industrial art education, and this\nis a hopeful sign of national progress and of permanent prosperity. Its\nfull development will make the lives of our people richer and more\nenjoyable. We are at the beginning of what will expand into all that\nthe most ardent advocates of art education now regard as remote possibilities. As Dr. Deems said upon one occasion, when speaking of what\nPeter Cooper had done: \"It will live in history, it will live in development, and it will live in transmission ; \" and, more than this, it will live in\nthe hearts and homes of our people.\n\n"}
{"page": 73, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions I\n\nEDWARD\n\nAUSTIN\n\nSHELDON\n\n63\n\nIt is not too much to hope that industrial and art education will\nbecome potent factors in settling equitably the somewhat disturbed social\nand economic conditions of this country. No thoughtful citizen forgets,\nfor a moment, the ominous so.unds that every now and then come rumbling to the surface indicative of the spirit of un-est. Certainly it is the\npart of broad and comprehensive statesmanship to take notice of such*\ndanger signals. Instead of exerting our highest forms of mental energy\nin attempting to connect the active present and the unknown future with\na worn-out past, it behooves us to solve the problems of the present with*\nreference to their bearing on the future. The life of a century or two\nago, except to mark progress, has no great hold on the issues of the\npresent, and the farther back, the less vital is the connection. This century has been richer and fuller and higher and grander than all the\ncenturies from the fall of Adam to the death of Washington. All the\ngreat agencies of modern civilization are of recent origin. To face resolutely the future and its possibilities, and stand unfaltering by our country\nand sustain her honor, stability, and prosperity, is the duty of every\neducator.\n\nLIFE\n\nAND\n\nBY CHARLES\n\nCHARACTER\nR. SKINNER,\n\nSTATE\n\nOF EDWARD\n\nAUSTIN\n\nSHELDON\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\nNEW YORK\n\nOF PUBLIC\n\nINSTRUCTION,\n\nWhen a fellow-laborer in the educational field lays down his burden, it\nseems fitting that those who live after him, and who have been inspired by\nhis character, should pay a tribute to his memory. My theme tonight is\nthe life and character of Edward Austin Sheldon. One year ago he met\nwith us at Milwaukee. Tonight the waves of lake Ontario sing a\nrequiem to his memory in his eternal sleep in the city in which he did\nhis greatest work.\nFor more than half a century he gave himself, body, soul, and spirit,\nto the work of education. Courageous, sincere, enthusiastic, patient,\npersevering, he overcame difficulties, removed obstacles, won victories,\nwhere others with judgment less cool, with zeal less intense, would have\nbeen disheartened and driven from the field. New York mourns him by\nthe highest right. It was New York state which gave him his great\nopportunity, but his aims and efforts were so universal, the grasp of his\nhope so broad, that no local limitations could bind him. We of New\nYork rejoice that these fifty years of service were given to education in\nour own state, and that we are the inheritors of the fruit of his labors.\nNo man can live a noble life for threescore years and ten, and work\nin educational\nfields for fifty years as Dr. Sheldon worked, without\n\n"}
{"page": 74, "printed_page": null, "text": "64\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nleaving his impress upon the world, and exerting a powerful influence\nupon his state and country. His life work was not revealed to him in a\nvision. His way was not pointed out to him by the finger of fortune;\nhis problem was hidden in the quarries, the solution of which must be\ndrilled by trial and disappointment, and blasted by unremitting effort.\nHe found the law uncongenial, business ventures unprofitable, and the\nministry a field too narrow for his ambitions. He found not his work in\nthese professions. Around him were multitudes of the poor, whose condition arrested his attention and touched his heart. To help them he\norganized a school, and on a salary of $300 per year began his first\nteaching. He had found his work, and he determined to know it.\nHorace Mann, Henry Barnard, and Edward Sheldon all attempted other\npursuits, amid constant disappointments, before becoming what nature\nintended them to be — educators. Education and its wonderful possibilities became the inspiration of their lives. Enthusiasm for and consecration to the purposes of learning gave them fame.\nLoving friends have told us the charming story of his useful life.\nThey have told us of his Puritan birth, of his home and its congenial\nsurroundings, of his early struggles, his college longings and experience\n— - how he came to Oswego to meet his first discouragement in business ;\nhow he became interested in the free-school movement which he was\ncompelled to abandon ; how he organized the schools of Syracuse and\ngave them an impetus they still feel ; how he was called back to Oswego\nby the free-school party ; how he laid his plans for advanced instruction\nin the principles and methods of teaching; how, in spite of fierce opposition and ridicule, he steadfastly interested state and country in objectteaching, and established it forever as a mighty force in education ; how,\nbelieving in patriotic citizenship, he offered his services to his country to\npreserve the union which he loved ; how his plans developed into a\nschool for the training of primary teachers ; how the legislature came to\nhis aid in 1862, thru the sympathy of the state superintendent; how,\nin 1867, the Oswego Normal School was accepted as a part of the great\nnormal school of the state; how for thirty years he worked \"like a Hercules,\" as Carlyle says, as its principal ; how he resisted tempting offers\nto honorable fields elsewhere, preferring to finish his work here ; how\nhe was called into other states to assist in organizing method schools\nupon his plan ; how men and women were attracted from every county\nand state and country to come within the charmed circle of his influence,\nand how they became instruments in extending that influence and in\norganizing similar schools in other states and countries ; how, inspired\nby his growing success, institutions were founded to uplift the colored\npeople of the South ; how echoes of his influence came from the republics of South America, the Sandwich islands, and from far-away Japan ;\nhow his methods received the indorsement of the National\nEducational\n\n"}
{"page": 75, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nEDWARD\n\nAUSTIN\n\nSHELDON\n\n65\n\nAssociation — a grand achievement, indeed; how he wrote the books\nwhich have helped others and extended his power for good ; how at the\ngreat Columbian exposition he was an honored figure in educational\ndeliberations, and received a medal of honor for his beloved institution\n\"for excellence of equipment, method, and wise usefulness;\" and how,\nfinally, discouragement gave place to hope, and defeat was crowned with\nglorious victory. Surely the \"end crowned the work,\" and patient, selfsacrificing service had its reward.\nDo we ask if such a life, with such a character woven into it, had an\ninfluence upon our educational theories and methods ? It was more than\ninfluence — it was inspiration. Always holding high ideals himself, he\ninspired others with lofty purpose and noble ambition. He transmitted\nto others hope, and faith, and resolution, and many men and women\ntoday confess that whatever of success they have attained in teaching\nchildren they owe to his inspiration and influence.\nDr. Sheldon was distinguished for his purity of character, for his zeal\nas an educator, and for his persistent, progressive spirit, even to the last\nday of his life. His good judgment, his simplicity, his earnestness, his\ndevotion to principle, were the bulwarks of his life. What he believed to\nbe right he fearlessly defended in the face of opposition which would\nhave crushed a man who had less faith. He was conspicuous thruout\nNew York state and thruout America, not alone for his scholarship, but\nfor his thoro grasp of sound educational principles and correct methods\nof teaching, for his power to penetrate an educational proposition and\nfix the value, for his ability to detect a fault or recognize a virtue in\neducational method. He did not claim to be a profound student of\ntechnical branches of learning, but his education was strong because it\nwas broad, generous, and humane. What he knew he knew thoroly, and\nhe made splendid use of his knowledge and his training.\nThe central thought which moves us now is that he was the first great\nadvocate in the country of the proposition that children should be taught\naccording to certain fixed natural laws which always have governed and\nalways will govern the development of children and determine their possibilities. Believing in the doctrines of Pestalozzi and Froebel, he was their\nmost distinguished representative in this country, and the first to point out\nthe necessity of observing in the training of children certain unchangeable laws of nature which could not be violated without spoiling life.\nMythology made nature an enemy and pictured it in hideous forms. It\nwas reserved for modern philosophers and Dr. Sheldon was one of these\n— to regard nature as a friend and not an enemy — something that should\nbe studied and loved. He believed that every child represented nature as\nmuch as a tree or flower, and should be studied and taught by natural\nmethods. He believed that education is a growth, a natural development— not adding to, but bringing out by proper method; that children\n\n"}
{"page": 76, "printed_page": null, "text": "66\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nare not all to be measured by one standard or governed by one law, or\ntheir character and usefulness in life determined by the arbitrary rules\nof per-centum calculations and estimates.\nHe said of his work many years ago : \" In this plan of studies the\nobject is not so much to impart information as to educate the senses and\nawaken a spirit of inquiry. To this end the pupils must be encouraged\nto do most of their talking and acting.\" In 1873 he said, in an address\nto the students at the Genesee Normal School : \" I may judge your\nwork by a standard which you do not recognize. I cannot determine\nthe education of a child by its ability to answer questions in a given way.\nThese answers may be learned from books. Rather let me ask a question to which they have not learned an answer from the text-book, and\nlet them give an answer in their own language, from their own thought.\"\nWas this the new education ? Whether new or old, it worked a revolution in educational methods — in the proper treatment of the children.\nWhen the world became convinced that object-teaching was related to\nthe happiness of its children, when it was certain that it could not be\nlaughed down nor stamped out, this school and Dr. Sheldon's efforts\nbecarne centers of observation. They were the Mecca to all teachers\nwho had been led to believe there was a simpler, better way to' teach\nchildren. His work led educators to give attention ; and, when they\nbegan to think, conviction came. It was not a momentary flash, a\npassing thought or fancy, but a settled conviction. He was always in\nearnest, and, because he was in earnest, he convinced the thoughtful and\nwon victories. He bravely defended the convictions of his own conscience on intellectual battlefields, which he never left except as conqueror.\nThru his work and his influence in first attracting attention to this new\nprinciple in the education of children he helped to lay broad and deep\nthe foundations of a system which will never again be questioned 01\nattacked, but which today recognizes the power and scope and the possi\nbilities of the kindergarten as a living, vital force in education, and\nplaces it within reach of millions of our children. It is no longer an\nexperiment, but a settled fact, and we now know what it means to lead\nchildren early to think and do for themselves.\nBeyond this, the influence which he exerted thru all these years has\nled our educators into other avenues of thought, and the principles\nwhich he advocated have developed well-organized plans of investigation. As a result, whatever is practical or valuable in child-study and\nnature study, as we find them, comes thru his teaching.\nIf his influence was felt in the proper education of children from a\nchild's standpoint, so it has been exerted for more than a generation\nover those who taught the children. In all his teachings he believed\nthat in the development of the true teacher there must be, not only broad\nscholarship and professional training, but behind and beyond all this\n\n"}
{"page": 77, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nEDWARD\n\nAUSTIN\n\nSHELDON\n\nmust be the true spirit of the teacher. He taught his teachers to be independent and self-reliant — to work out questions for themselves, and not\ndepend upon text-books. In this way his teachers learned to teach independence and self-reliance to their pupils.\nWe claim today that we have in the common schools of New York\nstate a better knowledge of real educational methods, a better knowledge\nof correct educational principles, more teaching with heart and soul in\nit, and less form. If this claim is well founded, we owe much of the\nexcellence of our schools, the spirit of our teachers, improved methods\nof instruction, to the influence of Dr. Sheldon, exerted upon the men and\nwomen whom he taught in this school and whom he led to higher ideals.\nThe reproductive and perpetuating power of a great teacher makes\nhis influence felt for long generations. His methods, aims, spirit, Ii'fe,\ninspire thousands to like him. His physical power, his mental qualifications and training, his moral culture, his spiritual development, carried\nout into thought, word, deed, form, character, make life. These fashion\nthe teacher into what he is, and must be.\nA teacher's influence is what he is impressed upon the pupils, school\nofficers, parents, the community, the state. If the teacher is honest, sincere, true, upright, manly, noble, his influence partakes of his nature. If\nthe teacher is pure, loving, virtuous, pupils consciously or unconsciously\ncatch the teacher's spirit and become like him in motive and life. If the\nteacher is earnest, progressive, seeks always high and worthy aims, pupils\ngo out from his teaching to perpetuate his methods and to reproduce\nhis character and example in themselves.\nDr..Sheldon's influence will live and be powerful for years, when even\nhis name may be forgotten. Teachers whom he taught will have visions\nof what he never saw, and will teach other teachers to whose sight even\nbetter things will come — a progressive and stimulating vision whose\nbeauty and usefulness shall never end. Dr. Sheldon's quiet, peaceful,\nloving spirit, his patience, his courage, his consecration to his work as\nan educator, will live in the history of his pupils and in their devotion to\nduty. He was emphatically a teacher of those who taught teachers and\nmade others realize the value and dignity of a true teacher's life. Behind\nhis profession, behind his work, stood the man. His sterling manhood\nshone out in all he did thru his whole professional life.\nAs an author of educational works he breathed his sympathetic spirit\ninto his books, and the influence of his thought and personality went\nwherever his words were read ; and who can tell the power of a written\nword, conceived in the hope of helping others? Thru the printed page\nhe multiplied his influence over teachers and pupils, and perpetuated his\npower. His advanced thought, his clear statement, his mastery of the\nsubject, and his conscientious purpose made him as successful in touching\nthe lives of his readers as in personal contact with those he taught.\n\n"}
{"page": 78, "printed_page": null, "text": "68-\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nIn the educational associations of the state and country he was always\nwelcome, and took a deep interest, not only in promoting their objects, but\nin the discussions which they furnished. Even if his associates differed\nwith him, they admired his rugged sincerity, his earnestness of purpose,\nand the courteous bravery of his gentle speech. He was everybody's\nfriend ; he had no enemies in the educational field, and was never provoked in debate beyond the bounds of kindly firmness. The influence\nwhich he exerted in these associations was always in the direction of\nhigher standards. His last educational visit was at Milwaukee, where his\nface, like a loving benediction, smiled upon those who gathered in the\nNational Educational Association, a most familiar figure ; and my last look\nupon my friend was as he mingled happily with the vast concourse of\neducators which gathered there.\nWe speak of great centers of light and heat, and their influences upon\nwhat they touch — upon nature, upon man, and field and flower. Dr. Sheldon was one of these great centers. The light of his life penetrated the\natmosphere of many a life which touched his own, and this light will shine\non for years and ages, and be transmitted to bless generations which he\nwill never see. We who are left should rejoice that our friend did not\noutlive his work. He died with his armor on, and entered into the presence of the God he loved and worshiped with soul still stirred with affection for the institution which he builded and to which he had given so\nbountifully of mind and hand and heart. Surely he must have entered\nupon that higher life with blessed memories of work here which has given\nhim so much happiness.\nHis last days were occupied with plans and hopes for further usefulness to the institution with which he had long been identified. If a personal allusion may be pardoned here, let me say that these hopes formed\nthe subject of my last conference with Dr. Sheldon. He discussed plans\nfor raising the standards of admission and establishing a higher course of\nstudy with all the zeal of a man who still had faith in the future, and his\ngood heart was full of hope in anticipation of still grander achievements\nand greater usefulness in his profession. The fifty years which lay behind\nhim were an inspiration rather than a memory. His face was always\ntoward the rising sun.\nHis ideas will not perish. They have taken too deep root. It is for\nus, then, as we feel the influence of his life, his work, and his friendship,\nto carry on the labor for education and humanity which he left unfinished.\nWe who knew him well, and were with him in spirit and heart, must follow him in the path made easier and more luminous for his zeal and\nenthusiasm. That which Frederick Douglass said of the immortal Lincoln\nmay be repeated of our associate : \" He could receive counsel from a\nchild, and give counsel to a sage. The simple approached him with ease,\nand the learned approached him with deference.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 79, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nEDWARD\n\nAUSTIN\n\nSHULDON\n\n69\n\nHe loved his work and put into it all the strength of his calm mind,\ntender heart, and trained understanding. His enthusiasm for his profession was so infectious that no one whose privilege it was to counsel with\nhim could fail to be strengthened and helped. His greatest charm was\nhis simplicity. Modest in his estimate of his own abilities, he was upheld\nand sustained at all times by the sincerity and integrity of his own aims\nand principles.\nWith the lapse of time his fame as an educator will grow greater, and\nhis name will stand among the masters of learning who have given the\nbest service of their lives to the uplifting of humanity thru education.\nThere are two classes of educators — the worker and the inspirer. Dr.\nSheldon was both.\nIt was a touching tribute to his memory published on the day of his death:\n\"The life he lived is nobler than anything that could be said of him.\nIf we would correctly measure the man, we must measure the things he\nloved. He loved his home, he loved the children, he loved his country,\nhe loved nature, and he loved his God.\n\"His love for these things — home, humanity, God — explains our\nlove for him. He was kind and gentle and pure. His life was rounded\nand benign. In his teachings he kept step with civilization, progress,\neducation, and virtue.\"\nHe builded his own monument while he lived, and his truest epitaph\nis written on the hearts of those who knew him best, as husband, father,\npreceptor, and friend ; who were aided and inspired by his daily example\nand his beautiful life.\nThe brave, patient, high-hearted man no longer walks with us in the\npathways of learning. He can now give to the fulfillment of his own\nwork only the hallowed inspiration of his memory. His associates who\nwitnessed his struggles will cherish the memory of his devoted life, and\nthe younger generations of teachers who have been inspired by his\nexample will long sound his praise. Proud as we are of his fame in his\nown city and state, we rejoice that the great work of his life was in no\nsense local or limited ; that it was as large as liberty and as broad as\nhumanity. His name and fame, therefore, are not the treasures of New\nYork state only, but the possession of the nation. The historian tells us\nthat, when William of Orange died by the assassin's hand/ the little children cried in the street. The children of New York, whose school days\nhave been brightened and made happier by the work of Dr. Sheldon, are\nnot crying, perhaps, but they are putting their pennies together to build\na monument to him who was pre-eminently the friend and helper of\nchildren. When we meet next year, I hope to be able to report that the\nfirst public monument ever erected to the memory of an educator in the\nEmpire State has become an accomplished fact, and bears the honored\nname of Edward Austin Sheldon.\n\n"}
{"page": 80, "printed_page": null, "text": "70\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nWe who knew him will cherish the memory of the great soul that\ndwelt in a form so gracious; the sustaining strength of personal friendship ;the achievements for education with which his name must be ever\nblended; the consecration of a life in tender sympathy with mankind —\nall these are far too precious to be lost from our memories, or permitted\nto perish from our traditions.\nWe who are gathered together in the name and cause of education —\nconfessing the benediction and blessing of a life like his — may well\npledge ourselves to higher effort, that we may approximate more nearly\nthe moral courage, the spotless integrity, the all-embracing humanity, the\nunselfish devotion of personal powers to ethical ends, which were the\nliving glory and will be the lasting fame of that great educator, and\nfriend of little children, Edward Austin Sheldon.\n\nTHE\n\nESSENTIALS IN UNITED STATES HISTORY\nTAUGHT IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS\nBY\n\nWILBUR\n\nF.\n\nGORDY,\n\nSUPERVISING\n\nPRINCIPAL,\n\nHARTFORD,\n\nTO BE\n\nCONN.\n\nThe great aim of education is to reveal physical and human life to\nthe individual, to the end that he may understand his relations to them.\nAll-important questions for every individual to answer are these : What\nam I ? What is the meaning of the world of physical and human nature\nsurrounding me, how am I related to it all, and what are the possibilities\nof my life ? From early childhood to the end of life we seek the answer\nto these questions in order that we may learn how to live rationally. We\nare ever seeking more life, and we truly educate others when we impart\nlife.\nA pertinent question for this paper to answer is, How does history\naid the individual in understanding himself, his rights, and his social\nobligations to his fellow-men ? In other words, What practical value has\nhistory in elementary schools ? To answer these questions we need\nmerely call to mind the true nature of history. It is a study of the\nhuman will, of 'which actions and events are but the expression. Events\nare the material facts which constitute the real truth of history. These\nmaterial facts are nothing more than the language of the feelings,\nthoughts, inclinations, and motives of men, acting individually or\ncollectively. Were the men honest, noble, and true ? Had they worthy\nideals — high conceptions of life? What were their joys and sorrows,\ntheir successes and disappointments, their hopes and aspirations ? History concerns itself with men's ideals, and records the never-ending conflict of these ideals.\n\n"}
{"page": 81, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sewions]\n\nUNITED\n\nSTATES\n\nHISTORY\n\nIN ELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n7I\n\nIn these considerations we see the educational — the practical\nvalue\nof history to the individual life. We study the lives of men, as such lives\nare revealed in history, in order that we may learn how to live ourselves.\nTheir lives furnish us a \"vicarious experience,\" illuminating our pathway and serving as means of warning or inspiration. We study the past\nthat we may interpret the present and prepare for the future.\nThe function of both the writer and the teacher of history, therefore,\nis to explain the meaning of human life by means of the language of\nactions and events. Each event aids to get an impression of the underlying truth, the character of the impression depending upon the character\nof the event. It follows that much depends upon the selection of facts.\nThe historian, even when writing for adult readers, must select his facts\nwith the nicest discrimination. With far greater care must the teacher\nof history in the elementary school select typical facts which shall aid the\npupil to get correct impressions of the truth.\nThe guiding principle of the teacher, then, should be the nature of\nthe facts rather than their number. We have already seen that this\nprinciple must be adopted by the historian, even when writing for the\npurpose of developing thoro scholarship on the part of the mature student. But the development of thoro scholarship thru the acquisition of\na considerable body of facts should not be a dominant motive in elementary schools. In these grades only a short time is devoted to the\nstudy of history, and during this time many other studies are also pursued. Under such conditions a large knowledge of United States history\ncannot be acquired. Higher aims than mere scholarship should claim\nserious attention. If, for example, the pupil acquires an interest in history; if he learns to read it in such a way as to appreciate its meaning ;\nif, in a word, he so learns to interpret the meaning of events as to live.in\nimagination amid the scenes of the past and make its heroes his companions and teachers ; if such results follow his study of history, he has\nat his command the means of a continuous self-education of far more\nvalue than any number of mere facts indiscriminately memorized.\nFrom these considerations it follows that only typical facts should be\nselected for use in elementary schools, and should be treated with sufficient fullness to make their meaning easily grasped. Then history\nbecomes interesting because it is vital — because it enriches the life of\nthe pupil.\nBut the vitalizing power of history is not secured by the mere selection\nof typical events. The writer and the teacher of history should be just\nas careful in so grouping them that their causal relations may be readily\nseen. Yxoxn one point of view events are causes ; from another, effects.\nIf the logical connections are made prominent by intelligent grouping,\nimportant events can be given due prominence, unimportant ones can\nbe dropped out, and history as a growth can be easily understood.\n\n"}
{"page": 82, "printed_page": null, "text": "72\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nWith these principles to guide us, we may now consider a little more in\ndetail the essentials in United States history to be taught in elementary\nschools. Only a very little need be done with the early discoveries —\njust enough to indicate how America came to be discovered, how it\nreceived its name, and how it was proved to be a distinct continent.\nWhen, however, America had been discovered and named, the great\nstruggle on the part of the leading commercial nations of western Europe\nfor control in America began. The four nations most prominent in this\nstruggle were the Spanish, the English, the Dutch, and the French.\nPertinent questions to be answered in the study of this interesting struggle are such as these : What were the aims and ideals of the parties to\nthis struggle for control of the territory now belonging to the United\nStates ? Why, in the end, did the Spanish, the Dutch, and the French\nfail and the English succeed ? To answer these questions only a'small\nnumber of typical events are needed. If these are grouped about prominent leaders like De Soto, Raleigh, Hudson, and La Salle — all of them\nrepresenting the aims and ideals of the countries they served — the story\nwill be a thing of life appealing to life. If the principle of selecting\ntruly typical events be adhered to, the narrative may be made brief and\nsimple.\nBefore taking up the most important chapter in this struggle for control in what is now the United States, however — I mean the long series\nof intercolonial wars between the French and the English- — life in the English colonies m_ust be considered. It is a waste of time to study all of\nthese thirteen colonies in detail. A just allotment of time urges the use\nof typical facts in representative colonies for the three groups. Virginia\nand Maryland may represent the southern group, Massachusetts and\nConnecticut the New England group, and New York and Pennsylvania\nthe middle group. The all-important thing to keep in mind is that we\nwish the pupil to realize something as to what kind of people the colonists were, and what kind of lives — social, industrial, political, and religious— they lived. What were their manners and customs, their dress,\ntheir houses, their modes of travel and communication, their industries,\ntheir religious worship, their attitude toward education ? How did soil,\nclimate, and physical conditions influence their lives and occupations ?\nIn short, what kind of people were they, and what were their views of\nlife in their new homes in America ?\nThis special study of life in the colonies may be well made to cover\nthe time from their settlement to 1689. ^J the use of three groups of\nrepresentative colonies, the pupil can study the three parallel streams of\ncolonial history without being lost in the mental confusion that must\nresult from a strictly chronological treatnient of the thirteen colonies\nconsidered separately. Then, too, by comparison and contrast of\nthe life of the people in one group with that in the others, certain\n\n"}
{"page": 83, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nUNITED\n\nSTATES\n\nHISTORY\n\nIN ELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n73\n\ndefinite and peculiar cKaracteristics of the people in each group may be\ndistinctly traced.\nAt this point I would emphasize the value of the study of some carefully selected facts in the history of the pupil's own state. For many\nreasons, which space limitations forbid me to discuss here, I would\nearnestly recommend the teaching of local history in our elementary\nschools.\nHaving followed the history of the English colonies to 1689, we may\nwell pause to consider the significance of this date, which marked a turning-point inAmerican history. Up to this time there was little but a\nnarrow, provincial spirit in the colonies. In a large measure each had\nselfishly gone its own way, without much regard for the others. But after\n1689 three sets of historic forces — Indian wars, troubles with the\nFrench, and difficulties with the royal and the proprietary governors —\nby degrees brought the colonies into more sympathetic relations and\nprepared them for union. At this point, then, we may logically introduce the Indians and may wisely confine our attention to those east of\nthe Mississippi. A few well-chosen facts about these people and their\nmanner of life will prepare for the intelligent consideration of their\ninfluence upon the colonists, especially as the outcome of the fur trade\nand wars. The Pequot war and King Philip's war will suffice for illustrations of the nature of the Indian warrior, and of the general character\nof all their wars with the whites.\nJust before entering upon the study of the struggle between the French\nand the English for control in America, the logic of history calls for a\nconsideration of French explorations, especially in the St. Lawrence and\nthe Mississippi valleys. The vital relation to this struggle of the Iroquois\nIndians, whose friendship and fur trade were secured by the Dutch,\nand whose bitter enmity was, thru Champlain's unfortunate gunshot,\nsecured by the French, should be made conspicuous. These remarkable\nIndians played a very significant part in the conflict between the two\ngreat European rivals for empire in America.\nTo explain the real meaning of this struggle, only the last of the four\nintercolonial wars — the last French war — need be studied. Its causes,\na few of its significant military events, and its lasting results should claim\nattention. Why Braddock failed, and why Pitt and Wolfe led England\non to victory, suggest moral lessons of untold value to students of human\nlife. Pitt and Wolfe were great leaders, because they represented the\nhighest and best in the people they led ; they represented the noblest\nideals of all England. Since those ideals were higher than French ideals,\nFrance was forced to give way to England in America.\nIn the study of the royal and the proprietary governors, attention\nshould be mainly concentrated upon Berkeley in Virginia and Andros in\nThese men, earnest in their efforts to carry out the wishes\nNew England.\n\n"}
{"page": 84, "printed_page": null, "text": "74\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Genera\n\nof their royal masters and truly representing in America the Stuart\ntyranny in England, were important forces in preparing the English\ncolonies for united resistance to England in the Revolutionary War.\nIn studying this war we shall wisely do more with causes than with\nmilitary details. \"George III. and Personal Government,\" \"William\nPitt and Taxation without Representation in England,\" and \" George\nIII.'s Attitude toward the Americans \" are highly suggestive topics. So\nare \"Samuel Adams and no Taxation without Representation\" and\n\" Patrick Henry with His Stirring Words, ' Give Me Liberty or Give Me\nDeath.'\" In discussing the causes of this momentous revolution, we\nshould clearly bring out the truth that it was not so much a struggle\nbetween two peoples as between hostile principles in each of two\ncountries. No more important truth can be taught than this, that there\nare two sides to every question. Certainly, in teaching this war, we\nshould try to present the facts as they were, and not as they have been so\noften misrepresented. We shall wrong the young if we appeal to their\nprejudice rather than to their sense of justice. Only a part of England\nwas opposed to us in the American revolution.\nAs to battles, a small number, like Lexington and Concord, Bunker\nHill, Long Island, Trenton, and the principal events leading to the surrender of Burgoyne and of Cornwallis, will suffice to explain the real\ncharacter of the struggle. Washington's trials and difficulties and the\nsuffering soldiers at Valley Forge may well be made to teach lessons of\nthe highest moral value to the life of every boy or girl.\nAfter learning the results of the revolution, the pupil will be led to\nsee why the confederation broke down. He should carefully note the\nlack of power in Congress, which constituted the central government. A\nfew salient topics will serve to bring out this important fact and will prepare him to appreciate the need of the constitution, and also its fundamental principles. He might well give special attention to a few of the\nimportant differences between the articles of confederation and the\nconstitution.\nThus far we have been studying the question. How did the United\nStates come to be ? The revolution brought independence, but not\nunion. The constitution brought union, but not that strong, compact\nunion that exists in 1898. The young republic was weak — so weak\nthat it had not the respect of the great powers of Europe. For twentyfive years after the constitution went into effect, the United States was\nengaged in a struggle — mainly commercial and diplomatic — with England and France. No large number of facts need be taught that the\npupil may know what this struggle meant. Of course, it culminated in\nthe war of 181 2, which resulted in our political independence of Europe\nand prepared the way for the Monroe doctrine, containing an outline of\nthe foreign policy of the United States.\n\n"}
{"page": 85, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nUNITED\n\nSTATES\n\nHISTORY\n\nIN ELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n75\n\nBut while the struggle was going on with foreign powers, there was an\nequally significant one going on at home between two political parties,\nwith hostile theories as to the true meaning of the constitution. Shall\nthe federal government be supreme over the state ? Shall there be a\nliberal construction of the constitution, so as to grant large powers to\nCongress and to the president? Hamilton said, \" Yes ;\" Jefferson said,\n\" No.\" Each of these men was sincere, and each was truly representative\nof a large political party. When these great political leaders passed\naway, they left behind them these same hostile political ideals, each struggling to overcome the other. But other leaders came to the front and\nbore aloft the standard of their followers. These leaders were Daniel\nWebster, who took the place formerly occupied by Hamilton, and John\nC. Calhoun, who took the place formerly occupied by Jefferson. These\ngiants fought with mighty energy, using in the struggle the weapons\nthat had been forged by their predecessors. In time Webster and\nCalhoun passed away, and Abraham Lincoln and Jefferson Davis stood at\nthe head of their respective armies of followers. Under the new leaders\nargument and persuasion were dropped. Each side rushed to arms and\nengaged in a terrible civil war.\nOf course, after 1820 slavery bore a most important part in all this\nstruggle and should receive a due share of attention. How it came to\nhave a place here, its industrial value in promoting a more rapid development of the South, its civilizing effect upon the negroes, its moral aspect,\nand its influence in leading the South to engage almost wholly in producing the great staples of cotton, rice, sugar, and tobacco — all these\nphases of the slavery question, as helping to explain the causes of the\nCivil War and as aiding the pupil to appreciate the great race problem in\nthe South today, should be presented briefly and simply in American\ngrammar schools. Such questions are not difficult to understand. In\nconnection with the considerations of slavery, much should be made of\nthe influence of soil and climate upon the course of history. The rapid\ndevelopment of slavery in the South, under the impetus of cotton growth\nand the use of the cotton gin, is a most striking example of the intimate\nrelations between physical conditions and industrial, social, and political\ninstitutions.\n\nAnother noteworthy illustration of the intimate relation existing\nbetween man and the physical conditions surrounding him is to be found\nin our westward development. It has been well said that up to 1890\nAmerican history was largely the colonization of the West. Certainly the\nbitterness between the North and the South was about the question of\nextending slavery into territory lying west of the Mississippi. Now, in\nthe West, the prairie lands, so fertile and so easily brought under cultivation, invited the laborer to begin life anew, where he could get a good\nThe railroad encouraged westward emigration\nfarm for almost nothing.\n\n"}
{"page": 86, "printed_page": null, "text": "76\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nby making the transportation of emigrants and goods rapid, easy, and\ninexpensive. It is interesting to observe that nearly all of this westward\nemigration was from the North. Moreover, when these western people\nbegan to find a market for their corn, wheat, and other produce, they\ntraded with the North, because the North had what they needed. The\nNorth and the West found mutual profit in trade, and, having common\ninterests, they soon found themselves having common sympathies, common political aims and purposes. Very naturally, when the clash of arms\ncame in 1 86 1, the West united with the North to preserve the union.\nThe part played by the West in the Civil War and the reasons therefor\nare most vital to a right understanding of our national history. Connected with the development of this significant movement, prominence\nshould be given to western settlement, western life, the difficult problems of connecting the East and the West, the influence of the plains,\nof canals, rivers, alid railroads, and so on — all of which can be put so\nsimply as to be made very interesting to the pupil.\nThe importance of the Civil War is not likely to be overrated, but\nthe character of the fighting may be easily understood by the study of\ntypical military events, such as the battles of Bull Run, Shiloh, and Gettysburg, the naval duel between the \" Monitor\" and the \"Merrimac,\" and the\ncapture of Vicksburg. The influence of the emancipation proclamation,\nand the relations between the North and England and France, are of\nvastly greater significance than military details. The manhood of the\nnation, as evidenced by the heroism on the part of both the Blue and the\nGray, is worthy of special consideration, because it will prepare the youth\nof today for the sturdy, manly work always required of true Citizenship.\nBut for this purpose a few typical events, made interesting, are worth far\nmore than thousands of insignificant skirmishes, battles, and other military minutiae.\nOnly a brief space remains for the discussion of the years intervening\nbetween the close of the Civil War and the present time. The Civil War\nabolished slavery ; it declared the nation to be supreme over the state.\nBut new and difficult problems required solution in the days of reconstruction. The American boy should know some of these problems, for\nthey will aid him in understanding the meaning of the South of today —\nthe new South — a topic which should be presented with a due appreciation of its importance.\nThere is a new West also. What is that, and how has foreign immigration affected it ? And how do the arid region and irrigation affect it\nand the country at large ?\nBut there is more even than a new South and a new West. There is\na new union, very different from the union that was sectionalized by\nslavery. What is that new union, as brought about by the Civil War and\nas largely modified by important events since the war ? I admit that the\n\n"}
{"page": 87, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nUNITED\n\nSTA TES\n\nHISTOR\n\nY IN SECONDAR\n\nY SCHOOLS\n\n77\n\ndifficulties of getting at the truth here are very great. We are too near\nthe history of these years to get a right perspective of the events that\ncrowd them, 'But we are certain of the significance of some events,\nbecause of their intimate relation with present problems. Grant's peace\npolicy of dealing with the Indians may well be used in connection with\nsome study of the reservation system and the Indian problem of today.\nSomething should be done with such topics as the great exhibitions, as\nbringing out the wonderful advance we have made in art, invention,\nwealth, and education; something with the meaning of, and progress\nmade in, civil-service reform ; something with the labor strikes, as indicating the strife between labor and capital ; something with the ballotreform movement, in the interests of a better understanding of the relation between honest voting and good government; something with the\ntariff question, as one of the vital issues of the hour; something with\nsilver legislation, as an aid to an understanding of what money really is;\nand something, also, with the foreign relations of the United States,\nespecially in connection with the England-Venezuela controversy and\narbitration. For the coming voter, and the coming woman as well, will\nserve their country with greater intelligence if they get even a few\nmeager ideas of the relation of the United States to other nations.\nAmerican boys and girls should learn that the country of which they are\na part has, like themselves, moral responsibilities and duties, and that it\ncan never realize a high destiny in the world by a mere increase in population and advance in material prosperity.\nWith considerations like the foregoing before him, the pupil is\nbrought face to face with some of the vital problems of the hour, and of\nhis relation, as a citizen, to the right solution of these problems. And\nhere we reach the goal of all the study of his country's history. He has\nlearned what his country has done for him. Is he willing to make a\nsuitable return in loyal, obedient service ? Has the legacy left by Washington and Jefferson, Webster and Lincoln, enriched his life by giving\nhim nobler ideals of citizenship ? In a word, is the sum total of his life\nlarger because of the in-pouring of other and greater lives ? If so, he\nhas indeed realized in himself the true spirit of history.\n\nTHE\n\nBY\n\nESSENTIALS IN UNITED STATES HISTORY\nTAUGHT IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS\nPRESIDENT\n\nHOMER\n\nH.\n\nSTATE\nSEERLEV,\nFALLS, lA.\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nTO BE\n\nCEDAR\n\nThe statement of the topic assigned for discussion announces that the\nform and character of United States history, as a branch of study, are such\n\n"}
{"page": 88, "printed_page": null, "text": "78\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nthat it is necessary to select the more important parts for assignment to\nthe course of study for secondary schools. The quantity of matter pos\nsible to be used is so great and the quality so varied in value, as a necessary part of a liberal education, that it is very desirable to determine, if\npossible, the features that should be deemed as characteristically prominent in educational value. The determining of these so-called essentials\nhas been attempted by competent and authoritative scholars and educators time and again the past few years, only to be soon reopened for\nrediscussion and readjustment. This association has also attempted\nseveral times to solve some of these problems, and has published great\nreports as conclusions on these public educational questions, only to find\nits ideals and notions either rejected or disregarded by those in control\nof affairs — the educational world apparently going along the same as\nbefore the documents appeared. It is certainly discouraging to find these\nproclamations as to policies and plans unrecognized and unacceptable,\neven if not unknown and unappreciated. No doubt, these great reports\nhave had marked effect upon public education, yet it must be acknowledged that, considering the greatness as educators of the persons selected\nto do the assigned work, and considering the very excellent way in which\ntheir work was done, these reports have not had the expected effect upon\npresent-day courses of study, since those in authority d.o not see fit to\ndepart from custom and put into use the wise suggestions. These\ngeneralizations, when published, still need, of course, to be practically and\nprudently worked out — a most difficult task ; indeed, so difficult that it is\nnot to be wondered at that public sentiment still seems to be in sympathy\nwith a condemned public practice, and that the views of the philosophers\nof the present are, as those of yore, ahead of their time and unable to be\nput to use by the practical people among whom they live.\nThe fact that progress and reorganization, in so huge a movement as\npublic education in America, are necessarily very slow and tedious is often\noverlooked. That much can be effected in readjustment and in modification during one generation cannot be reasonably expected. Reform\nmovements in education which expect to accomplish great things in a\nfew years must always be disappointing, as such results are impossible in\na country where the people finally determine all things, and where even\neducators are recognized as being only a little wiser and more trustworthy, even on educational problems, than are school officers and common men. Now, the course of study in the schools of America is the\nvoice of the common people, and is not, in fact, the opinion of the\neducators. The sooner this truth is recognized and accepted, the better\nfor all concerned, as the problem of reform and improvement could then\nmore easily be solved in a practicable and possible way. United States\nhistory came into the public schools by common consent after the great\nnational controversies of 1850-65.\nThe people believed that the boys\n\n"}
{"page": 89, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nUNITED\n\nSTATES\n\nHISTOK Y IN SECOND AR Y SCHOOLS\n\n^9\n\nand girls of this great republic would be more in harmony as men and\nwomen on the true principles of freedom, and also the functions and\nmeaning of government, if they rightly knew the history of the founding,\nthe developing, and the protecting of these free institutions. It was\nbelieved that patriotism could be developed thru acquaintance with\nthe story of the sacrifices made by the forefathers, the triumphs accomplished bythe past heroes, as well as the sufferings entailed by strife and\ndiscord. The public demand became so strong that, in a few years,\nalmost all public schools gave some attention to the teaching of United\nStates history. It has been continued regularly since, tho greatly modified in form and object in many important particulars.\nThe first histories prepared for public schools, at the beginning of\nthis reform movement, forty years ago, were based on the idea that the\nchief function of such history teaching should be to show that it cost\nmuch in life and treasure to establish, preserve, and maintain republican\ninstitutions. These early authors of school histories were closely in\ntouch with the public spirit of the times, and their books had one\nsupreme object, the indoctrinating the pupil with such parts of the narrative of men and events as would make prominent the story of trials,\nsacrifices, and accomplishments. As a consequence, much attention was\ngiven to the early days of colonization, the perils of the primitive settlement far removed from civilization, the meaning of abandoning Europe\nand making a home in the wilderness, the struggle with the savage population under adverse conditions, and the wars and strife with the mother\ncountry, as well as the victories of the new ideas of liberty and individualism that were promiaent among a people far removed from the influences\nof a different civilization, and the old ideas of government and law.\nTherefore, the war idea, the struggle idea, the sacrifice idea, the patriotic\nidea, was paramount in these early histories, and the essentials became\ncentered around much that was story, nmch that was interesting, and\nmuch that was inspiring. The idea of making history scholars, critical\nstudents of policies and problems, was not the end and object sought.\nThese lessons were not made up of acquirement of facts and dates ; they\nwere not full of economic, civic, and social problems; the examination\nidea was entirely subordinated to the spirit idea, and the end to be sought\nwas accomplished, if the emotions were touched keenly, if the heart was\ntrained to beat sympathetically, if the inclination was prominent to feel\nthe claims of the country upon the life, if the enthusiasm was apparent to\nstand for home and government and native land. This system of\ninstruction may have been barren in scholarly fullness, it may have been\nunsatisfactory in scholastic tests, it may have been lacking in power of\ndiscipline ; but it had its prominent redeeming features that the present\nteacher of history, as well as the present writer of school text-books,\ncan well afford to consider thoughtfully, and to some extent employ.\n\n"}
{"page": 90, "printed_page": null, "text": "8o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nFollowing this early work, after the public dictation had subsided, the\nschoolmaster and the chronicler came upon the stage and began an inside\nrevolution. The scholastic notion assumed more control, and history was\nassumed to be an end in itself, not alone a means to an end, such as the\nfirst treatment had accorded it. The texts were revised to suit the new\nplan, and there began in the schools a learning of isolated facts and dates\nand events that was really a retrogression from the spirit of the beginners\nin history teaching. Classification, analysis, and outlining became emphasized, and the learning of these characteristics became a passion that is\nrarely excelled for blind submission. The essentials became then the\nnames of men, the exact dates of specific occurrences, such as admission\nof states, inauguration of presidents, battles fought, legislation passed, and\nimportant measures undertaken. The test of a good student was no more\nresponsive feeling, like patriotism, but ability to remember exactly the\nencyclopaedic facts and state them in exact order. The good teacher\nbecame, not the one that could inspire and encourage, that could arouse\ninterest and enthusiasm, that could develop patriotic conceptions; but\nthe one that could so arrange devices and outlines, and so secure discipline thru marks and personal exactions, that the pupils would become\nencyclopaedias ready to be consulted by anxious inquirers — prepared to\nsay who, where, when, how, what, without end.\nSince the time of John Sturm, at least, the teacher's province seems\nchiefly to have been, not to question the province of a branch in the\ncourse of study, not to try and find the function of education in civilization, but to invent some cunning and powerful methods and management\nwhereby the greatest amount of subject-matter could be taught in the\nleast time with the least labor. Of course, such a treatment of a living\nsubject could have no less an effect upon public opinion than, after a\ntime, to produce a reaction and finally compel a complete readjustment.\nIt is certainly acknowledged today by the mass of thoughtful people that\nsuch an object in history teaching is unworthy of public approbation, and\nthat a more reasonable and useful selection of the essentials is necessary,\nor else such study must fall far short of doing for the child what the American public sentiment actually regards as the supreme end.\nOut of this chaos of dissatisfaction has developed recently an attempt\nto retrieve the past twenty years and again return to first principles, seeking patriotic citizenship and living enthusiasm as the true end to reach in\nall history teaching. From this reaction has come, therefore, a great\nexpansion in the field of United States history work, until the narrative\nin the text-book is required to cover civic, economic, sociologic, philosophic, and educational studies. History work today attempts, not only\nto tell the story of civilization, but also to interpret the problems involved,\nto ascertain the ethical content concealed, to portray the philosophical\ntrend of thought in the body politic, and to point out the way to govern-\n\n"}
{"page": 91, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nUNITED\n\nSTA TES\n\nHISTOR\n\nY IN SECONDAR\n\nY SCHOOLS\n\n81\n\nmental safety, reform, and reconstruction. The aim is, therefore, not\nonly to have history study make good patriots in times of great national\ndanger and develop good citizens in times of peace, but also to make good\nmen, good thinkers, and good scholars out of the pupils who pass thru\nthe public-school curriculum. This makes the essentials so many in\nnumber that the old course of study cannot admit them ; this calls for\nsuch lines of differentiation and correlation that the time able to be\ngranted will not be absorbed in needless facts and unimportant details ;\nthis demands such discretion on the part of the teacher that special\npreparation to teach the subject is an absolute necessity. The old way of\nselecting any fair scholar to teach history will not now suffice. The very\nindefiniteness of the things to be taught calls for the most careful consideration, while the manifoldness of the object to be attained upon the\nlife of the pupils makes the task a great one. What the essentials ought\nto be in the present-day course of United States history for secondary\nschools depends, therefore, entirely upon the quality of the teachers that\ndo the work. If the teacher does not possess the real historical spirit, if\nhe does not have himself the proper civic emotion, if he does not himself\npossess the genuine patriotic disposition, if he does not acknowledge and\nfeel the sincere ethical object of human life, he cannot teach properly\nand successfully the detailed essentials so that the actual work planned\nis accomplished. There is no other branch in the course of study that\ncalls for as much originality of conception, that needs as much individuality of interest, that requires as much wisdom of insight as to means\nand methods, that exacts as much breadth of knowledge united with a\nkeen discrimination as to differences in values of thought and conclusions\nfrom the teacher, as does that of history.\nThe possibility of such a variety of courses in history is so great, the\nways of conducting the progress of the work can be so many, the things\nto be accomplished can be so different at the same stage, the choice of\nmaterials and method is so important at all stages, that the teacher, the\nguide thru this maze of civilization, should be able to rise to this\ngreatest of great privileges in educational work and become a master,\nindeed, of all the gifts of personality, insight, and judgment, so that the\nwork may become a real inspiration to the pupil and produce in character, in tone of life, and in supreme affection the inclinations and the tendencies that are a true response to the public demand for genuine educational results. There must be much variation in the essentials to be\ntaught, as there are essentials and essentials, as there are teachers and\nteachers, and classes and classes — there being, indeed, no one selection\nof essentials that can be able properly to supply the universal need of the\npupils to be educated. Since this is so, the necessary curriculum can\nonly be satisfactorily determined when the class status is known and the\nteacher determined, and, until the public recognizes the need of a history\n\n"}
{"page": 92, "printed_page": null, "text": "82\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nteacher being a specialist of specialists, the work of teaching history and\nthe results of teaching history in secondary schools will be very unsatisfactory. Outlines, plans, and methods, the mechanism of the school, cannot be a substitute for the thoughtful, critical, inspiring teacher; and the\nmistake of modern effort in many educational lines is the attempt to substitute organization and some form of supervision or direction for properly balanced and qualified instruction. Uniformity of matter, or of\nmethod, or of plan of development, or of scheme of instruction, may\ngive a beautiful and attractive system, but no one, nor even all of them,\ncan insure the necessary spirit, the real character, or the required efficiency. On the scholarship, the skill, the training, and the ability of the\nteacher alone must depend the final solution of the assigned problem.\n\nDISCUSSION\nU. G. Palmer, county examiner, Oakland, Md. (discussing Principal Gordy's\npaper). ^— The theoretical is often far from the practical ; and equally as often is it impossible to make the theoretical practical. And yet, if there were no .theoretical, if there\nwere no ideals far beyond, and perchance out of reach of the real, how commonplace\nwould the real become !\nMy desire is to enter into the discussion of this subject, as it practically affects the\ngreat mass of common -school teachers of our broad land — that class of teachers with\nwhom I have directly to deal, and who make up the rank and file of our great teaching\nfraternity.\nOn the objects of teaching United States history depend the essentials. If we wish to\nmaster the facts of history simply for the sake of the mastery, then, in my judgment, history becomes to the school curriculum what the skeleton is to the study of physiology —\na mass of dry bones.\nHistory is the study of the motives and inspirations of men, as manifested in their\ndeeds and actions.\nThere is a cause for every event of history. The events are the results. TheteacheV\nof history must trace back from the event to its cause, and the student should be directed\nproperly in doing this work. There were motives in the minds of men for these causes.\nBehind all, something prompted all things. If we can grasp the primary motives, how\nsimple it becomes to master the events ! They are the logical sequence. No other events\ncould follow such causes. The teacher of history must be versed in human philosophy.\nIt needs a mind of greater discernment successfully to teach elementary history than it\ndoes to instruct in Greek or mathematics. History is a science. It should be taught as\nsuch. But perhaps it is not necessary to prove this to pupils. Man is the unit in this\nscience, as hydrogen is the unit in chemistry.\nOut of the mind of man sprang all history.\nA century ago the institution of human slavery was prolific in our soil. The Puritan\nand the Quaker increased and multiplied. American history became a series of compromises between the exponents of an absolute right on the one hand, and the Old Testament advocates of the sunny South on the other. Right will always prevail. \" The sun\nin his course across the continent no longer rises on a master or sets on a slave.\" The\nmotto of the American mind today is, \"Onward and upward.\" We not only banish\noppression from our own shores, but we are practically answering the question, \"Am I\n\n"}
{"page": 93, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nDISCUSSION\n\nON\n\nUNITED\n\nSTATES\n\nHISTORY\n\n83\n\nmy brother's keeper ?\" to the end that every throne in Europe, before the close of another\ncentury, will have problems too difficult for its solution.\nThe history of human slavery for the century ending with the rebellion is the history\nof the South — its career and develcJpment. The agricultural and commercial development of the mighty West for the past decade is the history of the American people.\nEnvironment in both instances has played an important part, and is a factor in all\ncases on which history- making depends.\nThe nation — the composite citizen — has its infancy, youth, manhood, and old age,\nthe same as the individual. Our infancy is the period of exploration and discovery. The\ncolonial period is our childhood. These epochs are of importance to us in teaching the\nessentials of United States history only in the light of their bearing on our youth and\nmanhood ; and only such things are necessary to be taught. The teacher can rivet the\nattention and sharpen the appetite for history by setting forth in bold perspective the\nmarvelous things in the exploration, settlement, and expansion of our country ; and too\nmuch importance cannot be attached to the educational value of the creation of a thirst\nin the pupil for a comprehensive understanding of the philosophy of history. Scholarship and culture are the result.\nFrom a purely national standpoint our country was born in 1776. She came forth\nlike Minerva when she sprang from the brow of Jove — of mature years and development,\nfully equipped for her mission. All before was prenatal culture, altho extending thru\ninfancy and childhood. Then began our wonderful growth in expansion and development, only temporarily impeded by wars, panics, and internal dissensions. What a phenomenal development the student of history has to record — industrially, socially, and\ncommercially ! The history of this development is the history of our country. Man is the\nprime factor ; environment his assistant. We read of the administrations of the various\npresidents, the wars with Great Britain, Mexico, and the Barbary states, of the panics of\n1837 and 1873, of the purely national topics of politics and finance. But they are to the\ngreat stream of industrial, social, and political development what the rivers running thru\nthe land are to the mighty ocean — only the merest tributaries.\nAll hail the teacher who can, with cultured eye and generalizing mind, grasp the\nwhole field of history and, looking beyond the mere events of a day or a place, lead the\nstudent to comprehend the purpose for which our nation was born and why she lives, and\nteach the broad principles of history, the events of which are but natural results.\nGod speed the day when our common-school teachers of history may \" trace clearly\nthe relation of cause to effect, appeal constantly to the reason rather than to the memory,\nand from the first lead the pupil to see and to understand the philosophy of history.\"\nSomebody has said that the three eyes of history are geography, chronology, and biography. The eye is the surest avenue of knowledge. Hence the map should be the\nteacher's vade mecum in the history recitation. Geography and history go hand in hand.\nThe former exerts an untold influence on the latter; therefore it must be taught with it.\nAnd there are some dates which constitute the A B C of history. The student must know\nthem. What would we be today if there had been no 1492 and 1776? Inasmuch as\nmen make history, and the lives of men and history are identical, how fascinating and\nessential become the biographies of the leaders among men! History without great\nmen is impossible. History surely has three most effectual eyes in geography, chronology,\nand biography.\nOne of the paramount duties of the teacher under republican institutions is the\nteaching of patriotism — love of country. And what a land this is for that purpose!\nThe intelligent subject of no prince, king, or potentate on earth can breathe the pure air\nof this land of liberty for a twelvemonth without being imbued with its freedom-inspiring\nprinciples. The subject of a monarch who changes his citizenship to that of another\nNot so with the\nmonarchy never loses his love and sympathy for home and fatherland.\n\n"}
{"page": 94, "printed_page": null, "text": "84\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nman who comes to us and becomes an integral unit in our political system. For example :\nMy nearest neighbor was born and educated in Germany. He was drilled in the kaiser's\narmy. He is a veteran. He served in the Franco-Prussian war. He was at the siege\nof Metz. But he is an American citizen. When Germany congregated her seven warships\nat the Philippines, his prayer was that Commodore Dewey might send them all to the\nbottom of the Pacific.\nAnd with all the means and material we may use we must not lose sight of the pupils.\nThere is an inspiration for them, inciting them to the highest ideals, in letting them\nknow that they are the best the world ever produced. They are the product of 6,000\nyears of existence. In their veins courses the blood of kings and queens and bards and\nsages — the greatest the world ever saw. They are the lineage of Adam and Noah.\nTheir forefathers were the kith and kin of Caesar and Alexander. It behooves these\nboys and girls that they act as their noble heritage demands. They are the blossom\nand the fruit of the world's best endeavors. We must see that they know and appreciate\nthese facts and govern themselves accordingly.\nW. C. Lansdon, principal of high school, Fort Scott, Kan. (discussing President\nSeerley's paper). — In my judgment the essentials of American history in secondary\nschools may be discussed under about four heads : the spirit, the method, the subjectmatter, and the results. From the study of American history in secondary schools, in the\nspirit that has been advocated here before you, we gain a broader and more general\nview of the subject than at any time heretofore in scholastic experience. No secondary\nschool should undertake the study of American history without the assistance of a\nthoroly equipped library ; with the assistance of the library, the methods of the laboratory may be applied and the desired results obtained. In determining the subjectmatter there is a considerable problem before the teacher. If the details of history\nhave been well studied in the elementary school, the pupil is ready to investigate the\nprinciples that underlie the development of the political institutions of the republic.\nMy own custom is to take up the constitutional and political history of the republic,\ndeferring for the time being, except as incidents, the study of the wars that have\noccurred ; for, after all, the wars are but the results of disagreement upon political questions, and we can get a better conception of the meaning of the political principles over\nwhich men have quarreled by studying the principles than. by the study of wars. The\npolitical institutions of America are not ready-made for this continent, but have their\nroots away back in the history of the human race.\nA few days or weeks may be profitably employed in studying the origin and development of the system of local government, out of which has sprung the federal government which we enjoy today. After the preliminary study of fundamental principles of\ndemocratic government, the next essential subject to which the pupil in the secondary\nschool should be directed is the history of the formation of the union. The secondary\nschool should trace thru all its stages the development of the principle of federation,\nwhich resulted in the adoption of the constitution in 1787. The New England federation the\n;\nplan proposed by Franklin during the French and Indian wars ; the Stamp Act ;\nthe first and second continental congresses ; the articles of confederation, which succeeded the close of the Revolutionary War and preceded the adoption of the federal constitution ;the formation of the constitution, its coinpromises, the discussion of it, and the\nresult finally reached -by the adoption of that instrument — these, in their turn, it is\nessential that the student of American history should carefully study in the secondary\nschool. From that time forward the political history of the United States, until i860, and\nall of the great political questions that disturbed our people, and caused turmoil during\nthat period, hinge about a special question as to whether that constitution that was\nframed in 1787 should be interpreted broadly or strictly. Out of that grew two or three\nother questions.\nWhen Washington became president of the United States and Hamil-\n\n"}
{"page": 95, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nDISCUSSION\n\nON\n\nUNITED\n\nSTATES\n\nHISTORY\n\n85\n\nton secretary of the treasury, and the first cabinet was orKanized, there was practically\nno division along political lines ; but in the very first administration the people drifted\ninto political parties, and there was much discussion of the financial plans proposed by Hamilton. When we study the financial history of the United States, and\nthe history of this republic as related to the institution of slavery, we shall discover\nabout all there is to know concerning the development of political institutions, and\nthe separation of people into political parties. From Hamilton's time to i860 the\npeople of one section of the country believed in the doctrine of strict construction of\nthe constitution, not because they had any previous prejudices in that direction, but\nbecause it was to their interest to believe that way. People in another section believed\nin a liberal interpretation of the constitution, because it was to their interest to believe\nthat way. So this apparently fundamental difference among the people of the United\nStates as to constitutional interpretation, in a primary sense, in my judgment, grew out\nof different and conflicting interests that were largely due to one or two institutions.\nTrace thruout this, period from 1789 to i860 all the various changing political views,\nand the wars as incidents, and the pupil will get some adequate conception of our history during that period. This method of study that I have briefly suggested for the\npupil of the secondary schools will give all of the history desired, and, in addition, the\nculture that a student acquires from the study of history. The scientific method of\nstudying history does not consist in the acceptance by the pupil of everything laid down\nin his text-book. The investigation of questions in history by reading a number of\nbooks, of those who have made the study of the subject, inevitably leads the pupil to\ncompare systems and analyze them as to their worth, and finally to reach a higher\nintellectual plane in his generalization, and to think for himself. The future citizens of\nthe republic must be better qualified to deal with the great political questions, and,\nunless the study of history clothes the pupil with this power, we have, in my judgment,\nalmost totally failed in our object.\nFrom i860 until the present time the history of the republic is much more largely\nindustrial, social, and sociological than political, and it requires a higher type of study\nto grasp these subjects than the political questions which arose prior to that time.\nI have examined courses of study from secondary schools from every part of the\nrepublic, and you have no idea what a large number of them consider it not worth\nwhile to study American history. The high schools have just begun to awaken to this\nsubject. I believe the gospel of American history should be preached by this association, and its importance urged upon the secondary schools thruout the republic —\nthat they may see that this subject should have its proper place, and is given a proper\namount of time, in the course of the study in the secondary schools. If this is done,\nthere will be no trouble in educating patriotic citizens. When the pupil leaves the\npublic school, he should have a broad and adequate conception of the origin, the\ndevelopment, the struggle for supremacy, and the final triumph of the principles of constitutional, political, and social liberty embodied in the constitution of the United States\nand exemplified in the institutions of this great republic.\nMr. CoRLEY, of Pennsylvania. — I desire to call attention to two points. One is\nthe partial method in which United States history has been written — exclusively from\nthe New England standpoint. I think the most dangerous lie is half a lie— just enough\ntruth in it to make it pass current. What is said from the New England standpoint is\ntrue, but it is not the whole truth, and the suppression of the other part renders the\nhistory inadequate. A great deal is said in history about the purchase by William Penn\nfrom the Indians, but not a word is said about the colony established in Delaware, where\nthe Indians were paid for their land. I should like to emphasize the fact that there was\na governmental restriction upon immigration to these political colonies on the Delaware\nIt was not permitted to make these American\nof persons of good moral character.\n\n"}
{"page": 96, "printed_page": null, "text": "86\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\ncolonies a dumping-ground for criminals, as the English government did ; and the\nDutch are entitled to great credit for that policy. How little there is said of the\nDutch, except that the English finally conquered them ; that seems to be an important\nfact with regard to the Dutch. Nothing is said of the oppression of the Dutch by the\nEnglish. Nothing is said about the Germans, who were a bulwark against the Indians,\nand who kept and saved the land along the shore. Very little is said of the freedom of\nreligion, so prominently made a cornerstone in Pennsylvania.\nNow, fellow-teachers, if we are to teach history, let us teach the truth ; let us say\nthat the German Quakers of Germantown were the first people on this continent who\ninsisted that slavery was wrong and should be abolished, and not because of climatic\nreasons, as Daniel Webster put it, but because it is wrong, and because a negro is a\nman and deserves to be paid for his labor. For that reason the protest was made in\n1688 in the Quaker meeting that slavery should not exist in Pennsylvania.\nThen let us realize that there were thirty-six years of our national existence, during\nwhich Virginia furnished presidents for thirty-two of those years. Let us forever give\ncredit to John Marshall for his masterful interpretation of the constitution.\nMuch has been said here about the philosophy of education in the secondary school,\nbut it has no place in elementary schools. It seems to me the time has come when we\nshould learn that the teaching of history in elementary schools should be biographical,\nas the only method for the child up to fourteen ye9.rs of age. Let the children see life\nas it is illustrated in the biographies of eminent men, and it will have a moral as well as\nhistorical value.\nE. B. Prettyman, state superintendent of public instruction, Baltimore, Md. — In\nview of what has been said, I desire to say to this audience of thinking people that the\nhistory of my state of Maryland is totally unknown to the people of the nation. It is\nonly thru the system suggested by our friend from Kansas City that the history of the\ndifferent states can be molded into a great harmonious whole. Now, I assert that the\nstate of Maryland, in its colonial time, established three great principles that have never\nbeen acknowledged or known thruout the country. We recognize that our New England friends wrote the histories that went into the schools, and naturally they wrote those\nthings about which they knew most, that were local, and about which they cared most ;\nand we honor them for it. When we go thru New England, we see that every spot is\nhistorical, and we glory in their local patriotism. But the glorious history of Maryland,\nas evidenced by the Maryland historical societies and their archives, should be published\nto the world. Maryland, in the first place, is the land which gave the world the right of\nownership of land. Lord Baltimore was the absolute owner 'of every foot of land by\ngrant from King George. Nevertheless, this great and good statesman and Wallace\nColbert directed his brother Leonard to pay the Indians for their land, which they did.\nIt was here in Maryland, first of all on this continent, that land was purchased from\nthe Indians, in 1634, at old St. Mary's.\nIt was here that religious liberty was first proclaimed and established, and a law\nenacted that every man should be allowed to worship his God as he pleased, according to\nthe dictates of his conscience, without molestation.\nSuperintendent L. E. Wolfe, Kansas City, Kan. — I am firmly of the opinion\nthat history, as an inspiring story, should come very much earlier in our school curriculum\nthan it now comes. A very large per cent, of our schools do not touch history below the\neighth grade or the grammar school. The essential thing in education is the relation of\neducation to conduct, to action, to deed. History is the record of events, of deeds, where\nmen have had two courses before them and have chosen one and stood by it, and poured\nout their blood, whenever necessary, for principle.\nNow, the great question is how to teach history that the pupil will feel all the time\nthat he is upon a great historical field, where he can learn how to decide questions cor-\n\n"}
{"page": 97, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nENGLISH\n\nCOMPOSITION\n\nFOR\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n87\n\nrectly, as pupil in the school, as member of a family, as member of the church, and as\ncitizen of the state.\n\nI would emphasize the fact that no one ought to be content with the study of United\nStates history alone. How the history of our country carries us back to the history of\nthe Anglo-Saxon people ! We ought not to hate England. The Lord knows we owe\nmuch to dear old England. We should understand how civilization roots itself back in\nall the past.\nDavid K. Goss, Indianapolis, Ind. — If there is any purpose in teaching history in\nschools, it certainly can he profitably taught before the eighth grade. All over western\nEurope we find the special studies in history and political science have been pursued and\nhave equipped the children for an understanding of the affairs of life. If the American\nstudent' would go into one of their seminaries, he would be surrounded by boys and young\nmen far better trained than he in history, and possessing far more general information.\nIt is true the American teacher, in general, is not ready to become a teacher in western\nEurope. The only thing to do is to begin with what we have, to lay down courses of\nstudy, and gradually to fit teachers to carry on this important work. Every line, every sentence, every word of history has a meaning, and that is the end to which the history taught\nin our public schools must tend. There is a great deal to be learned from the history\nwhich we are making now.\nDr. Charles A. McMurry, Normal, 111. — We people who live in the Mississippi\nvalley are beginning to believe we are a very important part of this great country. We\nhave discovered recently that more than half of the people of the United States live within\nthe boundaries of the Mississippi valley and the lake states just a little to the north. The\nboys and girls of the Mississippi valley, that great central empire of North America, will\nconstitute a large part of the future teachers of our land, and so it is that Illinois, Michigan, Minnesota, Indiana, Kentucky, Tennessee, Louisiana will have a great contribution\nto make to the cause of education — perhaps more than Pennsylvania or Maryland.\nI believe the time is coming very quickly when a great educative influence upon our\ncommon schools will come to us thru these biographical pioneer studies.\nI should like to Suggest that we not only have all this material which has been collected, but that we begin to use it; that our teachers— and especially those who arc\nteaching in the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth grades in the Mississippi valley — shall get\nhold of these stories, and shall not only get hold of them, but shall learn how to use\nthem. What effective work can be done by a teacher who can stand before a class and\ntell one of those stories of the early life of Lincoln, in the third, fourth, or fifth grade,\nand tell the story in such a way as to inspire the pupil with a desire to emulate that great\nman ! There is an abundance of historical material in the Mississippi valley which is\nnever used. The place where American history is to be brought to bear upon the boys\nand girls in our schools is in these earlier grades, where biographical stories, if bandied\nwith skill by enthusiastic teachers, will produce useful and permanent results.\n\nTHE\n\nCOMPOSITION\nESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH\nELEMENTARY SCHOOLS\n\nBY PROFESSOR\n\nEDWARD\n\nR. SHAW,\n\nSCHOOL\nVERSITY\n\nOF\n\nPEDAGOGY,\n\nNEW\n\nFOR\n\nYORK\n\nUNI-\n\nfor Elementary\nUnder \"The Essentials of English Composition\nSchools \" I shall comprehend every means that contributes to give a\n\n"}
{"page": 98, "printed_page": null, "text": "88\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nfGeneral\n\npupil the fullest and freest command of English it is possible to give in\nthe elementary school. More can be done, I am confident, than has been\ngenerally attained in this direction. The error of the past has been the\nloss of time and the waste of effort in teaching English from its formal\nphase, largely as an end in itself.\nThe first essential of English composition to be secured in the elementary school is correct spelling. There is abundant evidence on every\nhand to show that the method generally pursued today in teaching spelling is not a method which gives satisfactory results. Some spelling can,\nof course, be taught incidentally, but in so difficult and arbitrary a matter\nas English spelling a definite time must be set apart for it in the school\nprogram, when spelling shall be pursued as a regular exercise.\nThe first point to be considered in this connection is the gradation of\nwords. The plan of leaving to the judgment of the teacher the selection\nof words for her grade is altogether too haphazard a one. This plan\nmay be permitted to some extent, but it ought not to be the exclusive\nmethod \\ for under such conditions there is very little guidance as to the\nvocabulary, its extent, or what range of words shall be given in the various grades. With such a plan it is difficult to know what the omissions\nare. I believe, therefore, in a carefully selected list of words suited to\nthe various school grades. Such a list could be determined very easily\nin any school system by a simple investigation. There are, I believe,\nwords that may best be learned in the second and third grades, words\nwhich would best be learned in the fourth and fifth grades, and so on\nfor the various grades. A list of this kind would include words which\nchildren are likely to miss and words which may be most easily acquired\nin the various grade periods of school life. Such a list would constitute\nthe best kind of spelling-book, a spelling-book, moreover, which ought\nto be made by every system of schools. In the absence of such a list, I\nstand for a spelling-book and regular work in it.\nBut after we have determined the collection of words, the way the\npupil is to be led to learn those words is of great importance. The\nappeal to the eye in learning to spell, which supplanted an old method\nthat grew out of the best judgment of decades of repeated test by\nschoolmasters, is a method which the best pedagogy of today cannot\nsanction as a complete method of teaching spelling. If we are to obtain\nbetter results in spelling, that which I put as the first essential of the elements of English composition, we must adopt some of the wisdom which\nshowed itself in the method of the old schoolmaster, and which we for\nthe past generation and a half have thrown aside. If we require the\npupils, in learning new words, to study these first orally, pronouncing each\nword at the start, then each syllable and the syllables cumulatively, and\nending with the pronunciation of the whole word, we are appealing to\nmore avenues of mental approach, and are, therefore, making easier and\n\n"}
{"page": 99, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nENGLISH\n\nCOMPOSITION\n\nFOR\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n89\n\nfirmer the associations out of which that word is to rise when the pupil\nsummons it. In such a way we are appealing to the eye, to the ear, and\nto that part of the motor mechanism which is connected with speech.\nWe have here, then, the aid of three strong sensory avenues instead\nof one — as, for instance, when we appeal to the eye. After the pupil\nhas prepared his lesson in this manner, we may then bring in the written\npractice upon this basis of preparation, and employ again the eye and\ncombine with this the motor mechanism which lies in the hand and arm.\nWith such a method I believe that very little time would need to be given\nto spelling in the seventh and eighth years of the grammar grades — the\ntime when it is generally found so necessary to spend as much time as\npossible in spelling drill. Thus time may be saved in these grades to\ndevote to the rules for spelling and to the etymology of words. Etymology should not, however, be taken up in the routine and uninteresting\nmanner so common, and which calls for not much else than sheer, dull\neffort in verbal memory. It should be treated in connection with composition and should serve to add variety to the pupil's language study.\nTo lead into this, begin with words with some point, of interest in their\nhistory or whose derivation is easy to be traced, as : fortnight, good-by,\nfurlong, topsy-turvy, volcano, mountebank, calculate, astonished, sincere,\ntrivial, capricious, charlatan, etc., and then gradually work out to the more\nformal analysis of words. All this need not follow any alphabetically\narranged list of roots, prefixes, and suffixes, but advantage should be\ntaken of the recurring occasions when the pupil's attention may be\ndirected to words that become the center of opportune interest. By\nleading the pupil to seek out for himself the connection of thought, and\nalso to trace causal connection in analysis, he acquires a power to help\nhimself, and an interest is awakened because more phases of mental\nactivity are thereby aroused, and the study lifted out of dull, spiritless,\nmechanical memory.\nThe second essential to be secured is what I may term \" feeling for\nEnglish.\" If I were required to make a choice between technical knowledge of English and what I may term \" feeling for English,\" I should\nunhesitatingly choose the latter. This \" feeling for English\" is a subtle\nsense, transcending psychological analysis, and leading those who possess\nit to use English with an appreciation of its genius. How, then, shall we\ndevelop in pupils this \" feeling for English \" ? We may do this by giving\nthem selections from the masters of English literature, and requiring that\nthese selections be learned by heart, so that pupils may be able to repeat\nthem and to transcribe them. In every grade, from the first year thru\nthe eighth, certain standard poems, selected with reference to the emotional status and intellectual appreciation of the pupil, should be memorized— at the very least, half a dozen poems for each year. Children\nderive pleasure from 'learning and repeating the best literature, as it meets\n\n"}
{"page": 100, "printed_page": null, "text": "90\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\na natural want in satisfying their sense of rhythmic expression. They may\nnot recall all this literature in later years, but it leaves behind it that\nsubtle aesthetic sense of \"feeling for English.\"\nThe selection of the pieces which are to be memorized involves a very\nlarge and a very important question, namely, their ethical import. But\nthat is a question aside from the purpose of this paper. There should be,\nthen, for each grade a certain number of poems which each pupil should\nmemorize, and with such a degree of perfection that he could rise and\nrepeat the poem, or take pen and paper and transcribe it correctly as to spelling, punctuation, capitals, and form. In the sixth, seventh, and eighth years\npupils should be given an opportunity to choose from a small collection\nthe poems they would prefer to memorize. For instance, if six poems\nwere required of each pupil in any of these years, twelve or fifteen poems\nmight be given to him to read and make his own selection from. The\nobject of this plan is to provide for the child's individuality of choice,\nas influenced by his individuality of experience, and by his individuality\nof emotional tone.\nBut poems in themselves are not sufficient to develop this \"feeling\nfor English.\" Many of our courses of study furnish lists of poems that\nare to be memorized in the several grades, but I do not recall a course of\nstudy where excerpts of fine prose are required to be memorized. In the\ndays of a generation ago this \" feeling for English \" was developed by\nthose splendid selections of oratory which boys were required to memorize and speak at the rhetorical exercises then periodically held. We must\nnot forget, in the multitude of newer things pressing upon our attention,\nall the good in the past. Hence there should be provided in each grade\na number of prose selections suited to the understanding and capacity of\nthe pupils, each a unit in itself, which pupils should memorize, so as to\nbe able to repeat these orally or to transcribe them, as has been recom-Tiended with reference to the poems.\nThe third essential is that the formulation of the principles and\nusages of English composition shall come to the pupil by easy inference,\nafter abundant exercise in the use of English, and not be forced upon\nhim by definitions illustrated by a few formal examples.\nWhat is needed is ability to use English well, and not principally an\nacquaintance with its formal aspects.\nThe regarding of the formularies of composition as the principal\nthing, and the inability to see the larger thing, the real thing, to which\nthe formal statements must ever be secondary, is where the cause of\nour failure in teaching English lies.\nMost text-books, official syllabi, and examinations emphasize the\nformal aspects of composition, instead of showing how they may be subordinated. The teacher is thus misled and her attention directed to\nthese things as the end of her teaching, and so she* comes to rest in the\n\n"}
{"page": 101, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nE.NGUSH\n\nCOMPOSITION\n\nFOR ELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n91\n\nopinion that the ability of her pupils to set forth these things in examination isthe test and proof of her success in teaching. My objection, you\nwill recognize, is not a new one. These formal statements and examples\nto illustrate them become ends and are pursued as ends, and thus the\nteaching of composition becomes dry and barren of results.\nThe fundamental requisite, then, from first to last, in the teaching of\nEnglish composition in the elementary school, is abundant and continued\nexpression of the pupil's thought and feeling growing out of some activity,\nsome experience, some observation, some intercourse, some imaginative\nconstruction on the part of the pupil.\nWhat is to be insisted on, therefore, is some positive underlying content in the pupil's mind, which he is led to express either in oral or in\nwritten language; and out of this expression all the formal aspects of\ncomposition are to issue. The formularies are not to be omitted. They\ndo not, however, lead the way, they are not important ends, but are subordinated to the real thing, the essential thing — something expressed.\nUpon this expression as a basis we may teach the more obvious grammatical and rhetorical matters incidentally. In the lower grades many\nphases of capitalization and punctuation, the formation of plurals, possessive cases, the forms of comparison, correct forms of verbs, etc., etc.,\nmay be taught — the teacher shaping the composition exercises so that\nsufficient opportunities shall arise to reveal to the pupil the necessity for\nsuch knowledge, and also to give him sufficient practice in using it correctly. Dictation exercises may be employed as one means of giving\npractice in correct forms, but each piece so dictated should be some composition exercise which the class as a whole has criticised, corrected, and\namended.\nEach pupil has then some special interest in it.\nLetter writing, to be taken up toward the end of the third school\nyear, will also afford another means toward the accomplishment of the\nends just mentioned. Here, however, care must be exercised that there\nshall be content in the pupil's mind before he is required to compose a\nletter. Business letters first which are orders, then the replies to these ;\nnext may follow letters of inquiry, of direction, of application, of information, etc., thus gradually enlarging the scope to letters of friendship,\ninvitation, acknowledgment, etc.\nI have insisted, in all composition work, that there sTiall be content in\nthe pupil's mind, when' he is asked to compose ; in other words, that\nbricks shall not be required without straw.\nFortunately, today, nature study and science work furnish something\ntangible and near at hand for the pupil to express. And so as much com-\n\nposition writing as possible should grow out of \"nature study and science\nwork. Then there is also the history study, which may be used to this\nend.\n\nWhile,\n\nhowever,\n\nthe\n\npupil\n\neasily\n\nfinds\n\nsomething\n\nto say when\n\n"}
{"page": 102, "printed_page": null, "text": "92\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n•\n\n[General\n\nrequired to write out his observations and knowledge gained from nature\nstudy or science work, we must not lose sight of the fact that, even with a\ngreat amount of such writing, he would remain deficient in skill and\nknowledge of certain important matters of English.\nBy such writing he learns to arrange his thoughts, to analyze more\nfully his general ideas; he enlarges his vocabulary, and he acquires\nfacility in setting forth his thought.\nBut to lead the pupil thru this kind of composition to an appreciation\nof sequence and transition of thought as effected thru sentence construction, and to an appreciation of literary form and unity, would prove a\nmost difificult undertaking, and to seek to accomplish this upon nature\nstudy and science composition would be to disregard mental economy.\nMental economy points out a different plan.\nThe appreciation of literary form and unity, and of the various ways\nthat language may be employed in securing sequence, transition, and connection of thought, is best and most easily attained by reading to pupils\nselections within their appreciation and understanding, and then calling\nfor the reproduction of these, sometimes orally, but principally in writing, especially in the higher grades. Such reproduction exercises should\nbegin in the third school year and be continued in each succeeding year.\nThere is, however, one danger to be guarded against in this, and that is a\nhaphazard and unskilled choice of selections. Here pedagogical insight\nis most requisite.\nThe use of the written reproduction will afford excellent opportunity\nfor the careful treatment of the paragraph, not with reference to a definitive, formal statement of what the paragraph is, and the rules for the\nformation of paragraphs, but a knowledge of how to shape and constitute\na paragraph in writing.\nThe next essential is a knowledge of grammatical analysis of sentences\n— this leading to a knowledge of the parts of speech and the grammatical rules for their collocation. Good English may be acquired without\na knowledge of technical grammar, but there is no plan yet at hand to\nguide teachers in securing such a result. And were there one, a longer\ntime would be needed. It would not be the way of economy in teaching.\nOne who has a knowledge of the grammatical structure of language possesses many adva'ntages over one who has not this knowledge, tho the\nlatter may use English with a fair degree of correctness. I will not go\ninto the educational value of the study of grammar. That alone would\nentitle it- to a place in the elementary-school curriculum, even if it did\nnot equip the pupil with knowledge directly available in the use of English.\nThe study of grammatical analysis may well be begun in the sixth\nschool year, and carried on thru the seventh and eighth years. In this\ngrammatical analysis it is far better not to put into the pupil's hands an\n\n"}
{"page": 103, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nENGLISH\n\nCOMPOSITION\n\nFOR\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n93\n\nelementary grammar with sentences selected from all the four winds of\nliterature, and the remainder made to order — detached sentences which\nthe pupil cannot relate to any piece of literature. Every sentence set\nbefore the pupil should be the expriession of some thought he has before\nmet in some literary production studied by him. Each sentence then\nrelates to some whole which has stirred the pupil's feelings and given him\nnew ideas and new experiences, and he recognizes what thought in that\nwhole and what shading of that thought the sentence set before him\nserves to express. Every sentence he deals with tends, therefore, to draw\nafter it some fraction of the tide of feeling aroused by the study of the\nliterary production. The detached sentence carries no such substrate\nwith it.\nThe first work in analysis might be based upon Longfellow's \" Bell of\nAtri,\" an excellent selection for literary study in sixth-year classes. Sentences may be taken from this, and some sentences adapted. It is not\nnecessary to begin with such absurdly simple and unattractive sentences\nas \"Bells ring,\" \"Dogs bark.\" The pupil can easily deal with sentences\nof some length, and can understand the office of a group of words amounting even to a clause, when used as a modifier, as easily as beginning with\nmodifiers of one word. In other words, he may be led, as the principle\nof economy would suggest, to deal with sentences of usual length, as to\nsubject and predicate ; to deal almost at. once with the three forms in\nwhich the modifier occurs, as word, phrase, or clause, and in the same\nmanner with the direct object ; and so gradually extending the analysis.\nThe order is not the order of the text-books, but it is a pedagogical order.\nThe method to be employed in unfolding this grammatical knowledge\nis that of the skillful questioning of the living teacher. It is to be principally analytic rather than descriptive.\nNow, while the knowledge of grammatical structure is growing, not\nupon detached sentences, but upon sentences taken from some literary\nwhole that the pupils have studied, the rhetorical positions of the elements\nof a sentence may be treated. These two things, then, grammatical\nstructure and rhetorical positions, may be closely interconnected, and the\none made to aid the other. Side by side with grammatical analysis may\nbe taken up variety of expression, as, for instance, the transforming of\nan infinitive to a participle, a participle to a clause, replacing the active\nform by the passive, an imperative mood by the conditional, a clause by\nan infinitive, and so on. Variety of sentence form may also be treated.\nAll this is to find continued application in the composition exercises which\ngo forward at the same time, making it all a living reality to the pupil.\nAs soon as the pupil's knowledge of the parts of speech and their\nmodifications and relations will admit of it, I should bring him face to\n\nface with specimens of incorrect English to set right, giving' the best reasons therefor that may be adduced.\n\n"}
{"page": 104, "printed_page": null, "text": "94\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nThe literature study in the seventh and eighth years upon such works\nas \" Snow-bound,\" \" Evangeline,\" \" The Legend of Sleepy Hollow,\" \" Rip\nVan Winkle,\" and \" The Lay of the Last Minstrel,\" etc., may be closely\ninterconnected with the composition writing, affording excellent opportunity for a simple study of diction.\nI have insisted in this paper upon the actual use of English in writing,\nand a great deal of it, instead of study upon how English should be used,\nor how it may be used. Let me, in closing, add one qualification, and\nthat is : at no point shall the teaching be such as to develop a fatal\nfacility to use words at the expense of content of mind and definiteness\nof thought.\n\nTHE\n\nBY\n\nESSENTIALS OE ENGLISH COMPOSITION\nTA UGH T IN SECOND AR V SCHOOLS\n\nC.\n\nC.\n\nTHACH,\n\nSTATE\n\nPOLYTECHNIC\n\nINSTITUTE,\n\nAUBURN,\n\nTO BE\n\nALA.\n\nUnquestionably within the last few years there has been marked\nimprovement in the teaching of English, both as to subject-matter and\nmethods — as great progress, perhaps, as in any other department of college and school work ; certainly as great as could reasonably have been\nexpected under all the perplexing circumstances that \"necessarily attend\nthe introduction and systematizing of a new teaching subject.\nAnd yet, it must be admitted by all thoughtful observers that there\nstill remains much to be desired in the work of this great department of\neducation. Certainly, judged by the test of results, that is, by the practical skill attained by the average student in the use of his native tongue,\nsomething is radically wrong in the system of instruction now given.\nAnyone who is familiar with the English composition of hundreds of\nyoung men applying for admission to college well knows that there is\nimmense room for improvement. The reports of the Harvard Committee\non Composition and Rhetoric are an epitome of the college-entrance\nexaminations thruout the land — that is, so far as bad English is concerned.\nIt is difficult to believe, at times, that many of the writers of collegeentrance papers are English-speaking boys. In the most mechanical\npoints of execution — in hand-writing, spelling, punctuation — a large\nnumber are deficient to an appalling degree. They have no vocabulary;\nwords do not appeal to them, or have for them the least significance\nAny strength of thought or vividness of feeling that may occasionally\nstruggle for utterance finds but one vent — slang. Unity or coherence of\nthought is seldom exhibited.\nLong chains of unrelated ideas are tacked\n\n"}
{"page": 105, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessicis] ENGLISH\n\nCOMPOSITION\n\nFOR SECONDARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n95\n\ntogether in a slack-rope sentence, pages long, with a lot of \"ands,\" when\na lot of \"buts\" would be equally exact. Paragraphing is seldom\nattempted, unless after the fashion of one student who systematically\nindented the lines in blocks of five. And, worst of all, there is rarely to\nbe found evidence of power of thought or range of reading, such as one\nought reasonably to expect in young men of seventeen or eighteen, who\nregard themselves as ready for college work.\nBut that tale we all know. The vital question for us to consider is:\nHow comes it that school life has passed over these youths and accomplished so little toward improving their taste or affording them any skill\nor ease in the use of their mother tongue ? Can the matter be remedied,\nand if so, what is the remedy ?\nTruly, these young men are often intelligent and industrious; the\nteachers faithful and diligent, and, not infrequently, accomplished\nEnglish scholars ; the cardinal fault, in so far as the secondary schools are\nresponsible for the miserable preparation in English, being the fault,\nI take it, of subject and method ; the fault of the manner in which English is taught.\nI say so far as the secondary schools are responsible ; for, while I would\nnot shift from them their due weight of obligation, in the premise, it\nshould ever be borne in mind that they occupy a peculiar position in the\nscheme of education. That position is a relative one, and the answer to\nthe question as to what essentials of composition, or any other subject,\nare to be taught by them can receive only a relative answer. The secondary school takes such grist as is offered from the elementary school below,\nand must, in the main, grind it into those brands demanded by the college\nabove. As to this latter demand, I am firmly of the opinion that\none of the greatest injuries wrought to the thoroness and efficiency\nof all high-school and academy work is the needless multiplication of\nstudies required for admission to college. It is a well-established psychological truth that content varies inversely as the extent; which is another\nway of saying: The more you spread your butter — educationally speaking\n— the thinner it will be.\n\nOn the other side, the influence exerted by the eight-years* training\nin the elementary grades cannot be easily overstated. In the struggle\nfor a better English the elementary school is the strategic point ; and\nunless effective work is accomplished here, the effort for improvement\nin the higher grades, tho not necessarily futile, will be rendered\nimmensely more difficult. By thirteen or fourteen years of age the speech\nof the pupil is well-nigh crystallized. Ungrammatical expressions, faulty\nspelling, defective or vicious taste that characterize the pupil at this age\nwill generally stick, like the, shirt of Nessus, thru life.\nUntil very recently two distinct methods have been pursued in the\neffort to inculcate a good English style. The first method— the trans-\n\n"}
{"page": 106, "printed_page": null, "text": "96\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Genera\n\nlation of the ancient classics — has long been regarded, and by many is\nyet regarded, as the open door to our mother tongue. As a matter of\nexperience, it has been generally true with me that the students of the\nclassics have been the best English scholars. The exercise of translation\nfrom languages so logical and severe as Greek and Latin may afford a\nmost excellent training in English composition. But the main defect of\nthis method, as has been frequently pointed out, is that- the student is\nconfronted with a twofold difficulty; he is attempting to interpret a\nlanguage of which he knows little into another language of which he\nknows only a trifle more. Too often the result is an English that never\nwas on sea or land, i. e.,\"that lazy, mongrel English— 'translation English.' \"And, surely, the average boy gets none of the subtle aroma of the\nclassics as literature, \" bottled up \" as it is to him behind inflectional\nendings, subjunctive moods, and paradigms.\nHowever, much benefit to the students' English may be accomplished\nby requiring oral translation into smooth, idiomatic English; while a still\ngreater degree of benefit may be had from the practice of making a correct written translation of at least a portion of each recitation. The\nwork may be slow, but quality is certainly to be preferred to quantity.\nEducation does not consist in galloping over so many square acres of\nprinted matter.\nThe second method of learning to write English consists in the fruitless practice of studying about English rather than studying English\nitself ; elaborating the whys and hows and wherefores of style, but never\nputting into practice the fine-spun theories that are so painfully swallowed\nand that are never digested. From the examination of the schedule of\nstudies in a large number of secondary schools (especially rural and\nvillage schools) I am confident that a vast deal of energy and faithful\nteaching in English is utterly spoiled by the worthlessness, from the\npractical standpoint, of the subjects taught ; a great part of the work\ndone being but little more pertinent to developing the effective use of\nEnglish than is the work of any other department in the school curriculum.\nMuch too often the subject is taught as a science and not as an art.\nTheoretical grammar and rhetoric are the staple subjects, and what, I ask,\nare grammar and rhetoric but metaphysics applied to language and style?\nAs disciplinary subjects, as whetstones for the mind, they are not to be\nsurpassed, taking rank with mathematics, logic, or the severest of the\nexact sciences. But their method is conscious analysis, the method of\nscience and not of art. \"Formal grammar and rhetoric,\" says Professor\nHinsdale, \"should play no part in the early stages of composition teaching.\" Certainly, many of the world's most vivid and vigorous writers\nhave known but little of phonics, inflections, and syntactical systems, not\nto mention coherence, mass, and the aesthetics of style. They knew how\nto use the tools, tho they knew not their names. ' On the other hand, I\n\n"}
{"page": 107, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nENGLISH\n\nCOMPOSITION\n\nFOR\n\nSECONDARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n97\n\naru confident that there are hundreds of thousands of people all over this\nland today who had the possibilities of becoming fairly easy and graceful\nwriters of their native vernacular; but alas! the tender motions of whose\nyoung pens were paralyzed by this grammatico-metaphysical specter of\nthe schoolroom.\nWhat is needed, then, in our entire school work in teaching composition is less psychology and more practice ; more of the method of the\ngymnasium, of the studio, and of the laboratory; i. e., the method of\nlearning to do a thing by doing it.\nAs one learns to talk by talking, to walk by walking, to dance by\ndancing, so one must learn to write by writing. Is skill at tennis, for\ninstance, or at baseball, or at any sport, acquired by mere study of rules ?\nRather, is it not acquired by watching the game and taking a hand ?\nIs one to learn to swim by locking himself up in a room with a bowl of\nwater, and wrangling over the anatomy of the human body in all of the\nponderous nomenclature of physiology, together with the principles of\nhydrostatics and the properties of floating bodies? Well, equally absurd,\nit seems to me, is the effort to learn the practical use of English solely\nby the processes of grammatical analysis, and the classifying of the\ndisjecta membra of style. Doubtless, were we to practice talking as\nlittle as we do writing, we should be as clumsy with our tongues as we are\nnow with our pens. Our experience in learning foreign languages is\nmuch to the point. For instance, after an hour a day for a year or two\nin Fasquelle, what is the ability, even of the most intelligent man, to\nwrite a French letter or to chatter with a Parisian cabman ?\nMoreover, of all the arts, that of writing well is certainly the most\ndifficult. Fluency and good style are not a fairy gift, but are obtained\nonly by the most strenuous labor. In praise of the art of the world's\ngreatest literary genius it was written :\n\" Who thinks to write a living line must sweat\n.... and strike the second heat\nUpon the Muse's anvil,\nOr for the laurel he may gain a scorn,\nFor a great poet is made as well as bom.\"\n\nA most excellent legend, this is, to hang in the department of English composition.\n\nBut even practice in writing fails of the best results, unless attended by\nanother important factor that is recognized as an essential element in all\ngood work. I mean interest. An essential which, if it cannot be\ntaught, can at least be cultivated. Mere writing for the sake of style soon\nbecomes irksome to the average boy. He has not yet arrived at that high\nstate of development that enjoys art for art's sake. Certainly, without\ninterest in one's essay— in the subject as well as in the expression — there\ncan be no fluency, no spontaneity of utterance.\n\n\" No man or boy,\" says\n\n"}
{"page": 108, "printed_page": null, "text": "98\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nProfessor Carpenter, \" can write well, unless he writes for the purpose of\nexpressing thought.\" One must have something to say, and want to say\nit, before he can say it — that is, with expressiveness. \" It is a notorious\nfact,\" it has been said, *' that the dullest and stupidest and most muddleheaded girls and young men, who are apparently incapable of expression,\nwill once in their lives write well. They can each and all write a good\nlove letter. If a man or a maid is really in love, and not shamming, he\nor she will be sure to write well. The reason is plain: for once in their\nlives they have something to say.\" Now, often the great difficulty with\nvery many young people in composition work is that they are set to write\non themes of which they are entirely ignorant. They are expected, as it\nwere, to draw water out of a dry well, or, like the spider, weave a web out\nof the inner self. Such subjects as \" Spring,\" \" Birds,\" \"Flowers \" are\npossibly suggested, and the youngster is expected to produce some\nsentimental, milk-and-water reflections suitable to the theme ; or, maybe,\nhe is invited to present his mature and practical views on \" Success for\nthe Brave,\" or \" The Dangers that Threaten the Republic,\" or \" The\nSilver Question,\" or some other equally arid abstraction. The boy knowing nothing and caring nothing about these things, the outcome is a\nfailure, and a feeling of abiding disgust for composition as an accomplishment fit only for a literary dude. To get the best results, the pupil\nshould never be assigned abstract subjects, but rather should be assigned\nthe subject in regard to which he knows the most and feels the keenest\ninterest. Concrete, live subjects of everyday experience — games, athletic\ncontests, school exercises or incidents ; scenes, characters, and plots of\nbooks read- — ^ subjects such as these provoke a young person's enthusiasm,\nand will, therefore, call forth all the resources of his vocabulary. The\nsubject should never be allowed to assume the form of a vague generality\nthat embraces the earth, but should be severely narrowed to one point of\nview. This practice is much the most suggestive of accurate thought.\nThe composition should be brief, and at least one should be written each\nday thruout the first half of the period of secondary work. And this\ncan be accomplished without adding unduly to the \"mule work\" of\ndrudgery with which the teacher of composition is already sorely burdened.\nThe written recitation offers a fruitful field for composition work.\nThe incidental or co-operative method of teaching the writing of English\nwill doubtless grow in favor with the schools, and, when properly systematized and adjusted, will be, I think, the solution of the English problem.\nIn my estimation it is the method par excellence; indeed, without it I\ndo not believe that the standard of English in any secondary school can\nbe materially elevated.\nThe teacher of English alone can accomplish but little in one hour toward\nresisting the practice of bad English in every department of school work.\nIn an institution in which I am acquainted written monthly reviews are\n\n"}
{"page": 109, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nENGLISH\n\nCOMPOSITION\n\nFOR SECONDARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n99\n\nrequired, and it is astonishing what readiness in writing frequently results\nfrom the practice, even with boys of ordinary capacity.\nTo sum up, the first aim of secondary-school work in composition, as\nI see it, is to develop fluency of expression in the pupil ; to teach him to\nwrite as he talks; to aid him in overcoming that sense of artificiality\ninhering in the art of writing; and to bring him unconsciously and gradually, by familiar practice, into an easy and natural command of his pen\nthat will enable him to put to ready use whatever stores of words and\nideas he may possess.\nNow, next, when the pupil's freedom of utterance becomes somewhat\nsecurely established, criticism of his technique should become more\nrigid ; tho correction should never be nagging, or merely tearing crude,\nimmature work to tatters. As far as possible, the work should be done\nin the class-room, together with the class. Only a few simple, practical\nrules and principles, however, need to be taught, but the gospel of\nthoroness, it seems to me, should obtain in regard to these. From the\nfirst, spelling, punctuation, and capitals should be insistently emphasized,\nand the greatest possible accuracy secured in their use. While certain '\nvagaries in spelling are compatible with vigor of expression, and while\npunctuation is a very delicate and difficult art, yet they are integral\nparts of composition, and flagrant violations of them indicate a slovenly\nhabit of mind. You have doubtless heard of the A. B. who had to take\na postgraduate course in spelling. I once knew a teacher who applied\nfor an increase in salary, but failed to secure it solely because he spelled salary\n\" salery.\" Letter writing, solecisms, clearness and unity of sentence\nstructure, the paragraph, the essay, the different types of prose composition, and figures of speech seem to me the other salient elements of style\nthat should be attempted in high-school work. As will be seen, these\nelements enumerated are chiefly mechanical and intellectual, properties\nof style that can be learned by any pupil of fair intelligence. Leave severely\nalone the elements of force and elegance. They depend almost entirely\nupon native aptitude and bent of mind ; or are gradually and unconsciously\ndeveloped with the growth of the pupil's mind. Generally it may be\nremarked that in this work of criticism the young student should not be\nconfused with a multitude of nice details that are mooted points even\nwith critics— e. g., the split infinitive; but preferably his attention should\nbe directed to the common errors of everyday occurrence in the school\nand on the playground, or in his own themes. The principles of the\nparagraph should be taught with much greater care than is usual in the\nordinary schools. A great many pupils are left in the state of mind of the\nboy who defined the paragraph as a \" gob \" of sentences. The paragraph\nis the essay in miniature, and illustrates, in little, all the structural elements\nof a.complete composition. Its brevity recommends it as the norm of\nFacility in paragraph analysis is indispensaall early composition work.\n\n"}
{"page": 110, "printed_page": null, "text": "lOO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nble for that wider mental view which is necessary for the grasp of the\ngeneral significance and structure of a piece of composition.\nFor the sake of systematic and continuous presentation, it were best\nthat this small body of simple precepts should be codified in book\nform.\nIt would be a very thin volume.\nTho the Committee of Ten recommends to the contrary, to my\nthinking the study of words should be pursued as an independent study.\nMuch has been accomplished for a boy's linguistic training when a tender\nconscience for words has been awakened. Pottering about words may\nnot always give a good style, but without this pottering there can be no\ngood style. It is not etymology, or the history of words, or the inflection\nand composition as ends in themselves for which we should care, but\nrather as means for developing in the young student's mind an abiding,\njoyous sense of the delicate shades, the phantom-like suggestiveness, the\nhaunting melody of these little elements of that matchless medium of\nhuman thought, our own English tongue. As a rule, words are ideas ;\nprecision of word and precision of thought are practically interchangeable\nterms. I once knew a student who, instead of the dictated sentence,\n\"An opossum is an animal with a prehensile tail,\" wrote somewhat\nirreverently, \" An apostle is an animal with a pencil tail ; \" while \" The\nsynod was held in South Carolina\" came out, \"The sinner was helled\nin South Carolina.\" The Harvard Committee records the instance of\none boy who wrote of the story of the three \" caskets \" in \" The Merchant of\nVenice \" as the story of the three \"coffins.\" And so for many their native\nEnglish is well-nigh an unknown tongue, and knowledge, therefore, is to\nthem a book that is forever sealed.\nTrench, and a good work on synonyms might be used ; and the pupil\nshould learn \" to trot to the dictionary whenever the propriety of a word\nis broached.\" Says Oliver Wendell Holmes : \" When I feel inclined to\nread poetry, I take down my dictionary. The poetry of words is quite as\nbeautiful as that of sentences.\" Thackeray frankly confessed to a practice\nof studying the dictionary in order to improve his vocabulary. Especial\npains should be taken to cultivate an abhorrence of the use of grandiloquent language, as \"steed\" for \"horse,\" \"the devouring element\" for\n\" fire,\" \" purchase \" for \" buy,\" \" welkin \" for \" sky,\" and the rest of the\nlist. The habit finds its roots in mental pretense or downright dishonesty. On the other hand, we should cultivate, or at least tolerate, graphic\nidioms, and even provincialisms, if expressive. Perhaps, tho, the line\nshould be drawn at \" Where am I at,\" and \" I want that you should do it.\"\nLike all arts, the art of composition is largely mimetic, and all good\nwriters testify to the pcrwerful influence exerted upon their style by an\nintimate acquaintance with good models. And so the concurrent course\nof literature in high schools may, if properly taught, be made to -contribute richly to the pupil's powers of writing.\n\nIndeed,\n\nsomeone\n\nhas\n\n"}
{"page": 111, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nENGLISH\n\nCOMPOSITION\n\nFOR\n\nSECONDARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nlOI\n\nforcibly said that grammars and rhetoric, without literature itself, are\nships of war with the guns thrown overboard ; a feast of husks and\nrinds peeled from the rich fruit that seems to be as inexorably forbidden\nby some teachers as were the apples of Eden.\nIn committing strong and beautiful passages to memory, words, sentences, and ideas are absorbed that pass into the very warp and woof of\none's thought and language. The old practice of declamation is of great\nvalue as a means for increasing the pupil's vocabulary.\nParaphrasing, too, is useful, tho it does lead into grotesque mutilations of the originals. Matthew Arnold was perhaps justly horrified at\nthe transformation by a pupil of \" Canst thou minister to a mind diseased \"? into \" Can you give medicine to an invalid lunatic ? \" The main\nobject of paraphrase, however, is not to better nor to equal the original,\nbut to test and develop a student's own power of expression.\nThe principles of structure and the making of outlines can be best\ntaught in the study of concrete examples of literature, and here, too, can\nbe best explained the different types of prose and poetry. Some of the\nselections in the usual required course of high-school study seem to me\nilly adapted to the intelligence of the average pupil. Lycidas, for\ninstance, is for many boys very enigmatical reading, while the majesty\nand sweep of Burke's great oration are far beyond their grasp. Moreover, there are needed in many cases a simpler method and a more practical aim in the presentation of English literature. If genuine good is to\nresult to the pupil's style from the course in literature, the teachers of\nsecondary English must adopt more the methods of their coworkers in\nLatin, Greek, French, and German ; there must be less of vague appreciations ofaesthetics, and dreamings of authorship, and more close work on\nlanguage and form. The lesson in literature need not sink into a lesson\nin parsing and second-hand philology, but the casket of literature opens\nits rich and glorious treasures only to the key of accurate scholarship.\nSuccess in any department of school work, we know, is largely dependent upon the teacher himself. But to a peculiar degree, it seems to me, is\nthis true in regard to the teaching of English. The instructor, to be\nsure, need not be a prodigy of parts, breathed upon from the shrine of\nthe Muses ; he need not even be one who could gain a livelihood with his\npen ; but he should at least be an accurate scholar, and a model in the\npractice as well as an instructor in the theory of good English. All the\ngrammars and rhetorics in Christendom cannot impart a correct use of\nEnglish, if, unfortunately, the teacher himself be addicted to slipshod\nand ungrammatical English. Bad English is as infectious as yellow fever,\nand there are no immunes.\n\nOne of the chief obstacles to securing a more effective use of English\nis, I greatly fear, the indifference to that skill on the part of many\nBeyond question, this indifferteachers, especially in our rural schools.\n\n"}
{"page": 112, "printed_page": null, "text": "102\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nence prevails widely with parents and pupils. Like Dogberry of old, the\naverage American citizen thinks that reading and writing came by nature,\nand that if one has anything to say he can say it, and that any way of\nsaying it will do.\nPractical subjects are the popular ones. Something that will pay —\narithmetic, for instance, tho many people fail to put to very wide use\ntheir knowledge of interest, and bank discount, and cube root. As a\nmatter of fact, there is no more practical art than that of composition, the\nability to express oneself in clear, forcible language. It is of daily use\nwith everyone. It is a distinct aid to the pupil in all of his educational\nwork, and offers a true index to his progress, for only what he tan express\ncan in any true sense be called his ; while in active business life, in scientific and technical pursuits, as well as in the learned professions, that man\nenjoys a distinct advantage who commands a facile use of language, who\ncan with his pen present the matter in hand in an orderly, perspicuous,\nconvincing manner. The great apostle of good English, President Eliot\nof Harvard, truly says that only he that can speak and write his own\nlanguage can be called an educated man.\nNow, the development of this great and desirable power must be\nlargely the work of the elementary and secondary schools. Here is the\nplace to learn to speak and write correctly. A better higher English is\nimpossible without a good lower English.\nUnless pupils have been thoroly and properly grounded in all the\nminute details of elementary language and composition work, fine-sounding college courses will be so much waste paper, and teaching, however\nenthusiastic and laborious, will be as firing in the air, or beating a bag of\nfeathers.\nThere is but little real good to be achieved in polishing and tinkering\nthe apex of a pyramid, if the base is laid in slipping sand.\n\nDISCUSSION\nF. S. Hafford, superintendent of schools, Prescott, Ariz. — I have a very pleasant\nmemory of a little country school in the backwoods of Ohio, where I was a boy teacher.\nOne afternoon in February, when the spring sun was melting the winter snows, my school\nhad spent an hour in a maple grove watching the boiling of sap and the making of maple\nsyrup into sugar. On our return to the schoolroom the question was put : \" What shall we\nhave for a pleasant occupation this Friday afternoon ?\" To my surprise I heard an almost\nunanimous exclamation : \" Let us write compositions, and tell how maple syrup and maple\nsugar are made.\" I never had seen a composition exercise in my own school days. My\npupils had seen but one — a crude attempt that we had made a month or two previous. At that time I was inclined to think that their request reflected credit on my work\nas a teacher, but I have long since abandoned that idea. I had only found them in a\nnatural state, not spoiled by wrong methods of teaching.\n\n"}
{"page": 113, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nAMERICAN\n\nUNIVERSITIES\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nNATIONAL\n\nLIFE\n\n103\n\nWe wrote the compositions and read them ; then some good genius suggested that I\nask them to make me as perfect copies as they could, for I should like to preserve them.\nNow came the opportunity for suggesting a change of punctuation here, a capital there,\na division of this sentence, a paragraph here, etc., until each pupil had produced as\nperfect a copy as he was able. The original copies, then, without any mutilation whatever, were decently buried in the waste basket, and the mourners were soon comforted.\nAh ! those sweet little essays, all dripping with maple syrup and sticky with great\nlumps of maple sugar. I believe I still have them preserved in some old box in the garret, for I am keeping the promise made to the children. They are of no value as literature ;I never told the children that they were of any value as literature, but the fact that\nthey were of some value to somebody, for some reason, was of infinite value to them in\nencouraging them to further efforts in writing.\nWe love to call our little one, when she is learning to talk, the prattler, the chatterbox. Ker crude efforts at speech, her baby words and quaint phrases are very entertaining. We parents sometimes set her strange examples. We speak to her in a different\nkey, in distorted sentences and ungrammatical expressions, thinking she will learn\nEnglish easier by imitating these. We teachers do not do such things ; I am only making\na confession for parents. Of course, the child does not imitate us. We sometimes repeat\nher first crude efforts, and perhaps flatter ourselves that we have taught them to her ; but\nthe child, on hearing us or others using more correct forms of speech, soon lays aside the\nbaby expressions in spite of us.\nOn the other hand, when we first attempt to teach children the written speech, we set\nfor them models of excellence which we ourselves may be unable to imitate, and unsparingly criticise their efforts and ridicule their failures. I may be asked : \" Would you set\nbefore a child who is first learning to write examples of misspelled words and distorted\nletters and ungrammatical expressions ? \" I answer, it might be better to do even so\nthan to pass upon their crude attempts such severe criticisms as will tend to deter them\nfrom making further efforts. I have in mind another scene, of which I am not so proud.\nI overheard two girls discussing their essays, which had been returned to them after\npassing under my red-ink pen. One said to the other : \" Did yours catch the scarlet fever\ntoday, or did it get off with an attack of the measles ?\" Then I took my lesson in pedagogy. It is a principle of international law that the victorious warrior must not\nmutilate the dead bodies of the fallen foe. It ought to make one number in every teacher's decalogue : Thou shalt not mutilate the warm and living creations of the children's\nfancy.\nOne other essential of English composition that it seems to me should be emphasized\nis, that every child should be taught an uncompromising regard for truth. One sentence\nof his own ideas, his own opinions, or his own fancies is worth whole pages of foolscap of quotations, extracts, paraphrases, or plagiarisms. He should never forget to love\nthe story and to revere the memory of him who \" did it with his little hatchet.\"\n\nAMERICAN\n\nUNIVERSITIES\n\nBY PRESIDENT\n\nANDREW\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nS. DRAPER, LL.D., OF\nILLINOIS\n\nNATIONAL\nTHE\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nLIFE\nOF\n\nMr. President, and Ladies and Gentlemen :\nThe natural world is in unceasing, universal, rhythmic, periodic motion\nMatter moves in circles, and there is some reason to suppose that the\nsucceeding circles are upon continually advancing planes.\n\n"}
{"page": 114, "printed_page": null, "text": "I04\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nIt is SO with thought. The advanced and sustained thought of the\nworld may easily be marked off into cycles, and the succeeding cycles\nshow wider scope, greater power, larger freedom, ami more rational\nreasoning; and they are laid off upon higher and yet higher planes of\nintellectual progress.\nWhat is is the child of what has been and, in turn, becomes the\nparent of what is to be. Like begets like, but the qualities of the parent\nare intensified in the offspring. It is so in nature, and it is so in thought.\nInstitutions are the concrete products of common thought. They\nadvance as rational thought moves forward, and, in turn, they react upon\nthe thought of the multitude to make it more virile, more logical, more\nfree.\nThe educational institutions of a people measure its progress.\nThey are at the point where the lines of its history converge, and they\ncontain the elements which will determine its destiny. And among a\npeople where thought is free, where the representatives of the people\nexercise the sovereign power and set up institutions at their pleasure for\nthe good of all, the worth of educational institutions is measured by the\ngrade and the scope of the most advanced of them. The elementary\nschools are not the forerunners and the supporters of the advanced\nschools, but the institutions which are disciplining the world's thought\nand contributing to the sum of the world's knowledge must provide the\nteachers who will stimulate the activities and initiate the work which will\nadd to the accomplishments of the schools below. If the destiny of a\nself-governing people is to be ultimately determined by. its public\neducational system, it is to be essentially determined by its colleges and\nits universities; for these above all others of its creations will point\nout the high-water mark of its thought, and give force and direction\nand scope to its energies in the succeeding years. So believing, we\nmay call up the history of our colleges and universities with pride, we\nmay witness their wonderful development in the present generation with\ngreat satisfaction, and look for their influences in the coming years with\nhigh confidence.\nTHE\n\nORIGIN\n\nOF\n\nUNIVERSITIES\n\nThe influences were many, and widely different, which produced universities in the old world. Students followed the footsteps and hung\nupon the words of great teachers, and where the leader paused, there the\nstudents gathered, and a university resulted. The monasteries gave the\ninitiative to universities, and so did the old-time learned professions.\nReligious sects set up universities to propagate their creeds ; monarchs\ncreated them to fortify their thrones and oppress the masses ; and, in\nturn, with the advance of democracy in government, the people established\nthem in celebration of their victories over the kings.\n\n"}
{"page": 115, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nAMERICAN\n\nUNIVERSITIES\n\nAMERICAN\n\nAND\n\nCOLONIAL\n\n»\n\nTHE\n\nNATIONAL\n\nLIFE\n\n105\n\nUNIVERSITIES\n\nThe earlier American colleges sprung from the purposes of the colonists, and were projected upon the lines already laid down in the\nmother country. The earlier educational system of New England was\nvery like the educational system of old England. The colony of Massachusetts, following naturally the very common theories and sympathies\nof that great party in English politics and in the English church with\nwhich her people were allied, founded Harvard College to promote the\nideals of the Puritan theocratic state and the Puritan governmental church\nin New England. Those ideals were exalted, but they were narrow in\nthat they were not democratic. Political and religious, rather than educational, differences put the people of Massachusetts at odds with the person\nand the party of the English king. These differences produced a colonial\ncollege, but, so far as the plans and purposes of that college were concerned, itmight as well, have been set up in old England as in New\nEngland. If the relations of Massachusetts with the king were a little\nstrained, the people of Virginia needed no introduction to the English\ncourt. If Harvard was the representative of the Puritan, William and\nMary was of the cavalier. It had a royal charter. It was well endowed\nby the crown. It sympathized with the king's party in English politics.\nIt wore vestments. Its professors subscribed to the \" thirty-nine articles,\"\nand it stood for the idealism and the extreme ceremonialism of the conformists inthe English church. Of course, if colleges were to be instruments for the propagation of creeds, then the nonconformists as well as\nthe conformists must have colleges. Yale was set up by Connecticut and\nthe Congregational or Independent church ; Princeton by New Jersey and\nthe Presbyterians; Columbia was opened in the interests of the nobility\nand with the purpose avowed of preventing the spread of republican ideas,\nwhich, by the middle of the eighteenth century, it was said, had become\nfar too common in the colony of New York. Of course, its name was\nnot then Columbia, but \" Kings.\" Of the four other institutions established in the colonial days, and which have since grown into colleges or\nuniversities, Pennsylvania stood for the Quakers, Queens (Rutgers) gave\nsustenance to the Reformed (Dutch) church. Brown to the Baptists, and\nDartmouth to the Congregationalists. It is seldom recalled now that the\nlatter was prevented from becoming a state university in name and fact\nby the pleadings of Webster and the elaborate opinion of Marshall in the\nfamous charter suit. All these institutions were, at the beginning, state\ncolleges, but, of course, in no such sense as attaches to the term now.\nNearly all of these colonial colleges had behind them, in some measure, and ordinarily in combination, the three influences which have given\nthe initiative to substantially all of our .American colleges, viz.: ecclesiastical zeal, governmental authority and support, and private benevolence.\n\n"}
{"page": 116, "printed_page": null, "text": "io6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nThey have, most of them, drifted from their original moorings, because\nthey found it necessary to do so in o&der to be of service to a wider constituency. They were established at a time when the accepted theories\nrequired the state to encourage, but not to assure, the facilities for education, and they have for the most part, and very naturally, become independent of government aid.- Save in one conspicuous instance, they have\ngenerally maintained their religious alliances. In that instance the ideals\nwere so narrow and the proceedings so strained that advancing thought\nrevolted. All have become more and more dependent upon private benefactions, and, as wealth has been increased and their children have multiplied, these h'ave been so generous as to enable the most of them to enjoy\nlarge prosperity, and some of them to develop into leading American\nuniversities.\nThese universities, whose origin goes back to the colonial days, for\nwhat they stand and for the influences which they have exerted, must\nalways hold a warm place in the gratitude of the nation. They spoke the\nnation .into independence, and have been the centers of our national\nculture in mind and spirit from the beginning of the national career.\nTheir graduates were the inspiration of the revolution and the framers of\nthe most remarkable scheme in democratic government that the intelligence and courage of the world have produced. The spirit of the minute\nman at Lexington, the spirit of the continental congress, and the wisdom\nof the first constitutional convention came from the men of the colonial\ncolleges. From the revolutionary days till now their sons have inspired\nand limited and directed the nation in the years of its greatest growth\nand severest trials. It is a satisfaction to know that in nearly every case\ntheir own prosperity has kept pace with the national progress, and that\ntheir future is as bright as their work- has been elevating and far-reaching.\nCOLLEGES\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nNATIONAL\n\nPERIOD\n\nNational independence ushered in an educational revival, and very\nsoon there resulted a prolific crop of new colleges. For a hundred\nyears the number has been augmenting. Far oftener than otherwise\nthey have been set up to advance the work of the religious denominations.\nThe most complete list of which I know shows 415 institutions in the\nUnited States claiming college or university grade. Of these upward of\nforty are distinctly state institutions. Of the 375 remaining about 275\npublicly declare that they are under denominational control, and\ndoubtless the greater number of the rest are really so. If it should be\nlearned in certain quarters that some — like Oberlin, Beloit, Hamilton,\nAmherst, and Princeton — thought they were not so, their condition of\nmind would surely call forth the prayers of the church and congregation,\nand it may well be surmised that early steps would be taken to bring\n\n"}
{"page": 117, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nAMERICAN\n\nUNIVERSITIES\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nNATIONAL\n\nLIFE\n\n1 07\n\nthem to a realization of some things which it would be deemed important\nfor them to know. With the exception of Princeton, which certainly has\ngained it, the best of these institutions lay no claim to university standing, altho some of the poorer of them frequently do. While a few\ninstitutions of high grade and without sectarian leanings have recently\ncome into considerable prominence thru their wealth and the munificence\nof benefactors, the fact unquestionably is that outside of the state\nuniversities the overwhelming number of American institutions of\nadvanced learning have resulted from the efficiency of church organizations and the penetrating power of religious thought.\nTHE\n\nDENOMINATIONAL\n\nCOLLEGES\n\nThese denominational or Christian colleges, as they are called, have\nbeen a very potent factor in advancing higher education. They have\nbeen well adapted to pioneer conditions and have been effective educational pioneers. Some have had sufficient support to enable them to\nmeet the needs of wider constituencies and older communities. The\nstrongest of them have dropped, or assumed to drop, their denominational\ncharacters in order to attract students from outside of their denomination.\nBut very commonly their endowments have been inadequate, and as the\neducational advantages about them have become enlarged and improved,\nthey have been unable to keep abreast of the progress of educational\nevents.\nMany are languishing, and the lights of some have gone out.\nThe question as to what is to become of the denominational colleges\nis much thought of and frequently discussed. It is impossible to\nconsider it with any thoroness here. It seems clear to me that they\nmust stand or fall upon their merits, and upon their merits from the\nstandpoint of higher education rather than from the standpoint of\nsectarianism. Everyone wishes them well. But the trend of progress\nis inexorable. The standards of higher education in this country are\ngoing to advance and become more firmly fixed. The time is rapidly\ncoming — in some parts it has now come — when no one can lower those\nstandards or hinder their advance without being discredited. A weak\ncollege on a private foundation ought not to stand in the way of a good\npublic high school. On the other hand, I have no thought that the high\nschool is to become the college of the future. At least until the time\nwhen our territory is very much more thickly settled than now, there is\nreason to believe that the high schools will do less advanced rather than\nmore advanced work than they are now trying to do. The colleges need\nhave no fear of being without a field or of being robbed of their opportunities. They may do a work which the sentiments of average communities will not support the high schools in doing, and which it is either\nnot practicable for the universities to do or which large numbers of\nstudents cannot go to the universities to secure.\nThe colleges which are\n\n"}
{"page": 118, "printed_page": null, "text": "lo8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nable to adjust themselves to the new conditions and occupy this field will\ncontinue to be supported ; such as pretend to hold university grade, and\nsuch as rest their claims to support wholly or mainly upon sectarian\ngrounds, will go the way the old-line academies in the eastern states have\ngone; for differences in creeds are not sufficient bases for systems of\neducation equal to the support of free institutions, and the people of\nthis country have deliberately determined that there shall be a general\nsystem of education in America, commencing at the bottom and reaching to the top, to which every son and daughter of the people shall have\nfree access, without regard to the religious, political, or social differences\nof their fathers.\nTHE\n\nSTATE\n\nUNIVERSITIES\n\nThe founding of state universities was a distinct advance in American\neducation. It has become the most significant educational movement\nof the last half century. It came when the mind of the nation began to\nrealize. that self-governing states did not exist for security or for fighting\npower alone, but for the intellectual and moral progress of their citizens ;\nthat the opportunity to make the most of himself was the inherited right\nof every child of the republic ; that education was a matter of public\neven more than of private concern ; that it was a function of the state,\nnot merely to encourage, but to insure the best educational facilities which\nthe world's experience had evolved ; that the college and university were\nlegitimate parts of the public educational system ; and that it was incumbent upon the state to commit the leadership of its educational work to\nuniversities supported and controlled by the people. To that great\nmovement, which has already supplied by far the larger number of leading universities to the country, I am justified in giving considerable space.\nThese universities rest upon stable foundations. Most of them have\nhad the advantage of the land-grant acts; and their perpetual support by\nthe states is a matter of inviolable contract between the nation and the individual slates. No state could break the contract if it would, and certainly\nnone would desire to do so. The state universities have their roots in the\nconstitutions of many of the states, and these have been adopted by the\npeople and can be changed only by the people. Better even than that —\nthey are a part of the policy and the history of their states. They have\nshared in the public lands of the states; many have a special state-tax\nlevy. They constitute a very important part of the free-school systems\nof their states ; they are articulated with the secondary and elementary\npublic schools as no other higher institutions of learning ever can be.\nTheir graduates* are scattered over their states, are apostles of higher\neducation upon a free basis, and are already numerous and influential in\nthe public life of their states. The people believe in them ; they have\ninvested in them ; they have done it with deliberation, to the end that\n\n"}
{"page": 119, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nAMERICAN\n\nUNIVERSITIES\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nNATIONAL\n\nLIFE\n\n1 09\n\ntheir children and their grandchildren may have the benefit, and their\nstate the security and the glory, of it. In a word, the state universities\nare as stable as the states th.emselves, and infinitely more so than any\ninstitution upon private or ecclesiastical foundation can ever hope to be.\nOf course, the whims of new legislators in their freshman year will cause\na little commotion now and then ; but criticism upon a state university\nis only helpful, and a move to abolish such an institution would start as\nmuch fun as a motion to annul the constitution and go back to a nomadic\nlife.\nIn characteristics the state universities are much alike. They have\nhad similar origins, and their hearts have been stirred by the same enthusiastic, warm-hearted constituencies ; they have all been under about the\nsame influences, and they have all aimed at substantially the same ideals.\nThey have been moving along the same lines, and with a force and rapidity\nwhich are unprecedented. Many of them are farther along than Harvard\nwas after 225 years and up to the time of President Eliot. There are\nnot ten other institutions in America doing work of as much diversity\nand as high grade as twenty of these state universities are doing. Forty\nof them have 2,700 instructors, 33,000 students, 60,000 graduates,\n$22,000,000 of productive funds, and annual incomes aggregating\n$6,000,000. Ten ef them have 175 buildings, 1,800 instructors, and\n18,000 students in collegiate and professional courses. Their entrance\nrequirements are on a level with those of Yale. Taking their literary,\nscientific, engineering, and agricultural lines together with their work in\nthe fine arts, with their schools of medicine and of law, and their graduate\nschools, and their articulated relations with the public schools of their\nstates, and their university extension work — and surely they are coming\nto be well abreast of, and in some ways have a great advantage over,\nthe half dozen leading universities of the East ; and outside of these there\nare none to be compared to them in resources and in multiplicity and\ncharacter of work.\nCLASSIFICATION\n\nOF UNIVERSITIES.\n\nAmerican colleges and universities may be separated, so far as origin is\nconcerned, into three classes, viz.: (i) ecclesiastical institutions ; (2) privately endowed institutions, which are frequently, but not always, of the\nfirst class also ; (3) state institutions. So far as aim and purpose are concerned, they may perhaps be placed in two classes : (i) institutions which\nnourish learning, in order that it may promote a cherished and ordinarily\na righteous cause ; (2) institutions which extend learning for learning's\nsake, follow its lead, no matter what interest it supports, and love it\nbecause they know it contributes to the liberation of God's infinite truth.\nThe English universities have been very representative of the former\nclass, and all of the earlier American institutions have very naturally\n\n"}
{"page": 120, "printed_page": null, "text": "110\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nfollowed the English thought and copied the English plans. That\nthought was right, so far as it went; but it was illiberal, for it was the\nthought of the aristocracy; those plans were well, so far as they were\nmatured; but they were incomplete, for they were lacking in provision for\nthe poor, and made no attempt to carry the higher learning into the life\nand the vocations of the millions. And they were accordingly unequal\nto the support of American institutions.\nTHE\n\nSPIRIT OF THE\n\nNATION\n\nThe spirit of a nation fixes the character of its schools. Before the\nCivil War some of the states had begun the development of state universities. In the very darkest days of the fratricidal conflict, when filled\nwith anxiety and bowed down with anguish, the nation entered upon the\ngeneral policy of carrying the higher learning into the homes and fields\nand workshops, as well as into the offices and the pulpits, of the people.\nIt was a great step in the complete evolution of the American publicschool system. It supplied a unique educational system with a unique\nand inspiring crown.\nADAPTING\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nPLANS\n\nTO AMERICAN\n\nNEEDS\n\nThe new movement adopted the different features of the older\ninstitutions, so far as they were adaptable to American life and American\nneeds, and rejected the rest. What was then lacking it supplied. It\ntook the culturing work of the English scheme and discarded its illiberality. It seized the spirit of scientific research, the methods of instruction\nthru doing, and the love of universal learning so characteristic of the\nGermans; but it refused their administrative and official indifference to\nthe habits of life and the ethical worth of their students. Realizing that\nthe one system labored for the man more than for the student, and that\nthe other system labored for the student more than for. the man, it\nselected the elements of both which could be utilized for the highest\ndevelopment of the man and the student in the same person. It took as\nthe cornerstone of its foundations the sound pedagogic principle that\nintellectual virility, moral heroism, and industrial skill combine in the\nevolution of the deepest student and the strongest man, and are natural\nyoke-fellows in a democratic state. It not only came to the help of the\npeople, but, as it was designed to do, it soon began to assert itself in the\naffairs of the state. It put away all intolerance of religious opinion ; it\nwelcomed woman ; it began to energize and uplift the common schools\nbelow it ; it ushered in a new era in educational thought ; it did it by\nsovereign authority; it broke out new roads with majestic tread ; it began\nto supply instruction of higher grade to every applicant who came prepared for it, in whatever studies he desired to pursue. And it did it all\nat a minimum of cost.\n\n"}
{"page": 121, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nAMERICAN\n\nUNIVERSITIES\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nNATIONAL\n\nLIFE\n\n111\n\nIt goes without saying that this mighty movement has had a telling\ninfluence upon the great states west of the Ohio. And what a change\nthis new upbuilding in the West has produced in the East! Harvard and\nYale and Princeton and Columbia entered upon the elective system and\nundertook to stop purely dogmatic assertion and catechetical instruction.\nOf course, they think they did it upon their own motion ; indeed, they\nsometimes say that they invented the new plans. It is a self-satisfying\nand harmless delusion. The new plans came directly from a versatile\nand vigorous people. The oldest eastern universities changed their plans,\nafter the University of Michigan had led the way, and under the influences\nof the fresh breezes which began to blow from the prairies and the\nmountains of the north central states. Others followed in their wake, as\nfar as the conditions and traditions would allow. New institutions copied,\nas far as funds would permit. Some have languished under changed\nand inevitable circumstances, to which they were either unable or unwilling to adjust themselves. The result is a revolution in educational processes almost complete.\nREACHING\n\nTHE\n\nHOMES\n\nIt was the original intention that this movement should bring the\nhigher learning to the very hearthstones of the common people, and it\nis doing so. The road from the primary school up to the university is\ncontinuous and easy. Many have already passed over that road. A very\nmuch greater number will follow it, for in every comfortable western\nhome the boys and girls of high-school age are thinking about going to\ncollege. What they are seeing and hearing is firing them with the zeal\nfor learning and for conquest. Of course, it brings together a freshman\nclass lacking some of the graces of dancing masters and some of the\ndiplomacy of corporation managers; but it gathers one which brings\ngood, rich, new blood to the aristocracy of learning, which soon finds the\npoint of equipoise between the field and the shop, on the one hand, and\nthe swallow-tailed coat, on the other, without being afraid of either, and\nwhich certainly is not lacking in the qualities which are most capable of\nattaining the stability and the progress of the nation.\nTHE\n\nCURRICULUM\n\nIf the cosmopolitan and democratic policy of the student body is a\nfeature of the state universities, the breadth of their foundations and the\nmultiplicity of their courses, with the largest liberty of selection, are no\nless so. The central thought of the congressional legislation to which\nthe most of them owe their origin, tho not the greater part of their\nsupport, is that the industries of the nation shall be lifted up to the plane\nof the professions, and that a national system of higher education broad\nenough for all, with arms reaching out so as to embrace the employments\n\n"}
{"page": 122, "printed_page": null, "text": "112\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Genera\n\nof all the people, should be evenly and harmoniously developed. It is\ntrue that the purpose has been sometimes misapprehended, and perhaps\nsometimes misrepresented. It was not to make less of the humanities —\nthat is, the languages, literatures, belles lettres, etc. — unless less were needful to the harmonious evolution of all the human powers ; but it was\ncertainly to make more of the branches particularly applicable to the\ncircumstances and life of the people. The languages, ancient and modern;\nthe literatures of the world, with all their treasures; history, with all its\ninspiration; mathematics, with all its exacting discipline, continue and will\nalways continue. They continue with less superstitious idol-worship,\nbut even with keener relish; for the stomach is robust, and the food is\ntreated with more philosophic judgment and more discriminating sense.\nLaw and medicine are not only being placed upon foundations of learning\nand advanced to the plane of college and professional work, but they\nare being given new life and power thru research and discussion,\nthrough dissection and demonstration — the method so characteristic of\nthe new. scientific spirit in the world. And how this scientific spirit distinguishes the state universities ! They did not get it from either old\nEngland or New England, but it is breathing thru all their work and\nleading them into endless fields of which our fathers never dreamed. It\ngives intensity and fascination to the study of the universe, and brings\nthe processes and forces of nature to the study of man and his affairs.\nTHE\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nARTS\n\nPerhaps no feature of the state universities is more characteristic than\nthe extent to which they are applying scientific principles to the advancement of the industrial arts. If a people is to grow great, its schools\nmust support and shape its industries. No nation can be strong which\nis not a nation of workers. Work is education. Education is the\nproduct of the contacts and experiences of life. The application of\nscientific principles improves the work, and the improvement of the work\nuplifts the worker. It not only uplifts the worker, but it uplifts his wife\nand the home she manages, and his children and the schools they attend,\nand the society of which they are all a part, and the nation to which they\ngive their loyalty and their love.\nOn the night after the awards in the department of industrial arts at\nthe world's exposition of 1878 a company of English manufacturers and\nstatesmen met in Paris, in humiliation and chagrin, to consider what\nmight have been. They had been accustomed to secure the major part\nof the awards, but this time the honors had gone to others. This and\nthat reason was assigned. Some questioned the fairness of the judges.\nSir Lion Playfair put a shot in the bull's eye when he said : \"Gentlemen,\nit is better that we undeceive ourselves. It is the polytechnic schools of\nthe continent that are beating us. We shall lose our primacy irretrievably\n\n"}
{"page": 123, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nAMERICAN\n\nUNIVERSITIES\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nNATIONAL\n\nLIFE\n\nII3\n\nunless we do much more for the technical schools than we have been\ndoing.\" And Britain has been profiting by the lesson. The intelligence\nof the British empire is agitated upon that subject today as upon no other\nphase of popular education. And the conditions call more irresistibly for\nattention to the subject in the United States than in Europe. Between\n1840 and 1890 the population of Europe increased 50 per cent., from\n240,000,000 to 350,000,000; but their manufactures advanced 300 per\ncent., from 55,500,000,000 to $15,000,000,000. In the same time the\npopulation of the United States went up 370 per cent., from ■ 17,000,000\nto 63,000,000, and our manufactures advanced 1,800 per cent., from\n$500,000,000 to $9,000,000,000. In other words, the growth of our\nmanufactures did not keep pace with theirs when population is considered. Notwithstanding the volume of our agricultural products, and\nnotwithstanding the greater needs of people in new homes, and our muchvaunted genius at invention and construction, the balance of our foreign\ntrade in raw and manufactured merchandise has been against us more\nyears than otherwise since 1840.\nThe mixture of races — the general shaking up — should have produced\n— and, we believe, has produced a brighter, — a more versatile and vigorous\npeople here than is left there. Doubtless, upon the average, they live\nbetter, are more evenly educated, and are more ambitious than the people\nof Europe. Our resources of fields and mines and waters are much\ngreater than theirs. We should have advanced in manufactures more\nrapidly than they. We, as well as Great Britain, must face the inevitable.\nIf this nation is to stand strong and great among the nations, it must\npay serious attention to the training and diffusion of engineering talent;\nit must have a scientific system of industrial schooling extending from\nthe university to the primary grade, to the end that we mdiy produce more\nper capita than the people of other nations. Nothing else will assure this,\nunless an evenly balanced system of education will do so. Possibly most\nof us believe that we may make laws capable of affording some assistance\nin this matter, but in the end we shall find unquestionably that the quality,\nand doubtless the volume and value, of our products must depend upon\nour schools much more than upon our laws.\nThe man must always remain greater than the machine. In spite of\nthe application of steam and electricity and the use of all manner of\nmechanical devices, the personal element must remain the dominant\nfactor in production. It was, indeed, a wise statesmanship which, by the\nside of the old-time classical and linguistic studies, established scientific\ntraining in the agricultural and mechanical arts as a distinguishing feature\nof the great national system of advanced schools which was called into\nbeing by the Morrill act. A system of education which omits the scientific treatment of soils and orchards and the animal industries, and which\nhas no direct and practical application to architecture, to civil, electrical.\n\n"}
{"page": 124, "printed_page": null, "text": "114\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nED UCA TIONAL\n\nASSOC! A TION\n\nLGeneral\n\nmechanical, sanitary, mining, and railroad engineering, may be all right\nas far as it goes, but certainly it is a very one-sided system. It is idle to\ngrow emotional over a college education for boys and girls from the farms\nand the factories, unless the sympathies of the college for the farm and\nthe factory are real, and unless the curriculum of the college connects\nwith the thought and the work which prevail there. Learning and labor\nmust walk together. Learning must keep labor upon her feet; labor\nmust hold learning upon the earth. Neither is to grovel or soar.\nThey are to walk uprightly in the dignity of true manhood and womanhood, with faces to the rising sun, and with hearts keyed to the music of\nthe skies. When that union is complete, it will be the schools, rather than\nthe, laws, which will make it so. The great effort to complete it is one of\nthe distinguishing features of the state universities. The results are\nalready beginning to be apparent. The association of the work in the\nhumanities with the work on the experiment farms and in the draftingrooms, the shops, and the great engineering laboratories of our state universities isturning the educational thought of the country. It is true\nthis work is but just begun, but it is already giving a great uplift to labor ;\nand it is already giving more breadth and robustness to learning. It is\ndoing much more. When laying foundations which will enable American products to command American markets and have a fair chance in\nthe markets of the world, it promotes the best and highest education\nthru the association of the strongest qualities of the human race ; and it\ncements the common brotherhood when it opens the way for the play of\nthat wondrous harpsichord of nature which finds a home in every human\nbreast, and which, if given a chance, will make the wide world kin.\nPUBLIC\n\nQUESTIONS\n\nAs the coming of a broader era in ethical thought, and of new\neconomic and social conditions, led self-governing and rapidly growing\nstates to set up state universities, it might well be expected that those universities would be distinguished at an early day for their work in the field\nof philosophic thought as applied to what may well be called \" public\nquestions.\" The expectation has in some measure been realized. Public\nquestions are not lacking either in urgency or in number, and the state\nuniversities are attacking them with an independence of judgment and an\ninherited aptitude for scientific methods of investigation which are most\nencouraging.\nLet us take an example. Recent years have witnessed a very marked\nchange in the composition of the American people, and practically a\ncomplete disappearance of the economic conditions upon which the common thought of the nation has been predicated from its birth. Indeed,\nit is not too much to say that we are at the point of juncture between two\nof those mighty epochs which mark off the history of the world into\n\n"}
{"page": 125, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nAMERICAN\n\nUNIVERSITIES\n\nAND\n\nT/IE XATIOS'AL\n\nUPE\n\n\\\\$\n\ncycles. A government made and administered upon the basis of manhood\nsuffrage, the like of which the world never saw before, is trying to pass\nthis danger point in safety. It is a sublime spectacle. We are encountering unprecedented perplexities. The dangers are many. Other\nnations have perished in less perilous breakers. Because the good ship's\ncrew is an American crowd, and proverbially confident and good natured,\nit is not wise to put aside the sufferings and the protests of our fellows\nwith indifference or derision. The well-being of every citizen is a high\nconcern of democratic government. The new use of physical forces and\nthe marvelous evolution of machinery are preventing men who want work\nfrom getting it, or from getting so much as they need. Vast aggregations\nof capital are concentrating industries and economizing construction so\nas to control the markets of the world, and this cuts wages and paralyzes\nindividual enterprise. Then the wage-earners combine in a heroic struggle for more work and better pay. Great labor organizations cover the\nland. Tho calculated to attract the shiftless, they are characterized by a\nlarge measure of self-restraint and a very systematic procedure. While\nall this is coming to pass, thousands of men have accumulated millions\nof money in so brief a time as to forbid the belief that energy and prudence have been the only factors in the gathering of their estates. It is\na common belief that these monstrous fortunes have resulted from laws\nthat are not even-handed, from unlawful business practices, and from undue\ngrants of public power. Worse still, it is the common conviction that\nthese great aggregations of wealth and power are used improperly and\neffectually, thru the political machinery of the country, to exact further legislation in their own interest and to control the officers whose\nduty it is to construe and execute the laws. And all this has shaken the\ntraditional belief that all men stand equal before the law, on the one hand,\nand has sensibly diminished the common respect of the multitudes for\nofficials, and that common confidence in the acts of the government\nwhich is the inviolable life-principle of a constitutional state.\nIt will not do to pass such matters by with the superficial thought\nthat in some way we have shuffled thru troubles in the past and shall\ndoubtless do it again. If the old, proud boast that an American child\nwho is at the bottom of the ladder today has an even chance with every\nother child of being at the top of it tomorrow is even doubted, then it\nis to be made good beyond peradventure. If old laws do not apply to\nnew economic conditions, then new laws are to be made which do. It is\nthe function of the state to teach historically the priceless value of organized society and to prove objectively that civic institutions are of equal\nvalue to all. Thrift is to be encouraged by respecting and rewarding it,\nbut overreaching is to be limited rather than promoted by law. The\nrich must pay for the safeguards which community life has thrown around\nThe\nthe property which community life has enabled them to acquire.\n\n"}
{"page": 126, "printed_page": null, "text": "Ii6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\npoor are to be given education, and all the other concomitants of democratic government, in kind and quality, which will take hold upon their\nmanner of life and assure them a rightful share in the present benefits\nand the ultimate destiny of human society. The movement for securing\nthese great ends will have to rest upon research that is reliable as well as\nupon reasoning that is philosophic; and such movements will have to\nbe sustained by schools which are neither disposed to coddle the people\nbecause they want their votes nor fawn upon the patrons of enormous\nwealth in the hope of favors yet to come. This is only an example, but\nit is sufficient to show that the political science of a cosmopolitan and\nself-governing people may well have the leavening and leveling influence\nof independent and democratic universities.\nCATHOLICITY\n\nOF\n\nSPIRIT\n\nCatholicity of spirit is a distinguishing feature of the state universities. Out of this fact, altho it is a chief element of their strength, has\ngrown the main, if not the only, criticism which has been brought against\nthem.\nIt is high time that anyone who is in the\" road of the irresistible trend\nof American common life should find it out. Superstitious reverence\nfor creeds is passing away. Much of the best blood of the world has\nbeen shed in religious wars, but it will not be so hereafter. We have\nabout passed thru a religious revolution without bloodshed. It is, perhaps,\nthe first peaceful religious revolution in history, and, better than that, it\nis one which makes for future peace. Life is greater than dogma. As\npatriotism is above party, so oneness with the God of the universe is not\nin the keeping of synods and assemblies. The followers of the union flag\nand of a common Lord will be glad to affiliate with and support a denomination, but they are going to live in common association without so\nmuch reference to denominations, and the education of their children is\nnot going to be limited by the peculiar plans of prophets, priests, and\nkings, i happen to be a member of the Presbyterian church, with pride\nin its history and interest in its destiny. There are three times as many\nmembers of that church in the student body of the University of Illinois\nas in the two Presbyterian colleges of that state put together, and, unless\nrevolutions move backward, their number is going to increase. They are\nbeing more broadly, thoroly, and wisely educated, because educated in\nassociation with Methodists and Baptists and Roman Catholics, and in\nassociation with every branch of learning and every higher interest of a\ncosmopolitan people.- To suppose that these students, men and women\ngrown, are going to permit their mingling with the multitude to lead\nthem away from the Presbyterian fold is to suppose that the arms of that\nchurch are weaker than they are, or that the moral character of her young\npeople is less substantial than it is.\n\n'i'hey are not going to separate from\n\n"}
{"page": 127, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nAMERICAN\n\nUNIVERSITIES\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nNATIONAL\n\nLIFE\n\n117\n\nthe church, unless in cases where\" they would in any event, but\nthey are\ngoing to draw\nthe dominant powers of that church closer to the heart\nof\nthe national life.\nTo characterize a state university as a godless and irreligious institution would be the same as characterizing an American state as a godless\nand irreligious state, or a state educational system as an irreligious system. Itwould be a thoughtless and unjustifiable aspersion, for both the\nstate and its university are the creations o7 people whose history, sympathies, and intuitions are all based upon the fundamental principles of\nthe Christian religion. As well said by Judge Storey, we have no established religion, and never will have ; .we have no written law to connect\nchurch and state, and never will have ; but the Christian church and\nAmerican institutions are so closely interwoven that an attack upon one\nis an attack upon the other. It is a great mistake, and an altogether too\ncommon one, to think that the necessary exclusion of denominational\nteaching from the state institutions, because of denominational differences\nand zeal, naturally means the exclusion of spiritual culture altogether.\nThe separation of the world's people into different religious parties was\naltogether natural and desirable. It has counted heavily for the spread\nof religion and the advance of civilization, and it will doubtless continue\nto do so; But people are not thinking as they once did. There is\na great mass of people — doubtless nine-tenths of the intelligent citizens\nof this country — who, in the twilight of nineteenth-century intellectual\nprogress, while glad to cherish the denomination which suits them best,\nor into which they have come by chance, will yet refuse to believe that\nthe mere matters of form or ceremony or theological mysticism, which\nare in difference between the teachers of religious sects, constitute all, or\nany considerable part, of religion. The state uni-versities will not live in\nanybody's ruins, and they are very ready to let alone the religious differences and the theological disputations in which the experts have such\nsplendid times. But they will teach all the rest of Christianity, and they\nwill continue to illustrate the fact, that entire toleration of religious\nopinion does not deaden religious thought, but, on the contrary, and in\npre-eminent degree among scholars, it promotes the freedom of discussion, itenlarges the outlook, it broadens and sharpens the sympathies, and\nit makes for the fuller expression of the higher qualities of human nature\nin noble acts which must always continue to control sects and states alike.\nSuch education, in such associations, can be made better by nothing\nso much as by that readjustment in plans to which it inevitably leads.\nIf the denominations will come, in full measure, into sympathy with the\nthought which permeates this great work; if they will take for their children such parts of the general education, which the state is so willing and\nable to give, as will qualify them for their work in life; if they will\nreserve their own resources for such purely sectarian and theological\n\n"}
{"page": 128, "printed_page": null, "text": "Il8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\ninstruction as they may think well to give, and will maintain their special\nschools in mutual and helpful relations with those of the state — they will\nshow worldly wisdom, for they will enlarge the efficiency of their special\nschools ; they will find their pulpits in closer touch with life, for the\nteachings of their ministry will be more attractive to the multitude, and\nthey will give the help which is needed and which they may give easily\nto shape the course and quicken and direct the feelings of the universities.\nPATRIOTIC\n\nAIMS\n\nAll educational institutions may be presumed to exist for patriotic\naims, but with the coming of the l^nd-grant institutions there came into\nthe higher educational work of the country new elements which were to\ncontribute much to the organized strength of the nation. Scientific\nprinciples were not only to be applied to mechanics, so that all the\nresources would be developed and all the industries directed, in the confidence that this would multiply the work and enhance the prosperity of\nthe people, but scientific principles were to be applied in liberal measure\nto those particular branches of mechanics which relate to effectiveness in\nwar. The result is plainly evident in the strength and effectiveness of\nAmerican arms in the war with Spain. But very much more than this\nwas undertaken, and the result of that is evident also. The congressional\nact to which most of the state universities trace their greatest inspiration,\nif not their origin, became a law in the very darkest hour of the nation's\nmaturer life.\nIt was just at the close of the series of melancholy military defeats\nin the memorable campaign upon the James river, in which 15,000\ncitizen union soldiers had died in battle that the nation might live ; it\nwas when the national capitol was uncovered and the very continuance\nof the government in doubt, that the greatest of the presidents used\nthe same penful of ink to sign the call for 300,000 more men for\nthe army and to sign the act providing for the endowment of state\nuniversities. Is it any wonder that the act carried a provision that\nevery institution it spoke into existence, \"to promote the liberal and practical education of the industrial classes in the several pursuits and professions of life,\" should also maintain a department of military science ?\nSince then many boys have wished it were not so, but many boys have\nwished many things which were not good for them. It helps their physique, it gives them elasticity of step and manliness of carriage, and,\nperhaps better than all, it is an object-lesson in obedience without compromise. But all this was not the sum of the purpose of the congressional\nrequirement. The distinct purpose of that requirement was to train educated young men for officers in the army of the United States. It has\nfulfilled its purpose so well that regiments and batallions rivaling the one\nat the United States Military Academy upon the Hudson have become\n\n"}
{"page": 129, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nAMERICAN\n\nUNIVERSITIES\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nNATIONAL\n\nLIFE\n\nno\n\ndistinguished features of the state universities. Not long ago\nI heard\nGeneral Merritt — who was for several years commandant at the\nUnited\nStates Military Academy, and is now leading our armed forces across\nthe\nseas to co-operate with Dewey and take possession of the Philippi\nnes, at\nleast until the time when Spain shall pay us roundly for her deviltry\nat\nour doors— say that a certain university cadet regiment was the most\nperfect cadet organization he had ever seen. These young, scientifically\ntrained mechanics and soldiers are exerting their powers in the army and\nnavy. The result was seen at Manila and again at Santiago. It will be\nseen in larger measure hereafter, whenever and wherever it may be necessary to send the armed forces of the United States to discharge the Godimposed functions of a Christian nation and command the peace of the\nworld in the interests of free institutions and the universal progress.\nTHE\n\nINFLUENCE\n\nOF\n\nSTATE\n\nUNIVERSITIES\n\nIf I have dwelt at some length upon the distinguishing features of the\nstate universities, it is not more because of my familiarity with them than\nbecause of my belief that they represent the latest and greatest and the\nmost unique step in the evolution of popular education, and have exerted\na revolutionizing influence upon all of the higher educatiorial work of the\ncountry. Springing from ajl the people of a state, they have ministered\nto the higher life of all the people of the state, and their marvelous growth\nhas shown the older universities the course which they must take to\nattract a wide constituency in all the states. The older universities have\ntaken that course, so far as they can. They have taken it so generally\nas to make that course the course of a national system of education. It\nis idle to debate the details of this great movement or assume to parcel\nout the credit of it. It was a movement of the people. It came along in\nthe Almighty's time, just as the other movements have come along which\nhave shaped the thought and molded the life of the nation. It came\nbecause it was necessary that a vast enterprise in free government should\nhave a system of education with the elements which would enable a free\npeople to become a great and well-balanced people.\nIf the needs of the nation have produced universities and determined\nthe characteristics of the educational system, the life of the nation is in\nturn being quickened and directed by them. History is here repeating\nitself. The histories of the universities and the histories of the nations\nare more closely related than we are accustomed to recall. The distinguishing features of the English universities are easily traceable to the\nformative period of English life. The early development of religious\nfreedom and civil liberty in middle Europe has had much to do with the\nfree and scientific spirit of the German schools. The universities of the\nolder American states inherited their organization and plans, their philosoi)hy and ideals, from old England.\nThey grafted upon them their own\n\n"}
{"page": 130, "printed_page": null, "text": "120\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\ntheological views, and their colonial life exerted some other inconsiderable influences upon them. But the old English universities, the German\nuniversities, and the earlier American universities sprang from the world's\nprogress and radiated the influences which have broken out the roads for\nstill further progress. We are advancing to the time when the general*\nunlocking of the truth shall make the whole world free. Institutions are\nnot the ends ; they are only means. It is with institutions as with men.\nThey do their work, and then, if they cannot do the higher work which\nis to be done, they give way to others which can. The glory and the\nhope of the world are in the fact that its succeeding cycles are upon continually advancing planes.\nAll classes and all institutions will have to recognize the inexorable\nlogic of events.* Freedom has been making headway in the intellectual\nlife of the world, and more rapidly in this country than in any other.\nThere has been a great and a distinctive movement in higher education\nin America, and it will have to be reckoned with, and it ought to be. It\nhas been, initiated by the people. It is now widespread and strong. It\nhas become a part of the national history and an inspiration in the\nnational life. It is a broad and beneficent movement. It appeals to\nevery intellectual, every spiritual, every material interest of the nation.\nIt is thoroly American. It is aiming at general results. It is opposed\nto no enterprise which accords with the common well-being of the people.\nIt will aid every individual and stimulate every right interest willing to\naccept it. It necessitates recognition and the readjustment of plans.\nTrue wisdom will see this, and true policy will support this great movement, make it as strong as possible, and get all the help which it can\ngive, for it has become the backbone of a national system of education\nwhich is equal to the support of free institutions.\nTHE\n\nDISTINGUISHING\n\nFEATURES\n\nOK\n\nAMERICAN\n\nUNIVERSITIES\n\nThe life in our American universities is very typical of the life in our\nAmerican states. The life in our universities is in very large measure a\nrealization of the aspirations of the life in our states.\nThat life is thoroly democratic. Every language and creed and\nsocial condition is represented. Swallow-tailed coats are somewhat conspicuous inthe East and, perhaps, somewhat conspicuous by their absence\nin the West, but the greater number are learning the uses of the swallowtail, on the one hand, and paying larger respect to the manual industries,\non the other. Students who must leave college at times to earn money with\nwhich to finish work side by side with others who never earned a dollar in\ntheir lives. Men and women meet upon an equality in their work, and\nmingle freely in social life. The whole body is stronger and better for it.\nBy reason of this the West has been saved from much of the innate foolishness which centers in the female seminaries of the East.\nEvery phase of\n\n"}
{"page": 131, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nAMERICAN\n\nUNIVERSITIES\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nNATIONAL\n\nLIFE\n\nT2l\n\nlife end thought is the subject of discussion. Differences of birth or station or of lines of work count for little; character and scholarship count\nfor much. If one lacks moral fiber, he soon suffers from it ; if he takes a\nposition, he will have to defend it; if he is lazy, wealth and keenness will\nnot save him. Pretense is of no avail. There is no favoritism. University opinion and the term examinations are inexorable. Everyone soon\nfinds his level. The prevailing traits are steadiness, seriousness, enthusiasm, and cheerfulness. Animal spirits run high. Ambition is strong.\nThe freshman longs to be a sophomore, and the sophomore to be a\njunior, and the junior glories in the fact that he will next year be a senior; and as the senior sees the happy vision fleeting from him, he wishes\nhe was a freshman again. It is the survival of the best and the strongest,\nbut the best and the strongest form the larger part of the whole student\nbody. All the influences make, riot for the polished nobleman, whether\nhe is a scholar or not, as the English universities do ; not for scholarship\nwith indifference as to manhood, as the German universities do; not for\nenlarging upon or perpetuating the artificial differences of life ; but make\nfor both manhood and scholarship, for toleration of opinion, for affinity\nof feeling, and for the best ideals of American citizenship.\nThe universities of this country which are going to endure and exert\na decisive influence upon our great public educational system, and so\nupon the life of the nation, have not been imported. They have resulted\nfrom our conditions, our ideals, our aspirations. They have been set up\nby an earnest, hardy, pioneer people, ready to labor, to give, and to wait\nin order that their children might fare better than they, and in order that\nthe faith which brought their fathers over the sea might be certain of a\nfruition in the largest and the most beneficent results. The people were not\nwilling that the institutions of higher learning should rest upon mere differences in creeds, be left to the precarious support of the wealthy, or be\npermitted to fall under the control of a class. They followed a great\nnational impulse, an impulse which laid foundations for new universities\nand changed the characters of older ones. They followed no pattern.\nThey took whatever seemed good and proved adaptable to American life,\nwherever they could find it, and added new features from their own\nexperiences and their own thought, and those features were neither few\nnor insignificant.\n\nWhat they did is giving the nation its chief glory. It is making the\nhighest learning more popular and free in these states than anywhere else\non the globe. It is raising' the standard of living. It is training college men and women, not for study alone, but for life; it is educating\nthem to engage in all the activities and lead the thought of the crowd,\nand not educating them away from the masses, as of old ; it is maintaining the equilibrium of interests in the nation, holding the people to the\nfoundation principles of free government, and carrying to coming genera-\n\n"}
{"page": 132, "printed_page": null, "text": "122\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\ntions the guarantees of the great charters of English liberty and popular\nfreedom. It is doing this by teaching and exemplifying the doctrine\nthat constitutional states exist not for the few, but for all ; not for security\nand power alone, but for freedom and the just rights of everyone ; not\nfor ribbons, and gold braid, and armies, and shows, but for individual\nopportunity and the common\n\nprogress. It is insuring all this by pur-\n\nsuing learning for learning's sake, by dignifying skilled labor as well as\nintellectual study, by associating the powers of the brain and heart and\nhand together, by giving every son and daughter of the people an equal\nchance, and by paying the highest respect to those who go the farthest\nand accomplish the most for themselves and for the race.\n\nOUR\n\nEDUCATIONAL EXHIBIT\nAT THE INTERNATIONAL\nEXPOSITION IN PARIS IN igoo\nBY W. T. HARRIS,\n\nUNITED\n\nSTATES\n\nCOMMISSIONER\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIn view of the approaching world's fair, soon to be held in Paris,\ncommencing April 15, 1900, and closing on November 15 of the same\nyear, I have ventured to bring before the National Educational Association the suggestion of the appointment of a general committee, whose\nduty it should be to promote in all suitable ways the preparation of an\nexhibit of the educational condition and progress within the United\nStates. Such a committee ought to be a large one and formed in such a\nmanner as to represent all educational interests, and divide easily into\nsubcommittees for special work. Such a committee, for example, should\nbe composed of ten state superintendents, ten city superintendents, ten\npresidents of colleges, universities, or normal schools ; ten representatives\nof private or denominational schools, five librarians of public libraries,\nand five representatives of state and other institutions for the education\nof special classes, including asylums for orphans, deaf and dumb, blind,\nstate reform schools, and the like.\nThis would make up a committee of fifty or more persons, who should\nbe appointed by the Board of Directors of the association, and be called\ntogether in November next to organize and begin their work.\nThis committee would be of great service to the commissioners or\nother ofificers appointed by the president to take charge of the exhibit of\nthe United States. It would stimulate action in all parts of the country,\nand assist all who seek light as to the best modes of showing educational\nmaterial.\nOne of the most important functions of the committee would be to\nappoint a commission to report on the French and other educational\n\n"}
{"page": 133, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nEXHIBIT\n\nAT\n\nPARIS\n\nEXPOSITION\n\n123\n\nexhibits as found in place at Paris, and to study their relation to the\nsocial and political ideals fostered by the several states that prepared\nthese exhibits.\nPerhaps the most noteworthy movement in the history of the past\ntwenty-five years is the rise of German productive industry under the\ndirect influence of the German imperial government. It would seem\nthat the annual wealth production of that nation has increased within the\nperiod of a quarter of a century extending from the epoch of the\nFranco- Prussian war by something. near 40 per cent., and that it will soon\nbe 50 per cent, greater than it was before the victory at Sedan. Is the\nFrench nation fully aware of this tremendous movement to enhance\nGerman power, not directly by military preparation, but by productive\nindustry ? If so, what are its methods of national defense ? And what\nare the English and the Russians and the southern European powers\ndoing in the meanwhile ? Germany is the leading country, since the\ntime of Frederick the Great, in using the school as a great instrument of\npolitical progress. Prussia was before all nations in directing its\nnational housekeeping by the systematic results of intelligence. Under\nthe influence of Prussian statesmen, it is found, for instance, that the\nGerman people do not consume as much sugar as England and France,\nand yet, having a northern climate, it should have the benefit of the\nmore carbon which sugar furnishes. Looking farther, it notes the world\nis depending on the inhabitants of tropical and subtropical countries\nfor the supply of this useful article. Why should not a method be\nfound by which the people of Saxony and Prussia and Bavaria can\nproduce their own sugar ?\nThe commission not only asks this question, but it sets a series of\nexperiments in operation, under the charge of agricultural chemists and\nscientific farmers. The most available plant for the purpose seems to be\nthe beet, and bounties are offered by the government to encourage beet\nraising and sugar manufacture, adding a round sum to the price of all\nthat is exported. To the astonishment of the world, in a few years the\nbeet-root sugar of the world has come to exceed the cane sugar in the\nratio of 9 to 7, There were 4,500,000 tons of beet-root sugar to\n3,500,000 tons of cane sugar.\nGerman political' economy knows that the people that produces the\nraw material is not the richest people. To be the richest people it\nmust become a great manufacturing people, and also a great commercial\npeople. What are the higher commercial schools of Germany teaching\ntheir pupils ? What are the schools of chemistry teaching the youth that\nare to direct German manufactures ? It is not at all likely that we know\nby direct inspection. We can, however, see the importance of those\nschools by their results. Could not a well-appointed commission learn\nIt would scarcely\nmuch by studying the Paris exposition in 1900?\n\n"}
{"page": 134, "printed_page": null, "text": "124\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\ngain entrance into the government schools where new processes are\ndeveloping, but it could learn, by outside inquiry, separate items which\ncan be pieced together and made very suggestive.\nThe secret methods used in industrial processes in Germany, France,\nor England can be learned by other nations, and, in fact, soon become\nwell-known devices. The conceited nations who are not anxious to adopt\nnew inventions, nor to educate their people in directive power, soon find\nthemselves lagging behind in power of national defense. There never\nwas an educative lesson taken more to heart than that of Koniggratz,\nexcept the similar and greater one of Sedan.\nThe great advantage of studying education at an international\nexposition is found chiefly in its bringing together the educational side\nby side with the industrial exhibit.\nThe most advanced civilization of our day has entered what may be\ndesignated as a third epoch of industrial history. The first epoch is one\nwherein little or no division of labor exists, and wherein most of the\ncombination is in the interest of the protection of life and means of\nsubsistence from the foes of the state. In\" the imperfect political forms\nexisting, the citizen cannot devote his best energies to productive\nindustry — the best talent must be devoted to the state in its military\naspect ; and the consequence is that slaves and women are compelled to\nattend to the industries, and to provide food, clothing, and shelter for\nthe necessities of life. Under such circumstances division of labor and\ncombination are not possible to their full extent. When the state becomes\nsettled, and its limits have extended so as to include under one government the many smaller tribes and principalities that were never able to\nlive in peace when independent, but were f6rever entering as factors into\na process of mutual hostility — then settled peace comes, and division of\nlabor is possible, where productive industry becomes recognized as a\nfunction of free men. The second e})Och of industry is this one of\ndivision of labor as the supreme principle. \" Divide and conquer \" is its\nmotto. It limits the training of the laborer to a single simple function\nor activity, so as to secure thereby the greatest possible skill and rapidity\nof production. Such concentration of individual energy upon the parts\nof a process is possible only where combination can be easily effected\nbetween the different kinds of workmen, and thus 'the finished product\nturned out by the association working as a single individual. This\nsecond phase of industry is not accompanied with the corresponding\nenlightenment of the individual laborer. It aims at infinite specialization,\nat concentrating the entire energy of the laborer upon the simple movement of the body, and thus reduces the human being to a machine, and\ntends to narrow his intellect correspondingly.\nBut out of the second class of industry, by a sort of dialectic necessity, proceeds the third.\nThe ultimate tendency of the division of labor\n\n"}
{"page": 135, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nEXHIBIT\n\nA T PARIS\n\nEXPOSITION\n\n125\n\nis to subdivide each process for the sake of acquiring skill, until a maximufn of simplicity is reached. It is here that the aid of machinery comes in.\nThe simpler the movement, -the easier it is to find a mechanical process\nthat can be substituted for that of the human hand. When a number of\nsimple mechanical processes are discovered, the directing mind of labor\nbegins to invent combinations of machinery, and with this enters the\nthird epoch of industry. Machinery continually grows more complex in\nthis epoch, and tends continually to invade the province of the mere\nhand laborer, and to render him useless by providing cheaper and more\ncertain means of accomplishing his work.\nTo the narrow, simple mind of the mere hand laborer the avatar of\nmachinery appears as a direful portent, all-destructive of his means of\nsubsistence and of his very raison d'etre. But the Divine Providence\nuses machinery as the instrument of individual freedom. The appliance\nis twofold :\n1. The first effect of machinery is to increase very largely the productivity of the individual, and to cheapen the products of industry.\nThus, when things are readjusted, the former hand laborer finds himself\nproducing more, and able to purchase his private supply with less money.\nThe social whole gets better fed, sheltered, and clothed, with less labor\nthan formerly, and has, therefore, surplus time to produce ornament and\nto educate itself.\n2. The second effect of machinery is to elevate the laborer by demanding of him a higher quality of labor. Mere hand labor required the\nminimum of brain effort. But when man is set to directing machinery,\nhe becomes less a hand laborer and more' a brain laborer. He must\nunderstand the combination of movements in his machine, and. must\nexercise watchfulness and forethought. The epoch of machinery continually tends toward the production of more and more complex machines,\ncombining many formerly separate trades in one machine, and, as a consequence, requiring of the director of the machine greater power of combination. Each laborer now comes to stand where the overseer or\nsupervisor stood before. The tendency of machinery is, therefore, to\nremove the laborer as far as possible from mere hand work, and to\ndemand of him alertness of mind and versatility — exactly opposite\ntraits of mind from those produced by mere divisioh of labor. Mere\nbrute force being in abeyance, it is noticeable that woman becomes more\nequal to man in the third epoch of industry, and a sharer with him in all\nforms of labor.\n\nWhereas the principle of mere division of labor tended toward the\ncomplete reduction, of the laborer to a hand or a foot — a brute force — and\ndemanded of him the minimum of brains, and therefore did not stimulate or encourage school education, the new principle of labor-saving\nmachinery makes a direct demand for directive intellect, and therefore\n\n"}
{"page": 136, "printed_page": null, "text": "126\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nencourages education as a means to secure it. The type of this highest\nphase of human industry may be studied in the Springfield arsenal, in\nthe Waltham watch manufactory, in the latest machines for printing\nnewspapers, manufacturing pins, weaving ribbons and carpets, etc. This\nform of industry requires general intelligence in the workman as an\nindispensable basis, and the school education which is thus rendered\nnecessary reacts again upon the industry, making new and subtler combinations of machinery, and continually emancipating the laborer from\ndrudgery.\nIf, in the state of barbarism, only one in a thousand can be spared\nfor the work of ornament, in the stage of the division of labor at least\none in a hundred can be reserved for the production of the beautiful,\nand in the epoch of machinery the number devoted to art and culture\nincreases one in ten, and, prospectively, beyond that.\nFrom these considerations it is obvious how pertinent will be the\nstudies of our teachers upon the products of machinery in the world\nexpositio-n as directly related to the progress of school education.\nWherever there is evidence of versatility of skill in the individual\nworkman, or evidence of high directive power, there is equal evidence\nof school education or its equivalent.\nThis correlation of productive industry with education has heen\nrecognized in world's fairs. In the Paris exposition of 1855 there was a\nsubdivision devoted to primary education, and again in that of London\nof 1862 the class \"education\" appeared in the schedule. The primary\nschools of France made a show in the exhibition at Paris in 1867. At\nVienna, in 1873, we all became interested in the educational department,\nand prepared to do a much greater work in our own international fair,\nthe then approaching centennial anniversary of the birth of our nation.\nIn the Paris exposition of 1889 education in France received a wonderful illumination. Its thoroness and its penetration to all classes of\nsociety were demonstrated. The fact that the United States had only a\nsmall rudimentary exhibit there was a source of regret then and since,\nnot only on the part of Americans, but also on the part of France and\nother nations, as was shown by their oft-repeated comments. In the\nColumbian exposition, so fresh in our memory, education occupied a\nmuch larger space than in any of the fairs that had preceded it, and the\ngrand impression it made is still fresh in our minds.\nThe French, it is well known, are eminent for their ability to make an\nexhibit tell its own story. As ^sop taught the animals to speak like\nrational beings, so the French have taught the art of arranging things in\nsuch a way as make them talk. Hence it has happened that more useful\nhints are to be derived from a French educational exhibit than from any\nother as regards the illustration by means of object-lessons.\nThe American method of instruction has not been that of object-les-\n\n"}
{"page": 137, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nEDUCA\n\n7 ZONAL\n\nEXHIBIT\n\nA T PARIS\n\nEXPOSITION\n\n13 7\n\nsons. It has leaned rather to the side known as the text-book method.\nBut educational methods are gradually undergoing revolution all over\nthe country, so far as instruction is concerned, so as to adopt the\n\"method of investigation\" in place of the old method, which is spoken\nof contemptuously as the \"cramming text-book method.\" The new\nmethod is all-worthy of adoption, but the old, perhaps, is not sufficiently\nvalued. Hence we have extremes and unnecessary one-sidedness in the\nnewest devotees of the method of investigation. The tendency is, of\ncourse, to neglect the printed page and the critical comparison of authorities, and to confine teaching too much to individual experiment and\noriginal investigation. It must never be forgotten that the school has\nits chief work in initiating the pupil into the accumulated wisdom of the\nrace as a preliminary to his original additions to the same. Unless he\nknows what has been thought, observed, and done, he runs the risk of\ntraveling round in a narrow circle of his own, and wasting his life in\nrepeating discoveries long since made. Hence, in early life, there predominates the assimilating stage of education ; in maturer life, the stage\nof original acquisition.\nAnd yet, even in this characterization of the difference between the\nschool and practical life, we are apt to underrate the assimilative stage.\nFor inasmuch as all human life is vicarious and all mankind is made by\nmeans of spoken and printed language to live for each individual — so\nthat each individual is able, thru language, to participate spiritually in\nthe experience of the race without being obliged to suffer the terrible\nthroes — the agony and sweat of blood — that that experience has cost\nin the aggregate — it follows that the greater part of life is, after all, the\nparticipation in the life of the race and its assimilation, rather than exclusively original. The race transcends the individual almost in an infinite\npotency. What are the senses of one scientific man to the aggregate\nsenses of all scientific men ? What is the thinking of one philosopher\nto the thinking of all philosophers ? The physical labor of one man is\ninsignificant compared with that of his community; still less potent is\nthe unaided might of the individual thinker, experimenter, or literary\nman. Genius is the ascent of the individual into the vision and willpower of the race — so that he is guided by the universality of mankind,\nand is a fit guide for others. Without this participation in the common\nmind and experience of the race, the individual cannot achieve anything\nexcept erratic and negative endeavors. He conspires against humanity.\nHe mistakes idiosyncrasy for originality, and his life is a profitless\nattempt to dispense with sunlight and to see the world by the shine of\nhis own eyes. The outcome of such seeing is hallucination and the\nspecter world.\nFor these reasons we must take care not to undervalue the old pedagogic method of critical sifting of the text-book lessons as an initiation\n\n"}
{"page": 138, "printed_page": null, "text": "128\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(General\n\nof the pupil into the method of availing himself of the experience of\nmankind. Its compass did not include all, but, if a choice must be\nmade, it included what should be first chosen.\nThe study of a nation's text-books is for these reasons of importance,\nand every educational exhibit ought to have such books fully represented.\nIt has been felt from the beginning that it would be impossible to\nshow up the products of education as the products of the farm and workshop are presented. Education produces cultured human beings, and\nthese cannot be placed on exhibition like grain or cloth. Neither can\nthe methods of education be shown to advantage, except in the schoolroom. Only the physical appliances can be well shown. These are the\nbuildings, furniture, apparatus, and books. These appliances do not\nhave so direct a relation to their product as the plow and the reaper do\nto the grain, or the spinning-jenny and the loom do to the cloth. But,\nas buildings and furniture have a very serious influence for weal or woe\non the health of children, these, at least, are of value as items of exhibit.\nIn the first attempts to exhibit the results of education in a world's\nfair, the teacher naturally resorted to the use of examination papers, and\nthe work of classes and grades on prepared questions was bound into\nvolumes, but without exciting that degree of interest and inquiry that\nhad been expected.\nIt required too much time to examine them.\nIt is almost incompatible with the idea of an exposition to present its\nmaterial in the form of books, and to require a minute and careful examination in order to form a comparative estimate of its value. It is true\nthat a special commission, sent to report on education, might, in the\ncourse of the summer, go thru, with some degree of attention, the thousands of volumes of pupils' work presented at such an exposition, and\nreport the. relative merits. The most profitable investigation would still\nremain to the commission ; it should proceed to visit the localities that\nsent the best work, and study the methods of instruction there practiced.\nFor it is not the knowledge of the fact that this or that place excels in\nits .work which is of value, but the knowledge of the method of its\naccomplishment.\nIt has happened, therefore, that the exhibit of education has drifted\nmore and more toward what can be presented in a graphic form.\nInstruction in penmanship, drawing, and map-making\nshown.\n\ncan be best\n\nThe photograph has come more and more into requisition. It may\nshow the school architecture at a glance, and also the personnel of\nteachers and pupils. Photographs of interiors may show the furniture\nand apparatus. An exhibition of photographs showing every school\nbuilding in the state, with its pupils and teachers in front of the building,\nwould be the most unique attraction ever presented at an international\nexposition.\nFor it would show the countenance, stature, costume of\n\n"}
{"page": 139, "printed_page": null, "text": "f\n\n.Sessions I\n\nEDUCA\n\nTIONAL\n\nEXHIBIT\n\nA T PARIS\n\nEXPOSITION\n\ni 29\n\npupils and teachers, the degree of importance which the communitv\nplaced upon the school by its costliness and its improvements.\nAfter the photograph comes the large chart showing items of comparative population, school attendance, number of teachers, length of\nannual session, finances as regards state aid and local taxes.\nWe all remember the remarkable series of charts showing the statistics\nof Harvard College and its history at the Columbian exposition. They\nare reproduced in General Eaton's report of that exposition printed by\nthe Bureau of Education in the Annual Report for 1892-93. What a\nvaluable exhibit of higher education could be made with similar charts\nof each college and university in the United States !\nWhen we consider the object of school education, we are not surprised\nat the amount of room given to new and often slight departures from the\ncurrent traditions of education. A new system of map-drawing or a new\nobject-lesson will receive more attention than a large display of solid\nwork in the regular lines.\nAnd yet, this is not so strange when we compare this with the history\nof school methods. For a fact that strikes us as a great paradox, when\nwe look over the history of education, is that nearly all of the reforms in\npedagogy have come from radical, negative men — men who were idiosyncratic, and who departed from the beaten paths of society to such a\ndegree as to amount to a deformity. Such were Pestalozzi, Basedow,\nJacotot, and a host of reformers that emanated from the school of Rousseau. Altho the work of the teacher would seem to be that of initiating\nthe pupil into the conventionalities of civilized life, the school of Rousseau theoretically taught that the end of education is to restore the child\nto nature. The grain of truth in this spirit of protest against the forms\nand prescriptions of society lies in this : education is to make man conscious of the necessity of the conventionalities and usages which he is to\nwear about him — the clothes, as it were, of his inner spiritual self —\nthru life. And all consciousness begins with negation. Analysis is a\nprocess .of tearing to pieces, and the fabric of society is thus torn to\nshreds as preliminary to seeing its necessity by synthesis.\nHence education, more than any other art, lives by new departures.\nIts growth resembles a vegetable organism rather than an animal organism. It grows by the sprouting out of new life upon the old, and the old\nbecomes in this way the soil and support of the new. Each new branch\nor twig or leaf is a new individual, rooting in the old as its soil. The\nanimal's limbs are not separate individuals, but in each one he is at home\nand at one with himself. The animal is one organism in all his members, and has the psychological faculty of feeling, while the plant is a\nbundle of individualities, and cannot feel, but only live.\nEducation develops in the child a new thought or trains him to do a\nnew act. Then by endless repetition it reduces the new activity to habit.\n\n"}
{"page": 140, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 3o\n\nNA TtONAL\n\nED UCA TIONAL\n\nASSOC! A TION\n\n[General\n\nRepetition. is essentially deadening — the reduction to habit is the reduction from a stage of conscious spontaneity to a state of unconscious,\ninvoluntary activity. And yet, all spiritual life depends upon this conversion of spontaneity into use and wont. But the process of convert\ning a free activity, a new thought, into an unconscious habit is, after all,\nthe process of freeing the will and the intellect from its concentration on\na lower activity, in order that it may energize anew upon a larger S3'nthesis.\nWithout habit it can make no progress.\nO'er its dead self it steps onward and upward to higher things, says a\npoet.\nBut the work of the teacher is in perpetual danger from this source.\nIt treads always upon the brink of the abyss of dull routine and mechanical, soulless, unconscious repetition. Hence the necessity for, and the\nactual occurrence of, negative and one-sided reforms for the sake of relief\nfrom the soul-killing monotony. The circle of pedagogical change and\nreform ever revolves.\nIts general movements are :\n1. From teaching the entire complexity of a thing to teaching its\nsimplest elements; i. e., from exhaustive treatment to that of smattering.\n2. From beginning with the elements of a thing to beginning with\nits final results.\n3. From concentration on the intellectual technics to concentrating\nupon the practical.\n4. From emphasizing the humanities and hastening the initiation of\nthe child into all human combinations and into conscious communion\nwith the spiritual life of mankind, to emphasizing the natural sciences\nand mathematics, and hastening the initiation into mechanic art and the\nmeans of combination of material objects.\n5. From a striving to give a clear consciousness of every step taught,\nat once, to a blind obedience to prescription — learning formulas with\nonly a practical end in view.\nBut let us return from these considerations of the detail of an educational exhibit and take up once more our chief reason for making elaborate preparation for this Paris exposition.\nOur interest in the exposition in Paris and in all subsequent world\nexpositions in Europe is not the same interest that it was in i88g. Since\nthen we have risen out of our isolation and the Monroe doctrine, and\nhave taken our first step to become one of the number of great powers\nthat assume to direct the course of civilization and decide for the rest of\nthe world its destiny. We shall probably count our seventy-five millions\nof people by 1900, the time of the Paris exposition. Considering our\nwealth-producing power and the enrollment in our schools, we may easily\nclaim to be the most powerful nation in the world. That is to say, we\nmay claim to have the strength on the whole, tho we are not using it\nto form great armies or navies.\nWe are using it chiefly in productive\n\n"}
{"page": 141, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nOUTLOOK\n\nI3I\n\nindustry. Our claims will be recognized by the united powers\nof Europe,\nand we shall be allowed our place in their councils. But we never\ncan\navail ourselves of the advantage, unless we as a nation become familiar\nwith the political aims and aspirations of the several nations constit\nuent\nin that great unity. We must know thoroly their history and their\npresent purposes — not only the conscious purposes of their governments,\nbut especially the more or less unconscious purposes in the popular\ninstinct. For we must learn to interpret the words of rulers thru their\nactions, and their actions thru their convictions.\nTo learn to understand the wishes of other nations, and the means by\nwhich they make them valid, is the first lesson of diplomacy. And we as\na nation are now fairly launched upon the era in which diplomacy will\nbecome more and more necessary to our success in obtaining the consideration that is due us.\nWorld expositions are the grand object-lesson in which our people\nmay best begin this study of our great contemporaries, the nations of\nEurope.\n\nTHE\n\nBY\n\nHON.\n\nW.\n\nW.\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nSTETSON,\n\nOUTLOOK\n\nSTATE\nSUPERINTENDENT\nAUBURN, ME.\n\nOK\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nWe are provincial and cosmopolitan, sectional and patriotic, individualistic and homogeneous.\nOur provincialism is apparent to anyone who studies the persons\ngathered in any great national assembly. From one section come those\nwho are conscious of possessing the prestige of age and tested systems.\nThey know the past, delight in its record, and give much time to reciting\nits glories. They place too high a valuation upon what we have, and\noverestimate its usefulness in doing the work of today.\nFrom the next division we meet those who have all the strength and\ndignity, as well as the sustaining confidence, that come from large material\npossessions. They are self-poised, and strong in the strength of their\nholdings. They are subject to the evils which come from relying too\nmuch upon the visible and measurable, and are developing a commercial\nspirit where a higher motive should be supreme.\nWe have with us representatives from those newer empires where the\nmolders of thought are distinguished for their conservative, level-headed\nqualities. They have their feet on the ground and see things in their\nnormal light. They have adopted the most of the best the ages have\ndeveloped.\nThey are graced by but few halos, and their skies are not\n\n"}
{"page": 142, "printed_page": null, "text": "132\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\narched with many rainbows. Their peculiar dangers lie in the direction\nof drill, formalism, and repression of the aspiring, ideal qualities.\nIn their neighbors we meet strong men from a section noted for alertness, eagerness, and an ardent hospitality for new ideas. Their heads are\nin the clouds, and they think they are not extravagant when they assert\nthat \"from the tops of their mountains,\" and the pinnacles of their theories, \"they can tickle the toes of the angels.\" They are our pioneers,\nand not only feel the pulse of the world, but seem to have unseen wires\nconnecting with the ends of the earth. Their mistakes are made in\nattempting to reduce iridescent dreams to sound pedagogic science. They\nhave a tendency to perform too much of the experimentation of the\nworld, and hence time, effort, and money are spent in producing\nunwholesome conditions and an unwise unrest.\nFrom the far distance come those who have a system elaborate in all\nits details, supported by opulent appropriations, and supplemented with\nluxurious physical surroundings and appointments. Their system starts\nin the kindergarten and ends in the special departments of the university.\nThey have the splendid strength given by brains and great force of character. Their errors are made in unduly exalting the machinery of the\nschool, and unwarrantably expanding the powers of the state. Too high\nan estimate is placed on the serving power of money, the usefulness of\nphysical means, and the value of paternalism.\nThe last in the group have a great problem to solve. They have to\nbattle with indifference and contend with hostilities. They possess in\ntheir leaders men of wonderful earnestness, unusual capacity, marked\ndevotion, together with a rare inheritance of culture and refinement.\nThey will err if they attempt to reform the world tomorrow, because they\nwill have a-world on the next day which will not have stiffening enough\nto hold itself straight. The strain which is made to force progress may\nleave it without the power to proceed.\nOur cosmopolitanism is shown in that peculiar facility with which we\nmeet and mingle with others, adopt and adapt new ideas, make for ourselves congenial homes and alliances wherever fate or fortune domiciles us.\nOur sectionalism is proved by the fierceness with which we contend\nfor legislation for our individual hamlets, and our apparent inability to\ncomprehend that the highest good of all is the greatest good of the community.\nOur patriotism is vindicated by the ardor with which we stand as one\nman whenever a great crisis lifts the nation into the field of danger.\nOur individualism is found in every community, and has its representatives from the ends of the earth and the islands of the sea. It is shown\nin costume, reading, thought, action, motive. We more largely than any\nother people have a citizenship with each counting one and representing\nhimself.\n\n"}
{"page": 143, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nOVTLOOA*\n\n1 33\n\nOur hoinogeneousnes3 is manifest in the common highway we travel,\nthe spirit which animates us, the conmion destiny which consciously and\nunconsciously we are working out, and the final goal toward which we\nare tending.\nWe are old enough to see all this and to realize that we have reached\na point in our national life where, above all things, we need to have souls\nthat are well born. We are discovering that these we cannot have until\nwe are willing to put more than one generation into the \"horning.\" A\nsentiment which is less than a generation old fails at times of the greatest\nstrain, and is not controlling because it does not exert its power unconsciously.\nWe are in a stage of our advancement where we can comprehend that\n\"we have been living our Iliad; the time has come when we must write\nit.\" But it does not require great astuteness to discover that our civilization and prosperity cost too much if they deprive our young people of\nthe sturdiness that characterized those who lived in a simpler way.\nThe log house and the little red schoolhouse have furnished their full\nshare of the leaders of the nation. A pioneer and poor people can live\nuninjured by rude surroundings, and under trying conditions produce\ngreat men, but a poor people in an old country cannot remain uncontaminated by a degrading environment, or breed the best type of manhood. Conditions that were, at least, not harmful in early days are\nbecoming sources of poison in this age.\nCertain experiences gave us the peculiar ruggedness of the past ; but\nthe day of chores and homely cares has disappeared with other reluctantly departing systems. We must find new ways of developing old\nqualities. These facts are beginning to influence the educational thought\nof the day, and modify the teaching in our schools. The children must\nhave homes which are centers of attraction, promoters of soberness of\nthought and fixity of purpose, and nurturers of ideals. Their food must\nbe satisfying and nourishing, rather than stimulating and irritating.\nTheir dress must not occupy too much of the attention of the wearer, and\nbe worn for the purpose of attracting the admiration of the beholder.\nTheir amusements must be wholesome and helpful instead of demoralizing and belittling.\nParents have been putting too much of their vitality into their work\nand dissipations, and are endowing their offspring but sparingly with\nthis gift. The control of the children in the home has been slight, fitful,\nand unnatural, and hence the greater need of that firm intelligence which\nsecures unhesitating obedience in the schools, and thus saves authority\nfrom being defied. We have been breeding in the children a Bohemian\nspirit and tone that are peculiarly unwholesome. The desire for striking\napparel, the ambition to be before the public, and the anxiety to be entertained have become so strong in many young people that they have lost\n\n"}
{"page": 144, "printed_page": null, "text": "134\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Genera\n\nall the sane ideas they may have had of what life is. If we can breed in\nthem the desire to be responsible for some service, they will travel the\nstreets less ; they will be found in the home more ; they will be less\nrestive under restraint, more willing to obey directions, less devoted to\nexcitement and frivolities, and have a larger interest in study, thought,\nand work. They will place a proper estimate on knowledge, wisdom,\nvirtue, and have some sense of the serious duties of life. They will learn\nthru reading, study, investigation what things are to abide, and what are\nfor but a moment.\nIn schools, as well as in factories, the machinery of a past age cannot\nbe used to do the work of the present time. When a system is perfected,\nit must go. It was a blessing while growing, but proves a curse to teachers and children when grown.\nIn the olden time the cares of the home, farm, and shop were means\nof grace, and an opportunity for training, which gave our people their\ngreat capacity for work and endowed them with those marvelous staying\npowers which have made them the wonder of the world. May we never\nreach the day when the pressure of a button will lift the boy from his\nbed, induct him into his clothes, pass him to the dining room, introduce\nthe food into his stomach, transport him to school, furnish him with\nknowledge in a digested form, and graduate him, wanting in those qualities which are necessary to strong, righteous manhood !\nThere have been -too many units or centers around which the work of\nthe school has been grouped. We are discovering that it is harmful to\nthe child to have his attention and thought divided between eight or ten\ndifferent subjects in any one day. The routine of the school is being\nsimplified, the work of the children is being improved, as we select a\nsmaller number of subjects, push them clearly and strongly to the front,\nand group the incidental work which we are trying to do under a few\nheads. Many things can be done, and well done, if in the doing we connect them with the things to which they belong, and do not give them\nundue . promi nence.\nWe have too long misconceived the scope and purpose of the common school. We are beginning to see that its work lies along a few welldefined lines. If the child can read, in a true sense of that term ; write,\nin the large sense of the word, and perform computations with facility,\nhe has developed more power and knows more things worth the knowing\nthan many children possess after passing thru and having passed thru\nthem the elaborate and confused mass of details which go to make up the\noutline of work in many of our schools.\nWe are evidently close to a day when we are to sober off, recover our\nsanity, and realize that children are injured by being rushed thru\nthings and rushed from one thing to another. It is becoming clear\nthat a child needs the opportunity and training which will give him poise.\n\n"}
{"page": 145, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nOUTLOOK\n\n135\n\nskill, strength. He cannot get these in a school where he does a little of\neverything, and never does much of anything. He is to get it in the\nschools where he has an opportjunity to settle down to the deliberate, continuous, and close study of a few subjects, follow these out in their tributary lines, and in these tributaries get the training necessary to breadth,\nvision, and a cultivation of all those powers which we are seeking to\nevolve thru the studies which have come into the schools within the\nlast third of a century.\nWe have also been making the mistake of thinking that the average\nchild can profit by the intricacies of the Hegelian philosophy and the\ntranscendental mysteries of the Herbartian pedagogy during his grammar-school course. We are coming to see that involved abstractions\nbelong to maturer years, that it is possible to imbecile children by anaesthetizing them with facts and ideas beyond their powers of comprehension, and beyond their capacity to hold in solution. It is evident that\nwe are seeing the evil effects of too many studies, too great elaboration\nof details, and too intricate and difficult investigations. In a word, the\nchildren need less theoretic philosophy and more practical activity.\nI trust we shall soon place a proper estimate on the value of quiet, serenity, steadiness, and shall see the evils of irritation, excitement, restlessness.\nWe know somewhat of the harm which has come to us from being everything by turns, and nothing long. We feel the need of those strong\nqualities which come as a result of repose, meditation, thoughtfulness.\nWe are learning that what we have has been acquired by effort, that what\nwe are to attain we must conquer in the same way; that the best thing\nwhich we have gotten from the six thousand years of struggle is the\nstrength which has come thru experience. We are giving so much\ninstruction that the children are incapable of learning. We do so much\nwork for them that they are losing the desire and capacity to labor.\nI hope we are discerning that it is not a part of the teacher's duty to\nfurnish brains for the pupils, and that he does harm rather than good\nwhen he presumes to do their thinking; for children, like other human\nbeings, do their best work when they have some incentive and responsibility. Itis dawning upon us that their personality must be respected,\ntheir judgment recognized, and their aptitudes considered, if they are to\ngrow into what it is possible for them to become. We are gaining courage for our work by seeing mofe years into the future than the records\ntell us we have lived. The best instructor of youth is he who has the\nfine perspective of the historian, the rare astuteness of the annalist, and\nthe calm vision of the poet.\n\nThe good day cannot be far in the distance when we shall help children to feel the subtle life that quivers on the canvas, breathes from the\nprinted page, and pulsates in bird, and flower, and gem. Their eyes will\nbe so opened, their hearts will be so much in tune, that \"they will lose\n\n"}
{"page": 146, "printed_page": null, "text": "136\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Oeneral\n\nno opportunity to see anything beautiful, for beauty is God's handwriting,\na wayside sacrament. They will welcome it in every fair face, every blue\nsky, every tinted flower, and thank Him for it who is the fountain of\nloveliness, and drink it in simply and earnestly. To them it will be a\ncharmed draught, a cup of blessing;\" and thus they will grow to feel a\njust sympathy with all worthy effort, a true harmony with all life, a full\nrecognition of all beauty, and a prompt hospitality for all revelation.\nThe faster we move in the direction of making the school the intellectual\nand art center of the community, the sooner shall we do one great service for the people.\nThe teacher of today is learning that she must help her pupils to see\nthat hatred, jealousy, untrustworthiness, make those who are guilty of\nthese offenses small, mean, and ignoble in thought, feeling, and life ; that\nhe who is sympathetic, glad of the success of others, ready to add to\ntheir joys, and eager to promote their prosperity will receive a greater\nblessing than he bestows ; that he is best who believes and says the best\nof others ; that gentleness, uprightness, and thoughtful sympathy bring\nto their possessor the sweetest joys known to this life.\nOur children are to have a chance to learn that altruism results in\nhappiness, as selfishness ends in misery, and that one cannot afford to\nspend in unworthy rivalries the strength which should be given to\nwinning honest success. The controlling sentiment of the school is\nbeginning to condemn the act of the wrong-doer. We are ceasing\npermanently to injure the children by being consciences for them. They\nno longer feel that the right way is always to be pointed out, and that so\nlong as they do not run against barriers set by their instructors, they are\non the safe track.\nIt is dawning upon us that it is unfortunate for children to be old\nbeyond their years; to know things which it is unwise for them to know;\nand to be thinking of sex relations long before such thoughts should\nenter their minds.\nIt is equally harmful to lose their relish for, and interest in, the duties\nwhich make up a large part of their lives, and to be more anxious to fill\nan inferior place in some store than they are to continue their education\nand fit themselves for useful places in society.\nWe are seeking for teachers whose manners, tone, carriage, and\nspeech are in harmony with those found in our cultured homes. We no\nlonger desire a tyrant or look for a czar. We are trying the experiment\nof conducting our schools on the same principles on which intelligent and\nrefined parents direct their homes. We are discovering that children\nwho are familiar with the conventional forms of good society have one\nmore reason for respecting themselves. Experience has taught us that\nself-respect helps to save the child from temptation and stimulates him to\nlive righteously.\nAwkward\nmovement and uncouth expressions\nhave\n\n"}
{"page": 147, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions)\n\nTHE\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nOUTLOOK\n\nprevented some from entering good society and driven others from such\nassociations. The child of the future is to have the advantage of associating with a person who is a gentleman. We are learning that \"a gentleman is a gentleman the world over; loafers differ.\"\nWe read of an age when it was the work of the scholar to study books.\nWe are enduring the horrors incident to a furor about the study of things.\nA few have faith to believe that we are approaching an era when we shall\nexalt the study of life to a commanding place. Experience and a larger\nwisdom have reversed 95 per cent, of the decisions of reason, and confirmed an equal proportion of the prophecies of the poets. Pope, Emerson, Balfour, and Kidd unite in teaching the value oi intuition as a guide\nin discovering ourselves, revealing others, and making the most of the\nbest in both.\nWe are becoming wise enough to regret the effort made in the school\nof today in appealing to the senses, and training this quintet of modern\ndeities. So much time is given to this work that the invisible is not seen,\nits existence is often denied, and its champion is scoffed at by those who\nare so small that the places they are supposed to occupy are vacant before\nthey leave them.\nIt is becoming clear that we must take in, as we take in the breath of\nlife, the prophecies and revelations of the poet and the artist. It is life's\ngreatest work to appreciate life. What the masters have given us furnishes\nfood for the soul. Using these means, life will be enlarged, made abundant, and without them we are dwarfed, crippled, starved.\nSchoolroom instruction, as well as conceptions of life, are beginning\nto have perspective. A fine perception of the fragrance, color, delicacy,\nand unwritten wisdom of the flower is worth more than a scientific knowledge of the seed from which it grew, and the minutest knowledge of the\nstock, branch, and leaf which hold its life. Self-control, concentration,\nendurance, application, appreciation, insight, receptiveness, responsiveness, are being recognized as on a higher plane than a knowledge of\ninsignificant towns, unimportant dates, and meaningless definitions.\nWe have spent many years in developing the head, training the body,\ngiving skill to the hand. During all these ages the heart has been left to\nseek its own nourishment, and we have done but little to stimulate, mold,\nor use the great emotions of youth.\nThe poets of this century have voiced the feelings, told the story, of\nthe heart. Like all things in this world, the revealer of life comes when\nhe is most needed. We are awakening to the fact that it is not what we\nknow, but what we feel, that makes life worth living; that he lives most\nwho loves most ; that, while we can live without money and honors, we\ncannot live without love ; that worthy desire is a disinfectant, saving us\nfrom narrowness of thought and the evil influence of degrading surroundin2:s.\n\n"}
{"page": 148, "printed_page": null, "text": "138\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nWe are coming out into the clear, and our heart and eyes are being\nopened. We are beginning to stand foursquare to all the world and\nevery wind that blows. It is being revealed to us that, while the intellect\nis the engine, feeling is the steam which makes it go.\nWe are beginning to realize that we are not educated until we can\nappreciate instinctively, and hence unconsciously. The teacher of today\nfeels that she has not done her full duty when she makes the pictures in\na great poem \" stick out,\" but unconsciously the child must be led to\nrecognize the divine within and above him. Literature is beginning to\nperform this great service. Art is beginning to do this great work. The\nemotions are coming to be recognized as filling a large place and exerting\na noble influence in our lives. We are beginning to understand that disorderly and uncomely school yards, caricatured outbuildings, and unsightly\nschoolhouses are a means of moral poison and mental degradation ; that\nwhen these surroundings are fit and inspiring, our children will understand the fine sentiment which caused the old Scotchman to remove his\nbonnet every morning, as he stood in front of his cottage and bowed his\nhead reverently in the presence of the scene that unfurled its beauty\nbefore him.\nWe have reached a point in our progress where we are willing to\nspend less time on permutations, foreign exchange, cube root, location\nof unimportant towns in Africa, imbeciling definitions, stupefying details,\nand belittling non-essentials, and give more intelligent effort to developing in the children a love for home and kindred by studying Hovenden's\n\"Breaking Home Ties\" and Whittier's \"Snow Bound; \" a love of country by reading the speeches of Patrick Henry, Webster, Lincoln, and\nSumner; an old-time reverence and devotion by studying the Madonnas,\n\" Crossing the Bar,\" \" The Recessional,\" the fifty-third chapter of Isaiah,\nthe ninetieth Psalm, the twelfth chapter of Ecclesiastes, and the revelations of St. John.\nWe are gaining a respect for labor by drinking in the wisdom of\nMillet's \"Sower,\" in which he shows that the laborer can be a prince and\nnobler than he who rides at the head of a troop of cavalry. Such pictures\nas the \"Angelus\" tell us the history of a great church and its usefulness\nin developing reverence, devotion, « tenderness, gentleness, attuning the\nhearts and giving grace to the bodies of its devotees thru centuries of\ntraining ; and we are seeing that all this can be told more clearly thru\nform and color than in word and paragraph.\nLove of our kind and sympathy with their trials are coming to us\nthru the \"Chapel of the Hermits,\" \"The Day is Done,\" \"The Present\nCrisis,\" \"Eternal Goodness,\" \"The River Path,\" and \"The Cotter's\nSaturday Night.\" We are learning to read the wisdom of fragrant nature\nthru the daisy and mousie, the primrose and daffodil, as found in the\nfield and glorified by the poems of Burns and Wordsworth.\nWe are\n\n"}
{"page": 149, "printed_page": null, "text": "Setsions]\n\nINFLUENCE\n\nOF ENVIRONMENT\n\nON\n\nHISTOR Y\n\n1 39\n\nbeginning to feel, if not see, that all this means more and better for the\nchildren than the eternal grind which is responsible for much of\nthe\nhatred of school by the children, and the imbeciling influence of not a\nlittle of our teaching.\nThere is coming again into the hearts of the people that sentiment\nwhich was a controlling power in the earlier days, when the parents are\nwilling to make great sacrifices that their children may be trained to fill\nbetter and larger positions than those into which they are born. They\nare willing to stay in the valleys while their offspring climbs to the\nheights, and they take pride in holding the foot of the ladder steady while\nthe child is climbing to the top.\nExperiment and experience convince us that, as soon as we do as well\nas we know, we shall breed children who will live up to Channing's high\nideal :\nTo live content with small means ; to seek elegance rather than luxury, and refinement rather than fashion ; to be worthy, not respectable, and wealthy, not rich ; to study\nhard, think quietly, talk gently, act frankly ; to listen to stars and birds, to babes and\nsages with open hearts ; to bear all cheerfully, do all bravely, await occasions, hurry\nnever — in a word, to let the best, unbidden and unconscious, grow up thru the common :this is to be my symphony.\n\nIn the meantime let us repeat reverently:\n\" Lord God of hosts, be with us yet,\nLest we forget, lest we forget.\"\n\nINFLUENCE\n\nOF ENVIRONMENT ON THE DEVELOPMENT\nOF UNITED STATES HISTORY\n\nBY JACQUES\n\nW.\n\nREDWAY,\n\nF.R.G.S., MT. VERNON,\n\nN. Y.\n\nMan may rise superior to his environment, but environment is none\nthe less potent in modifying the man. When for the first time Froude\nsailed along the coast of Norway, he exclaimed: \"The whole history of\nthe Norse people is now before me.\" The deep fjords, with their sinuous\npassages; the rugged, island-girt coast; the inhospitable climate — all\nthese, standing out in panoramic array before the student of history,\nformed a most magnificent object-lesson. The surroundings had made\nthe character of the people. The features of the landscape were\nall on the most stupendous scale. The towering crags and pinnacled\nislets were washed by swift, treacherous currents and beaten into shape\nby gigantic storm waves. Tempestuous tides ebbed and flowed thru\nthe sheltered fjords, and the walls that girt them were frowning battlements fitted alike for offensive or defensive strategy.\nBehind them there\n\n"}
{"page": 150, "printed_page": null, "text": "I40\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nlay a coast slope, timber-covered here and rocky there, but everywhere\ntraversed by lofty ridges and gashed by deep canons.\nEnvironment had made the Norse people just what history has\ndescribed them. That magnificent region was not an area in which the\narts of peace could develop, and, indeed, the surroundings were not of\nthe kind that encourages dilettante pursuits. It was a struggle for existence between barren rocks on the one side and battering storm waves on\nthe other. And what a race of giants was born of such conditions !\nWe speak of them almost contemptuously as pirates and sea robbers nowadays, but each man of them, pirate and robber tho he may have been,\nwas every inch a king. Such surroundings make neither effeminates nor\ncowards; it is an environment whose products are always men. The\n\" wicks \" of Great Britain bear testimony to the time when blood and\nDanegelt were alternatives. The name \" Russia\" carries us back to the\ntime when Rurik and his hordes overran the land of the Sclavs ; in fact,\nbut a small part of the northern lands seems to have escaped the ravages\nof those murderous hordes.\nNow turn southward across the Baltic : where can there be a stronger\ncontrast ? Marshes, shoals, and shifting sand dunes are the only relief\nto a surface so flat that the sluggish streams can hardly push their way\nalong the beds of slime and ooze. Storm clouds, pouring forth torrents\nof rain, divide their power with the fierce north wind that covers the sea\nwith white caps and drives the flying scud miles inland. Mud hovels are\nscattered along the banks of the streams, and in them, herding like swine,\nis a fair-skinned people, clad in pelts. They are Teutons like the Norse,\nand of them. They are a gluttonous lot. Look at them in their huts —\nSaxons, Danes, Angles, Jutes — lump them all together in one, for they\nare one : they are hardly a remove higher than the swine with which they\nherd. But the wild boar is not to be despised. He has brawn and\nendurance ; he has courage and fights till the pike pierces his heart.\nThe Saxon, too, knows no alternative but victory or death. Slash him,\npierce him, disembowel him — he utters not a sound ; he simply fights on.\nThe wild boar has cunning; the Saxon churl has all this, and a gleam of\nintelligence beside. The powerful animal is there, and there is good soil\nin which resides the germ of an intellect.\nSouth of the Balkans another people is emerging from barbarism\ninto civilization. They have acquired an alphabet, and another thousand\nyears shall behold the most wonderful intellectual development the world\nhas yet seen. Turn the pages of history quickly. Troy has fallen ; Athens has become the center of a great civilization. The little band of\n^neas has grown to be a mighty people that possesses the whole Mediterranean basin — the great circle of the lands. And a magnificent people\nthey are. To the intellectual growth of their Greek ancestors they have\nadded the science of war and the arts of peace ; better yet, they have\n\n"}
{"page": 151, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nINFLUENCE\n\nOF ENVIRONMENT\n\nON\n\nHISTOR Y\n\n141\n\nevolved from their inner selves both the science and the art of\na constitutional law that in later years shall govern the civilized world.\nBut their territory is too spall for them, and they turn northwar\nd.\nAcross the Alps are broad, fertile plains that, under the skill which goes\nwith civilization, shall become the foremost granary of the then known\nworld. Warlike Teutons guard that plain, and resist encroachment. For\nover five hundred years they are driven back again and again ; but the\nwild boar can be killed only — never conquered. Under his Roman tutors\nthe germ of intellect is developing ; his time has come ; there is another\nawakening, and a new epoch of history is begun.\nTurn the wheel of time another and still another thousand years : the\nGreek republic and the Roman commonwealth have passed away, and with\ntheir passing there comes out«of Judea a little spark that shall kindle the\nwhole world. To Greek ethics and philosophy, to Roman education and\nconstitutional law, there are added the gentle teachings of the Nazarene.\nThe spark falls within the breast of the Saxon swineherd, and the wild\nbeast becomes a man in the image of the Son. Twenty-five hundred\nyears have rolled by ; and when the curtain goes down at the close of the\nnineteenth century, two Saxon empires are dominating the world — one\nthe old, the other the new. In each one the scepter is pointing to the\nwords of the Nazarene : \" All things whatsoever ye would that men would\ndo to you, do ye even so unto them.\" Great Britain and the United\nStates — they are the only commanding nations on the face of the earth\nin which the people themselves are the sovereigns. The old order has\nbeen reversed. The people are no longer servants of the king ; the king\nis the servant of the people.\nThe building of a nation may be grouped roughly into two periods —\nthat of territorial growth and development, and the more important\nperiod of adjustment to environment. The two processes may be more\nor less concurrent, but, as a rule, adjustment is the consequent process\nand comes only when a sparsely settled region becomes one of dense\npopulation. Moreover, adjustment is the outgrowth, not of political, but\nof geographic conditions. In other words, the industries and economics\nof a people must be adjusted to geographic environment, or a certain\namount of friction of necessity results ; and friction in adjustment to\nsurrounding conditions is only another name for history.\nBy a very natural process, and one to be expected, the original\ncolonies of the country became, states, and the federated colonies the\nUnited States. Their boundaries were laid off without regard either to\ntopographic or climatic conditions — and, indeed, under the circumstances, the importance of these factors could not have been foreseen.\nWhen our territorial expansion had brought us to the Pacific, sooner or\nlater it became necessary to subdivide the acquired areas into territories,\nor embryo states.\nThe question of environment was again, of necessity.\n\n"}
{"page": 152, "printed_page": null, "text": "• 42\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\noverlooked, and the divisions were made in much the same manner\n\nas\n\ntho a 2 X 4 plank were pushed against a buzz saw, first longitudinally and then transversely. In the period of colonial history each\ncolony possessed not a little political independence, and, as a result, a\ncertain amount of individual sovereignty has been the heritage of every\nstate. And inasmuch as we have laid off state boundaries without reference either to climatic or topographic conditions, it is easy to understand\nthat, in many ways, a state sovereignty may increase the friction that\ncomes with adjustment.\nCritics often tell us that our forefathers should have made the lines of\nseparation pass between the natural divisions of the country. True, but\nwho is to determine what these natural divisions are — and how can one\nsolve off-hand a question that requires, perhaps, a century for solution ?\nThere is, for instance, a New England plateau, and also an Alleghany\nplateau. Topographically they are a part of one and the same highland.\nNo distinct line of demarkation separates them ; yet their economic\nindustries are such that, altho each is a region of manufacture, even\nif they were a thousand miles apart, they could not have a greater diversity of social conditions. At one time commerce and the industries\nconnected with shipbuilding were practically the only business of the\ncoastward part of the New England plateau region. Why ? Consult the\ntopography of the coast, and that shall be the answer. The fjorded coast\nline of the New England states, extending into deep water, has provided\nan abundance of natural harbors. On the other hand, the gently sloping\nplain of the South Atlantic states, extending out beyond the shore line, is\na barrier to all approach. The one invites commerce ; the other forbids\nit. Thus, commerce went to the North Atlantic coast. Then, too, back\nof the Maine coast there was an abundance of pine timber unsurpassed\nfor shipbuilding. What could have been a wiser plan than to have\nbuilt their industries as they did ?\nBut one cannot always look far into the future. Who could have foreseen that embargo that came with the war. of 1812, with the tremendous\nstore of capital thrown into idleness, and the great fleet of ships rotting\nat anchorage ? Or who could have peered deep enough into the bowels\nof the earth to see the hidden beds of coal in Pennsylvania, or the iron\nof Michigan that was to be fashioned into the ships of the present day?\nThe man had adjusted himself to his environment; but, thru no fault\nof his, the conditions had changed, ah^ a readjustment was necessary.\nSo the idle capital sought the aid of water power, and the New England\nplateau was quickly dotted with factories. This time the boundaries\nwere considerably enlarged, and for years the adjustment to new conditions was eminently satisfactory, until changed conditions should demand\na better one. The New England plateau became the great center of\nmanufacture devoted to products\nrequiring great manual\nskill. The\n\n"}
{"page": 153, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nINFLUENCE\n\nOF ENVIRONMENT\n\nON\n\nHISTOR Y\n\n1 43\n\nAppalachian plateau, from the coal fields southward, became the\ngreat\nregion for the manufacture of iron and steel. Natural boundaries, therefore,\nthe two regions. Into the latter an army of' Huns,\nPoles, andcircumscrib\nCzechsed were\ndrawn — about everything, in fact, unfitted for\ncitizenship that a dragnet could enmesh from the most unenlightened\npart of Europe. The labor required was applied to the shafts and dumps\nof the coal mines. The great mass of it was fit only to swing a pick or\nshovel ; and had it been of a higher grade of intelligence, it would have\nbeen unfit for this. But in the New England region, on the other hand,\nthe great majority of laborers were skilled citizens, trained in the best\nschools and colleges the country could produce. Is it strange, therefore,\n.that the historic development of the two regions has been unlike ? Yet\nit was purely a question of environment. The barrier line, the boundary\nbetween the two, was one neither of climate nor of topography, but it was\nmore potent in molding the history of the two regions than tho it had\nbeen a Himalayan range.\nI am inclined to think we do not always apprehend the full meaning\nimplied in the terms boundary and barrier. The Mississippi, for\ninstance, is a natural boundary between various states, but it is not a\nbarrier. The Cascade mountains are a barrier between eastern and western Oregon, but not a boundary. The Chilean Andes are both a\nboundary and a barrier, while the Ural river that is supposed to separate\nEurope from Asia is neither one. The 2,000-feet contour in the western\nUnited States, altho an imaginary line, is practically the physical\nboundary between the food-producing and the arid region of the West.\nThe Sahara, and not the Mediterranean sea, is the true boundary and\nbarrier between Europe and Africa ; and the high, arid plateau surmounted\nby the Hindu Kush in the same manner forms the true boundary and,\nat the same time, a barrier between Europe and Asia. These desert\nregions separate Aryan and Semitic peoples from the black race, in the\nlatter instance, and occidental from oriental civilization, in the former.\nThe regions themselves are marked here and there by political boundaries, itis true, but the desert barriers themselves are natural boundaries\nthat the energies of man can never annihilate.\nBut not all natural boundaries, so called, are effective as means of\nseparation. A body of water is rarely effective as a barrier, and if il\nhappens to be a navigable river, it is a very poor boundary. River boundaries have almost wholly disappeared from the map of western Europe.\nSo long as the Rhine lay between France and Germany, just so long was\nstrife between them inevitable. The right and the left halves of its basin\nform a unit, and the river joins rather than separates them. Not half,\ntherefore, but the whole of the watershed must belong to the one or the\nother. Even a wide sea does not always form an effective barrier. Intercomnmnication, like water running from a higher to a lower level, is apt\n\n"}
{"page": 154, "printed_page": null, "text": "144\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nto follow lines of least resistance. Hellenic civilization could not readily\npush northward of the Balkans, but it easily crossed the ^gean sea and\nintruded upon Asia Minor. A generation ago the Atlantic ocean was\nfour weeks wide. Now, with the help of Bessemer steel, and twin screws,\nand triple expansion engines, it is less than six days wide.\nThus we see that, with the great progress in methods of communication, some of the most formidable barriers to intercommunication little\nby little have been surmounted, and with their storming has come the\nfriction of readjustment, and new epochs of history are beginning.\nThe western half of our own country presents an aspect that is not\nfound in any other part of the world — if we read from the maps only.\nWhere else in the world shall we find a map of political divisions whose\nboundaries are fiat lines drawn along parallels and projected on meridians ? And when we read below the surface, what do we read ? Simply\nundeveloped history. There they are — along category of events, each\none tacked firmly to a geographic cause. The population is sparse, at\npresent, and the resources are either lying idle or going to waste. Here\nand there, however, with the vanguard of settlement, clashes are occurring, and almost always the clash is over water rights. Water is scarce in\nthis region, and its equitable distribution must be the basis of agricultural economics. The impounding and storage of storm-water streams\npresents no great difficulties. But suppose the torrential part of the\nstream where the storage reservoirs must be built is in one state, while\nthe cultivable part of the watershed is in another — a resulting conflict is\ninevitable, and the-number of them is constantly increasing.\nThe moral is obvious : fiat boundaries are only temporary expedients,\nand when the economies of this region have been adjusted to produce\nthe best results, the new boundaries will follow the divides between the\nadjacent watersheds, and the latter, properly grouped, will become the\nunits of political organization — in other words, political organization\nmust become subordinate to topographic and other conditions of environment.\nA casual inspection of a map of the United States shows a number of\nwell-defined areas, each an economic region of more or less importance.\nA more careful study, however, shows that these regions are resultants of\nnatural causes — climate, topography, or resources; as, for instance, the\nAlleghany plateau, with its coal and iron ; the New England plateau, with\nits topography suited both for light manufacture and commerce; the\narid region, restricted to mining and grazing; and the Pacific coast\nregion, fitted for almost anything under the sun. Then we have the\nbroad central plain, with a domain so great that it will hold nearly a\nquarter of the world's population, and a soil so productive that it will feed\nthem.\nLet us consider\n\nthis great area.\n\nAlready, in round figures, it has\n\n"}
{"page": 155, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nINFLUENCE\n\nOF ENVIRONMENT\n\nON\n\nHISTORY\n\n145\n\nmade a record in economic history. It produces one-quarter of the\nwheat, four-fifths of the corn, and nearly five-sixths of the cotton product\nof the world. The carcasses of nearly one hundred million animals are\nyearly converted into meat, and of this amount more than forty million\ngo to feed the people of foreign lands. It is flanked on the east by fields\nthat produce one-third of the world's coal and iron ; on the west by rock\nveins that yield one-third of the world's supply of gold and silver. The\nenormous yield of food stuffs has a certain interpretation, namely, great\ndensity of population ; the coal and iron ore quite another, namely,\nunlimited power.\nThe topography of this region has resulted in many surprises. When\ngrain farming was restricted to the hillsides and valleys of the eastern\nstates, the old-time cradle was good enough as a harvester, and the hand\nflail could easily thresh the grain. But the broad prairie farms of the\nWest required something better, and when the westward movement of\npopulation had filled the Mississippi valley, mowers, reapers, self-binders,\nheaders, stackers, threshers, followed one after another in quick succession. They were simply outgrowths of topographic conditions. There\nis no economy except economy of time, and so steam-gang plows supplanted the old plow. The railway service proved insufficient, and so the\nBessemer steel rail supplanted the iron rail ; the eighty-ton locomotive\nthat of forty tons ; the automatic brake the hand brake. Sailing vessels\nwere too slow ; the wheat, cattle, and other food stuffs grew faster than\nthey could be carried to foreign shores. So the steamship was pressed\ninto service. But the old-fashioned steamships were likewise too slow and\ntoo small ; so we made them twice or thrice, or even ten times, as large ;\nbuilt them first of iron, and then of steel ; put in steel boilers that would\nstand 160 pounds' pressure, instead of forty; put in a screw instead of\npaddle wheels, and if one screw did not drive her thru the water fast\nenough, we added another. And why? It was fortuitous topography\nand climate ; man was talking advantage of environment.\nFrom the great lakes to the gulf this broad area possesses a likeness\nof topography that is marvelous. From north to south it is a plain having a slope of but a few feet — a stupendous farm, in which groves of\nyoung timber alternate with cultivated fields. North, south, east, and\nwest all the conspicuous features are monotonously alike. Yet, in spite\nof the unity and continuity of the surface, there was to be erected a barrier that in time should reach from the Atlantic to the Rocky mountains\n— the barrier, at first, scarcely more of an obstruction than an imaginary\nline, because a very ugly fiat line, and, finally, an obstacle that almost\nwrecked the nation. Two factors were concerned in it— fortuitous climate and the steam engine on the one hand, topography on the other.\nThe adaptability of the soil and climate to cotton culture is easily understood :for the part of the steam engine we must look across the water to\n\n"}
{"page": 156, "printed_page": null, "text": "146\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nancient history. From a period long antedating written history, Aryan\npeoples have been famous as weavers and spinners, and the English people\nwere no exception to the rule. The long-drawn battle between the feudal\nsystem and the factory had practically been over for a century, when a new\npower appeared in the field — a power that was destined in a century to\nrevolutionize the social and economical status of the whole world. This\nwas no more nor less than the application of steam to the development of\nenergy. In 1765 Watt made the first successful steam engine. Prior to\nthis time the English people held a monopoly in the manufacture of\nwoolen and linen textiles; with the invention of the steam engine there\ncame into the field an enormous increase of power, with no work for it to\naccomplish. But cotton cloth had already been brought from India to\nEngland; and it was worth about fifty cents a yard — hand-woven and\nhand-spun.\nJohn Bull is very long-headed, and very capable. He wrested that\nindustry from its natural habitat and carried it to England. Nowhere in\nthe history of economics has there been another such remarkable dislocation as resulted in this case. The mills were built in England; the cotton fields were moved to the United States. There was some trouble in\nfinding a way to separate the cotton from the seed, but Yankee ingenuity\n'overcame that. This accomplished, there was now a region called the\nsouthern states. Climatic conditions had prepared the ground, and the\nfoundation stones of the barrier were laid.\nBut with eastern competition, and labor worth from two to five cents\nper day — the wages then paid to Hindoo coolies — the rivalry of necessity must be sharp. In order to compete with eastern labor we imported\nthe native African, making a slave of him. The experiment seemed to be\nhighly successful, but human slavery was obnoxious to the freeman, so at\nthe same time we added several courses to the barrier that was fast growing higher. The man was apparently superior to his environment ; he\nwas building up the barrier more unwisely than lie knew.\nAll the while the energies of the people were so actively engaged\nin circumscribing the cotton -growing area, a train of events was bringing\nabout certain important results in the states north of Mason and Dixon's\nline. Topographic conditions — and again the man was governed by his\nenvironment — had almost shut out every employment except manufacture and commerce. As a result, a highly trained, skillful, and welleducated people became the body politic of the northern states. Their\nskill is attested by the fact that, whenever foreign-made and home-made\narticles came in competition, all other conditions being equal, the latter\ntook precedence because of their merit. But in the public eye merit\ncannot or will not successfully maintain itself against inferiority ; moreover, cheapness of price is usually the criterion of success. The New\nEngland\nmanufacturer was, therefore, confronted with a problem : he\n\n"}
{"page": 157, "printed_page": null, "text": "ScMions]\n\nINFLUENCE\n\nOF ENVIRONMENT\n\nON\n\nHISTORY\n\n1 47\n\nmust compete with goods made by operatives working at a lower rate of\nwages. He must, therefore, either lower the rate of wages paid his own\nemployes or induce the government to protect them against foreign\ncompetition. That protection of some kind or other was necessary there\ncan be no doubt ; every government owes that much to its people. In\nthis case, however, the protection took the form of a tariff on imports.\nWhether this form of protection was the most wisely chosen is a question\nthe discussion of which is out of place. It certainly had the effect of\nbuilding up and increasing the manufactures of the country to a marvelous extent ; it was likewise a grievous burden upon all sections of the\ncountry in which the pursuits were strictly agricultural. As a result the\nunnatural barrier grew, until it practically separated the two regions into\nhostile camps. All the legislation, no matter how well intended, sooner\nor later reacted in a way to increase the bitterness. In intensifying the\nanimosity growing out of social causes the absence of railway communication exerted not a little influence. A casual examination of a railway\nmap of that period discloses a remarkable condition. Practically all the\ntrunk lines extended east and west; a gridiron of roads was there, true;\nbut something different was wanted. Reading between the lines, such\nan arrangement allows but one interpretation — there was a woeful lack of\nintercommunication between the two sections ; the barrier had served its\npurpose only too well.\nIt had reached a condition where nothing short of catastrophic results\ncould follow its destruction. The time came. The barrier was shattered\nto its foundations ; but in the wrecking of it there went out almost\na million of lives, and it cost over six billions of dollars to extinguish\nthem.\nWe are apt to refer to the Civil War as a result of slavery. That such\nan abhorrent thing had much to do with it as an exciting cause cannot\nbe denied. We may also thank the God who led Israel out of bondage\nthat slavery was wiped off the continent > when the war ceased. Let us\nlook a little deeper under the surface : was slavery and its extension the\nreal cause? The student of history tells us better; behind the slavery\nquestion there was the more potent one of tariff, and in this question\nlay a main issue of the controversy. Let us probe still deeper : was the\ntariff question the real cause? Most certainly no; behind the tariff\nwas a factor still more potent. It was environment. Topography had\nmade the one section a region of manufacture ; climatic conditions had\nmade the other one of cotton growing. So diverse were the two that\nlegislative enactments which encouraged the one were apt to be hurtful to the other, no matter how they were applied. On both sides the\nman showed himself inferior to his environment, and for a long time it\nseemed as tho in neither case would he be able to adjust himself to it.\nIt was again the old story : friction to adjustment was making history.\n\n"}
{"page": 158, "printed_page": null, "text": "14S\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nThe Civil War was not the end of the barrier ; it was merely the shattering force that made removal possible. A train of causes put slowly\ninto motion was required for the latter. The southern extension of the\nAppalachian highland entered the cotton-growing area in the form of a\nwedge. This highland, not being a cotton-producing section, was rather\nagainst than in favor of disunion, and, at the close of the war, was very\nquickly \" reconstructed\" in all respects — save possibly the proper observance of the internal-revenue laws. From this region the wreckage was\neasily cleared away ; and the reasons therefor, it may be seen, are due to\nits topographic character.\nIn various parts of the South there were considerable areas that, so\nfar as cotton is concerned, were worn out. They were not unproductive,\nhowever, to wheat, and for this reason a northern industry not only\ninvaded the cotton region, but it found a vigorous existence there. With\nit there came an increasing acquaintance between the two peoples. The\nnorthern mudsill farmer proved to be a very well-disposed fellow ; the\nsouthern, fire-eater carried a warm heart just above his revolver belt.\nThus still more wreckage was swept away.\nThen came the discovery of coal and iron in the southern Appalachians, and in a trice the whole country began to rub its eyes — Atlanta,\nBirmingham, Anniston, Lynchburg; the smoke is pouring from hundreds of stacks, and out of the huge molds white-hot ingots of Bessemer\nsteel are dropping. There is no time for war talk ; the Yank and the\nReb are now working side by side, making steel rails and machinery\ninstead of cannon and armor plates. The wreckage has been cleared\naway from a wide swath, and the stream of commerce is flowing thru it\nas if at flood tide.\nBut the hum of the cotton mill is growing louder and louder in\nDixie. It is getting southward from the New England states, and with each\nturn of the master wheel more and more wreckage of the barrier is swept\naway. It was a great dislocation of an industry when cotton manufacture went from India to England ; it was quite as bad when it went from\nthe cotton fields of the South to the New England states, because, by the\nvery nature of things, the mill and the plantation should not be far\napart. The man is discovering his error of environment, and each day\nfinds him adjusting himself more wisely to it. Almost forty years have\ncome and gone ; compare the railway map of today with that of four\ndecades ago ; the gridironing is no longer apparent ; it is a chequer-board\ndevelopment now ; and each north-and-south line has swept away its\nshare of barrier wreckage, bringing the people closer together. Topographic conditions invited them long ago, but the man was not so wise\nthen as now ; wisdom has come with bitter experience.\nSocial conditions have also softened under the mellowing touch of\ntime.\nEven the campfire\nreunions\nare changing.\nFormerly it was\n\n"}
{"page": 159, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nGEOSPHERES\n\neither all blue or all gray ; now it is both blue and gray. Churches are\nresponding to the word of the hour, and the distinction \" North \" and\n\"South\" is gradually being buried, never to wake to a resurrection call.\nSo, year after year, the wreckage was swept away, until its existence\nlingered only in the memory. But memories even are sometimes bitter.\nIt needed a time and a cause to take the bitterness of memory away.\nThey came suddenly, like a thunder squall out of a clear sky. It was\nagain a war for humanity's sake ; and with the blast of the bugle there\ncame for the first time in our history a united nation — no North, no\nSouth — just one great country.\n\nTHE\n\nBY\n\nVV\n\nJ MCGEE,\n\nGEOSPHERES\n\nVICE-PRESIDENT\nNATIONAL\nWASHINGTON, D. C.\n\nGEOGRAPHIC\n\nSOCIETY,\n\nPerhaps it is my first duty, as it is a privilege, to offer you a word of\nwelcome on behalf of the society which I have the honor to represent —\none of the institutions of the national capital engaged, in its own way,\nin educational work. Speaking for that society, Mr. President and ladies\nand gentlemen of the National Educational Association, I bid you a cordial\nwelcome to Washington, and place at your disposal all the facilities which\nare ours.\nBefore leading you away from the earth's surface, which has been so\nadmirably described by the last speaker, I wish to confess that I labor\nunder a certain embarrassment. In the first place, I am attempting' to\nspeak for another man, and on his subject. The subject was chosen by\nMajor J. W. Powell ; first an educator like most of you, next a soldier\nwho left an arm at Shiloh, next the explorer of Colorado canon — the\nboldest piece of exploratory work in the history of our country — then a\ngeologist and long director of the United States Geological Survey ; at\nthe same time an ethnologist and founder of the Bureau of American\nEthnology ; and from first to last a philosopher, one of the most vigorous\nthinkers America has produced. It is but natural that I should shrink\nfrom discussion of a subject developed by so vigorous a thinker, and\nselected by him for presentation before you in his own inimitable way.\nAgain, I belong to the class of knowledge-makers who most-feel their\nown limitations in appearing before those who assimilate and apply\nknowledge, placing it within reach of the people, and thereby performing\nthe real work of raising humanity from plane to plane as time goes on ;\n1 apprehend that my ideas may seem vague and my expressions obscure,\nbut I confidently appeal to your intelligence to aid in making the ideas\n\n"}
{"page": 160, "printed_page": null, "text": "15°\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nED UCA TIONAL\n\nASSOC I A TION\n\n[General\n\nclear and useful to the multitude of American youth for whom you stand\nsponsors.\nFirst, as to definitions — definitions rendered the more necessary for\nthe reason that the essential ideas which I wish to express have not yet\nfound their way into the dictionaries. Since early in the history of\nknowledge, men have recognized the atmosphere, i. e., the body of air\nabove the earth. At first the recognition was vague ; it became more and\nmore definite as time went on ; and now educated men and women and\nchildren know the atmosphere as a gaseous envelope surrounding the\nsolid earth, an envelope composed of a complex mixture of substances,\nchiefly oxygen and nitrogen. This atmosphere is one of the geospheres\nthe outermost of four.\nSince the beginning of knowledge, too, men have perceived the waters\nof the earth ; and, as time has gone on, they have recognized more and\nmore clearly the substantial unity of the standing waters of ocean and\nbay and lake, the running waters of springs and rivers, and the solid\nwaters of arctic and antarctic snows and the glaciers of mountain and\npole ; and they are coming to extend the unity to include the aqueous\nvapor of the air, one of the constituent gases of the atmosphere. Water\nis a definite mineral substance existing in three forms as solid, liquid, and\ngas, tho chiefly in the second form; it constitutes a hydrosphere — the\nsecond of the four geospheres — covering the greater part of the solid\nearth and covered by the greater part of the atmosphere.\nHuman knowledge began with recognition of the solid earth ; as time\npassed, the knowledge became definite thru the endless interactions\nbetween human mind and human environment; and today most intelligent people recognize a terrestrial sphere, beginning with the soils and\nrocks beneath their feet, passing beneath river and lake and ocean to the\nantipodes, and extending from equator to pole in a spheroidal mass\nforming the visible, solid part of our planet. Now, it is only the superficial portion of this spheroidal mass which lies within reach of observation ;this is the rocky crust of the earth, the object-matter of the science\nof geology ; it consists of a wide variety of mineral substances, mainly combined in rocks of a specific gravity, averaging about 2.70. This earthcrust forms the lands of the earth and the basins of the oceans ; all of\nthe geographic and topographic features so well described by Dr. Redway\nare built up or carved out of it ; the continents, the islands, the valleys,\nthe mountains of the world represent this vast mass of rock matter, which\nit is convenient to call the lithosphere — the third of the four geospheres.\nWhile observation of terrestrial things ends with the atmosphere and\nhydrosphere and lithosphere, definite thinkers find it necessary to form\nsome idea of the constitution of the interior portion of the planetary\nmass at depths below the reach of direct vision. Now, knowledge of the\nearth's\n\ninterior\n\nis gained, not thru geology, but thru the sister science,\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 161, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nGEOSPHERES\n\n151\n\nastronomy. You are aware that, within recent years, astronomers have\nreduced to system our sun, the planets and asteroids which circle about\nit, the satellites which follow the planets, and the long-mysterious rings\nof Saturn — the various constituents of our solar system; and the paths\nof the planets and satellites have been surveyed, while each of the bodies\nhas been measured and weighed so that their volumes and densities are\nknown with considerable accuracy. Let me indicate the accuracy with\nwhich this astronomical work has been done by saying that sun, planet,\nand satellite have been weighed with an accuracy no less than that of the\ngrocer in dealing out sugar and tea, and that the orbits of planets, satellites, and asteroids have been surveyed as accurately as the roadways, and\neven the railways, of the earth's surface. The earth itself has been\nweighed, with somewhat less accuracy than the other planets, it is true, yet\nwith sufficient accuracy to indicate that its mean density is nearly six times\nthat of water (5.6 ±), or more than twice that of the known lithosphere.\nAccordingly it is known beyond peradventure that the earth has an\ninterior portion much denser than the known exterior; and this somewhat vaguely defined part of the earth may conveniently be called a centrosphere — the innermost of the four geospheres.\nIn the light of these definitions, you will understand that my object\nin coming before you is not so much to say new things as to try to establish a new point of view. Knowledge progresses in two ways, which are\ninterrelated, yet fairly distinct ; the first is analysis, and the second is synthesis ;the sum of knowledge is increased by analysis, while its quality is\nimproved by synthesis. I am now attempting, not to bring new facts\nbefore you, but to put old facts together in a new way, and thus to carry\nyou to a higher plane in the synthesis or generalization of a wide range\nof observations ; and I am seeking to do this in such manner as to reflect\nthe workings of another man's mind — the mind of the real author of\nthis address.\nLet us now consider the relations between the geospheres.\nIn the first place, the matter of the geospheres is unlike in state or\nphysical condition. The atmosphere is almost wholly gaseous; the\nhydrosphere is for the most part liquid, tho in part solid and in small\npart gaseous ; the lithosphere is almost wholly solid, tho a minute part is\ngaseous (chiefly as impurities in the air), while a small part may be liquid,\nunder temporary and local circumstances ; for the present the centrosphere may be considered a transolid. Thus the four geospheres represent the three well-known states of matter, together with a fourth state\nwhich is not certainly known from direct observation. It is the marvelously delicate interrelation between the three exterior geospheres that\ngives character to the earth as the theater of life and the home of\n\nhumanity ; for plant and beast and man are alike dependent on the lithosphere for the solid part of their bodily substance, on the hydrosphere\n\n"}
{"page": 162, "printed_page": null, "text": "152\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nfor the greater part of their sustenance, and on the atmosphere for the\nbreath of life.\nIn the second place, the exterior geospheres at least are, despite the\ndifferences in physical conditions, in some degree intermixed. The\ngreater part of the atmosphere floats over the waters and lands of the\nearth as a thin mantle, growing more and more tenuous outward ; an\nearly estimate of its thickness was forty-five miles, but the American\nphysicist Woodward has recently shown that the outer portion is much\nless dense than at first supposed, and that the total thickness of the mantle\nexceeds the radius of the solid earth, A small part of the atmosphere is\nintermixed with the waters of the hydrosphere, especially the running\nwaters of rivers and brooks ; another part pushes down into the lithosphere, filling interstices in the rocks and playing an important role in\nthe chemical and physical changes ever proceeding in the earth-crust. In\nlike manner, while the greater part of the hydrosphere exists in the\noceans, lakes, rivers, snowfields, and glaciers, a considerable volume rises\nfar into .the atmosphere in the form of aqueous vapor, and a much greater\nvolume permeates the lithosphere as ground water, or in still more intimate combination with the solid earth substance. So, too, the material\nof the lithosphere is in small part dissolved or suspended in the waters or\nafloat in the air ; at the same time there is an obscure interrelation\nbetween the lithosphere proper and the centrosphere, manifested in\nvolcanic and other phenomena, and perhaps in the presence of the metals\namong the rocks ; for there are certain reasons (which cannot now be set\nforth) for regarding the centrosphere as an aggregation of metalloid substances, much as the lithosphere is an aggregation of lithoid substances.\nThe blending of the exterior geospheres is especially intimate where the\nthree are in normal contact, i. e., about the terrestrial surface on which\nmen live and with which geographers deal ; and the soils, the plants which\nsubsist on the soils, the animals which consume the plants, and the\ncrowning human organism which dominates all the others are products of\nthe commingling.\nJust as the geospheres are intermingled in material, so they are, in\nsome measure, interrelated in normal movements. The atmosphere is an\naerial ocean, ever astir with currents due primarily to the rotation and\nrevolution of the sphere, i. e., to movements depending on the density\nand volume of centrosphere and lithosphere ; the waters of the ocean are\nevaporated into the atmosphere, carried far in its currents as aqueous\nvapor, and then precipitated to flow back again as fresh water, while the\nbody of the ocean is enlivened by currents set in motion by the evermoving atmosphere, as well as by tides produced by rotation and revolution ;the lithosphere is constantly destroyed and reconstructed by the\nmoving waters of the hydrosphere, while the earth-crust is warped and\ncontinents are lifted and sea bottoms depressed by the obscure but potent\n\n"}
{"page": 163, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions)\n\nTHE\n\nGEOSPHERES\n\n153\n\nmovements of the centrosphere. So the normal movements of the geospheres are interrelated, and most of them, from the rhythmic rise and fall\nof the earth-crust thru which continents are built and destroyed to the\ntrade winds and oceanic currents, may be traced to the motions of the\ncentrosphere.\nLet us now consider for a moment how the conditions and motions of\nthe exterior geospheres would be affected by circumstances which at first\nsight might seem trivial ; for thereby we may see more clearly how delicate\nare the interrelations on which terrestrial life and human activity depend.\nSuppose the temperature of the earth were raised, say, 200\" F., what would\nfollow ? Your common sense, born of experience, tells you that much\nor all of the hydrosphere would cease to exist as such and become a part\nof the atmosphere; that the atmosphere would thereby be multiplied in\nvolume and density, changed in substance, and modified in movements;\nyet that the lithosphere would remain substantially unchanged, save that\nsome of its substance would be dissolved in the densified atmosphere.\nProbably the centrosphere would not be greatly affected ; yet, even so\nslight a change in circumstance as an increase of temperature by only\n200^ would remove the hydrosphere from the earth and greatly modify\nthe atmosphere.\nLet us next consider the effect which would follow the reduction of\nthe temperature of the earth by, say, 400° F.; something we shquld have\nbeen unable to do a generation ago, but which we can now do so easily\nby reason of recent experiments and discoveries in physics. You will\nremember that about a score of years ago Cailletet, of France, and Pictet,\nof Switzerland, began to liquefy different gases by the application of\npressure at low temperature. Many of you know that this line of experimentation was continued by the distinguished chemist and physicist of\nLondon, Dewar, who liquefied one gas after another, until every gaseous\nsubstance known to man, including hydrogen, has been reduced to the\nliquid state ; and, I am sure, many of you know that the American\nTripler has recently improved on the work of our European cousins, and\nhas learned to liquefy air in large quantities at low cost by the skillful\napplication of pressure and artificially reduced temperature. Tripler's\nwork, by the way, is worthy of more than passing note ; for his advance\nhas given mankind a new hold on the powers of nature, with a promise of\npractical applications yielding benefits much greater than were promised\nby electrical control when inventors first began to utilize electricity for\nmechanical and other purposes ; but this is a digression. Now, liquid air\nis a little lighter than water, and boils, or evaporates, at about 312° below\nzero F. So we know that, if the temperature of our planet were to be\nreduced by 400°, the atmosphere would cease to exist as such, and would\nshrink to one-eighth-hundredth of its present bulk, and be converted into\nWe know, too, that long before the reduction was coma hydrosphere.\n\n"}
{"page": 164, "printed_page": null, "text": "154\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\npleted — indeed, when the temperature fell to a maximum of 32° above\nzero — the hydrosphere would cease to exist as such, and would become\na part of the lithosphere ; for the waters of ocean and lake would be congealed (as we know from Tripler's experiments) into a dry, powdery\nmass of crystals, crumbling under blows' or pressure, just as granite and\nlimestone and other rocks crumble at our present temperature ; the\nwaters would become rock, added to the rock which now exists. By\nthis transformation the volume of the lithosphere would be augmented by\nthat of the present oceans, the present sea level would become sea bottom, and a lighter sea of liquid air (only a dozen or a score of yards in\ndepth) would wash the frozen globe, leaving continents and islands rising\nabove its surface in a geographic configuration differing not greatly from\nthat of the present. Over this globe no air would float, save possibly a\nlight vapor scantier than the aqueous vapor now borne in our atmosphere,\nand no man or beast or plant, no trace of life, could exist.\nConsideration of the profound modification in the exterior geospheres, necessarily following changes in temperature which can only be\nconsidered' as slight in comparison with the wide temperature range even\nof our solar system, aids us in understanding something of the conditions\nwhich attended the early stages in the development of our planet. The\nearth, as a whole, is apparently a cooling body, tho the rate of cooling\nmay be — indeed,- must be — almost infinitesimally slow. So the planet\nprimeval must have been warmer, a greater part of its water must have\nbeen afloat as vapor in its atmosphere, which must have been heavy with\nvapors and the fumes of solids soluble in hot water. In like manner the\nchanges necessarily produced in the geospheres by diminished temperature enable us to take a long look. into the future and foresee the fate\nwhich awaits the aging planet — unless, indeed, this fate may be averted\nby aid of human ingenuity. There are many indications that the mechanism of the solar system — and, indeed, of the stellar system — is running\ndown. We know that the water of the earth is going into new combinations from time to time as a constituent of the rocks of the lithosphere.\nWe know that the water area of the globe is diminishing from age to age,\nas the eons run, for the clastic deposits with which geologists are most\nconcerned were laid down in water, while those now forming are largely,\nif not mainly, accumulated on land. There are deserts on every continent today, while the record of geology indicates that during the carboniferous and earlier ages all the lands of the earth were fertile and\nhumid. And just as the hydrosphere is going into the lithosphere by\nchemic absorption, as well as by interpenetration, so the commingled\noxygen and nitrogen of the atmosphere are slowly separating and combining with the substances of the lithosphere, and probably also with the\nsubstance of the hydrosphere. The changes yield a glimpse of planetary\nhistory; they suggest a time when the now deep-buried centrosphere was\n\n"}
{"page": 165, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nGEOSPHERES\n\n155\n\nenveloped only by heavy atmosphere, with no iithosphere save possibly\nits\nown scums and slags, and no hydrosphere save possibly viscid lakes of\nits\nown substance half liquefied by relief from pressure, like the lavas of later\ntime ; they raise visions of slowly segregating waters and accumulating\nrocks formed thru interaction between the.condensing atmosphere and\nthe cooling centrosphere ; they indicate the differentiation of the geospheres in nice adjustment to temperature and other conditions. The\nchanges, indeed, give a threat of ultimate absorption of air and water\ninto the rocks, leaving a dead planet of centrosphere and Iithosphere\nonly, swinging helpless thru space like our frozen moon ; yet there is a\nfaint promise in a fifth geosphere produced thru delicate interaction\namong the three exterior spheres of the earth, lying about the common\nboundary of the three, dependent on all, yet able (at least in some measure) to control their relations — a psychosphere, comprehending the\nscanty, but potent and ever-growing, mantle of thought which today envelops the world.\nJust a few words more, if you please, concerning general relations\namong the geospheres. The atmosphere is a body of gas conditioned\nprimarily by temperature; the hydrosphere is a volume of liquid conditioned bytemperature and gravity ; the Iithosphere is a shell of rock conditioned bytemperature, gravity, and a more complex chemic affinity than\nis found in the mixture air or the compound water; the centrosphere is a\ntransolid and probably metalloid body, conditioned in ways that are not\nwell known. The several geospheres combine to form a planet conditioned bytemperature, gravity, chemic affinity, and perhaps other factors,\nwhich extend to other planets and satellites and suns of the cosmos.\nSo the features of the geospheres, i. e., the characteristics of our planet,\nare largely determined from within ; yet it is not to be forgotten that each\ngeosphere contributes to the making of the others, and thus to the molding of the planet, and in some measure to the shaping of the cosmos.\nThis has already been indicated incidentally.\nLet us now proceed to consider a few of the interrelations among the\ngeospheres which affect cosmic economy. We have good reason for supposing that the earth is a cooling body ; that some of its primeval heat\nis constantly passing into space to affect (howsoever infinitesimally) other\nbodies ; but do we know why the temperature of the earth is not lowered\nmore rapidly — why the lowering is so slow as not to be detectable by the\nobservations of history ? We know that, if the earth were simply a ball\nswinging thru interstellar space, and cooling by the radiation of its heat\ninto space, it would soon be refrigerated. We know, too, that in this case\nthe temperature of its surface would be determined solely by two factors,\nviz. : (i) the temperature of the ball itself, and (2) the temperature of the\ninterstellar space. Now, on examining our planet as an actual thing, and\nnot as a figment of the imagination, we do not find that the temperature\n\n"}
{"page": 166, "printed_page": null, "text": "156\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nof its surface is determined, or even perceptibly affected, by its own\nproper heat. We do find that the temperature of the external earth is\ndetermined by the heat received from the sun. It follows, of course, that\nthe earth is not merely a cooling ball suspended in cold space. On\nexamining more critically the- conditions determining our temperature, we\nfind there are two, viz.: (i) insolation, or accession of solar heat, and (2)\nconservation of a considerable part of this heat for a time by a terrestrial\nmechanism. This mechanism resides chiefiy in interrelations among the\nexterior geospheres. The most important conservative agency is the\naqueous vapor of the air, which not only stores quantities of heat to be\ngiven off on condensation, but serves to check radiation from the earth\ninto space. When the sun shines on the ocean, a film of water is evaporated, to be borne high in the clouds and carried far over the mainland ;\nwhen it is condensed, a part of its heat is employed in raising the temperature of surrounding air, water, and rock ; so that water, chiefly in\nthe form of vapor, stores heat more effectively than any other substance\nwith which we are acquainted. Still more efficient is aqueous vapor as a\nblanket checking evaporation ; dry air is diathermous, but vapor-laden air\nchecks radiation from the earth, as a garment checks radiation from the\nbody. Since there is no part of the earth, even on the deserts and polar\nicefields, in which there is not an appreciable quantity of aqueous vapor\nin the air, this substance forms a clothing for the earth, determining its\ntemperature, rendering it habitable, and making it what it is today, the\nstage of human activity.\nThere is another class of interrelations between the geospheres which\nI should like to bring before you, partly as a new discovery. As before\npointed out, the rocks of the earth-crust or lithosphere are permeated by\nwater in the form known technically as ground water or phreatic water.\nNow, one of our most distinguished geologists. Professor Van Hise, of\nthe University of Wisconsin, has recently shown that this ground water\nplays an important role in changing the texture and structure of rocks,\nespecially at depths where the pressure is great and the temperature\nhigher than at the surface. It is a well-known property of water to dissolve certain substances, and its efficiency in dissolving many rock substances isgreatly increased when the substances are subjected to pressure\nand heat; and, under these conditions, it also ionizes complex substances, i.e., separates them into their simple components, or ions.\nAccordingly, when moist rocks are subjected to strong pressure at high\ntemperature, as is frequently the case deep in the earth-crust, the rock\nmatter is dissolved at the points and planes of greatest pressure, and precipitated or red.eposited at neighboring points and planes of less pressure ;\nso that, for example, a crystalline cube of wet, hot rock matter may be\npermanently distorted by long-continued pressure on opposite faces, the\ncrystals gradually yielding to the stress in the direction of the pressure.\n\n"}
{"page": 167, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nSessions]\n\nTHE\n\nGEOSPHERES\n\n157\n\nand elongating themselves in the orthogonal directions. Thru its\nproperty as a dissolving and ionizing agent, that portion of the hydrosphere which penetrates and suffuses the lithosphere has determined the\ntexture and structure of most of our rocks ; it has transformed the muds\nand sands and slimes of original deposition into shales, sandstones, and\nlimestones; in some instances it has reconverted or metamorphosed these\nrocks into schists, quartzites, and marbles; still more significantly it has\naided in remetamorphosing deep-seated rocks into lavas and other crystallines. This extreme effect of water is peculiarly instructive in that it\nreveals something of the character of the centrosphere, whose dense\nmaterials are brought within reach of observation only by water as a solvent and sublimant in the form of lavas, vein-stones, and other rocks of\nhypogean origin. There is reason for regarding the atmosphere as a\ndifferentiating and dissipating factor, and the hydrosphere as a unifying\nand conserving factor, both interacting with the centrosphere in such\nmanner as to develop the lithosphere and convert it into the terrestrial\nhome of humanity ; but this relation need not be pursued for the present.\nYet it is worth while to note a curious relation between lithosphere and\ncentrosphere which is apparently controlled by the waters both of the\nsurface and the depths. The two inner geospheres are in unstable equilibrium ;this is shown by the occasional escape of the deep-seated materials from the foundation of the lithosphere (if not from the centrosphere\nitself) in the form of extruded lavas and sublimated vein-stones; it is\nshown also by the interminable heaving of the centrosphere manifested\nin continental oscillation and, to some extent, in the uplifting of mountains; it is indicated further, in still more interesting, tho obscure,\nfashion, by the apparent reduction of loose-textured solids to the denser\ntransolid condition in provinces subject to loading thru deposition of\nexceptional volumes of sediment — e. g., the gulf of Mexico, the world's\nmost notable province of loading, whose configuration suggests a hypogean\n\" slump,\" which may be imitated experimentally by pouring a few drops\nof heavier and cooler liquid into a viscid liquid at the critical (or boiling)\npoint; but this most interesting relation may also be passed over for the\npresent with the simple suggestion — made by many phenomena — that the\nsolid lithosphere and transolid centrosphere appear to be interconvertible\nat a critical point of temperature and pressure, much as the atmosphere and\nhydrosphere may be considered interconvertible in state and in substance\non passing a critical point conditioned by the same factors, and that the\nhypothesis of interconvertibility explains some of the most puzzling facts\nin geology.\nThere are other interrelations between the geospheres, interrelations\n\ninnumerable ; time will not permit me to mention a tithe or even a hundredth part of them ; yet there is one more relation which appeals\nstrongly to those geographers who, like myself, always see the lands and\n\n"}
{"page": 168, "printed_page": null, "text": "IS8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nthe waters from the human standpoint, and I beg your indulgence for the\nthree minutes required to set it forth briefiy. My predecessor, Dr. Redway, has admirably defined for you the natural provinces of America,\nand shown you that the features of the land, formed during the ages by\nthe work of running waters, shape the character of our people ; I trust\nhe will permit me to add a word to his theme, as well as to that of\nthe thinker for whom I am speaking: In what we call the western\nhemisphere the land and the waters are so related as to form a broad\ncontinent, the North American continent, mainly in the North Temperate zone ; during the ages the centrosphere has heaved and sunk, according to its wont, and has interacted with the atmosphere and hydrosphere\nin such manner as to produce a lithosphere of far-reaching formations,\ncrumpled here into mountains, stretching there in broad plains, modified\neverywhere at the surface into fertile soils, charged often at the depths\nwith mineral treasures — the whole a rich patrimony wasted on unintelligent aborigines until men of thought and action came to claim it. Then,\nsince the- lands were broad and fertile, agriculture spread more rapidly\nthan ever before, more rapidly than would be possible under other conditions ;next, the magnificent distances and rich produce compelled\nimproved transportation facilities, and steam was harnessed more effectively than would be possible under other conditions. Meantime the\nbroad problems presented by a broad land widened the views of men\nalready inspired by political freedom, and America became a nation of\ninventors, a people of applied science; geography was studied more\nbroadly than would be possible in a petty province ; it grew into a science\nof geology, inspired by the breadth of the formations and their wealth in\nresources, guided by intelligence broad as the land, and today the geologists of this country lead the world in their science. The sister sciences\nwere invigorated by the association ; I have said that the solar system has\nbeen weighed and measured with unparalleled accuracy during recent\nyears, and may now add that the work was done by American genius, and\nthat today the shipping of the civilized world is guided by nautical almanacs based on this American work. Another science regenerated in\nAmerica by reason of favorable conditions is anthropology. We have\nhad better opportunities than the students of other countries for research\nconcerning mankind ; we have in Washington and in other cities representatives from every important country on the face of the earth, representatives ofevery living race, of every blood in human veins ; then we\nhave a wider range of culture constantly before us than any other nation,\na range running from savage aborigines thru barbarous tribes up to the\nrepresentatives of the kingdoms and empires from other countries, and\nfinally to our own enlightened people, standing on the highest plane which\nmankind has ever attained — the plane on which social organization is\nbased on intellectual freedom.\nWe have every stage in human culture\n\n"}
{"page": 169, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nSessions!\n\nTHE\n\nGEOSPHEKES\n\n159\n\nbefore us,and hence have been able to develop a broader and profoundei\nscience of anthropology than the world has seen before. Especially during\nthe last half century our country has sprung forward in the race for intellectual attainment, surpassing all other nations ; and our application of\nscientific principles has kept pace with our development of knowledge.\nToday, if English promoters in Egypt want locomotives furnished on\nshort notice, they send to America, knowing that, despite the doubling in\ndistance, the order can be filled more quickly than in England; today, if\na bridge is to be built more rapidly than the engineers of other countries\ncan do it, American engineers are called to the task. Our progress in\napplication has combined with our progress in knowledge to strengthen\nindividual character, to produce a free and forceful individuality greater\nthan other countries know — an individuality splendidly expressed in the\nfaces before me. This exalted individuality is displayed in more perfect\nco-ordination of thought, in more complete union of hand and brain,\nthan the world has ever seen before ; it is revealed in moral uprightness\nand strength of character, in personal courage, even in that splendid\nmarksmanship — the highest expression of co-ordination between mind\nand muscle - — which is America's latest revelation to the world. The\nindividual character of Americans gives national character to America ;\nour patriotism, the spontaneous product of free minds, is broader and\ndeeper than any sentiment brought out by royal edict ; no other country\ncould match the recent impulse which prompted the millionaire clubman of New York and the roving cowboy from Arizona to stand shoulder\n.to shoulder in a war for humanity's sake. It is the unequaled individuality of free citizens, united and controlled by a dominant idea, that\nforms the basis of our indomitable social organization, a social organization faintly expressed by that co-ordination in army and navy which overwhelms opposition. Complete as is our co-ordination in military matters,\nit is much more perfect in civil life, in that unceasing conquest over\nnature toward which our deepest thoughts are bent ; and our seventy million individuals, each a tower of individual strength, are kept in touch by\ntelegraph and telephone and press, united in thought and purpose, knit\ninto the strongest social and political fabric the world has seen. It is this\nsocial fabric, the expression of thought and purpose, which I have in mind\nin referring to the psychosphere, most delicate, yet noblest, of the geospheres, which seems to be enveloping our planet and commencing the\ncontrol of the rock sphere, the water sphere, and even the air sphere for\nthe good of humanity.. And it is this conquest of the powers and\nresources of the exterior spheres, inspired by intellectual freedom and\nguided by liberal education like that which you dispense, that has placed\nAmerica in the foremost rank among the nations of the earth.\n\n"}
{"page": 170, "printed_page": null, "text": "l6o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nDISCUSSION\nGeorge T. Murphy, assistant superintendent of schools, St. Louis, Mo. — Professor\nRedway has given such a clear and comprehensive view of the influence of topography and\nclimate on the character of the people of our country that no words of elucidation are\nneeded. The presentation of the subject was so masterly that praise would be idle\nflattery.\nIt is but repetition to say that man, especially in his animal nature, is more or less\ninfluenced by physical environment. His natural surroundings, also, necessarily play\nsome part in his menial development. How this is true may be measurably comprehended but\n;\nthe why of it is a mystery as fathomless as the mystery of life.\nThat man may, and sometimes does, transcend his physical surroundings there can\nbe no doubt.\nNature teaches the survival of the fittest. An eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth\nis the rule. But as the spiritual nature, led by intellect, feeling, and will, grows strong, it\nscorns the old Mosaic law and grasps the extended hand of the Man of Nazareth. The\nhistory of the races and peoples of the earth points unmistakably to the fact that man\nmoves on to his destiny in channels fixed by the iijimutable laws of God.\nNations and races differ one from another always for cause.\nIn America, with our brief history and our comparative freedom from inherited\nrestrictions, the influence of topography and climate is most clearly seen in our national\ndevelopment.\nPerhaps nowhere on earth does man more readily harmonize with nature.\nAnd wherever the growth of man meets with least resistance, there will be found the\nmost rapid progress toward a higher and better civilization. The strong forces which aid\nour growth, and have so aided it thruout our short career as a people, are the favorable\nclimate and inviting contour of the land in which we live. The variety of relief and a\nmost salubrious climate are such as develop a hardy, independent type of manhood.\nGreat plains and valleys, we are told, have a tendency to create despotic forms of government ;but this tendency is balanced, in our land, by the elevated regions on the west\nand the highlands to the east, inclosing on two sides a vast empire in extent and in all\nthat nature offers to incite man to greatness. The magnificent valley of the Mississippi\nwill never wield its power despotically. Mountains, always the homes of freemen, are in\nsuch close proximity to this spreading valley that their influence on the temperament of\nthe people is most perceptible. We, the inhabitants of this great interior plain, with\nthe psalmist \" lift up our eyes unto the hills from whence cometh our strength.\"\nIn no country on earth is the formation such that the people may intermingle so\neasily. Look at Eurasia ! Broken into small valleys by transverse mountains, we hear\na babel of tongues and behold a diversity of interests.\nThey seem to be unable to cross natural boundaries, while we, with the hardihood\ninherited from our forefathers and encouraged by the general relief, press onward over\nmountain and plain till we occupy the best part of North America. The sturdy mountain\ntype of man mingling with the brave son of the valley ; the hardy, calculating north type\nmingling with his impulsive, but courageous, generous brothers of the southland, make a\ncombination of brain, blood, and brawn unsurpassed in all the world.\nAll thru our history, topography and climate controlled in our development as a\nnation. Physical relief rendered independence possible ; the Ohio led us beyond the\nAlleghanies ; the Mississippi river made necessary the purchase of Louisiana ; the\nclimatic limitations of the North and the greater fertility of the South developed diverse\nlabor systems and consequent political antagonism ; the mines of California turned the\n\n"}
{"page": 171, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nSessions]\n\nDISCUSSION\n\nl6l\n\nscales for the freedom of the slaves ; the greater strength of the North triumphed ami\nsettled the secession question once and forever.\nDiversity of natural resources develops variety of industries ; this |)laces a premium\non ingenuity and inventiveness, stimulates traffic, and causes division of labor, which in\nturn results in the rapid growth of cities and towns, and brings prosperity thruout the\nland.\nThe tendency to divide the people upon parallels of latitude no longer prevails.\nThe great waterways and the greater railways have no regard for sectional lines or the\nprejudice of man. It is easy to procure food, clothing, and shelter, and the era of art\nand the cultivation of all the refining influences is at hand.\nIn the United States, as nowhere else on earth, there is unity of design in the\ncreative idea which brought forth its broad valleys and high plateaus, its lofty mountains\nand boundless plains, its inland seas and winding rivers, to be an ideal home for man.\nOf all the countries of the earth none is so well fitted for the home of one people.\nWherever our flag floats, it brings harmony and prosperity. On whatever distant isles it\nmay be planted, there let it remain. No fear that the traditions of our fathers will be\nruthlessly trampled under foot. The unity of our people and the unifying influence of the\npress will modify all conflicting interests. As our boundaries are extended, we shall\nchange with changing influences ; but each step brings us nearer to a common tyi)e.\nDavid W. Hoyt, principal of English High School, Providence, R. 1. — We are fortunate that we meet in such a city as Washington. It is in itself an educational influence\nto inspect the work of the Coast Survey, the Geological Survey, and the various other\nscientific organizations which have their headquarters in the nation's capital. Still better,\nit is an inspiration to meet and listen to the men who have given their lives to the\nadvancement of science. As teachers we stand between original investigators and the\npublic. We must explain their work to the rising generation before it can have its full\neffect upon the nation's life.\nThe subject assigned me for discussion has been so well and so fully treated that\nlittle remains to be said upon the main topic. The tendency of the times is to teach, not\nsimply facts, but the reasons for those facts. Nowhere is the relation of cause and effect\nmore plainly to be seen than in the influence of physical features upon the history of a\ncountry. Perhaps the best I can do, in the brief time allotted me, is to call attention to\nsome ways in which the ideas presented can be practically applied in teaching the history\nof the United States.\nIt seems to me that topography and climate, in the last analysis, depend upon two\nconditions— latitude and altitude ; hence it is important that the pupil should understand\nthe effects of each. It is true that other influences appear, and have been well illustrated\nin the discussion this morning ; but most, if not all, are the result of these two conditions.\nMountain chains and table-lands are directly the result of elevation. The rivers of\nthe United States, so important in its historical development, their size, direction, swiftness of current, waterfalls, and navigability are determined by the divides which bound\ntheir drainage areas, and the difference of level between their sources and their mouths —\nall the result of difference of elevation, modified, of course, by the amount of precipitation. The rainfall itself, which may determine whether the land shall be desert or fertile,\nis largely the result of the presence or absence of mountain chains and table-lands which\nwring the moisture from the prevailing winds. Temperature, too, which modifies the fertility of the soil, directly results from latitude and altitude. The coast line of the United\nStates — another most important feature — its gulfs, bays, harbors, all are the result of\ndifferences of elevation. A change of a few feet in the altitude of the continent would\ngreatly modify or obliterate these features.\nConsider the progress of the white man in settling this continent. His first colonies\nNext he proceeded along the rivers. The gulf of\nwere necessarily on or near the coast.\n\n"}
{"page": 172, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 62\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nMexico, the Atlantic coast, the great lakes, the great rivers like the St. Lawrence and\nthe Mississippi, mark his early explorations and settlements east of the Rocky mountains.\nTake the settlement of New England as an illustration. From a few centers, like\nPlymouth, Salem, and Boston, the white men start many plantations along the coast.\nThen they gradually pass up the Merrimac, the Charles, the Connecticut, and other\nrivers, where they find easier transportation and more fertile lands than in other directions. Even western Massachusetts and Vermont were settled, in part at least, by a\nstream of migration which went from eastern Massachusetts southward along the coast,\nand then up the Connecticut river. Another stream from New York, along the Hudson\nand Champlain, entering Vermont from the west, explains the peculiar early history of\nthis state. The Merrimac river fixed the site of the present capital of New Hampshire,\nwhile that river caused it to be considered, at first, a part of Massachusetts. The Indian\ntribes in their raids, whose object was to destroy the white settlements, traveled along\nthe Connecticut river. They came from Canada across Vermont and New Hampshire,\nalong the smaller streams and down the Merrimac, following the same lines as the white\nsettlers. The influence of these natural features is necessarily still felt. Where are the\nwhite man's railroads, his waterfalls and mills ? Along the same lines today, for the\nmost part.\nOutside of New England, the Hudson, the Mohawk, the St. Lawrence, and the great\nlakes are full of historic interest. Not only the settlement of the country, but the French\nand Indian and revolutionary wars, can be intelligently studied only by associating the\nevents with the physical features of the regions concerned.\nAt a later date, after the main water courses had been followed up, another method\nmust be employed in settling the country. After crossing the Appalachian chain, the\nwhite race set its face toward the West, driving the Indian before it. New England\nfarmers and southern planters needed more fertile land. When the treeless and level\nlands were reached, the \" prairie schooner\" took the place of the canoe and the \"dugout.\" The settlers migrated to regions of approximately the same latitude and climate as\nthey had left, and, therefore, yielding substantially the same agricultural products, but\nthose on a scale as much larger as the prairies are larger than the New England fields.\nTime does not permit us to speak of the influence of the arid region of the West, the\ngulf coast, the Pacific slope, and many other features which might be discussed.\n\nMINOR\n\nBY\n\nDR.\n\nW.\n\nMENTAL\nABNORMALITIES\nIN CHILDREN\nOCCASIONED\nBY CERTAIN ERRONEOUS\nSCHOOL\nMETHODS\n\nAS\n\nO.\n\nFOR\n\nKROHN,\n\nPSYCHOLOGIST,\nEASTERN\nTHE\nINSANE,\nKANKAKEE,\n\nILLINOIS\nILL.\n\nHOSPITAL\n\nMy discussion of this subject is based upon four distinct premises or\npropositions, each of which is a clearly proven and fully demonstrated\ntruth in some of the various particular sciences. It is not my purpose\nto endeavor to substantiate any particular theory of education. We are\nnot trying to bring forth evidence in favor of any \" fad\" or \"ism.\" It\nis an unwelcome fact, but a fact nevertheless, that mental abnormalities\ndo exist in school children.\nTo what is this seeming mental disintegra-\n\n"}
{"page": 173, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nMINOR\n\nMENTAL\n\nABNORMALITIES\n\n*\"\"\n\nIN\n\nCHILDREN\n\n-\n\n163\n\ntion due ? We know that in a large measure these mental abnormalities\nare the direct result of erroneous school methods — the logical attainment\nof a pseudo-education.\nThe present paper is not at all concerned with the physical ills of the\nchild, many and serious as they are, due to improperly appointed schoolrooms. \"Schoolroom diseases\" do exist, and the fact that they do exist is\na stigma that we should all hasten to eradicate. That a healthy, laughing,\nromping child entering our modern school may be doing so at the probable expense of health is a sad commentary upon our modern educational\nmethods. Can you wonder that a parent sometimes hesitates to give his\nchild to the modern school, when he knows from observation that his\ndearly beloved child may come back to him at the end of a few years\nbroken in health ? Must the parent of today take along with the modern\nschool, possessing as it does so much that is excellent, utilizing as it does\nso many of the best educational facts and forces — must he needs take\nalso those factors that make against, rather than for, the child's health ?\nCan you criticise the parent for sometimes halting at the schoolroom\ndoor and repeating to himself the question: \"What will it profit my\nchild if he gain the whole world of knowledge and lose his health ?\"\nBut in these latter days reforms are being made in regard to seating,\nventilation, lighting, and heating, as well as provisions for exercise,\nrecesses, and recreations ; all of which goes to show the steadily growing\nbelief of parents, teachers, and school officers in the dictum that \"a ton\nof knowledge gained at the expense of a single ounce of health is far too\ndearly paid for.\" Our schoolhouses are being better built, better\nequipped, and better appointed, so that, as time advances, the physical\nchild — his health — will be more and more conserved.\nBut the mental abnormalities of school children, resulting from erroneous, misfit methods, have occupied the thought and evoked the sympathy of comparatively few, and for that reason I shall devote the entire\ntime of this paper to the discussion of these mental abnormalities', their\ncauses, and how they may be eradicated.\nMy first premise I take from the domain of the science of biology, and\nit is the law of heredity, in which we believe to a greater or less degree.\nI mean the law of hereditv only in its more restricted, but fully established, sense — namely, the acquired characteristics of the parent are not\ntransmitted to the child. A strong belief in heredity has become so\ngeneral and so widespread that the direct results of descent are looked\nfor with supreme confidence. The good parent is supposed to have a\ngood child, and the brilliant parent a brilliant child. Yet this is too\nsweeping, for goodness and brilliancy are qualities purely functional and\nnot structural. They are the result of friction, struggle, social conditions,\nenvironment. The question of the underlying physical structure of the\nBone, muscle, nerve, in their distribution, are\nchild is quite different.\n\n"}
{"page": 174, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 64\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\ngoverned largely by heredity. But there is a difference between natural\ninheritance of structure and artificial acquirements. The father may be\ndeaf and the mother a deaf-mute, but the child of these parents will have\nnormal hearing and speech. I have made personal observation of one\nfamily in which both parents were deaf, yet their five children are perfectly normal as to hearing and speech. A man may have his nose\npushed to one side and the woman he marries may have suffered the\nsame deformity, and yet the children born to them will have perfectly\nstraight noses. Both father and mother may be \"star\" mathematicians\n— the result of acquisition and study — but the children born them may\nbe unable to go beyond the \"rule of three.\" Acquired characteristics\nare not transmitted. They are functional qualities rather than organic\nattributes. As Dr. Oppenheim says in his recent and most excellent\nbook: \"The doctrine of heredity, as commonly held, not only is falsely\napplied to human descents, but also renders the wisest and best efforts of\ntraining unnecessary and useless. For, if at birth the child's bodily and\nmental organization is complete, if the characteristics of parents are handed\ndown to offspring, then there the matter ends. Every remarkable parent\nwould have equally remarkable children, and every deficient person would\ncurse his descendants with a like deficiency; work, training, striving\nafter noble ideals would be useless and silly.\" All individual efforts at\nself-improvement would be worthless, every individual impulse would be\nincapable of realization, every endeavor of parent or teacher would be\nat an end. Not a single educational fact, not a single educational force,\nbut would fail of fruition.\nBut education is not a matter of such utter hopelessness. Pedagogical efforts are not doomed to such complete barrenness of results. To\nsuch a hopeless philosophy this world would be a dull blank and man\nlittle more than a grinning skull. If one really observes the laws of\ngrowth and mental development, as they become actualized in every child,\nhe will see that there is a more wholesome, roseate philosophy of education. Happily, then, the child does not grow according to some hard and\nfast rule that has been implanted in him before he was born. The old\nCalvinistic form of pedagogy, called heredity by Darwin, has been\ngradually giving place to the counter-dogma of liberal-minded men.\nFor example, Rousseau says : \" Everything is good as it comes from the\nhands of the Creator; everything degenerates in the hands of man.\"\nWhile both of these dogmas are too extreme — both the old Calvinistic\nand the more recent liberalistic — the sum of the whole matter is that\nentirely too much dependence has been placed upon heredity in its commonly accepted significance. Parents and teachers educate the minds,\ntrain the bodies, and develop the morals of the children under their care,\n\"not so much by what their ancestors were, but what they themselves do\nand think.\"\nIn the meantime, in any case of mental abnormality in the\n\n"}
{"page": 175, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nMINOR\n\nMENTAL\n\nABNORMALITIES\n\nIN CHILDREN\n\n165\n\nchild, the teacher will sHft the blame on the parent, and the parent in\nturn on the teacher, until finally, with their utter lack of co-operation, the\npsychopathically disposed child really becomes mentally disintegrated\nand quite degenerate.\nIn how far does the school help to develop mental and nervous\nabnormalities, when they could and should be checked and obliterated ?\nIn how far does the school give rise to new evils that affect the mental\npower of the child — evils that would be entirely unnecessary, were the\ncourses of study, the daily programs and schoolroom methods more\nfitting and better adapted to the child ? In light of the true conception\nof the doctrine of heredity we are warranted in saying that we have\nusually taken too much for granted in believing that the child at six\nyears of age, as he knocks at our schoolroom door, is more developed\nthan is really the case. We certainly take too much for granted with\nreference to the knowledge possessed by the children we are called upon\nto educate. There is, in fact, next to nothing of real educational value,\nthe knowledge of which it is safe to assume at the beginning of school\nlife. The child does not inherit in any form the knowledge acquired by\nhis parents, and we must proceed in his education by bringing into\nexercise all methods of appeal to the child's mind. We must be prepared\nto educate the whole child, and not take for granted that a certain\nsegment of the* circle of his intellectual life has been measurably formed,\nfashioned, or developed by heredity. We must so place our array of\neducational forces that every form of the brain activity may be aroused,\nand that appeal be made to every mental potency. If we take for\ngranted that a certain parcel of knowledge is bestowed upon a child as\nan heirloom, by his ancestors, we are creating a possibility for mental\nabnormalities to appear in the particular child thus partially neglected.\nMy second premise I take from the domain of genetic psychology.\nIt is also a firmly established, clearly demonstrated principle — an ultimate fundamental truth — in the science that has given it its being. This\nprinciple is: Mental development in the child occurs by stages, by\nperiods. Just as the entire body is not growing at any one time, so all\nthe mental powers are not unfolding and growing at the same time. In\nbodily development growth settles for a while on one set of muscles, one\nset of organs, and then another, and another, until the entire body is\nLikewise there is a nascent period for each mental faculty.\ndeveloped.\nThe first mental power to develop is sensation. At birth a child\npossesses but two senses — touch and temperature. They are the only\nwindows of the soul open to receive the impressions that Mother Nature\nhas to bestow upon him. A few hours after birth, vision is added, then\nand, after some days, taste and smell, followed by the muscle\nhearing,\nand other senses in turn.\n\nThe second epoch in the mind's process of unfolding is the memory\n\n"}
{"page": 176, "printed_page": null, "text": "l66\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIAriON\n\n-'\n\n[General\n\nstage. This is the period when the child is characterized by a prodigious power of remembering detail. A single hearing of rhyme or rule\nof song or catchy phrase is sufficient to insure its correct reproduction.\nWe are all aware how much more difficult it is for us to commit rhymes\nor rules now than it was during our second or third year of school life.\nThe third epoch is the period of the growth of the imagination.\nChildren love to live in a world of make-believe ; they love to play circus,\nchurch, or school. How easy it is for the child to assume the role of\nDavy Crocket, Daniel Boone, Robinson Crusoe, or Buffalo Bill. During\nthis period there is developed a mania which frequently occasions grave\nconcern to parents. I refer to children's lies. Now, the lie of the child,\nit must be remembered, is by no means the same despicable moral\noffense as is the deceitful lie of the adult. It grows largely out of his\ndesire to excite wonder. It is a bit of incipient research. He tries it,\nand, if it works, he tries it again ; if not, he quits. But in these rovings\nof the imagination he is not attempting primarily to deceive.\nThe -fourth period is characterized by the peculiar activity of the\npowers of judgment and comparison. This in turn is followed by the\nperiod of curiosity. No child whose curiosity is throttled and starved\nwill ever become a good reasoner. He must first ask questions and\nreasons of others in order to be able to ask questions and reasons of himself.\nI have thus outlined the periods of mental development for the\npurpose of showing that a well-organized course of study must be in\nharmony with these processes of development in order to be successful.\nMore depends upon the order of studies assigned than upon the contents of the studies themselves. You have heard of the experiment made\nsome years ago by four teachers in the city of Paris, in the Lycee (the\nschool for boys), who asked permission of the minister of education that\neach of them might give to his twenty-five pupils the same studies prescribed in the required course, but in a different order, an order believed\nby them to accord with the natural development of a boy's mind, rather\nthan in the arbitrary order demanded by cast-iron law. These boys completed all of the required studies in this natural order in three and onehalf years, instead of seven years, the time assigned for the completion\nof the course as regularly given in the Lycee. Upon examination they\nwere found to be equally proficient mentally, and above the average in\nphysical development, as compared with those who had spent seven years\niif going over the same ground. As teachers we should have constant\nregard for the great principles of mental waste and mental economy.\nThe course of study should fit the child ; the child should not be jammed\ninto an arbitrary curriculum, sustaining no relation to the natural order\nin which his powers of mind and body unfold.\nIn some of our schools seven or eight years are still devoted to the\n\n"}
{"page": 177, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nMINOR\n\nMENTAL\n\nABNORMALITIES\n\nIN\n\nCHILDREN\n\n1 67\n\nstudy of arithmetic; yet we know that all of arithmetic can be taught the\nchild, and better taught, in the years between seven and one-half and\nten. This is admirably done, to my personal knowledge, in at least 150\nschools, saving much time and energy, and making room for important\nstudies which would otherwise be crowded out. Now, we all know that\nthe time to educate any mental capacity Is the time at which that particular mental power is most rapidly growing. The. time to educate memory\nis when memory is most rapidly developing ; the time to educate the\nsenses is when the senses are most alert, i. e., when they are rapidly\nunfolding. We should not have \"diseased imaginations\" in our school\nchildren, if we would only properly cultivate imagination when it is most\nrapidly growing. A host of mental abnormalities in school children can\nbe traced directly to the fact that the course of study is not formed to\ncorrespond to the child's various periods of mental development.\nIf at any period of mental development the proper mental food —\nthe proper school study — is not given, then the mental faculty that would\notherwise grow so rapidly and unfold so perfectly (had it been properly\nfed and exercised) will be stunted in its growth and in all probability\natrophy. The child's whole mental development will thus be impaired,\nand a whole life of mental abnormalities will present itself at a time\ntoo late for their complete eradication. Especially serious are the mental\nabnormalities which result from improper and insufficient training of the\nsenses. All of the \"raw material\" of thought comes thru the senses.\nAll of the raw material acted upon by memory, imagination, judgment,\ncomparison, and reasoning is gained thru sense experiences. It can be\nsaid without fear of successful contradiction that, if the education of the\nsenses be neglected, all subsequent education will partake of a vagueness,\nhaziness, insufficiency, which will never admit of complete cure. From\nany sense error any other conceivable error may arise. And yet, how\nmany methods of instruction there are so inopportune and inefficient\nthat they really dwarf the senses ! Train the senses of the child, and the\nrest of the mental development will almost take care of itself. The truly\nsuccessful teacher is the sense teacher, for she is not merely trying to\nimpart knowledge, but also to develop mental force. In cultivating the\npowers of sense of the pupil we accomplish four things for him, each one\nof which is vitally important :\n1. We make his knowledge more accurate and clearly defined.\n2. We make his knowledge more comprehensive and complete.\n3. We develop his mental power.\n4. We make his acquisition of knowledge pleasant and delightful,\nbecause the natural order is followed, \" first the blade, then the ear, then\nthe full corn in the ear.\"\n,\nMy third premise I take from the domain of abnormal psychology.\nIt is this : The process of mental disintegration attacks the higher, more\n\n"}
{"page": 178, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 68\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\ncomplicate, and more recently developed faculties first, and the simplest\nand those earliest developed are the last to be affected. This premise\nrequires but brief discussion, for its application is at once seen. It\nteaches us that, when mental disintegration once sets in, it is the finest\nmental faculties that first fall prey. How serious, then, are these minor\nabnormalities from the very beginning ! They may not be observed\nand ascertained until terrible havoc has been wrought. Reason, both\ndeductive and inductive, may have crumbled and fallen into decay, and\nimagination, memory, and the powers of sense be as perfect as aforetime. It is necessary to be constantly on the alert for even the minor\nmental abnormalities in children, so that mental disintegration of the\nhighest mental faculties may not proceed too far before remedial measures\nare sought and applied. If the closest observation is not maintained in\nreference to pupils in whom minor mental abnormalities are even merely\nsuspected, the loss may become irreparable.\nInasmuch as fatigue is the most common source of danger in this\nconnection, close watch should be made for fatigue signs. Overstrain at\nschool, by producing fatigue, may be the occasion of destruction and\ndisintegration of bodily tissue, and also cause serious and permanent\nmental defect. The best period of the entire day, both with respect to\nmental quickness and mental vigor, is between the hours of 8 and lo: 15\no'clock in the morning; the worst is between 11 and 12 o'clock. The\nperiod between i and 2:30 o'clock in the afternoon is the third best,\nwhile that between 3 and 4 o'clock is the second best. The heaviest\nschool work should be assigned to the hours when the child's mind acts\nmost vigorously and with the greatest quickness, and the lightest work\nshould be so arranged as to come at the period of greatest mental depletion.\nThe teacher and parent should be especially observant with reference\nto \"abnormal nerve signs,\" as occasioned by fatigue, misfit methods, and\ninopportune studies. The more common abnormal nerve signs that presage danger are disturbance of balance, twitching of hands and face, eye\nmovements, postures of the head and hands, irritability, inattention,\nexcitability. If the child slouches and shows no exact symmetry of\nbalance ; if the voice is of poor tone ; if he cannot fix his eyes well, but\nlooks about by moving the eyes and not the head ; if there is a bagginess\nof the underlids of the eyes; if he be inattentive and devoid of interest in\nthe usual school occupations; if his response in action be slow and\nuncertain, one may be assured that such a child is fatigued to the point\nof danger.\nAgain, since we know the order in which the mental faculties disintegrate— and we do — we may know how far the mental disintegration\nhas proceeded. If reasoning only be affected, the child is not suffering as\nmuch from mental abnormality as if the memory, judgment, or imagina-\n\n1\n\n"}
{"page": 179, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessio.i»J MINOR\n\nMENTAL\n\nABNORMALITIES\n\nIN CHILDREA\n\n1 69\n\ntion be diseased. His mal is not so deep-seated as it would be in the\nlatter case. This is a point of much value, for if we know just how far\nthe processes of mental disintegration have proceeded, we know best what\noccupations and methods we are to employ in order to counteract the\ndisease.\nMy fourth and last premise is taken from the province of physiological\npsychology. It is the principle of localization of brain function. By\nthis we mean that not all parts of the brain surface respond to the same\nstimuli and give birth to the same kind of sensations. Neither are all\nparts of the brain cortex concerned in sending forth motor impulses of\nthe same group or class. We know, for example, that any excitation of\nthe nervous elements in the back part of the head give rise to visual\nsensations. It makes little difference whether they come thru the eye or\nnot — a slight mechanical jar at the back of the head is sufficient to cause\none to see \"stars.\" The brain center concerned in moving the finger is\nentirely distinct and separate from the one concerned in moving the arm.\nThe outer gray rind or cortex of the brain is, therefore, a very complex\norgan, or, rather, it is more like a very complicated keyboard, the\nresponses coming in from those parts of the body that are in direct relation to certain specific forms of sensation. As Professor Hering, of\nAustria, says : \"The different parts of the brain hemispheres are like a\ngreat tool-box, with a countless variety of tools. Each single element of\nthe cerebrum is a particular tool. Consciousness may be likened to an\nartisan whose tools gradually become so numerous, so various, so\nspecialized that he has for every minutest detail of his work a tool that is\nespecially adapted to perform just that precise kind of work very easily\nand accurately. If he loses one of his tools, he still possesses a thousand\ntools with which to do the same work, tho under disadvantages both\nwith reference to adaptability and the time involved. Should he happen\nto lose the use of these thousand also, he might retain hundreds with\nwhich to do the work still, but under greatly increased difficulty. He\nmust needs have lost a very large nurtiber of his tools, if certain actions\nbecome absolutely impossible, but the loss of a single tool is in every case\njust that much of a disadvantage.\" This quotation translated from\nHering states very clearly the exact physical basis of education. If the\nchild is to have full use of all the nerve cells of his brain cortex, they must\nbe developed — educated — by use, by activity. If they are not brought\ninto action by occupation, sense experiences, mental employ, they\natrophy.\nNow, at birth the child possesses all the brain cells it will ever have.\nBrain cells do not proliferate after birth. If they are not exercised, they\nentirely drop out of existence — they die. The problem before us is to\neducate the entire brain of the child ; it is given him for that purpose.\nAVe can give him this complete education only when we approach him\n\n"}
{"page": 180, "printed_page": null, "text": "170\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nthru every one of his avenues of sense and educate him into a wide\nrange of motor activity. Life is growth. A brain cell that does not\ngrow is dead. A brain cell cannot grow save thru exercise and use.\nAll the brain cells can be made to grow only when the school and home\nenvironment of the child is such as to appeal in every possible way and\nwith sufficient energy to arouse the child's many-sided activity. If a\ncertain group of nerve cells is uneducated, is allowed to die, then the\nchild becomes mentally and nervously abnormal in just so far. Brain\ndisorderliness is due more to one-sidedness of methods of education than\nto any other possible cause.\nBefore closing I wish to make reference to certain specific cases.\nH\n\nis a boy of fair complexion, ranks twenty-fourth in his class, and\n\nis continually losing his hold on school work. l\"he signs of nervous\nexhaustion were: over-mobility — he was decidedly fidgety; fullness under\neach eye, indicating that he was a sufferer from headaches. These were\nthe most noticeable, tho other \"nerve signs\" were present. It would\nbe a mistake to leave a weak boy like that to do nothing all day, merely\nwaiting for him to grow stronger. Such children are especially in need\nof education and training — but suited to their condition and capacity.\n\"A detailed study of abnormal nerve signs in the child will give assistance\nof practical value to those in charge of nervous and delicate children.\nThey will reveal certain points to be aimed at in physical training. A\nknowledge of the brain disorderliness indicated by the signs will give\nplain hints as to the form of mental disorderliness likely to be met with\nin the pupil.\"' For instance : wandering eye movements lead to inaccuracy in copying work and in arithmetic. Children with twitching finger\nmovements have spontaneous thoughts arising that lead to mental confusion and inaccurate answers to questions ; also interfere seriously with\nmemory. The child slow in all movements and slouching is apt to be\ndull in mental action, until his posture, attitude, and response are improved\nupon. \"Want of facial expression, grinning, frowning, protrusion of the\ntongue, ill-balanced hand postures, \"want of motor control are all cardinal'\nsigns of brain disorderliness.\" The parent and teacher must patiently\nlabor to remove such abnormal nerve signs and the brain disorderliness\ncorresponding. Closely observing the circumstances under which each of\nthe given signs most frequently subsides, one is enabled to carry on the\nbest form of brain training. Nature study, in that it naturally calls all\nthe child's mental powers into activity, is of much more value as a corrective and educative force than books alone. How \"The Barefoot\nBoy \" jof Whittier is to be envied in this regard.\nOh for boyhood's time of June,\nCrowding years in one brief moon,\nWhen, all things I heard or saw\nMe, their master, waited for.\n' Francis Warner.\n\n"}
{"page": 181, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nMINOR\n\nMENTAL\n\nABNORMALITIES\n\nIN\n\nCHILDREN\n\n17»\n\nI was rich in flowers and trees,\nHumming-birds and honey-bees ;\nFor my sport the squirrel played,\nPlied the snouted mole his spade ;\nFor my taste the blackberry cone\nPurpled over hedge and stone ;\nLaughed the brook for my delight\nThrough the day and through the night,\nWhispering at the garden wall,\nTalked with me from fall to fall ;\nMine the sand-rimmed pickerel pond,\nMine the walnut slopes beyond,\nMine, on bending orchard trees.\nApples of Hesperides !\nStill as my horizon grew.\nLarger grew my riches too ;\nAll the world I saw or knew\nSeemed a complex Chinese toy.\nFashioned for a barefoot boy !\n\nBy nature study, in the best sense, however, is not meant teaching\nscience, but scientific teaching.\nI cannot refrain from calling attention to the very considerable danger\narising from home study, especially in young children. In the so-called\n\"study\" at home the child becomes accustomed to certain irregularities\nof work that should never be cultivated. We should find out how much\nthe child can do in a school day; let the child do such work at school,\nand let it feel that it leaves the school as the business man would his\ndesk, with the business of the day done and the satisfaction of well-deserved\nrest. Moreover, as Dr. Meyer has pointed out, \"work at home creates\nthat martyr spirit with which the abnormally conscientious pupils pride\nthemselves on having so much work to do and on having to avoid company and society; these children are craving for admiring sympathy, and\ndo this later in life to the disadvantage of those who live up to more\nrational and sanitary rules.\"\nFurther, I must say that I have never seen a case of brain disorderliness that was not benefited by physical training. Evidence is available on this point from the comparison of a large number of pupils of\nschools with and without physical training. Physical training of the\nright sort, properly adapted to the child, tends to improve his brain\ncondition, either preventing or removing disorderliness in motor and in\nmental action, and promotes healthy activity in both connections. This\nis absolutely true of children well made in body, as well also of those in\nsome slight degree below normal. A case in point. You may have in\nyour school a child whose mental processes are slow and limited, tho\nfairly accurate. You ask him a question. His answer is slow in coming.\nYou can best quicken the mental processes of such a child by quickening the interaction of his eye, ear, and hand by games of competition,\n\n"}
{"page": 182, "printed_page": null, "text": "172\n\nNATIONAL\n\nsuch as baseball\nresult.\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nor tennis, where the action\n\n[General\n\nmust be quick or failure\n\nI have thus briefly considered some of the causes of nervous and\nmental abnormalities, how they could and should be checked. The school\nis not alone guilty, but only accessory. It is, indeed, distressing to the\npatriot and humanitarian to perceive how the mass of nervous evils, and\nat the same time mental and moral weaknesses and sins, increase among\nthe people, and how many are followed by these abnormalities from the\ncradle to the grave.\n\nDISCUSSION\nTHE\n\nLATEST\n\nBY\n\nA.\n\nN.\n\nHARVEY,\n\nPRACTICAL DISCOVERIES IN BIOLOGICAL\nTHEIR BEARING\nON EDUCATION\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nOF\n\nNATURAL\nSCIENCE,\nSUPERIOR, WIS.\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCIENCE\n\nAND\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nWEST\n\nAll educational theories must conform to psychological laws. To claim psychology\nas a department of biology would have seemed preposterous a few years ago. With the\nold pyschology, dealing as it did with the mind, without reference to the brain, biology\nhas nothing to do. But modern psychology, dealing particularly with the brain as the\nessential physical organ of the mind, is properly drawn into the domain of biological\nscience.\nI think it is easy to claim for biology too high a place in pedagogical science. We\nmust remember that biology is very young yet — scarcely forty years old in its modern form ;\nand its application to psychological principles is very much more recent. As it appears\nto me, the function of biology has been so far the verification of pedagogical principles\nrather than the formulation of new theories. It has shown itself capable of sifting the\ndoctrines of pedagogics separating the good from the bad. In this field it reigns\nsupreme. A pedagogical doctrine, when brought to the bar of scientific investigation,\nstands or falls, and from this decision there is no appeal.\nBut biology has not revolutionized the doctrines of pedagogics. Much that is good\nin education was wrought out and thought out before biological science in its modern\nform began to be. Localization of brain function is one of the discoveries of biology\nwhose truth has passed beyond the stage of discussion. By dissection, by experiment on\nliving animals, and from pathology evidence has been accumulated that particular parts\nof the human brain are in some way associated with correlative mental activities.\nImportant conclusions inevitably follow. Since each part of the brain has its own function, it is evident that all functions must be exercised, if the whole brain is to grow and\nthe man reach the limit of his possible stature. The advocates of general education\nare, therefore, justified by the tenets of biological science.\nIn brain no memory center is found. There is no such thing as the memory in\nthe sense in which it was formerly understood and upon which all our old psychologists\nso fondly dilated. Memorizing words for the sake of training the memory is no longer\nadmissible, and the futility of great feats of remembering is now generally recognized.\nBiological science, by its investigations upon the centers of sense perception, emphasizes\nthe importance of the senses in education ; not, indeed, for \"training the senses,\" but for\n\n"}
{"page": 183, "printed_page": null, "text": "SessionsJ\n\nDISCUSSION— BIOLOGICAL\n\nSCIENCE\n\nAND\n\nEDUCATION\n\nI73\n\nfurnishing to the mind the only material it can utilize in its growth. The atrophied centers of vision in the blind, the abnormalities existing m the brains of persons having other\nsenses defective, show, with a clearness never before exhibited, how absolute is the dependence of the mind upon the senses. Uence follows inevitably the emphasis imposed upon\nscientific subjects, and especially laboratory work. But I would have it understood that\nthose who see in scientific subjects only the facts to be learned, and not the mind to be\ntrained, are a snare to the unwary and are bunglers in the work, discrediting science and\ncharming its votaries.\nSo, too, from the dependence of the mind upon the external activities of the body —\nwhich is not a discovery of biology, but a verification of previous conclusions — the advocates of manual training are furnished with an irresistible weapon of offense and defense,\nwhich they abandon only when they differentiate the work of the sexes, thereby leaving\nthe educational ground and adopting that of utility. Biological science establishes, in a way\nnever before attempted, the absolute dependence of mental activity upon bodily and\nphysical conditions. Periodicity of physical growth, evident from the first in vegetable\norganisms, but found equally true of all animal structures, explains the varying aptitude\nof children for mental work. Mental activity and physical growth have an inverse relation to each other. Now we have an explanation for facts of obtrusive generality of\nwhich the old psychology and previous pedagogical theories took no account. The\nseveral climaxes of bodily growth, the various periods of brain development, are each\ncharacterized by remarkable mental phenomena, each demanding its own treatment, and\nformerly neglected entirely.\nHaving said so much concerning the conclusions drawn from the work of those most\ningenious and accurate investigators who, with tireless energy, have contributed to our\nknowledge of the nervous system of man, I trust it will not be considered derogatory to\nthem, if I point out, in a spirit of fairness, some limitations necessarily attending upon\ntheir work. In the first place, biologists from purely biological studies have never yet\ndemonstrated the effect of education upon the organs of mental activity. No difference\nhas been discovered between an educated and an uneducated human brain. So far as\nany conclusions can be suggested from their work in this direction, nature has much\nmore effect than education upon the development of the brain. As a teacher of children\nI am unable to concur with the low estimate of education which, at present, from purely\nbiological demonstrations, we are compelled to put upon it. One of the most conservative of biological writers upon this subject has recently said : \"Connections between the\nexercises of formal education and brain change have not been demonstrated. It is not\nknown how a year's schooling affects the central system, and it is not probable that we\nshall soon arrive at facts of this sort.\" Such being the case, it seems to me unwise to\nattempt to base our educational theories upon purely biologfcal evidence. It would be\nunwise to take biology as the basis from which to work. This is nothing discreditable\nto biologists, but merely a recognition of existing conditions. Biology is very young yet.\nIt has all the future before it, and some time the limitations that now exist may be\nremoved.\nL. C. Greenlee, superintendent of schools. District No. 2, Denver, Colo, (discussing Dr. Krohn's paper). — We as teachers are especially fortunate. If a pupil does\nwell in his studies, we receive all the credit. If he does poorly, he gets the blame.\nThere are those who do, and are able to do, much more — three times as much as others.\nWe expect it of them ; the pupils know that we expect it of them. This is as it should\nbe, because they are able to do it. If a pupil does only one-third as much as he is able\nto do, it will lead to mental disintegration. In laying out the work for the pupils, we\nmust take into consideration their mental ability, their power of application, and their\nphysical strength.\nNot every child has inherited a sound physical organization, and our courses of\nstudy should be arranged for the weak as well as the strong.\nIn every school, especially\n\n"}
{"page": 184, "printed_page": null, "text": "174\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASS0CIA7I0N\n\n[General\n\nin our city schools, every provision siiould be made for plenty of physical exercise.\nThis problem will take care of itself in the rural schools, for the children who attend\nthese have plenty to do before and after school hours.\nWhile proper food and correct dietetic habits are of the greatest importance to the\nwelfare and happiness of mankind, the quality of the air which we take into our lungs\nis, if possible, of greater importance. Man can live on one fneal a day and enjoy good\nhealth ; he can limit himself to the simplest and plainest kind of food and work hard\nall his life, and live his three-score years and ten ; but let the supply of oxygen be cut\noff, and see what happens in a very short time.\nI believe in the old-fashioned outdoor recess. Plenty of pure air and properly\nregulated outdoor exercise are necessary to give nerve force ; to stimulate the respiration\nand the circulation of the blood ; to develop the muscles ; to throw off or destroy the\npoisons constantly accumulating in the blood; to strengthen and calm the mind, and to\nproduce the best moral development in persons at any age.\nThe toxins which have been accumulating in the blood poison, weaken, and tire the\nbrain, and, as a consequence, mental results are unsatisfactory, because impressions made\non a tired brain do not last, and a moral nature is depraved, because pure and generous\nthoughts cannot long exist in a foul body.\nMost brain workers are fond of physical exercise ; fond of hunting and fishing.\nNot so much for the game they bag as for the health they seek.\nIf the •children of this land are to have sound bodies and sound minds, they must\nwork. Our pupils are capable of doing much more than we think, and some of our\nteaching is the merest kind of nonsense. A little girl, six years old, came home from\nschool with a pumpkin seed in her hand and informed her mother that the teacher had\ngiven them a lesson on the pumpkin, and that they had been taught that the seed is\nwhite, but the pumpkin is yellow. The mother asked: \"What color are the vines?\"\nThe six-year-old replied that the teacher had not taught her that. \" But you know,\ndon't you ? You have seen them growing in the garden.\" \" Of course I have, but we\nare not expected to know anything until we have been taught.\"\nIf any one thing will lead to mental disintegration, it is that of giving the child\nsomething to do that requires no effort on his part. It seems to me that it is worse than\ngiving him that which is beyond his ability and his comprehension. This, we all know,\nis bad enough.\nWhen it comes to a discussion of methods, I am reminded of a little incident that\ncame to Sidney Smith. He and his friend were walking thru one of the narrow\nstreets of Edinburgh, where the houses seem to lean toward each other. Two women\nwere bickering and quarreling from opposite windows, filling the streets with their\nclamor and noise, and attracting the attention of the passers-by, when his friend said :\n\"Why don't those two women agree?\" Sidney Smith replied : \"Because they argue\nfrom different premises.\" We shall never agree on methods, because we argue from\ndifferent premises. Any wrong method will lead to mental disintegration. Who is the\nauthority that would dare to say that his method of developing the child is the correct\none, and that all others are wrong ?\nTo argue that there is but one way is to argue against all private study and self-help.\nIt is to argue against originality of any kind whatsoever on the part of the teacher.\nThat which best develops the mind is the most practical. ■ The mind grows in its\nown way. The teacher's task is not to devise, but to discover, this way. All ends produced by human agency are produced by the use of some means. Success in attaining\nends depends upon two things — upon the use of the right means and upon using them in\nthe right way. Those who have no definite methods to use have no definite ends to\nattain.\nAll teaching worthy the name has its own ends to accomplish.\nAn effort to cram defeats its own ends. \" Hurry retards.\" Crowding the memory\nwith words weakens it for thought.\nFilling the mind with the forms of language that\n\n"}
{"page": 185, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nDISCUSSION— BIOLOGICAL\n\nSCIENCE\n\nAND\n\nEDUCATION\n\n175\n\nconvey no thought is like filling the stomach with husks. No digestion follows. More\nthan this, the mind overburdened with this crude material loses all power and inclination\nfor real work.\nIt is possible for a teacher to become so thoroly saturated with school doctrines,\nso loyal to school practice, and to stand so much in reverence of the \" big guns,\" that\nsimple, plain, and sensible ways of meeting school problems may be ignored.\nCommon-sense views of teaching and managing should never be thrust aside for the\nfigments of mere professional suggestion. Good sense is always of commanding value\nin any sphere or in any calling, and it is nowhere more needed or more efficient than in\nthe business of teaching.\nIf we are looking for and expecting to find the method, the only method, we are\nface to face with an insoluble problem. It is not so much wrong methods as the\nmisuse of methods that we must guard against. Every child must meet and master the\ndifficulties of learning for himself, and a right method is that which stimulates children\nto encounter and master difficulties. To implant vigorous aims and incentives in children\nis the work of the teacher.\nR. K. BuEHRLE,. of Lancaster, Pa., offered the following resolution, which was\ncarried :\nResolved, That the attention of the Commissioner of Education be directed to the\npaper of Dr. Krohn, and that he be requested to publish and circulate the same as a\ncircular of information for the people.\nH. E. Kratz, Sioux City, la. — I have understood from the paper of the morning\nthat the definite statement was made that there was no seat of memory, and was interested in the references that had been made to attempts to improve memory. I want to\nask this question : Does this fact change the work of the average teacher in the schoolroom, and, if so, in what way ?\nDr. Krohn. — The statement quoted was made by Mr. Harvey, and I thoroly\nagree with him. We have a distinct seat for every organ, such as the eye and ear, etc.,\nbut there is none for the memory. We must educate the memory thru the only\nchannel in which we can approach it, viz., thru some of the organs. The old idea that\nmemory was a great storehouse, into which were placed facts in abundance, has been\ndisproved. Memory is not a general function. Rote learning and merely memory\nexercises for the purpose of training the memory have no educational value. Memory\nenters into every exercise of the child, but not as a distinct fact. It does not increase\nhis mental efficiency. Our methods of education must be modified to suit this changed\ncondition.\nMr. Harvey. — I made the statement quoted rather boldly. I have thought it over\nthoroly. I wanted it to stick, and am of the opinion that it will. Mental processes\nare accompanied by certain actions of the brain. Memory is the repeating of changes\nthat have once occurred in the brain. When it is possible to repeat any series of\nchanges in the brain, then we can remember. Any part of the brain takes part\nin the process of memory. That was the sense in which I used the statement. Memory\nis not a distinct organ.\nA. R. Taylor, State Normal School, Emporia, Kan. — I should like to ask a\n(juestion : What do you mean by memory ?\nMr. Harvey.— To answer that question directly would involve a statement not\nintended. When we remember a thing, the same series of changes of brain occur as did\nthe first time. The changes do not cause us to remember, and the memory does not\nbring about the changes.\nThey are reciprocal.\nMr. Kratz. — I am still in doubt with regard to the second part of my question. If\nwe accept the statement made, does it affect the practice in the schoolroom ? Can we\ncontinue teaching in the same way as we did when accepting the old theory ?\nMr. Harvey. — In answering that question as to whether we must change our\n\n"}
{"page": 186, "printed_page": null, "text": "176\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nmethods of pure memory training, I should say, yes. But in so far as the memory is\nused in acquiring tools for future work, no. I still have a great respect for the multiplication table, and I believe there are certain things which we must acquire in the same old\nway, simply for their future value.\nCharles C. Ramsay. Fall River, Mass. — The function of the man of science is to\ndiscover new truth. This adds great responsibility to the teacher. There are many\ndifficulties in the way. The demand is largely made for more individualized instruction.\nThis cannot be granted except as the people are convinced of the value of the demand.\nWe need a large supply of the best-qualified teachers, buildings of the most improved\npattern and supplied with all the necessary appliances. If the men of science are to\nhelp us secure these things, they must speak with greater accuracy than they do today.\nThe desirability of giving the study to the pupil at exactly the right time is acknowledged,\nbut the difficulty of making a course of study is correspondingly great. We must take\nteachers and pupils when we can get them. The men of science, while showing us these\ndefects, do not give definite remedies, and I infer that we are expected to work out our\nown devices. I am not in sympathy with the statement that, in secondary schools and in\nthe upper grades of the elementary schools, home study is an evil. From the standpoint\nof the practical teacher I affirm that it is worry and not work that kills. The complexity\nof our modern social life, the economic and industrial conditions of our people, have more\nto do with the abnormalities indicated than have legitimate school labor, and the home\ntasks which may be imposed upon the pupil by the teacher.\nDr. Krohn. — I submit that the work done at home is done in a very irregular way.\nWe have been told that it is worry and not work that kills. I ask, what can worry a\nchild more than the thought, on going home, that he has certain lessons to get for the\nmorning ? He cannot go home with the same freedom of mind as does the merchant.\nThe child must necessarily worry when there is held up before him certain penalties if he\ndoes not bring in the work on the following morning properly prepared. The children\nbecome martyrs to their condition. What we need in this world is strong men. The\nteachers place tasks upon the students that are too great. Each specialist thinks his is\nthe most important work, and the result is that such an amount of work is accumulated\nthat worry is the inevitable result. The children become broken in health because they\nare imposed upon. We should develop them into the best type of citizenship. We\ncannot do this, unless we have a sound physical basis upon which to build.\nMr. Ramsay. — The rational method of education has the tendency to make the\nacquirement of knowledge pleasurable. The remedy for overcrowding our curriculum' is\nin the elective system, which has been adopted in most of the New England states. The\ntrouble is from without and not from within, and the responsibility for certain evils\nshould not be laid upon the teachers, but rather upon society, where it belongs.\nJames H. Van Sickle, superintendent of North Side schools, Denver, Colo. — I\nshould like to ask of Mr. Ramsay if the elective system which he refers to as having been\nadopted in New England has been included in any of the schools below the high school.\nMr. Ramsay. — Perhaps the statement is slightly misleading, but I would answer\nyes, that in some of the schools we have the optional system in the seventh, eighth,\nand ninth grades.\nWe have nine grades in the elementary schools.\nMr. Leibig, of Kutztown, Pa. — I am greatly disappointed in the fact that the\npaper which was to have been presented by Dr. Coulter has not been given. We have\nnot heard concerning some of the recent discoveries of late years. We had hoped to\nhear something definite. It is certain that some well-known discoveries have been made.\nThere is a certain relation or co-ordination between the mind and the body. In this\nlight our knowledge of the outside world comes to us thru the organs of the sense, and as\nit is our duty to reach children thru these organs, it becomes our duty to know all we can\nconcerning these things. Of the school physiologies that are now on the market I\nhardly know a single one that is correct in its statement of the architecture of the nervous\n\n"}
{"page": 187, "printed_page": null, "text": "\\\n\nSessions]\n\nDISCUSSION— BIOLOGICAL\n\nSCIENCE\n\nAND\n\nEDUCATION\n\n\\11\n\nsvstem. Instead of the old idea that the brain cells were connected, we now know that\nthey are single units. I plead for a closer and better and more up-to-date study of\nbiology.\nG. W. FiTZ, Harvard University,-Cambridge, Mass. — I protest against some of the\nstatements of this morning's discussion. It is high time that each teacher should stop\nand ask himself the question, What is best for me to do in order that I may carry on my\nwork successfully ? What influence should my study have on my teaching ? We are\ntold that memory work should not enter so largely in the training of a child. What is\nthe legitimate outcome of that statement ? Is it not that some of our work in arithmetic\nmust be laid aside ? Is it not a suggestion that the most of education must come from\nobservation ? Does it not mean that nature study shall take the place of the arithmetic\ndisplaced ? That will give him material for observation. The child should secure the\npower to reason in all possible ways. Motor activity is necessary for the child. In some\nof our schools we expect the child to keep still for about five hours a day. One teacher\nwas complaining that the children coming to her from kindergartens gave her the most\ntrouble, because they were getting up and asking all sorts of curious questions. But, said\nshe, that only lasted about a month. After that they were docile enough. W^e are too\napt to ignore the fact that physical activity means more to the child than anything else.\nChildhood is the only time when humanity has the freedom from professional lines and\nhas the opportunity to devote itself along the lines of physical activity. The amount\nthat a child can repeat is not a criterion as to the amount of knowledge which he possesses. We are apt to require too much. If he does not read and cipher with a certain\namount of ability, we complain that he is not progressing as rapidly as he should. The\nchild should be given the work which he will enjoy.\nDr. Chaney, Cortland, N. Y. — The discussion of the morning confirms the idea that\nit is not easy for schoolmen to agree upon a question. We recognize the conditions as\nthey exist, but do not agree as to their cause and remedy. This has been an inspiring\nand helpful discussion, and we can take home with us much that will help us. The\ngreat danger in this country is that of putting too much work upon the child. One\ncause for this is that those in charge of our higher institutions of learning are responsible for this talk which we hear of enriching the forces of the grammar and high\nschools. The university throws back upon the high school work which it formerly did.\nThe high school, in turn, delegates to the grammar school some of its previous work.\nThe grammar school, to make room for that, is obliged to force something back upon\nthe primary teacher. The primary teacher has no place to retreat, and the result is that\nour elementary curriculums are crowded. The remedy for this condition of affairs is for\nthose who have led the way in the past, viz., the higher institutions of learning, to do so\nagain. But it will not be done until it is thoroly understood that the lower schools\nare in danger. Then there is the reaction upon the teacher himself, which we are apt to\noverlook. The child worries over his work and comes back to school with it half done.\nThe teacher feels the impress of the student's condition, and his patience becomes\nexhausted. His sympathy is lost, and, as a result, a great harm is done to school life.\nWe ought not to put so much upon the primary teachers in this country.\nDr. Fitz. — ^The charge just made with reference to the crowding of the work into\nthe lower schools is hardly just. While the universities have attempted to enrich the\nlower schools, and have claimed that the work should be begun earlier, they have made\ntheir efforts to enrich by taking away some of the work in the elementary and secondary\nschools and putting in its place that which will enforce the child's power of observation.\nThe important point is not to crowd, but to give that which will uplift. Not to teach\nhim to memorize, but rather to see, to feel, to hear. The child should be made to study\nthe organs rather than the science.\nMr. Ramsay. — I wish to defend the Harvard movement in so far as it has been\nmisunderstood.\nThe standard of admi.ssion to the university was as high before that\n\n"}
{"page": 188, "printed_page": null, "text": "178\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nmovement began as it has been since. The aim has been to give a variety of electives\nrather than to increase the amount of the work. The motive has been to make democratic\neducation for a democratic people. It has been to offer those studies which will be of\ninterest to the child. They have had in mind\nmentary schools.\nDr. Krohn. — Coming\n\nat all times the improvement of the ele-\n\nback to the subject from which we have wandered, I offer\n\nthe suggestion, in the first place, that we can by observation make the child's mind more\nof an open page than we have ; and, knowing the child better, we can educate him better.\nAll children grow in^ the same order, tho not at the same rate. This being a fact, we\ncan so employ the student that each special power will be educated at the proper time.\nOur aim should be, not to make the child fit the course of study, but rather the course of\nstudy fit the child.\n\nBY\n\nTHE\n\nCULTURE\n\nDR.\n\nB.\n\nW.\n\nSMITH,\noW\n\nVALUE\nPROFESSOR\n\nOF HIGHER\nOF\n\nMATHEMATICS,\n\nMATHEMATICS\nTULANE\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOTi dvaros iyu (cat i<f>atJLepoi' dXX' orav darpuv\nfiacrrevu) irVKivas a/itpiSpofiovs eXt/cas,\n\novKer'' ivixf/avb) yaii^s iroffiv, dWa Trap' dvT(p — Ploletny.\nZrjvi 9eoTpe<peos irifiTrXa/iai dfi^poafq^,\n\nThe terms of the subject in hand absolve one from any attempt to\nanswer the query. What is the final worth of higher mathematics ?\nAdequate treatment of this question would land us at once in the general\ndoctrine of values of the ultimately good, and we should have to range\nourselves in the camp either of Hedonists or of Energists, if indeed\nthere be no middle ground. Even then the case would not be desperate.\nEven if pleasure be the one self-vindicating fact of the world, it would\nstill be possible to justify the highest mathematical discipline, pure and\napplied, as a pleasure-bringing agency of great significance ; still more,\nif the be-all and end-all of life lie not in pleasure, but in activity, in selfrealization, in the fulfillment of the idea, whether of individual or of\nspecies, whereupon pleasure follows (says Aristotle) as a secondary, unintended effect, it would seem easy to make good the loftiest claims for\nmathematics as an especially high type, if not the very highest type, of\nhuman mental activities, a form of spirit-energy, in fact, which not only\ndifferences man from lower animals, but marks off the higher from the\nlower races of men — nay more, which marks off the very highest even from\nthe very high. For it is noteworthy that, while the nobler varieties of men,\nthe Caucasian, have nearly all distinguished themselves in several modes or\nelements of civilization, as art, law, social institutions, literature, religion,\nphilosophy, conquest, discovery, commerce, or others; and while even the\ninferior Mongolian has achieved many notable things in some of these;\nyet mathematical success has been reserved for only three especial bloods,\n\n"}
{"page": 189, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nCULTURE\n\nVALUE\n\nOF\n\nIIIGJIEK\n\nMATHEMATICS\n\n1 79\n\nthe triple crown of humanity, the Hindus, the Greeks, the Teutons. The\nindication, then, is unequivocal that mathematical activity belongs, and\neven peculiarly belongs, to the very highest form of energy of which\nhuman nature is capable ; so that, if there be any truth in energism; if the\ngoal of history, at least our history, be the perfect and complete flowering of humanity; if the summum bonum both for the individual and the\nnation and the race be the full-rounded development, the harmonious\nunfolding, of the utmost possibilities of our nature; then the place of\nmathematics in the topmost order is indisputably assured.\nHowever, the subject for discussion imposes a more modest task. It\ndoes not inquire : What, if any, final value have education and culture,\nmathematical or other ? — a question, indeed, that maybe rationally put;\non the contrary, it assumes that education and culture have uncontested\nworth, and it asks : Of what value to them is higher mathesis ? Herewith\nat once the further query arises: Of value to whose culture? to that of the\nstudent himself ? or of others that perchance learn from him? or to the\nwhole body of our culture in general ? The answer would seem to be\nyes, to each particular ; we must take culture in the widest sense, as\nregards both its nature and its application.\nAnd first I would remark, resuming the thought this moment dropped,\nthat even if it were impossible to make clear what is the culture value of\nhigher mathematics, we might still be unshakably sure that such a value\nreaUy exists, and in the largest measure. For it is certain that the\nimpulse to pure mathematical speculation has always shown itself\nespecially strong among the great civilization-makers of the earth, and\nalways at, or immediately after, the crisis of fullest bloom of the culture\nspirit, and never, unless sporadically, among any other people or at any\nother epoch. Who would think of looking for high mathematical achievement among an inferior people, or a decadent race, or in an era of languishing intellectual life ? Consider the Arabs, not an inferior, yet not\nthe most superior, race. How distinctly their abilities and their limitations are indicated in their attitude toward Greek and Hindu mathematics—! both what they could, and what they could not do. At the moment\nof perfect efflorescence of the national mind they seized upon this discipline with the greatest avidity, but they were never quite able to bend\nthe bow of the mightier Aryan spirit. Cast your eyes over the world of\ntoday. Where and only where are the triumphs of analysis celebrated ?\nAt the foci of civilization, in the fever-heat of the elect blood of the\nplanet, where the impulse of the spirit toward creative activity drives it\nwith oestrual ardor along the path of discovery. Despite our own\ninimense advances in wealth and all the material elements of civilization,\nfor two generations we lagged behind in nearly every intellectual regard,\nand it was to the men of Europe decisive proof of the arrest of our higher\nspiritual life, the fact which they urged : \"You produce no great mathe-\n\n"}
{"page": 190, "printed_page": null, "text": "l8o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nmaticians.\" On the other hand, it is everywhere accepted as a sure sign\nof a re-birth of the spirit in America, as the promise and potency of the\nhighest achievements in the realms of mind, that within the last score of\nyears the keenest mathematical interest has been aroused among us, that\nmathematical instruction has been improved and extended almost incredibly, and that original work of excellent quality is prosecuted from\nMaine to California.\nPassing now hurriedly from nations to individuals, we observe that\ncreative mathematical power almost always implies general intellectual\nabilities of the first rank. Teachers in colleges and universities will\ntestify that, while many students notably deficient in mathematics may\nshow remarkable and even extraordinary ability in some other studies,\nyet students notably excellent in higher mathematics are seldom\ndeficient in any other subject ; mathematical ability is not necessarily\nimplied in any other purely intellectual ability, but it nearly always\nimplies these others, at least in respectable degree. Quite in accord with\nthis fact is another, that great mathematicians have been almost uniformly men of transcendent power in other directions. Time fails me\nsave to mention the names of Descartes, Pascal, Fermat, Leibnitz, Newton, Wallis, Euler, Laplace, Bolzano, Gauss, Hamilton, Boole, Cayley,\nSylvester, Clifford, Tait, Thompson, Maxwell, Helmholtz ; and there is a\nhost of others. There is no prejudice absurder than the popular one that\nthe great geometer or analyst is a man of straitened intellect, versed\nin subtleties and keen-sensed for figures, but devoid of imagination and\ndead to the stirrings of the larger life of the soul. This charge may hold\nof the circle-squarer, the angle-trisector, the lightning-calculator, but not\nfor an instant of the genuinely great master of numbers. When the first of\nliving mathematicians, Sophus Lie, was asked to name the characteristics\nof the mathematician, he replied in four words : Fhantasie, Energie,\nSelbstvertrauen, Selbstkritik. We can hardly accept this enumeration as\ncomplete, but it is at least so far forth authoritative as it assigns imagination as the supreme quality of the mathematical mind. History teems\nwith examples that illustrate this truth. Euler declared his additiontheorem of elliptic integrals was obtained, not by straightforward reasoning, but rather by experiment or divination {^potius tentando vel divinando) ;\nthe like may be said of most discoveries, and the creator of Alice in\nWonderland has taught us how well mathematical pursuits may consist\nwith the lightest play of the airiest fancy. The fact is that great mathematical powers conquer all domains of thought with almost equal ease,\nand reign \"o'er all the realms of knowledge absolute.\" Thus Grassmann,\nwhen his wonderful but premature creations failed to catch the eye of\nEurope, at the age of nearly fifty, laid aside his Ausdehnungslehre and\nclosed his life brilliantly in classical and comparative philology. We\nmay say, then, confidently of the greatest geometers and analysts that\n\n"}
{"page": 191, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions J\n\nCUL TURE\n\nVAL UE\n\nOF HIGHER\n\nMA THEM\n\nA TICS\n\n181\n\nthey would have been almost equally great in any other field of pure\nintellectual effort ; they were fascinated by mathesis, even as a chessplayer isfascinated by a problem of extreme difficulty, but perfect definition ; and if they have sometimes lost themselves in too exclusive\ndevotion to their mistress, it was not that they were incapable of other\naffections, but because her charms were fadeless, incomparable, and\ninfinitely varied.\nWhat, now, is the logical bearing of this array of facts hinted rather\nthan cited ? If higher mathematics be a flower, not of the human spirit\nin general, but only of the choicest national spirit — nay more, of the very\nelect of the elect ; if it is a fruit of the highest culture among the highest cultured of the culture-races, its significance as a culture product is beyond\nquestion. Even if we could not perceive its culture value, its worth as an\nindex of culture would be indisputable. For where it flourishes, there we\nmay be sure the highest intellectuality is attained ; and where it does not\nflourish, there the highest intellectuality, tho it may be potentially, is not\nyet actually, present. Even so much would fully justify the cultivation\nof mathematics. This is not all, however. It cannot be that higher\nmathesis is a mere concomitant of culture, the barren daughter of a\nfruitful mother. For, abstracting at present from the applications of\nhigher mathematics and their inestimable contributions to the comfort\nand dignity of our life, and fastening our eyes solely upon the reaction\nof mathematical study upon the individual and the general mind, regarding higher analysis and geometry as merely a Titanic sport of the intellect, we cannot but believe them especially adapted to train, conserve,\nand develop the powers that find in them their delight. This holds\nespecially of pure mathematics, because it is especially a free and natural\nactivity of the intellect. No outer consideration of any kind spurs on to\nsuch study; it is not work, it is essentially play. The mind does it,\nbecause the mind wants to do it. The same cannot be said so truly of\napplied mathematics. There some object is to be attained beyond the\nmere mathematical result; the mind works not perfectly freely, but under\na certain foreign stimulus ; it toils at a task not self-imposed. Now, this\ntask may be extremely important, but we cannot be sure that the labor it\ndemands is the normal, and therefore the best, gymnastic for the mind\nitself. It may be exceedingly important for a child to pick cotton, or\nfollow the plough, or even work in the factory ; but we cannot believe\nsuch enforced exercise the best for its physical growth, which, indeed, is\noften checked thereby and misdirected. On the other hand, no one\ndoubts that the natural spontaneous activities of the child or of any other\norganism must be pre-eminently suited to the perfect development of\nthe organism itself. Herein lies the eternal superiority, as culture\nagencies, of liberal or speculative as over against practical studies. The\nformer are essentially free, made by freemen and for freemen ; they are\n\n"}
{"page": 192, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 82\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nthe noble play of the spirit, its self-expression, its delight, its supremely\nworthy, intrinsically just and proper goal. The latter are essentially\nservile, made for servants and by servants ; they are inherently work,\noften, in fact generally, extremely useful and even indispensable work,\nbut nevertheless work, and hence, at the very best, a means only and\nnot an end, forever wanting in the dignity and grandeur of a goal. The\nfree speculative activities are related to the enforced practical ones as the\nfine arts to the useful or industrial, as painting to printing, as sculpturing statues to paving streets, as playing the violin in a concert hall to\nbeating a dinner-gong at a railway station. Hence, too, the universally\nobserved fact that the most profitable — in fact, for culture purposes, the\nonly highly profitable — study is that in which one is interested ; nothing\nis done well that is not done con amore. Now, the study that interests is\nno longer work, it has become play, not what we have to do, but what\nwe want to do, an unforced and unimpeded outflow of energy.\nIf this be true — and there seems to be no doubt of its truth, however\nexposed .to misconstruction and perversion — it becomes clear that higher\nmathematics must have especial significance for culture, for it is preeminently free\na\nproduct of the spirit, an untrammeled sport of the intellect, a voluntary choice of the pure reason. To say that the forms of\nactivity which the mind spontaneously devises for itself, in its highest\nmoments, are not favorable to the growth and development of the mind\nitself would be to fly in the face of any reasoned theory of life, particularly the prevailing evolution theory, and would be like saying that\nthe natural sports and mock battles of tiger cubs and children are ill-suited\nto make them strong and supple.\nWe may now advance more confidently from such general considerations and inquire minutely what there is in higher mathematics that\nespecially makes for culture. First, then, mathematics is peculiarly the\ndiscipline in which exact thought is possible. The merely formal process\nof comparing and compounding judgments, as by syllogism, is not all\nnor most of logical thinking. It is true, notoriously true, that even herein\nmathemathics affords an invaluable and almost indispensable discipline.\nThis truth is, indeed, too familiar to dwell on ; but such is not the main\nmatter. The essence of thinking is found in Begriffbildung, the formation of concepts. As the cell is the morphologic unit in the world of\nlife, so the concept is the logical unit in the world of thought. As the\ngrowth of the physical organism consists in the continual formation of\nnew cells, and their combination and recombination with modifications\nor special adaptations into still complexer aggregates or organs, so the\ndevelopment of any system of thought — yea, the growth of the mind\nitself — consists in the continual generation of new concepts and their\nsynthesis into more and more complicated unities. Now, the primal condition of such organic constitution of simple elements is their exact\n\n"}
{"page": 193, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nCUL TURK\n\nVAL UE\n\nOF HIGHER\n\nMA THEM\n\nA TICS\n\n183\n\ndelimitation. This latter is accomplished in the world of life by the cell\nwall ; it is at least attempted in the world of thought by precise logical\ndefinition. As no stable or complex organism could be built up out of\nnon-cellular undifferentiated bioplasm or life-stuff — it would speedily\ncollapse in a heap — so, too, no system of thought, no consistent consciousness, can be built up of unformed mind-stuff, not sharply bounded\noff in concepts. It is just because of this lack of precise definition\nin our notions that incoherence finds such place both in our lives and in\nour doctrines.\nIf our notions were clearly and precisely defined, if we\nknew exactly what we were talking about, the laureate could not say\nft\nOur little systems have their day,\nThey have their day and cease to be.\n\nOur philosophies would not then perish of inner contradiction, fading\nlike the flower of springtide, but would grow and flourish thru the\nundistinguished lapse of ages, more like the \" Starker Baum \" of which\nRiickert sings :\nDer ein Sommertausend lebt,\nNach vertraumtem Winterstraum\nNeue Lenzgedichte webt.\n\nNow, the higher mathematics presents the one region in which the\nformation of such exact notions is thus far possible, or at least actual.\nHere the process proceeds apace with accelerated velocity to astonishing\ncreations. Time fails me to discuss, and it would be useless merely to\nname, even the most important of these wonderful ideas which, like solid\nmasses of marble, the Phidian genius of Gauss and Abel and Jacobi and\nRiemann and Cayley and Sylvester and Hamilton and Weierstrass and\nSophus Lie, those mighty master builders, and their peers, have shaped\nand piled up into colossal temples, not made with hands, and everlasting.\nBut it is not only the mathematician and his own habitat to which\nsuch considerations apply. Even as a magnet or an electric current\ndetermines all space around as its field and penetrates the universe with\nits lines of force, so does mathesis inbreathe every outlying science with\nits own spirit. The term, in fact, means learning, and might not\nimproperly be defined as the universum of exact thought. The resistless\ntendency of thinking, as it becomes more and more precise, is to become\nmore and more mathematical. Biology, as it becomes scientific, resolves\nitself into chemistry ; chemistry similarly resolves into physics ; physics\nlikewise resolves into mechanics ; and mechanics finally resolves into\nmathematics. Scarcely less noteworthy than this mathematization of the\nnatural sciences is the mathematization of moral sciences, as political economy, logic, metaphysics. All of these have felt and are feeling and will feel,\nin augmenting measure, the subtle contagion of arithmetic and geometry.\nVery recently it has been thought worth while to write a calculus for the\nespecial use of students of social, political, and financial phenomena.\n\n"}
{"page": 194, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 84\n\n.NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nBoole's mathematical treatise on the Laws of Thought was perhaps the\nmost notable contribution to the subject since the days of Aristotle, and\nlogic has now become almost a branch of subjective mathematics. Philosophy, too, must render account of space and time, and in her treatment\nmust take her cue from mathesis. Since the appearance of Kant's Kritik\nno other single thought has wrought so deeply for the transformation of\nmetaphysics as that developed in Riemann's inaugural dissertation, Ueber\ndie Hypothesen, welche der Geometric zu Grunde liegen, wherein our space\nappears as only one very special example of the great class of «-fold\naggregates. Consider, too, the revolutionary significance for Kantism\nitself of the analytical researches of Helmholtz, so independent and yet\nso confirmatory of Riemann's, as well as Poincare's application of the notion\nof group to account for the tridimensionality of our empirical space.\nIndeed, it is not too much to say that the philosopher of the future\nmust of necessity be a mathematician — not, to be sure, a professional\nanalyst, but well instructed in the methods, familiar with the results, and\ninformed with the spirit of modern mathematical speculation. Over the\ndoor of the temple of philosophy, as of the school of Plato, must henceforth be written, Mr^Sets dyewfttT/jT/TOs rj dvapiO/xTjTLKo^ ela-iria. How deeply\nthe mathematical spirit has penetrated metaphysics must be evident to\nwhoever reads Lotze or Herbart or Wundt or Royce or Peirce or Howison, and how serious a matter is the lack of adequate mathematical culture must impress whoever studies attentively Sir William Hamilton's\nPhilosophy of the Conditioned. If anyone has mastered the elements of\nthe modern theory of numbers, based upon the process of counting, is it\nlikely that he will go back to Descartes and Newton and try to develop\nthe psychology of number as a ratio and the outcome of measuring ?\nThe Beneke Stiftung has recently proposed as a prize problem the philosophy of continuity, in its broadest aspects ; does anyone suppose that\na discussion not grounded upon deep mathematical knowledge will be\nconsidered by the judges ? Lastly, what are the psychological, or rather\nneurological, laboratories, now rapidly multiplying in every civilized land,\nbut an attempt to introduce the exact methods of mathematics and physics\ninto the study of the phenomena of mind ? It must, then, be abundantly\nevident that mathematics is fast infecting every branch of science with its\nmethods, and still more with its spirit.\nAnd this holds true in a still larger, yet unmentioned sense. One of\nthe most notable tendencies of higher mathematical study is to enliven\nthe sense of possibility, to break down the walls of prejudice, to expand\nthe horizon of hypothesis, to widen the realm of maybe. The natural\ninertia of our minds disposes them to rest securely on axioms, so-called\nself-evident truths, which are often not true, much less self-evident, and\nto put their trust in maxims which are often more honored in the breach\nthan in the observance.\nThis tendency tinges our whole life, it colors\n\n"}
{"page": 195, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nCULTURE\n\nVALUE\n\nOF HIGHER\n\nMATHEMATICS\n\n185\n\nour thoughts and our actions. It issues in narrowness, one-sidedness,\nmonotony, rigidity, and a dead formalism. Now, there is no other form\nof culture that so effectively opposes this Chinese stagnation as the higher\nmathematics. \" Why,\" it was said of Gauss' Disquisitiones Arithmetics, \" the\nyoung man leaves us no ground at all to stand on.\" While consequences\nflqw from assumptions with inexorable necessity, yet in assuming there is\nallowed the largest liberty, in fact all things are possible. ITavra /not c^cori\nis the watchword of the mathematician. He acknowledges no authority\nbut reason; neither creed, nor person, nor tradition. For him the Euclidian geometry is only one of at least four possible geometries, of equal\nlogical rights. For him the rays of the sun may very well return upon\nthe sun, or converge upon the anti-sun. For him it is an open question\nwhether the sum of the angles of a plane triangle be equal to a straight\nangle, or greater, or less. In his realm of numbers imaginaries and ideals\nmingle on equal terms with reals. He admits all manner of singularity,\nhe wears the conscious yoke of infinitely varying supposition. For him\nall the conceivable is as good as actual ; yea, when the wings of his\nimagination droop and fail, the wings of his reason bear him steady and\nuntiring on. So he does not shrink from the notion of space of four or\neven n dimensions, but he investigates its properties and calmly inquires\nwhether the intuition of it might not be possible to our organism under\nconceivable conditions of experience. This boldness, this intrepidity,\nthis broad-eyed, calm-browed, deep-piercing intellectual vision is an\nespecial fruit and a special mark of the highest mathematical training. In\nthe words of the great apostle, we may say the mathematical \"spirit\nexplores all things, even the depths divine.\"\nThis daring, adventurous mood, that made Lobatschevsky the Columbus of geometry — lone voyager thru unimagined spaces — this mood\npropagates itself to every province of thought and nerves the soul everywhere to romantic endeavor. Self-confidence not only heralds, but follows close in the wake of, great mathematical achievement, and spreads\nitself like an awakening dawn over all the faculties. The pride of intellect, thus nobly born, itself engenders high ambitions and inspires to\nvigorous effort in every province of activity; nor can any man name or\nreckon the triumphs in distant fields to which such self-esteem and\nheightened sense of manhood have stimulated and impelled. Every student\nknows the glow of conscious worth, the just self-exultation, the uplift of\nthe soul that treads on the heels of distinct and assured mathematical\nvictory. But no false elation and self-conceit need be feared. For nowhere\nelse does detection follow error so swiftly and surely. Plausibility is of no\navail, fame and eminence are idle, eloquence and ingenuity are vain and\nimpotent. No one can err without almost instant discovery, and no error is\nreparable.\nHence it is that the most rigid self-criticism is imperatively\n\n"}
{"page": 196, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 86\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\ndemanded, and no other form of culture begets habits of such infinite\npainstaking or more absolute conscientiousness.\nBut, while analysis has immensely expanded in many directions the\nhorizon of the possible, in others it has defined and drawn that horizon\nwith astonishing clearness and precision. Gauss showed, not only what\nregular polygons were, but also what were not, geometrically inscriptible\nin the circle. Abel put an end forever to the century-long efforts to solve\nalgebraically the general equations of fifth and higher degrees. Weierstrass and Frobenius have shown exactly how wide the realm of numbers\nmay be extended with conservation of the ground principles of counting.\nLindemann has proved that the wrestling of circle-squarers have not merely\nbeen fruitless thus far, but that they must forever remain so ; their problem\nis intrinsically insoluble; a superior angelic intelligence would not see how\nto solve it, but only perfectly clearly that it could not be solved. It seems\nat first a presumptuous sin of mathe^is to say \"thus far and no farther\"\nto universal reason, but the justification is complete, and it is a weird and\nwonderful vision, striking the soul thru with religious awe, this of the\npure intellect, like Dante's Minos, tracing round itself with the wand of\nanalysis the circle of its own possibilities.\nClosely related hereto is the poise of the mathematical temper, the\nvision of things as they are. Nowhere else is it so true, the word of\nHesiod, that the gods have placed labor before all excellence. Patience,\nindustry, energy are indispensable to success, and their reward is ample\nand unfailing. Nevertheless, they are not sufficient. They can no more\nmake a great mathematician than a great poet. The direct gift of heaven\njs in both cases necessary. Hence it is tha*; mathematical culture teaches\nevery instant the lesson of modesty, by continually revealing to us our\nlimitations, by disclosing heights that we can reach only by long and\nsteep ascent, but to which the sons of genius have been upborne as on\nwings of eagle. Moreover, this ethereal region is free from the clouds\nthat elsewhere disturb the sight. The mathematician is but human ; he\nis not exempt from the rivalries and jealousies, the petty vanities and\nother unworthy feelings, that vex the emotional and cross the intellectual\nlife of his fellows. Nevertheless, his atmosphere is comparatively serene.\nWe cannot think of his studies as conducted in any partisan spirit or for\npersonal ends. However ambitious he may be, it is only honest, earnest,\nsuccessful endeavor that can gratify his ambition. No pulls of any kind,\nsocial, political, or religious, avail in algebra or geometry. No patents\nare issued on methods of contact transformation ; no trusts will ever be\nformed for exploiting groups or supplying integrating factors; no money\ncan be made out of invariants or Riemann-surfaces. Such reflections\napply happily in large measure to all pure science, but especially to\nmathematics, the purest of the pure. The mathematical mind sits solitary ;like Bellerophon of old, it mounts aloft and launches its shafts out\n\n"}
{"page": 197, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessionsl\n\nCUL TURK\n\nVAL UE\n\nOF HIGHER\n\nMA\n\nTHEM\n\nA TICS\n\n18 7\n\nfrom the chill bosom of the desert air, \"beyond the arrows, shouts, and\nviews of men.\" It is quite impossible that such elevated and impersonal pursuits should not uplift and refine our nature, so far at least as\nany deed of ours can affect it. And here let me remark that I do not\nforget at any stage of this argument that the best and the most we can\nsay of any study or calling or discipline is that it tends this way rather\nthan that. Human nature, however, is a bundle of apparent contradictions, of currents and counter-currents ; many characters seem built, like\na ship, in compartments, between which there is no communication.\nThe reason may be sound, but the will hopelessly diseased. The name\nof a man pure and beloved in private life may be the synonym of public\ncorruption ; or, inflexibly upright in office, he may be notoriously lax at\nhome. So, too, the most perfect intellectual integrity, the most unselfish\nconsecration to impersonal ideal ends, do not necessarily imply those\nminor graces of the spirit that embellish and ennoble the life of man.\nWe need not be surprised at any time to see all the tendencies, however\nstrong, of any training distorted or reversed by the overmastering force\nof inherited impulses; neither does it break the strength of our contention, the fact that the wisdom of the mathematician may often show itself\nto be, \" not from above, but earthly, sensual, devilish ;\" only the probability and frequency of such discords are lessened.\nTo return from this digression, it must next be observed that higher\nmathematics, not less, perhaps even more, than any other science, brings\nthe student into close and vitalizing contact with the infinite and the\nillimitable. It would seem at first that these notions are too vague and\nnebulous ever to become subjects of exact thought, but it is well known\nthat this natural prejudice is quite erroneous. The ordinary notions of\nthe infinite and of the infinitesimal, that is, of magnitudes great at will\nand small at will, in whose essence inheres the property of transcending\nby perfectly regular process any previously assigned degrees of magnitude or parvitude — these notions are capable of the exactest definition and\nallow among themselves an endless array of perfectly precise characterizations and distinctions. What is far more, however : the deep delving\nof Cantor in the doctrine of manifolds has grounded solidly the logical\nexistence of the truly infinite, lying always over and beyond the finite,\nnot merely surpassing it at every stage of its variation. All sorts of\norders and relations among these transfinites may be treated with all the\nlogical rigor that pertains to the treatment of finites. This disclosure of\nworlds of worlds, of ascents and descents unending, is at once stimulating\n• and awe-inspiring. It is like the vision by the brook Chebar of the living wheels within wheels, or rather like the revelations of telescope and\nmicroscope and spectroscope, all in one. If the aspect of the starry\n» heavens could bow rhe proud soul of Kant in reverence, surely the intellectual view of the transfinites of analysis and geometry, where inviolable\n\n"}
{"page": 198, "printed_page": null, "text": "l88\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\norder reigns as in a divine hierarchy, must strike the beholder thru with\nreligious sense of sublimity and vastness, while expanding and extolling\nthe self-consciousness with the feeling of mastery over the immeasurable.\nIt is, of course, possible to parse and scan every line of Homer without\nhearing his music or being seized by his rapture, as a man may travel\nthru meadows and forests and valleys and mountains without seeing\nflower or tree or cloud or torrent, and along the ocean beach nor \" hear\nthe mighty billows rolling evermore.\" So, too, a teacher may undoubtedly guide a class skillfully thru the calculus without ever awakening any\nconsciousness of the enchanted realm of open mystery thru which they\nare moving ; and there may be eyes and ears that are by nature closed to\nsuch sights and sounds ; non cuivis homitii contingit adire Corinthum ; but,\nin general, under proper tutelage even the non-mathematical mind will\ngaze upon the scene in fascination, with wonder and admiration. Propose to the class such\n\na simple\n\nproblem\n\nas to\n\nevaluate\n\n~\n\nfor x\n\nincreasing without limit. They may derive mechanically numerator and\ndenominator, and find the limit of the quotient for the critical value, and\nso make an end of it ; but let the teacher pause and develop the significance of the answer, 0, showing, as it does, the infinitely low order of the\ninfinity of the logarithm ; let him point out how the logarithm does, indeed,\nfollow its argument on toward infinity, but at an ever-slackening snail'space, dragging itself forward more slowly than at any namable rate, and\nyet infinitely faster than the logarithm of the logarithm itself ; let him\nillustrate and emphasize this elementary fact, and mark whether the fancy\nof the most philistine is not touched, whether interest is not aroused, as\nat some strange spectacle, the eye enkindled and the pulse quickened at\nthis unveiling of the unimagined and unconceived. Students, of no\nmathematical turn, of marked linguistic leaning, have testified and will\ntestify that the calculus, and even analytic geometry, in college have stimulated them as no other studies, have opened up illimitable vistas of\nthought, and have engendered undying thirst for the transcendent and\nsupersensual. Does not a great light arise upon the mind that perceives\nfor the first time the simple, yet subtle, Riemannian distinction between\nboundless and infinite ? We speak of the omnipresence of God, and\nwith Goethe we call him the All-enfolder, the All-upholder ; yet rarely\ndo we attach any real significance to these lofty terms ; our imaginations\npersist in locating him afar off in the recesses of space, whence his allpiercing eye subtends the universe under an acute angle and takes instant\ncognizance of the minutest happenings ; the sublimest pantheism finds\nhim everywhere, only by finding him nowhere. The effect, then, is\nstartling when metageometry assures us of the perfect possibility of God's\nliteral and spatial omnipresence and all-enclaspment. We have only to\nconceive of him as a fourfold or «-fold extended being, so that our\n\n"}
{"page": 199, "printed_page": null, "text": "SessionsJ\n\nCULTURE\n\nVALUE\n\nOF HIGHER\n\nMATHEMATICS\n\n1 89\n\nempirical space would be at most a cross-section of deity, an evanescent\nphase of the divine nature, which would enfold and touch it as a mere\nborderland at every point, as truly and precisely as the bubble blown by\nthe child is enveloped and upborne at every point by the surrounding\nair. It is not here contended that such is really the relation of God to\nthe universe ; it is intended only to show by a single example how the\nhigher mathesis expands and illumines our conceptions and fits on new\nwings to our imaginations.\nLastly, it is in mathematics beyond all other sciences that the spirit of\nman holds converse with the immutable and eternal. The spectacle of\nunceasing change in the process of nature has in all ages fascinated the\ninquiring mind and sown the seeds of philosophy in the meditative soul.\nIlavTa pci, TravTtt x'\"/'\"j said Heraclitus : all in flux, all in motion. No\nman can put his foot twice into the same stream. The individual life is\nswept along like a transient eddy in the ocean of the life universal ; or it\nglows for a time like an inconstant flame, and beats off the night from\nabout it, and is quickly swallowed up again into the maw of darkness.\nModern investigation has deepened and intensified the ancient conception. It sees swift and pauseless change where the Greek might raasonably\nhave seen rest and perpetuity. In the marble repose of the statue the\nmodern beholds only a molecular whirlwind ; for him the stars are drifting, the constellations are falling forever asunder, and the atoms themselves look like passing vortices in a curdling subfrictional ether. The\nphilosophy of Plato was a sublime reaction from the doctrine of impermanence. It yielded earth and air to Heraclitus, but pitched on high,\nin the realm of ideas, the tents of the eternal and unchangeable. Modern\nscience maybe defined as the quest of the intellect for constants, but these\nconstants too often bear the brand of the provisional, the inexact, the\ncontingent, the arbitrary. So true is this that able savants have seriously\nquestioned the Newtonian law of gravitation as being too ideally exact\nand simple, too smooth and unconditioned, unlike other laws, which have\nso many ragged edges. In fact, it seems gravely doubtful whether the\ntotality of the facts of nature conform to any law or laws ; whether such\nas admit of more or less exact description in laws be not a very small\nfraction of the whole. Be this as it may, it is in mathematics alone that\nthis quest for constants finds its surest and noblest quarry. Whatever doubts we may admit or cherish concerning the actual constitution\nof our empirical space, the eternal correctness of the Euclidian geometry\nis in no wise impugned. It stands like a living, ever-growing temple,\nnot merely imperishable and ageless, but changeless, save by growth, and\ntimeless. If the flight of ages should sweep us into a region of space\nwith finite curvature, tho the theorems of Euclid would have no application to such a space, they would still hold with unimpaired validity of\nthe homaloidal space for which they were enounced.\nThe like maybe\n\n"}
{"page": 200, "printed_page": null, "text": "•I 9©\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nsaid of the equally rigorous geometries of Lobatschevsky and of Riemann.\nThey stand complete and perfect and indefectible, above and beyond\ntime, not merely everlasting, but eternal. Not less, nay, if possible, even\nmore immovable and immutable are the theorems of analysis. But it is\nnot merely or mainly in the discovery and establishment of always valid\npropositions, as ordinarily understood, about triangles and circles, roots\nand equations, that mathematics finds its true concern with the unchangeable. Modern geometry and analysis are busied particularly with\ngeometric properties and algebraic expressions of a still higher nature,\nwhich remain unaffected when the geometric or analytic form is submitted to a closed series of transformations, and these profounder permanences constitute the subject-matter of the doctrine of invariants, these\nimmutabilities in the midst of mutation. And here it is that art clasps\nhands with mathematics, tho lying apparently at the opposite pole of\nmentality. For mathematics is a search for the invariable amid variation,\na contemplation of the universe under the aspect of eternity ; while art\nno less strives always toward the same goal, of course from another\nbound and under another impulse, not to discover but to create, yet\nwith eye set ever on the unalterable, the abiding types of immortal\nbeauty, the universal amid endless particulars, the changeless amid the\nceaselessly changing.\n\" As all nature's thousand changes\nBut one changeless God proclaim,\nSo in art's wide kingdom ranges\nOne sole meaning Still the same :\nThis is truth, eternal reason,\nWhich from beauty takes its dress.\nAnd serene through time and season\nStands for aye in loveliness.\"\n\nHere, then, we apprehend a deep underlying essential unity in these\ntwo complementary aspects of our nature, the aesthetic and the scientific.\nThey are obverse and reverse of the same coin. The plastic and mathetic\ninstincts both root in the same play-instinct, the same resistless impulse to\nself-realization thru activity, and both drive on the spirit thru the\ntransient and temporal toward the permanent and eternal. Now, if anyone doubts that this immediate presence of the immutable does quicken,\nexalt, and stimulate the soul of the student, let him make a simple experiment. Let him present vividly to a class in co-ordinate geometry the\nmost elementary invariant properties of a conic ; let him unfold clearly the\nnotion of cross-ratio, or in any other way bring the pupil's mind into conscious relation, not with any empirical constants, but with the rational\nConstances of either algebra or geometry ; and then let him mark whether\nthe mind does not seize eagerly upon these fixed pillars of trust, whether\ninterest is not straightway aroused, the fatigue of attention dissolved, and\nthe countenance lit up with the glow of intelligence.\nIt is cheap and\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 201, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nScssioiisJ\n\nTHE\n\nCONSTANTS\n\nIN MATHEMATICS\n\nIQ^\n\neasy enough to pooh-pooh idealism of every kind, to cry \" extravaganza!\" and to shrug the shoulders at experiences one's self has not met\nwith ; but the zealous teacher, not to mention the creative thinker, will\nconfidently challenge comparison of his contentions with the facts in the\ncase, will calmly answer: \"Come and see.\"\nIn conclusion, this doctrine is no new doctrine. The ennobling, elevating, inspiriting power of higher mathematical studies — in other words,\ntheir culture value as herein set forth — has been recognized in every age\nof large enlightenment, but never more truly or splendidly expressed than\nin the famous quatrain of Ptolemy, which yoii will allow me thus to\ntranslate :\nThough mortal, doomed to live a day,\nWhen 1 the planet paths survey,\nThis dust my feet despise ;\nUp to the throne of God I mount\nAnd quaff from nectar-flowing fount\nThe nurture of the skies.\n\nDISCUSSION\n\nBY\n\nDR.\n\nEDWARD\n\nTHE\n\nCONSTANTS\n\nBROOKS,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nIN MATHEMATICS\nOF\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nPHILADELPHIA,\n\nPA.\n\nThe science of mathematics begins ^Irith the idea of number. The objects of the\nmaterial world present themselves to the senses, and the idea of number arises in the\nmind by an act of intuition. As the mind matures, it emancipates itself from objects and\nlifts the idea of number up out of the domain of sense-perception, and deals with numbers\nand their relations independently of sensible experience. These numerical conceptions\nneed expression, and man invents a numerical language, which in time develops into the\nArabic notation and the decimal system. By three fundamental operations — synthesis,\nanalysis, and comparison — the different numerical processes of pure arithmetic are\nunfolded. With the progress of intellectual development, numbers are involved in problems\nrequiring an unknown result from given known numbers. At first the Hindoos and their\ninterpreters, the Arabians, as well as Diophantus, expressed this unknown number by a\nword ; but eventually symbols were introduced to represent unknown numbers in distinction from the Arabic digits which indicated definite known numbers. A further generalization of numerical ideas created a necessity for general symbols for known\nquantities, which, in the sixteenth century, was met by Vieta, who introduced the letters\nof the alphabet for this purpose. As the algebraic calculus developed, it was naturally\napplied to the solution of geometrical problems, which in the seventeenth century led . to\nthe beautiful and ingenious method of Descartes — the representing of geometrical quantities byco-ordinates. Thus we have y=:^ax-^b for a straight line, y^:=2px for a parabola, a'j/' -|- Ifx' = a'i' for the ellipse, etc. Here we reach the distinction between\nconstants and variables, as in y =ax-\\-6, a and i are regarded as constants, while x and^\ny are variables.\nThis distinction between constants and variables, while generally accepted, is, after\nall, only a relative one.\nIn the equation of a straight line x and j/ vary infinitely for any\n\n"}
{"page": 202, "printed_page": null, "text": "192\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\none value of a, but the line represented by the equation may have an infinite number of\npositions, and therefore a, the tangent of the angle made by the line with the axis of\nabscissas, may vary between zero and plus or minus infinity. Thus the so-called constant ais itself a variable ; and the same may be said of tlie so-called constant b, which\nindicates the distance from the origin at which the line cuts the axis of ordinates. The\nsame is true of/ in the parabola, of a and b in the ellipse, and in general of the so-called\nconstants of any curve. It is thus seen that the quantities we have been accustomed to call\nconstants in mathematics are only relatively so ; that in reality they are not constants, but\nvariables, and as much so as the so-called variable quantities themselves.\nDisappointed in not finding constant quantities where we naturally expected to find\nthem, let us search a little farther for their existence. Jevons in his Priiiciples of Science\nspeaks of \"natural constants,\" and classifies the subject roughly under the several heads\nof \" Mathematical Constants,\" \"Physical Constants,\" \" Arithmetical Constants,\" \" Terrestrial Numbers,\" \" Organic Numbers,\" and \" Social Numbers.\" Without examining these\nin detail, it is sufficient to say that there are no physical constants. No object of the\nmaterial world is the same today, yesterday, and forever. The earth, the moon, the sun,\nthe stars are all variables in size, composition, distance, etc. The diameter of the earth,\nits distance from the sun at different times, the intensity of the sun's rays, etc., are all\nvariable quantities. The forces of the material world, as gravity, electricity, etc., are as\nvariable as the objects to which they belong. Man makes his measures of length for the\npurpose of having invariable standards ; but the French meter, tho theoretically the tenmillionth part of the distance from the equator to the pole, and also English yard,\ndetermined by the seconds pendulum, vary in length with the temperature to which they\nare exposed. The kilogram of the archives weighs more than four-thousandths of a grain\nmore than the kilogram deposited at the Ministry of the Interior in Paris ; and the English weight units are equally variable. There are no natural constants in the material\nworld, and man's attempts to make artificial ones are only approximately successful. Here\nagain we are disappointed in our search for the invariable and constant ; but, not discouraged, let us look in another direction and see whether we cannot find some mathematical\nelements which are really constant. We have sought in vain for constants among\nsymbols of quantity and among material things ; let us now look at the relations of\nquantity which will carry us into the domain of pure thought and abstract mental\nproducts.\nReturning to arithmetic, we find in the sphere of pure number certain combinations\nwhich bear certain definite relations to one another. These relations are absolutely true\nand invariable. Thus 4 and 3 are 7 today, tomorrow, and forever ; even tho Mill was\ndriven by Hamilton to assert, in order to escape a dilemma, that one might conceive of a\nworld in which 4 and 3 might be something else than 7. So the Pythagorean table of\nproducts expresses truths that never vary, but which are absolutely and constantly true.\nWe thus find in the combinations and relations of numbers a multitude of truths that never\nvary and which, therefore, properl/ represent the constants of mathematics.\nPassing from arithmetic to geometry, we reach relations of form that are equally\nsteadfast and unchanging. The axiomatic principles which constitute the basis upon\nwhich the science is built express invariable truths. The proposition, \" things equal to\nthe same thing are equal to one another,\" expresses a truth to which no exception or\nvariation has ever been found. The logical deductions from these axioms, as premises,\nare equally certain and invariable. No exception has ever been found to the discoveries\nof Pythagoras, that the sum of the angles of a plain triangle equals two right angles,\nexcept theoretically by the non-Euclidians, and his discovery that the square on the\nJiypothenuse equals the sum of the squares on the other two sides is a truth for the ages.\nThe relation between the diagonal of a square and its side, or between the circumference\nand diameter of a circle, may not be expressed by numbers, but their relations are as\ninvariable as the truth of the simplest axiom.\nWhen Archimedes proved that the surface\n\n"}
{"page": 203, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nMATHEMATICS— QUALITATIVE\n\nAND\n\nQUANTITATIVE?\n\nI93\n\nand contents of a sphere are respectively two-thirds of those of the circumscribing cylinder, he gave the world a beautiful truth that will endure thruout all time.\nThe reason for the absolute constancy of these truths is that they are derived by\nlogical processes from self-evident and necessary truths as premises. Galileo guessed\nthat the area of the cycloid was three times that of the generating circle, and endeavored\nto prove it by experiment ; but the truth only became an incontestable one when his\npupil, Torricelli, had demonstrated it by deductive reasoning. When Huygens, in 1657,\ndemonstrated, similarly, that the length of the cycloidal curve is four times the diameter\nof the generating circle, and, also, that it is the curve of equal descent ; and when, forty\nyears later, in 1697, John Bernoulli discovered that it is the curve of quickest descent, they\ngave to science imperishable truths that not even the skepticism of a Hume or Mill can\ndoubt or question.\nFrom this discussion it appears that constants are not found in the material universe\nor in the relation of material objects. There are no objects which are invariable, and\nconsequently there can be no constant relations between material objects. The relation\nbetween the circumference and diameter of a circle is an invariable one, no matter how the\ncircle may vary in size ; but this is not true of any material circular body, for the eye never\nsaw a true circle, neither can the hand make one. Constancy exists in those ideal and\nintuitive conceptions of number and form, and in the relations of their elements. It is,\ntherefore, in the mind that we really find certitude and constancy and invariability and\nabsoluteness of truth. What shall be said, therefore, of that phase of modern psychology\nwhich asserts that all knowledge is but the sum of impressions made upon the cortex, and\nthat the highest philosophy is but the result of molecular activity in the brain ? If this\nwere so, how could we account for the constancy of the relations existing between our\nconceptions of quantity and for the absolute certainty of our knowledge ? Thanks for a\nhigher philosophy in which we cannot only posit a mind, but recognize it as a self-active\nintelligence wearing the crown of intuition and freedom upon its brow — a conception\nwhich gives the highest dignity to man, and the grandest meaning to the philosophy of\neducation.\n\nIS\n\nBY\n\nTHE\n\nSCIENCE\n\nHALL,\n\nOF MATHEMATICS\nQUALITATIVE\nQUANTITATIVE?\nSUPERINTENDENT\nOF THE\nJACKSONVILLE,\n\nSTATE\nILL.\n\nAS\n\nINSTITUTION\n\nFOR\n\nWELL\n\nAS\n\nTHE\n\nBLIND,\n\nFRANK\n\nH.\n\nWhen\n\nthis query was submitted to me by our Committee on Program, I,, in turn,\n\nsubmitted- it to many scholarly gentlemen, telling them of the task imposed upon me, and\nasking their assistance, or at least an expression of opinion upon this question.\nThe feature of the replies of specialists in mathematics which has reference to the\ndata from which conclusions are derived is especially interesting from the fact that it\ntouches the entire field of pure and applied mathematics.\nOne, Arthur Lefevre, of the University of Texas, says that \" projective geometry in\nthe purity of its recent development is displayed as a mathematical treatment well-nigh\ndevoid of quantitative relations, and dealing almost entirely with qualitative relations of\nspacial manifoldness.\" A second, Florian Cajori, of the College of Colorado, cites in\nproof of his affirmative answer th^ following problem : \"To find a number the positive\nintegral powers of which shall terminate with the same n digits in order as does the\nnumber itself. If n equal 5, then 90,625 is a solution. (90,625)' equals 8,212,890,625.\nThis is not a quantitative result, because we may alter the number indefinitely by writing\nto the left of the ' 9 ' any digits we please, and as many as we please.\"\n\nIn other words\n\n"}
{"page": 204, "printed_page": null, "text": "194\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nthese digits may represent a quantity infinitely small, or a quantity infinitely large, and\nsatisfy equally well the conditions of the problem. The third. Dr. J. B. Shaw, of Illinois\nCollege, bases his affirmative answer, in part, upon the fact that mathematics deals with\npositive and negative quantities. A negative number does not represent a quantity \" less\nthan nothing.\" Such an expression is an absurdity. Quantitatively minus 4 equals plus\n4 ; the difference is purely qualitative. The fourth, Simon Newcomb, of Washington,\nD. C, says that \" It seems to me that a quantitative science is necessarily qualitative.\nLength, weight, etc., do not cease to be qualities when expressed in number.\"\nAnother says : \"A majority of the theorems of modern geometry deal with qualitative\ndistinctions, and qualitative distinctions in number and angles have been as conspicuous\nin mathematics since Descartes as the quantitative relation of these magnitudes.\"\nDr. Harris, in his Psychologic Foundations in Education, in a very interesting chapter\non the \" Psychology of Quantity,\" says : \" The thought of quantity is a double thought.\nIt first thinks quality and then negates it, or thinks it away. In other words, it abstracts\nfrom quality.\"\nIt thus appears that, whether or not \" mathematics is a science of quantity,\" it has its\nbeginning in quality, and all along the line qualitative distinctions are implicated. In\nthe common applications of the pure mathematics to problems in time, space, weight, and\nintensity, we deal with units that are both quantitative and qualitative.\nOne distinguished mathematician who kindly responded to my cry for help declares\nthat \"the qualitative nature of the projective geometry is enough to close the mouths of\nignorant disputants, who would attempt to restrict the science of mathematics to quantitative relations.\" In view of the fact that he is in substantial agreement with all those\nwho love mathematics, as some artists love art, for its own sake, it will, I am sure, be the\npart of discretion for me and for all those who, like myself, study the science of mathematics mainly for the sake of its uses, either to give assent to the modern idea that\nmathematics is not exclusively the science of quantity, or to allow \" projective geometry \"\nto close our mouths, and thus, ingloriously perhaps, save ourselves from the charge of\nbeing \" ignorant disputants.\"\n\nTHE\nBY\n\nKELLY\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nMILLER,\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nOF\n\nVALUE\n\nOF GEOMETRY\n\nMATHEMATICS,\n\nHOWARD\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nA science is characterized by the nature of its subject-matter and the manner in\nwhich it is treated. The educational value of a subject of study depends largely upon its\nsuitability to the stage of the mind at the time when it is pursued. Of all subjects,\ngeometry is perhaps best suited to strengthen the reasoning faculties in their early stages\nof development. Here we have a perfect system of reasoning, which is neither too\nabstract nor too difficult for the young mind to grasp. Indeed, geometry combines the\nadvantages of an abstract and a concrete science. While its concepts are purely abstract,\nthey are nevertheless subject to so many concrete illustrations that the learner, for a time\nat least, may wisely be kept in ignorance of the fact that he is not dealing with real,\ntangible entities. The purely concrete treatment of the subject is bound to find a larger\nplace in the programs of the future.\nIt is but natural to expect the mind to grow by what it feeds on. As geometry presents a perfect system of reasoning, it cannot' fail to develop the reasoning faculties. The\nsimplicity and perfection of the system depend upon the following principles :\nI. The subject-matter is of the simplest possible kind. Geometry does not busy\nitself with the metaphysical perplexities of space, but treats of its simplest elements —\nthe point, the line, the surface, the solid, and the angle. With all of these the learner has\nalready become acquainted by reason of familiarity with their concrete representations.\n\n"}
{"page": 205, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nVALUE\n\nOF\n\nGEOMETRY\n\n195\n\n2. The geometrical properties of figures are size, shape, position, and capability of\nmotion. These are clearly understood, because they are among the primary properties\nof material objects.\n3. Every science must rest upon «ome fundamental assumptions. The primary\nassumptions of geometry are {a) definitions, or definitive propositions whose truth is\ncontained in the form of the statement ; {b) axioms, or self-evident propositions whose\ntruth must be acceptable to all who can understand the terms employed ; and {c) postulates, or constructive propositions whose solution must be granted by all minds that are\naccounted sane. For three thousand years no sound mind has ever, in good faith,\ndoubted the validity of these assumptions. The whole superstnicture is built upon this\nsolid foundation.\n4. The logical machinery is exact and rigorous, tho so simple and easy of manipulation that the learner uses it with skill, without even suspecting the existence of such a thing\nas formal logic.\nThe methods of reasoning are :\n(a) The direct method, in which the conclusion is derived from known truths by a\nprocess which is so natural that it would be folly to attempt to define it.\n{b) The reduciio ad absurdum method, in which we conclude that a proposition is\ntrue, because its contrary leads to the contradiction of some known truth.\n(r) The method of exclusion, in which we make all possible hypotheses concerning a\nproposition, and show that all but one of them are false. The excluded one must, therefore, be true.\n^\n'\n{d) A fortiori method, by which we conclude that if a is greater than b, and if b is\ngreater than c, therefore, for a greater reason, a is greater than c.\n{e) Method of limits, which affirms that whatever is true of a variable in all stages of\nits variation is true of its limit. These methods are all convincing, and the verity of the\nconclusions thus established can be relied upon with the fullest assurance.\nThe study of geometry leads to a correct use of language. There are three kinds of\nlanguage: (i) common language, such as is used by children and uneducated people to\nexpress their ordinary needs and necessities ; (2) scientific or exact language, in which\nwords are used with a fixed, rigid significance, meaning no more, no less, and no other\nthan they expressly state ; and (3) literary or refined language, which expresses the finer\nphases of thought and feeling. The child always comes to school with the common\nlanguage on his lips; if he comes from a cultured and refined home, he mav there\ngather from familiarity and use polished and refined expression, but scientific language\ncan only be gained by dealing with those subjects where the lines of thought are sharp\nand definite. Language is not an original process, and does not exist for its own sake,\nbut is only a vehicle to convey the precious burden of thought. Clear thinking will\ncompel clear utterance. The surest way to teach the child to say something well is\nto teach him well something to say. The attempt to teach language in its barren isolation has always seemed to me to be unwise educational policy. As geometry furnishes\nthe clearest system of thinking, it will afford a most valuable linguistic discipline.\nThe study of geometry cultivates the logical memory, by which events are recalled\nby means of their inherent logical relations. This habit, when once acquired, soon extends\nto the varied relations and problems of life.\nThe truths of geometry, when once understood by the learner, become his own personal possession. It is no longer the truth according to Euclid, or the truth as it is in\nWentworth, but the truth as it lies in the mind of, and is assimilated by, the recipient.\nThe student is fairly entitled to adopt the words of Montaigne : \" 'Tis no more according\nto Pluto than according to me, since he and I both equally see and understand.\" This certainty of possession awakens intellectual dignity and pride, and stimulates the mind to\nwider self-activity and larger acquisitions.\n\n"}
{"page": 206, "printed_page": null, "text": "196\n\nNATIONAL\n\nTHE\nBY\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nJOSIAH\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nSOCIAL\nROYCE,\n\nBASIS\n\nOF\n\nHARVARD\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nCONSCIENCE\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nCAMBRIDGE,\n\nMASS.\n\n[abstract]\n\nIn this paper, of which here only a summary can be given, an effort\nwas made to trace, both in the history of the race and in the life of the\nindividual, some of the principal factors which have determined the development of the higher levels of the moral consciousness. The word \" conscience \"was used by the lecturer in a somewhat restricted sense, as a\nname for the principle, or the collection of mental principles, which\ndetermines precisely these higher levels of moral consciousness. One has\na conscience when he conceives duty as more or less definitely one, when\nhe conceives it more or less definitely absolute, and when he conceives\nits contents as a single law. In the evolutionary history of conscience\nthe lecturer first traced the transition from the savage stage of moral consciousnes to the civilized stage. The savage possessed numerous moral\nimpulses, that is, social impulses which could be made of use for moral\ndevelopment ; but he possessed these in a very capricious relation to\nimpulses which were not moral. For instance, kindness and cruelty,\nindustry and slothfulness, are capriciously found side by side in his nature.\nNevertheless, he possessed nearly all the bases for the civilized moral\nnature, yet he did not possess that organization of moral nature which\nconstitutes conscience. Secondly, the savage possessed customary\nmorality of a very complex grade. The customs of the tribe involved\nmuch self-sacrifice on the part of the individual. The authority attributed to moral law is also possessed by savage custom. Yet savage\ncustom, and the customary morality founded upon it, nowhere reach\nthe level of conscience. In the third place, the savage is extremely\nreligious, if by religion is meant practical relation to an unseen world.\nIn the tabu the savage possesses a reverence for the unseen, or, at all\nevents, a dread of the unseen, which involves a great deal of selfrestraint, and which notoriously forms the basis for the later development\nof the concept of sanctity. For an object that is tabu, or that is dedicated to the gods or to the spirits, becomes what is later called sacred, in\nso far as the individual must respect it, or restrain himself in its presence.\nSavage religion thus unquestionably influences conduct, and in directions\nwhich later became of importance for the evolution of conscience. Yet\nnone of the foregoing three factors are sufficient to make the savage, as\nhe usually is, possess what can be called a conscience. For the impulses\nof the savage, whether good or bad, remai:-» capricious; his customs have\nno ideal unity, and the tabu of his unseen world of spirits has no\n\n"}
{"page": 207, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nSOCIAL\n\nBASIS\n\nOF\n\nCONSCIENCE\n\n197\n\ndefinite relation to any morally significant duty belonging to the conduct\nof life.\nThe transition from the savage stage of morality to the civilized stage\nis made when these three factors assume a new relation. The change is\nespecially determined by what happened in the savage religion as it\npassed to the civilized stage. The laws of the unseen world became\ndefinite and united, the divine beings tended to be conceived as one ;\nand, in consequence, the tabu — that is to say' the collection of restraints\nand commandments supposed to be due to the invisible world- — became\nmore organized, as the invisible world itself became simplified. With the\nunification of the religious ideal there came to pass a tendency toward\nconceiving customary morality in the light of this ideal, and, in consequence, the desire to organize the impulses of the inner life in accordance\nwith the new ideal was gradually developed. The lecturer endeavored to\nshow at some length how, out of this combination of religious idealism,\nof a tendency toward a reformed customary morality, and a consequent\nrespect for the organization of the inner life itself, a conscious ideal of\nholiness, of sanctity, or, in some cases, of wisdom, came to supersede the\nearlier forms of moral consciousness, so that, as a result, the conscience in\nthe higher sense was evolved.\nThe result of this analysis of the social evolution of conscience in\nthe history of the race was, according to the lecturer, the indication that\nthe unseen world has had a very important relation in the minds of men\nto the development of the higher moral ideal. While, on the other hand,\nit is perfectly true that this development was only possible when the\nunseen world came to possess particular characters.\nThe lecturer hereupon proceeded to*a study of the moral evolution of\nthe individual, and to a statement of the parallel between the evolution\nof the child and the race, with reference to the same factors as were\nstudied in case of the evolution of the race. The child has capricious\nmoral impulses side by side with equally capricious anti-social impulses.\nHe early acquires a pretty rich, and, it may be, a very pedantic, customary morality. He is likely to possess a strong interest in the unseen\nworld ; and he may repeat many savage forms of tabu, that is, dread of the\nunseen, and of acts founded upon such dread. All these constitute in\nthe child, as in the race, the bases for the evolution of conscience. But\nnone of these factors are sufficient to constitute conscience, which, in the\nchild as in the race, is an evolution, and is not innate. The problem of\nthe education of conscience is the producing in the child of an organization and rearrangement of these three factors, parallel in some respects\nto the sort of organization and rearrangement that occurred during the\ntransition from savagery to civilization, when the ideal of holiness gradually developed out of earlier forms of tabu. The lecturer endeavored to\nshow at some length in what way it remains true, whatever the particular\n\n"}
{"page": 208, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 98\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\ncreed of any individual, that it is only by relations to unseen, or ideal,\ncomrades, friends, heroes, or authorities, that the higher rational and\nmoral evolution can take place. Conscience, even in the most impersonal forms, is conceived as a sort of ideal comrade. The actual life of\ncustomary morality is full of conflicts and inconsistencies which offend\nthe practical reason. Only in the inner world of imagination or of ideal\nconstruction can one come to conceive of a harmonious plan in life.\nSince this plan is first conceived from within, the formation of it involves\na grade of self-consciousness which makes one henceforth judge conduct,\nnot in the light of its conventional qualities, nor in the light merely of\nits outward results, but in the light of its intentions. So that, in the individual as in the race, the unseen world, however conceived, is, as the\nworld of one's own inner conceptions and comradeships, at once the\nworld where self-consciousness can develop with a sense of freedom,\nwhere a harmonious ideal of the plan of life can be, however dimly, suggested, and where, in consequence, the notion of an absolute law, of a\nrule of life invisible, but universally valid, can be framed. The lecturer\nundertook at some length to show how a child's play with ideal comrades, his hero worship, his disposition to conceive in ideal terms his\nown future self, and similar tendencies, may all play, as they grow, the\npart in his life which the more idealized forms of religion played in the\nearlier evolution of the race. These considerations were used to indicate\nunder what conditions a religious creed that comes with the definite\nauthority can be made of service to the child's own inner life. It is not\nthe external authority, but the inner idealization ; it is not the knowledge\nof visible custom, or even obedience to valuable principles, that can\ndevelop the true conscience, 'l^he true conscience comes when social\nrelations with an ideal world, however conceived, become rich and complex enough in the inner life to lead to the formation of the idea that in\nthe real world harmony should reign, as from an ideal point of view it\nalready seems to reign in the best part of one's inner realm of unseen\nguides and heroes. In sum, the theses of the paper were that conscience\nis not innate ; that it does develop upon the basis of social sensitiveness and of customary morality ; that the interest in an unseen world is of\ngreat importance for its full development; and that the transformation\ncomes to pass when the ideal realm of the unseen, as religion or as hero\nworship presents it, becomes sufficiently organized to suggest a plan for\nharmonizing all life, and the absolute authority of the law. The essence\nof conscience is thus attained whenever the unity of the ideal law gets\nconceived. It is not necessary that one should ever reach any abstract\nstatement of the law, or should be able to define one's duty in any but\nthese perfectly general terms. Conscience thus wills absolute unity and\nharmony of life ; but one who has a conscience may be to any extent in\ndoubt as to just what means to use, at any given time, for the attainment\n\n"}
{"page": 209, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nSOCIAL\n\nBASIS\n\nOF\n\nCONSCIENCE\n\n199\n\nof this ideal. Yet the law is conceived as none the less absolute on that\naccount ; and, in the evolution of conscience, one thus learns to put the\nideal law beyond the customary law. Or, finally, one may define the possessor of conscience as one who views his life as the life of a citizen of a\ncertain invisible city, whose law is the law of complete harmony.\n\nDISCUSSION\nH. E. Kratz, superintendent of schools, Sioux City, la. — I am thoroly convinced, at this moment, that the man who attempts a ten-minute discussion of a profound\nsixty-minute paper on the \" Social Basis of Conscience \" manifests such a lamentable lack\nof judgment, or of \" practical reason,\" that it will raise serious doubts in the minds of\nhis hearers about the birth of his conscience. Perhaps the wisest course for me to pursue\nin my discussion of Dr. Royce's able paper is to say, in the words of the old school\ndirector : \" Them's my sentiments, tew.\" In the main, I find but little cause for disagreement, altho some of the statements of the paper were at first a little novel, not to\nsay startling ; but when the content of terms used was carefully weighed, I found myself\nbut little inclined to dissent.\nA. long, dreary road of struggle and development toward higher ideals lies between\nthe animalism of the savage and the fraternalism of civilized man, between tabu and\nrighteousness. This prolonged struggle of the race from sensualism to altruism possesses\nthe intensest interest, not simply because it was a heroic struggle for the supremacy of\nhigher ideals, but also because it parallels each individual's struggle from the sensual to\nthe moral or spiritual.\nThe paper clearly sets forth three prominent features of savage moral life, viz.:\n1. Social impulses similar to ours, but manifesting gross inconsistencies in mingling\nevil with good, such as manifesting kindness and sympathy one moment and wanton\ncruelty, or perfidious treachery, the next.\n2. Helpless submission to custom, such as patiently submitting to the painful process\nof tattooing or the terrible ordeal of becoming a warrior of the tribe.\n3. Excessively religious or superstitious ideas, as indicated by the savage surrounding himself with a world of spirits, but unfortunately moved by like passions as himself.\nWe can understand how these social impulses would become less gross and inconsistent inthe clearer light thrown upon them from experience. We can see how the\ngolden rule could slowly evolve from the teachings of experience. We can also admit\nthat helpless submission to custom has a slight moral element in it which may lead from\nblind obedience to an external influence, to intelligent obedience to a voice within. The\noutward attitude of obedience may assist in inculcating the inward grace of true obedience.\nWe can also see how, in this progress toward righteousness, the savage would people the unseen world of spirits with a less and less gross, or immoral, order of beings,\nsince these must be to some extent the reflection of himself. The gods, or god, must be\nconstructed, apprehended anthropomorphically. Robert G. Ingersoll stated an important\ntruth when he inverted the popular epigram and made it read: \"An honest God's the\nnoblest work of man.\"\nAnd so, from the evolutionary point of view, man, as he rises to a higher moral plane\nof action, endows his god with higher and nobler attributes; and this nobler god, in turn,\nis pleased with the observance of a higher standard of conduct by man.\nThus each acts\n\n"}
{"page": 210, "printed_page": null, "text": "200\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nand reacts to the uplifting, upbuilding of the other. Not that God is changed in this\nprocess, but only man's conception of God, and what is pleasing to him in man's conduct.\nTo some unphilosophic minds this may suggest a little of the same kind of philosophy\nwhich advocates that man can lift himself up by pulling on his boot straps. And yet\nthis is not quite a parallel case. But why not make the Great Ruler of the universe a\nlittle more prominent factor in man's moral regeneration ? Is it, then, so irrational, so\nunscientific, so unphilosophical, that it dare not be considered ? While accepting evolution as operative in the invention or discovery of conscience, why shut out direct revelation\nof God's will, either by his word or thru the manifestations of his spirit ? But this may\nbe too baldly orthodox to suit the philosophic mind. It must be confessed, and with\ndeep regret, that the pulpits of our land have emphasized entirely too much the supernatural and miraculous side of Christianity, leading its disciples to expect and depend upon\ndirect divine interposition in their daily lives, rather than so to shape their lives that they\nwill come in harmony with God's laws. Too many of our so-called orthodox pulpits are\nunduly exalting the work of the spirit, relegating the larger portion of the Christian life\nto the realm of the supernatural or miraculous, and thus tending to make a man a puppet\nrather than the arbiter of his own destiny. Against both these extremes I must raise my\nprotest.\nOne of the most interesting features of Dr. Royce's paper is his discussion of the\ndevelopment of the modern child's conscience in the light of the development of the race\nconscience.\nAny close student of children recognizes that the child in his moral development\nmanifests the same characteristics which the paper points out in the moral development\nof the savage, viz. :\n1. Social impulses similar to ours, but grossly inconsistent.\n2. Helpless submission to custom.\n3. Excessively religious or superstitious ideas.\nThe culture-epoch theorists have here some further material out of which to strengthen\ntheir theory.\nDr. Royce claims that the child's moral development, like that of the race, arises\nchiefly out of his conception of the invisible world. If the child be led to conceive of\nthat invisible world as united, as having one consistent, humane, loving ruler, who is\ninterested in him and desires him to act righteously — if this be consciously coxi<:.^\\y^A by the\nchild, conscience is born.\nBut the great danger here is, as the paper indicates, that these religious truths may\nbecome mere empty forms and exercise no regenerating influence on the child's life.\nThis step in the evolution of the child's conscience needs most careful attention, and is\none of the most suggestive and helpful features of the paper.\nThe paper seems to feel the need of something else than social impulses, helpless\nsubmission to custom, and excessively religious ideas to mark the evolution of conscience.\nAnother element is brought in, which is called the \" practical reason,\" and which seems\nto stand outside of conscience. To quote : \" Customary morality is full of inconsistencies. The practical reason does not like these inconsistencies.\nPractical reason, in\nweighing conflicts of social ideals\nis puzzled ; yet in all this it still unconsciously\nseeks for unity. Its very effort to solve its puzzles involves an unconscious ideal of\nwholeness. Make this ideal conscious, and you will have a conscience.\" This practical reason, then, desires consistency of life, unity of purpose, wholeness of spirit, harmony in every act, and possesses this ideal yet not consciously. Only when practical\nreason becomes conscious of its ideal, then is conscience born, or discovered, or invented.\nThese are rather fine philosophical distinctions. If practical reason dislikes inconsistency and likes consistency, can it be said that it is unconscious of these ? But I have\nno desire to quibble over these fine distinctions.\n\n"}
{"page": 211, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nSOCIAL\n\nBASIS\n\nOF\n\nCONSCIENCE\n\n20 1\n\nLet me say, in conclusion, that the paper is a masterly presentation of the facts in\nthe evolution of conscience, and cannot fail to carry with it the approval of candid,\nthoughtful minds. As those who guide the youth of our land, it should be our first concern to know that we have heard the vrjice of conscience, that the absolute plan has been\nwhispered in our ear, and that its eternal meaning is definitely known to us.\nCharles C. Ramsay, Fall River, Mass.— In the case of an adult member of a\ncivilized community, how far is the motive, the reason, the sanction, for doing a thing\nbecause others do it commendable?\nProfessor Royce. — That is an entirely unanswerable question, specifically, in the\nvery nature of the case. Once any particular action of any organism performs a wholesome and useful function, you cannot tell, apart from the life of that organism, the value\nof that function, but only from its relation to the life of the organism. Tf\\e doing of\nwhat other people do is unquestionably doing something ; whether it is well to do what\nthese other people do depends upon what they are doing or saying. The question can\nonly be answered with reference to the harmony of the whole. It is always much more\nimportant first to consider that generally, in such a discussion as this, rather than specifically.\nMr. Ramsay. — Does it play a very great part or tendency, in the moral development\nof man, to respond to the demand of his fellows? In your opinion, does it account for\nthe source or origin of moral obligation?\nProfessor Royce. — The sense of moral obligation proper is precisely the higher\nquality upon which I laid a good deal of stress. The individual must first reach the\nlower level of conscientious action. He would never reach this lower level, perhaps,\nwithout example. Therefore, unquestionably, the attempt at imitation is the beginning\nof the acquisition of wisdom. It is better to be imitative than to be merely capricious ;\naltho, on the other hand, whenever you have reached the moral idea, you will find your\nmoral consciousness perfectly ready to do something merely because that something is\nright,\nMr. Ramsay. — The moral judgment will come in and tell us what we ought to\nimitate and what we phould decline?\nProfessor Royce. — Mr. Ramsay, it now comes into the region of the difficulty of\nthe application of a general rule. I should say, in general terms, precisely this : the act\nof doing things because other people do those things is always the result of a motive\nbelonging to the lower level. That will lead toward morality, toward the higher, and that\nis always better than mere obstinacy and willfulness. On the other hand, the higher level,\nwhere we have an activity and conscientious individual effort, is more desirable. Never,\nunder any circumstances, sacrifice principle to conformity; about that there can be no\ndoubt.\nMiss Marsh, of Michigan. — Why is it that a child seems to have a stronger idea\nof eternity, of the future life, at the age of three or four than at a later period ?\nProfessor Royce. — Whether that is universally true or not I am not certain. I\nhave seen that interest in the future life very early ; I certainly have seen it later, and I\ncertainly have seen the absence of it very late. When one sees a very early interest in\nunseen things, it indicates generally that the child is very eager to take up those mysterious things which people tell him about, and consequently you will find him quite as much\nconcerned in what he does not understand as what he does, if only someone authoritatively suggests the matter. Later in life people come to have definite ideas. They\nspeak more definitely of things and principles. They have more definite notions\nand plans, which is one of the benefits of modern education. Then, sometimes, follows\nthe age of rationalism, when, as we know, there is a revival of interest in the unseen.\nMiss Marsh. — I take my opinion from answers given to Dr. Hall's syllabi on that\nquestion.\nI believe, out of several hundred answers that he had to the question, \" When\n\n"}
{"page": 212, "printed_page": null, "text": "202\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\ndoes a child first express an idea of infinity?\" perhaps 80 per cent, placed the strongest\nidea at the age I have stated.\nProfessor Royce. — Some of those returns are necessarily subject to various\ninterpretations, and it is difficult for us to speak without facts. All such data are very\nsuggestive and useful. With regard to what is happening in any individual child, I feel\nsure we do not know, for our facts are not well enough collected.\nMr. Brand, of Philadelphia. — Would you approve of the tendency to recognize\nour educational system as an instrument toward the development of what might be\ntermed an educated consciousness, that is, in the line of the effort of the present time to\nmake moral character the conscious aim in education ?\nIn the second place, would you be disposed to approve of the classification that has\nbeen offered by Dr. Harris and by Professor Butler, in the direction of giving harmony to\nour school curriculum, by the classification that says a child is entitled to its mathematical\ninheritance, to its literary inheritance, to its scientific inheritance, to its aesthetic inheritance, to its institutional inheritance?\nIf an educated conscience, if moral character in the sense of an educated conscience,\nis to be made the conscious aim of our educational system, is that conscious aim to prevail all along the line, or at the end of the system as at present organized in the United\nStates ? That is to say, should the conscious aim be at the apex of our system or in the\nelementary school ?\nProfessor Royce. — In answer to these three questions, I have at once to explain\nthat I feel decidedly the limitation of my own views, for I have small authority to speak\nof the organization of any educational system, being myself concerned with problems\nthat lie decidedly out of that field, and having, myself, only a humble place in that\neducational system, as at present developed, as a teacher in one branch of the work.\nTo the first of the three questions the answer seems to be obvious, and I answer as\nI did the preceding question, that there is no doubt that the chief purpose of education\nis to make the best character in human beings possible to be made. I confess my entire\nignorance as to the best way to classify educational systems. I suppose one may say\nthat on this practical side a great deal of the work of the teacher must lie in the\ndevelopment of customary morality.\nSecondly, I should say most distinctly : When a teacher is teaching mathematics and\nnatural science, let him not then and there be concerned that it is all for the ethical purpose ;let the result follow, but it is not necessary to mention it. It is precisely so in the\nconduct of all the work of the teacher. During all the work, the teacher should feel that\na larger consciousness is the goal, and that can be reached in manifold ways. This\ngoal may be reached by different persons in different ways. There may be dangers in\ndeveloping too much of the aesthetic.\nI should say, as a general answer to the three questions, that I suppose the result of\norganized activity, in so far as it is a part of our educational system, does tend toward that\nuniversal conscience which I should put at the head.\nProfessor Ormond, of Princeton. — I should like Professor Royce to state where he\nwould locate, and how he would ground, that principle of free initiative in connection with\nthe principle of conformity to the habit and principle of imitation. One of the most\nvaluable features of the discussion is this contrast between plain morality, for example,\nand the ordinary motives of morality, on the one hand, and the sphere of religion, of the\nspirit world, using those terms in a large and unconventional sense, on the other. It\nseems to me the child has a right to that inheritance ; it is part of the born inheritance\nof our humanity that the motives which spring from that unseen world are the most\nimportant motives in the evolution of our spiritual manhood, and it is therefore that we\ncannot afford to make them merely contributory to our moral development. I am one of\nthose, therefore, always in favor of emphasizing to the uttermost the importance of the\nreligious motives in the development of morality and of moral education.\n\n"}
{"page": 213, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nSOCIAL\n\nBASIS\n\nOF\n\nCONSCIENCE\n\n203\n\nProfessor Royce. — In reply to the question of Professor Ormond, I should be\nentering a wide field if I attempted to be at all adequate, from my own point of view, in\ndiscussing this subject. There are suggestions contained in the paper ; there is a theory\nof psychology and self-consciousness, and an attempt to trace moral development. What\nI meant by my \"finite self \" is always known to me as something, a man's own acts and\nfeelings, set over in contrast with somebody else's ; it is the contrast between another and\nmyself. If you direct my attention, I try to follow, if I am trying to grasp your meaning.\nIf you criticise me, I respond to the criticism. Now, in all such cases I am self-conscious.\nIn ordinary conversation we have various phases of self-consciousness.\nMr. Sanford, of New York. — I have listened to this discussion with a great deal\nof interest. I have listened in vain for what I conceive to be the proper thought to be\nexpressed in connection with this paper. I would not desire to do any injustice to the\nwriter of the paper. I possibly may not have grasped the right idea, but it seems to me,\nif there is any trend in this paper at all to anything that is practical, it is a direct trend\ntoward agnosticism, and if that be true, I say here and now, most emphatically, that I\nwish to enter my protest. I have consulted several leading members in this audience,\nand they have all said to me the same thing. Perhaps we do not understand it rightly.\nI do not believe that conscience is an invention of speech. It is placed in our bosoms by\nthe creator of all the earth. I stand here today in favor of the God of Israel, not evolution.\nMr. Dyer, of Ohio. — Professor Royce tells us that the teacher must be candid ;\nhow can that teacher associate ideal characteristics with the actual person, without some\nlack of candor ? When the time of disillusionment comes to that child, will he not be\ndisappointed ? Will there not be a revolt which will put that child in a worse state than if\nhe had not thought on the subject ?\nSecondly, can any religious ideas be taught a child which do not cluster around an\nactual personage ? Can he understand the abstract, or associate anything with the\nabstract; must it not be actual ? In conclusion, how can we have religious ideas taught\nthe child ?\nProfessor Royce. — The questions are thoroly justified in themselves. Two different\nthings come in sight at this point of the discussion, and they are very interesting questions :\nfirstly, as regards the relation of the evolutionary theory of conscience and religion,\nwhich I take to be in the mind of the speaker before the last. I endeavored in two or\nthree different statements in the paper to make perfectly clear what the relation is. In\nthe first place, the paper itself is dealing with a theoretical question ; not the question of\nfaith from a philosophical standpoint or from any point of view, but with a human conception, to wit, a conception to distinguish between right and wrong in its various forms and\ndegrees. What is manifested to the consciousness of the infant before six months of age,\nby those who have observed, leaves no doubt that all knowledge of truth grows with the\nindividual as he grows. That the same is equally true with the race no student of human\nhistory has any difficulty in regarding as by far the most probable hypothesis. Yet, there\nis absolutely no light on any question as to what truth is. All knowledge is the result of\ngrowth, education, development, evolution. The human race has been struggling with\nall these problems, and they are gradually coming to be understood. There is no lack of\nharmony between the great truths in nature and in life.\nThere is no doubt, therefore, as to my position, and should be none with regard to\nmy expression, in so far as I distinctly stated the purpose of the paper, and in so far as I\nagain and again pointed out in passing that the invention of the conscience was also\nunquestionably a discovery. Every truth has to be unfolded to the race, or discovered.\nOne need not fear that the truth is touched by any new discovery, however we regard the\nevolution of our knowledge concerning that truth.\nSecondly, as to the religious training of the child, in the paper I endeavored to point\nout a suggestion that there may well be a wide difference in theological beliefs, and perhaps a variety of religions, and that they must all be developed ; and it was my purpose\n\n"}
{"page": 214, "printed_page": null, "text": "204\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nthat thru the moral development of the child the best results would be attained. A\nknowledge of God can only be acquired by searching for the truth diligently thru all the\nmeans at hand, and, looking and honestly seeking, the human soul shall surely find him.\n\nTHE\n\nDUTY\n\nOF THE\n\nSTATE\n\nBY DR. EMERSON\n\nE. WHITE,\n\nIN EDUCATION\nCOLUMBUS,\n\nO.\n\n[abstract]\n\nChildhood is a warfare. In the being of a child are two forces in\nconflict for rulership in its life. On one side are reason and conscience,\nthe child's higher nature, the rightful ruler in its life. On the other is a\ngang of animal appetites, a horde of bandit propensities, eager to rule,\nand ready -to barter earth or heaven to secure it. Not in the lion's lair\nare these passions one-half so fearful as lurk in the being of the most\ninnocent child. The sweet babe of Askalon became the murderous\nHerod, and the gentle pupil of the wise Seneca became the cruel Nero\nwhose word caused an empire to tremble.\nOn the issues of this conflict between the two natures of the child\nhang all the issues of its life. If the higher nature conquers, if reason\nand conscience win the throne, out of such a victory will come a life of\nhonor and beneficence; but, if the lower nature gain dominion, manhood\nmay be turned to shame and hopes to ashes.\nWhat capabilities are the inheritance of a child ! In its nature is a\nwealth of intellect and heart, inviting it to a life worthy of the gods ; but\nall these divine capabilities may be buried in a napkin or bartered for a\nmess of pottage.\nWhat possibilities of action and influence nestle in the being of a\nchild ! No one can look in the face of a pauper's child and possibly\nguess what is to be in its life. History is full of examples of high achievement by those who were born in extreme poverty and lowliness. [Joan\nof Arc and Lincoln were cited as illustrations.]\nOut of the being of every child three voices plead for its control,\nnurture, education — its needs, its capabilities, its possibilities. Whose\nduty is it to hear this cry of childhood ? It is the duty (i) of the father\nand the mother, who are God's vice-gerents on earth for this high duty ;\n(2) of the community in which the child is born, either a blessing or a\ncurse ; and (3) of the state in which, as a citizen, he is to be an element\nof its weal or its woe. The property of the state is all under mortgage —\nand first mortgage, too — for the education of the children born into its\nliberty.\nIt is thus seen that under God three agencies stand by the cradle of\nevery child — the family, the community, and the state; and these are\n\n"}
{"page": 215, "printed_page": null, "text": "Session.]\n\nTHE\n\nDUTY\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nSTATE\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n205\n\njoined in a sacred alliance to help the child's higher nature to victory in\nits life — to train the child for manhood and liberty. The church also\nstands there, with its divine commission to teach the gospel of life and\nhope.\nWe have thus stated, in a few brief sentences, the unanswerable argument for universal education in a free state; and yet, in the face of it and\nthe grand array of historic facts that support it, the right of the state to\neducate is questioned, and even boldly denied. One party denies the right\nof the state to teach anything, affirming that this is the exclusive right and\nduty of the family. Another party, borrowing its ideas from the Tory aristocracy of England of the last century, denies its right to teach above the\nmerest rudiments of knowledge — the three R's.\nIt must suffice to say, in passing, that there are but two logical positions respecting education by the state. One denies the right of the state\nto teach at all ; the other affirms the right of the state to teach any\nbranch of knowledge that will promote the public welfare. There is no\nmiddle ground on which logic can stand. By what argument can it be\nshown that the state has the right to teach one boy to measure a board or\na pile of wood, but has not the right to teach another boy to survey a\nfield or a railroad ? It is not possible to draw a line thru education\nand affirm the right of the state to teach up to this line, but deny its\nright to cross and teach on the other side. There is no such line in\neducation.\nThe three great aristocracies of the world — the aristocracies of caste,\nof capital, and of culture — \" the three big C's \" — have united in a most\npaternal solicitude lest the \" working people \" be spoiled by overeducation. Much schooling, they assert, spoils the children of toil for their lot\nin life, fills them with vain ambitions, and makes them discontented with\ntheir lot. It is even asserted, in Bacon's language, that \" the schools are\nfilling the realm with idle, indigent, and wanton people.\"\nThe history of education affords a conclusive answer to these assertions, and, over against them, let us put the decisive facts of recent\nhistory. During the present century the nations have been to school, and\nimportant facts in the education of the people have been settled, not by\nassertion, but by national experience. Let us bring the nations into court\nand hear their testimony.\nIn the light of this history the question was asked : \" Why should\nthe state educate ? \" In answer, the following propositions were stated\nand sustained by a wealth and cogency of historic facts :\nI. The state should educate as a means of military defense — that it\nmay be strong in war. The speaker cited as illustrations {a) the defeat\nof Prussia, at Jena, by Napoleon in 1806, followed by the infamous\ntreaty of Tilsit; (^) the defeat of Austria by Prussia, at Sadowa, in 1866;\nand {c) the defeat of France by Germany in 187 1. The compulsory school\n\n"}
{"page": 216, "printed_page": null, "text": "2o6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nLGeneral\n\nsystems of Prussia, Austria, and France are respectively the consequences\nof Jena, Sadowa, and Sedan. A most striking illustration is at our\nantipodes — the defeat of China by schooled Japan in 1894. It is the\nopinion of the highest naval authorities that victory in naval battles\ndepends more on men than on ships and armaments. The now recognized superiority of the American marine is due to his intelligence and\ncharacter. The American gunner puts his conscience into his shell. He\nshoots to hit the enemy, and not to vex the innocent sea.\n2. The state should educate as a means of industrial progress — that\nits people may be rich. In support of this position the speaker laid down\nfour propositions, supporting each by a wealth of argument and illustration :\n{a) Education promotes industry and lessens idleness. It touches\nboth of the great laws of wealth — supply and demand. It awakens\ndesires, and, thru these, impels man to labor for their gratification.\nNowhere on earth does a schooled people clothe itself in rags or live in\nhovels.\"\n(I)) Education makes labor more skillful and more productive. In\nproof were cited the results of the inquiry of Horace Mann in 1846 and\nUnited States Commissioner Eaton in 1870; the testimony of the great\ninternational expositions, special reference being made to the world's fair\nin London in 1851, the Paris exposition in 1867, and the Columbian\nexposition in Chicago in 1893. \" The hand is another hand when guided\nby an intelligent mind.\"\n{c) Education enriches industry with discoveries and inventions. The\nprogress from the sickle to the cradle, and from the \"muley cradle\" to\nthe reaper and binder, was cited as an illustration of the influence of\ninvention on farming. The day of muscle in industry is passing; the\nday of mind has come. Thought in the brain of labor is the alchemy of\nindustry.\n{d) Education improves the condition of the laborer, morally, socially,\nand politically.\n3. The state must educate thai civil liberty may endure. A republic is\nan organized people. They constitute the state, and, in the end, the\nwill of the people is law, whether that will, as Mann once said, \"reads the\nmoral code forward or backward ; \" and there is no appeal. It is idle\nto rely on what Matthew Arnold calls a \" saving remnant.\" In a free\nstate intelligence and virtue must rule, and, to this end, they must pervade all heads and all hearts. What is needed in a republic is a saving\nmajority, and a big majority.\nCivil liberty without intelligence and virtue in the people has ever\nbeen the sport of civil tempests. In his centennial address at Plymouth,\nin 1820, Daniel Webster laid down three conditions on which the perpetuity of the American republic depends — universal education, universal\n\n"}
{"page": 217, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nDEAF\n\nAND\n\nTHEIR\n\nPOSSIBILITIES\n\n207\n\nreligious training, and the proper division of landed property. The same\nconditions are laid down by De Tocqueville and other writers on republican.institutions. \"In a republic,\" said Mann, \"the ballot-box is the\nurn of fate, and intelligence must shake the bowl and virtue preside over\nthe lot, or, in the end, all will be lost.\" In all the past, when civil liberty\nhas been lost, she has been buried in the tomb of public intelligence and\nvirtue.\nThe speaker then referred to the fact that at each of the last five presidential elections the ballot had been cast by more than a \" round million \"\nof men who could not read a word on the piece of paper which they\ndeposited.\nThe supreme duty of the state is universal education. The school must\nbe placed within easy reach of every child born into American citizenship,\nand, in some wise way, it must be seen that he goes to school. Whatever\nelse may be done, this must not be left undone. The teacher must place\nhis hands in blessing on the head of every child born under our flag.\nIn the American school the child must not only be taught branches of\nknowledge, but to love truth and honor and purity, and his neighbor as\nhimself. What the republic demands of the school is not intelligence\nalone, but intelligence and virtue. The end and measure of the school is\ncharacter — a noble manhood. What the country most needs is not better\nleeks and onions, but deliverance from this worse than Egyptian bondage\nto avarice, appetite, and lust, and in this final exodus of the race the Christian teacher is to be our Moses.\nIn the center of American civilization is a little child. Take wise\nand loving care of that child, and all human interests are secure. Neglect that child, and all human interests are in jeopardy.\n\"What constitutes a state ?\"\n\nBY\n\nTHE\n\nDEAF\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nE.\n\nAND\nM.\n\nTHEIR\n\nGALLAUDET,\nWASHINGTON,\n\nPOSSIBILITIES\nCOLLEGE\nD. C.\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nDEAF,\n\nMr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen :\nI trust I may not be thought egotistical when I begin with a word as\nto my personal connection with the education of the deaf.\nIt has been my privilege to be associated with this class of persons for\nmore than forty years as a teacher and as an observer. I have examined\nthe methods pursued in more than two-score of the schools for the deaf\nin this country, and in a greater number of schools in thirteen of the\ncountries of Europe.\nI have taken careful note of the results of every\n\n"}
{"page": 218, "printed_page": null, "text": "2o8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nmethod which has been made use of in every place that could be reached\nby travel.\nWithin a year I have had unusual opportunities for meeting, in personal converse, large numbers of educated deaf persons, not now in\nschool, in Italy, Switzerland, Austria, Germany, France, England, Scotland, and Ireland. From these persons, whose testimony was from their\nown experience, I was able to learn much of value as to the results and relative advantages of the different methods of education, and my intercourse\nwith them was by means of a language more truly world-wide than Volapiik will ever be — the natural, ideographic language of gestures ; no doubt\nthe oldest known to man, but whose antiquity is by no means a synonym\nof decrepitude, inexactness, or decay. For in the use of this unique\nmeans of expression mind comes into more direct contact with mind than\nwhen the barriers of arbitrary and artificial language are interposed.\nAny endeavor to appreciate and understand the possibilities of the\ndeaf must begin with an effort to comprehend — which is not an easy task —\nthe state of mental blankness in which a child born deaf and remaining\nwithout education must necessarily continue.\nThe starting point, when the training of such a child is begun, is\ninfinitely lower in the scale of mental development than that of a normal\nperson. To such a child all the objects and living creatures around him\nare without names. For his own crude thoughts he has no means of verbal expression. All the phenomena and ministry of sound have no existence to him.\nThe high degree of intelligence, and even of social culture, which is\npossible to the unlettered who have all their faculties, growing out of that\neasy, personal intercourse which hearing and speech afford, can never be\nattained by a deaf-mute left to his own resources.\nSome of you may remember Charles Dickens' description, in his\nAmerican Notes, of the blind deaf-mute Laura Bridgman, in which he\nspeaks of her, before education, \"built up, as it were, in a marble cell,\nimpervious to any ray of light or particle of sound, with her poor white\nhand peeping through a chink in the wall, beckoning to some good man\nfor help, that an immortal soul might be awakened.\"\nOnly a little less pitiable in degree, and quite the same in kind, is the\ncondition of the deaf-mute left without education.\nAnd yet experience has proved that, when once the helping hand of\nthe teacher is extended, the deaf-mute's possibilities for intellectual growth\nare not less than those of normal persons.\nIn the four-score schools of the United States upward of ten thousand\ndeaf children receive the full equivalent of the common-school education,\nincluding industrial training. Many are given high-school courses of\nstudy, and a proportion greater than that in the community at large are\nacquiring a knowledge of the ancient and modern languages, the sciences,\n\n"}
{"page": 219, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nDEAF\n\nAND\n\nTHEIR\n\nPOSSIBILITIES\n\n209\n\nthe higher mathematics, history, literature, economics, and philosophy,\nin the college which has been for many years liberally sustained for their\nexclusive benefit at the federal capital by the government of the United\nStates.\nIn this college deaf-mutes have become fitted to be editors and publishers, tobe clergymen, to enter the civil service of the government, to\nbe teachers and heads of schools, to be architects and artists, to fill\nelective offices in the public service, to engage in scientific pursuits, to\nsucceed in active business, to practice law, even before the supreme\ncourt of the United States, and to be postmasters by presidential appointment. None have as yet been elected as members of Congress, or to\nthe Senate, but I have heard the opinion expressed that the transaction\nof public business might be expedited, under certain conditions, if a\nproportion of the federal legislators could be chosen from this class of\npersons.\nIt is possible to teach a child born deaf to speak well, and to understand the speech of others, by observing the motion of their lips. This\nhas been done in many instances in many countries. But the conclusion\noften drawn from such successes, that all deaf children may do likewise,\nis not sustained by experience.\nSuccess in teaching deaf-mutes to speak is a matter of gradation, and,\nin estimating the value of results, enthusiasm and bias on the part of the\nteacher often lead to serious error. A large proportion of deaf children,\nwhose teachers assure them they have acquired the power of speech, and\nwho can use their voices, such as they are, with considerable fluency, are\nconspicuous failures as speakers in the world at large.\nThe utterance of these, understood easily by teachers and intimate\nfriends, is often so muffled or harsh, and so imperfect, as to repel\nstrangers, putting the deaf person at a much greater disadvantage than\nif, remaining silent, he resorted to writing as a means of communication.\nThe testimony of the intelligent, educated deaf-mutes I met in\nEurope last year was unanimous and emphatic on this point, and they\ndeclared most earnestly that the practical value of speech, to many of\ntheir number, when they came to engage in their life work in the world,\nwas greatly overestimated by their teachers.\nThe expression of this view was especially positive in Germany, where\nthe oral method has prevailed exclusively, and where, quite recently, a\npetition, numerously signed by educated deaf persons, has been presented\nto the government, asking that the sign language be made use of in the\nschools of that country, and that instruction under the oral method be\nnot continued with those whose success in speech is only partial.\nTeachers of the deaf in Germany are coming to the support of these\nviews as to methods, altho only a few have dared to express their\nopinions openly.\nBut there is reason to believe that a revolution has begun\n\n"}
{"page": 220, "printed_page": null, "text": "2 IO\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTIONAL\n\nthat will, before long, bring German\n\nASSOC! A TION\n\n[General\n\nschools for the deaf into harmony\n\nwith the great majority of the schools in America, where, happily, a combination of methods is effected, under which the capability of each pupil\nis carefully estimated, and that method employed which will be most\nhelpful to the child.\nThere are teachers of the deaf in the United States who have\nurged, within the past few years, that the language of signs ought not to\nbe used in teaching deaf-mutes, and in a few schools attempts have been\nmade to carry out this idea.\nIt is, indeed, possible to teach deaf children without the use of the\nlanguage of signs in the class-room or the public assembly. But the\ntestimony of great numbers who have been so taught is that their\nintellectual development has been narrowed and retarded by the refusal,\non the part of their teachers, to make use of that language which is\ntheirs by nature.\nMy experience with the deaf and my lifelong familiarity with their\npeculiar language lead me to accept this testimony as the statement of a\ngeneral truth, and to express the hope that the day is not distant when\nthe natural language of the deaf will have its proper place in • every\nschool, as the German deaf-mutes demand, and as many German teachers\nrecommend.\nDid the limitations of the present hour permit, it would be interesting\nto discuss at some length the capabilities of that language of signs, but\nthere is only time for me to call attention to the fact that to the totally\ndeaf lip-reader the speech of others is nothing else than a series of silent\nsigns. To the totally d'eaf the movements of the vocal organs are only\nsigns for words, never the words themselves, so it appears that for the\ndeaf the natural^ — indeed, the only practicable — substitute for the language\nof sound, even under the oral method, is one of signs, visible to the eye,\nunderstood by the mind only thru the power of vision. And when a\nteacher, prohibiting signs of the hand and arm, which are descriptive,\noften presenting graphic pictures of the ideas to be expressed, and which\nare used and loved by the deaf the world over, limits his pupils to the\nrestricted, often minute, and always arbitrary signs made by the mouth in\nspeaking, is he not, by a process neither wise nor kind, narrowing the range\nof the mental vision of his subject from the telescopic to the microscopic ?\nThe denial of the use of the language of signs to the deaf while in\nschools takes away one source of keen enjoyment and valuable instruction\nthey can ill afford to lose, and which cannot be secured to them in any\nother way.\nThis is the giving of lectures and addresses to the whole body of\npupils in a school, or a large assemblage of adults. We who hear know\nwhat pleasure comes from listening to an eloquent, earnest speaker ; how\nthe attention is absorbed and the feelings are stirred.\n\n"}
{"page": 221, "printed_page": null, "text": "f\n\nSessions]\n\nTHE\n\nDEAF\n\nAND\n\nTHEIR\n\nPOSSIBILITIES\n\n211\n\nThere is but one way of imparting this pleasure to the deaf in equal\nforce and measure as it comes to us thru sound. This is by employing the natural, God-given language of the deaf, developed as it has\nbeen in our country thru many years of cultivation and use.\nIn the college it has long been the custom to give the students\nlectures in this language. Not only is this done by the professors, who\nare naturally adepts in the art of gesturing, but frequently eminent men\nwho know not the sign language address our students thru ah interpreter.\nWithin a short time they have had the pleasure and profit of lectures\nfrona General Greely, President Whitman, and Senator Morgan, which\nwould have been impossible had the rule of banishing the language of\nsigns been adopted in the college.\nI am aware that it is claimed for deaf lip-readers that they can attend\nchurch and public lectures and the theater, understanding what is said as\nwell as those do who hear. That a few of the most expert can approximate\nto this, under conditions quite impossible to a considerable number assembled in one place, is not denied. But nothing is more certain than that\nit is impossible for any large proportion of, say, two hundred deaf persons\nassembled in one place to follow understandingly one who attempts to\n'\naddress them orally.\nWith the substitution of the manual alphabet for the language of signs,\nthe conditions are, perhaps, somewhat improved, as compared with those\njust described. But the eye strain is so much greater, the radius of vision\nso much smaller, and the power of expression so much restricted and\ndiminished that the advantage lies greatly with the employment of the\nlanguage of signs.\nThinking that the question may arise in the minds of some, \"Does\nthe sign language give the deaf, when used in public addresses, all that\nspeech affords to the hearing?\" I will say that my experience and observation lead me to answer with a decided affirmative. On occasions\nalmost without number it has been my privilege to interpret, thru signs\nto the deaf, addresses given in speech ; I have addressed hundreds of\nassemblages of deaf persons in the college, in schools I have visited, and\nelsewhere, using signs for the original expression of thought ; I have seen\nmany more lectures and public debates given originally in signs ; I have\nseen conventions of deaf-mutes in which no word was spoken, and yet all\nthe forms of parliamentary proceedings were observed, and the most\nearnest, and even excited, discussions were carried on ; I have seen the\nordinances of religion administered, and the full services of the church\nrendered in signs ; and all this with the assurance growing out of my own\ncomplete understanding of the language — a knowledge which dates from\nmy earliest childhood — that for all the purposes above enumerated gestural expression is in no respect inferior, and is in many respects superior,\nto oral, verbal utterance as a means of communicating ideas.\n\n"}
{"page": 222, "printed_page": null, "text": "212\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nBefore turning to another subject, I wish to say to the friends of any\ndeaf persons whose teachers, in their zeal to give them the power of\nspeech, may have rejected the language of signs as a means of instruction,\nand may have advised their pupils never to learn nor to use it in a vain\nambition to make them \"just like hearing people,\" that by such a course\nthey have subjected them to a lifelong deprivation which can hardly be\nmeasured ; the cruelty of which remains in spite of the fact that it was\nintended as a kindness.\nIn closing this brief consideration of the deaf and their possibilities,\ntime only remains to speak in some detail of the methods used in the\neducation of this class of persons, and to show, if possible, which methods,\nor what combination of methods, deserve the favor and support of the\ncommunity.\nThere are three quite distinct methods in general use at the present\ntime : the manual, the oral, and the auricular, which I have named in\nthe order of their adaptability. That is to say, all deaf-mutes can be educated by.the manual method, less than all by the oral, and only a small\nproportion by the auricular.\nThe last named, as will be easily understood, is employed only with\nthose who have more or less hearing. Hearing tubes and other appli^\nances for helping defective audition are made use of. In the seating of\na class, those with the most hearing are placed farthest from the teacher.\nChildren who possess sufficient hearing to be educated under this method\nhave either had the power of speech before becoming deaf, or acquire\nit easily thru the aid of their hearing.\nSuch children, after a reasonable term in school, cease to be deafmutes in any sense, and should be enumerated in the census as persons\n\"hard of hearing.\"\nUnder the manual method no attempt is made to impart the power of\nspeech to those who lack it, but thru the aid of the language of signs,\nthe manual alphabet, and writing, the intelligence of the children is awakened and developed, and a full command of verbal language is given, the\nability to use text-books is acquired, and the door is opened to as complete a grasp of the curriculum of school and college as is possible to\nchildren and youth in the possession of all their faculties.\nAll the deaf, without exception, maybe educated by this method, the only\nlimitations being their lack of purpose and industry, or of mental capacity.\nThere are teachers of the deaf who do not hesitate to claim that all\nthe deaf may be educated under the oral method.\n\nFrom remarks made\n\nnear the opening of this paper you will have understood that my experience makes it impossible for me to admit the justice of this claim.\nNo question connected with the education of the deaf has received\nmore careful or prolonged investigation at my hands than this. And the\nreason why zealous and enthusiastic teachers are misled is not far to seek.\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 223, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nDEAF\n\nAND\n\nTHEIR\n\nPOSSIBILITIES\n\n213\n\nRepeatedly, in visiting oral schools and oral classes, I have asked that\nall the pupils in a class be allowed to read aloud to me from a book with\nwhich they were familiar, but of the contents of which I was ignorant.\nSuch tests have invariably disclosed the following conditions : Certain of the children I would understand fully, others only partially, and\nwith quite a proportion not a single word that was uttered. At my report\non these last the teacher would express great surprise, and say, \"Why, I\nunderstood every word,\" quite oblivious of the fact that the daily intercourse of the class-room gave a meaning to what to a stranger was gibberish. The proportion of children, in an oral school where all classes of the\ndeaf are received, who would be stamped as failures under such a simple\ntest as I have described is by no means small. And to these must be\nadded others whose failures would be less marked, but whose success\nwould be so limited as to suggest plainly the inadequacy of the methods\npursued.\nIn determining, then, the matter of methods, shall it be said that\nbecause only a small portion are capable of success under the auricular\nmethod, and a larger portion under the oral, these two methods should\nbe abandoned and the manual alone employed, because under it alone\n•all the deaf can be educated ?\nSurely this course would be far from wise; and happily a solution has\nbeen reached in the leading schools of our country which is at once\nscientific, practical, and in harmony with sound principles of pedagogy.\nThe capabilities of each child are carefully tested — often by prolonged trial — and that method applied which is suited to the peculiarities of each case.\nIf an amount of hearing is found above a certain minimum, the child\nis taught by the auricular method. If promising success in speech is\ngained, the oral method is chosen ; and where such success is not attained,\nthe manual method is resorted to. By this process, in a large school, the\ncapacity and lack thereof of every child may be considered — and humanely\nmet — and a system of education carried forward, broader than any\nsingle method, and infinitely more elastic.\nThis combination of methods is known in the terms of our professional vocabulary as the \"combined system,\" and at this time ninetenths of the deaf children of the country are being educated thereunder.\nIn the light of present experience, a school for the deaf which limits\nitself to the employment of a single method must be regarded as inadequately equipped for doing the work that may properly be demanded\nof it.\nThis is the severe but just criticism brought against the German\nschools, as a whole, by eight hundred of their graduates in their petition\nto the emperor for reform.\n\n"}
{"page": 224, "printed_page": null, "text": "214\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nNo success in individual cases, nor in schools of selected pupils ; no\nenthusiasm of well-meaning teachers, nor of others less honest, should\nbe allowed to mislead the public, as it has often done in this matter.\nLest the language just used should seem to some unwarranted, and therefore unfair, I will give a recently published utterance from one of the\nmost prominent instructors in Germany, Edward Walther, director of the\nImperial Institution at Berlin.\nTho a supporter of the oral method, Mr. Walther makes no\nextravagant claims for its results, and has only words of condemnation\nfor those who do.\n\" Since it is hardly possible,\" he says, \" that they deceive themselves,\ntheir object must be to deceive others.\" In that deception he, as an\nhonest man, will have no part. \"We must openly and candidly confess,\" he continues, \"that all we can do is imperfect work. What liature\nhas lavishly bestowed on the hearing person we cannot give to the deafmute. We cannot bestow on him a power of speech which, in clearness,\neuphony^ and extent, approaches that of hearing persons. We cannot\ngive him a means of understanding the speech of others which is anything more than a meager substitute for hearing.\"\nAnd this is from the highest possible authority among living German\noralists.\nThe deaf are not of uniform and equal capacity. No hard and fast\nrule can be laid down under which they are all to be educated or fail of\nsecuring an education.\nEach of the methods, once bitterly opposed, has its advantages and\nits superior merits for certain cases.\nIf the public will accept the judgment of the very large majority of\nexperienced instructors in our country, as expressed in the policy of the\nschools in which nearly all the deaf children of the country are being\neducated at this time, there will soon be no single-method schools remaining to excite hopes that must be disappointed, wasting time in vain efforts\nto realize the unattainable. And it is no idle boast to say that the system prevailing generally in the schools of. the United States for the deaf\ntoday gives far more satisfactory results, and affords the pupils more\nadvanced and better training, than are secured in any other country.\n\nEDUCATION\nBY\n\nJOHN\n\nEATON,\n\nAND\n\nGOLD\n\nEX-UNITED\nSTATES\nWASHINGTON,\n\nIN ALASKA\n\nCOMMISSIONER\nD. C. .\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION,\n\nThe story of the relation of gold to education in Alaska is full of\nlessons for the statesman and citizen.\nWe cherish our free institutions ;\n\ni\n\n"}
{"page": 225, "printed_page": null, "text": "r\n\nSessions]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nAND\n\nGOLD\n\nIN ALASKA\n\n215\n\nwe prize them so highly that we are ready to lay down our lives in their\ndefense ; we are all saying on the Fourth of July and other occasions\nhow glorious they are, and how necessary education is to their preservation ;indeed, education is so essential that we boast of it by no means\nthe least. We are ready to exclaim : \"Are we dogs, that we should sell\nour freedom or our education upon which that freedom depends ? \"\nWhat are the facts with reference to Alaska ? It should be recalled that,\nwhen we received that vast domain from Russia, we put it in a solemn\ncontract that Russian citizens who came with the country should have the\nfull enjoyment of our free institutions, and we claim none of them is\nmore important than our education. Moreover, we promised proper\ntreatment of all other persons. Let us see. From the purchase of Alaska\nat a cost of ^7, 200,000 in 1867 until the rush for gold there thirty years\nlater, 1897, it has been, in the main, disparagingly characterized as Mr.\nSeward's iceberg; a large one, indeed, containing 580,107 square miles,\nor nearly one-sixth as much as that of the whole of the remainder of the\nUnited States, measuring, on direct lines, 1,100 miles north and south, and\n800 east and west, with a coast line, as estimated, of 18,211 miles, with\nislands having of themselves an area of 31,205 square miles. The\nAleutian islands extend 1,500 miles into the Pacific ocean, or to a meridian considerably west of Hawaii ; many of these islands being mountainous; one of them, Unimak, rising to the height of 8,955 ^^^t. Along\nthe southeast coast there is the archipelago, with 1,100 islands. This\nsoutheastern section is heavily timbered, grows many plants useful in\nhuman economy, especially hardy grasses, roots, and berries, and has a\nlarge rainfall ; while on the Yukon there is not more than thirteen inches,\nat Sitka the rainfall varies from sixty to ninety inches a year, and there is\nan average temperature in winter of thirty-one degrees, in summer of\nfifty-five degrees; on the Yukon the thermometer rises to 112 degrees in\nthe summer, and goes down to sixty-eight below zero in the winter. This\nregion is especially rich in fisheries, lumber, and minerals ; while north\nof the valley of the Yukon the region is little explored, and is mainly\nregarded as a great expanse of ice and snow.\nIn a large portion of the country the usual conditions prevail common\nto arctic regions. The depth to which the earth is frozen is not known.\nIndeed, on the Yukon, where much of the mining is done, and where the\nsurface thaws out at such a depth under extreme summer heat that potatoes, turnips, and cabbages are grown with success, the earth is known to\nbe frozen to the depth of thirty or forty feet. When the country was\ntransferred to our flag, the Russians, who for a century had been busy\ncultivating trade with the natives, establishing here and there a Greek\nchurch, and making very limited efforts in the way of education, began\nto withdraw. Americans slowly took their places. An American commercial company soon contracted with the United States for the right to\n\n"}
{"page": 226, "printed_page": null, "text": "2l6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nkill seals on the Pribolof islands, in a few years paying into the\ntreasury all that Alaska had cost. This company carefully regarded the\nterms of this contract, one of which was the supply of a school on each\nof these barren islands for the natives.\nThe population was variously reported from 30,000 to 70,000. No\nexact census has yet been taken. In that of 1890 a total population was\nreported of 32,052, of whom 4,298 were whites, 1,823 mixed, 23,531\nIndians, and 2,288 Mongolians. A more common division of the population is white, Indian, and Eskimo. Professor W. H. Dall, the best\nauthority on the subject, speaks of the natives as (i) Indians; these he\ndivides into two classes : (a) the Kolosh, or bad Indians, inhabiting the\nregion about Sitka ; (/5) those of the Chippewayan type, found north as\nfar as the Arctic circle. (2) The Eskimos; these he divided also into\ntwo classes : {a) the Inuits, who occupy a very large portion of the coast,\nand who compare favorably with the natives of Greenland ; (3) the Aleuts,\noccupying the Aleutian islands. These he describes as making good\nmechanics, carvers, and domestic servants, and mentions one named\nCaden, at Sitka in 1848, as drawing and engraving in copper some of the\nbest charts of Alaska. The Greek church had established numerous\nchapels and baptized many natives, but this had produced little effect on\nthe character of the people. Those who had come in contact with the\ntraders had been greatly injured by the vices which they had thereby\nacquired.\nAfter our occupation of the country a small military force was stationed there for a short time, but the natives were so peaceful it was withdrawn, and all the indications of the authority of the United States were\nthe presence of a collector of revenue, an occasional visit of the revenue\nmarine, and the mail.\nThe educators of the country may congratulate themselves that after\n1870 they did not share in this neglect without protest (the Bureau of\nEducation was established in 1867 by their urgency; the eminent educator, Hon. E. E. White, who speaks this evening from another platform,\nbeing chairman of the committee for the expression of their demand).\nThat bureau being the medium of their opinions, in 1870 its report called\nattention to this neglect. All the great departments and other bureaus\nwere silent. Year after year the annual report on education told something of the facts. In one it declared that \"Alaska lies entirely outside\nof all organized efforts for education, and presents the singular fact of\nbeing an integral part of the best nation in the world, and yet without the\nleast provision to save its children from growing up in the grossest ignorance\nand barbarism ; \" and another, quoting Professor Dall, said : \" There is no\ncivil government; no redress for injury; no protection for whites or\nnatives; no legal authority for settlement; no punishment for crime.\"\nDuring this period the bureau was also specially indebted for information\n\n"}
{"page": 227, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nAND\n\nGOLD\n\nIN ALASKA\n\n217\n\nto Rev. W. H. Atkinson, D.D., of Portland, Ore. It may be mentioned\nthat a gentleman called and warned the bureau to stop publishing about\nAlaska, threatening that, if it continued, its appropriation would be cut\noff. At Sitka, a case of disorder occurring in the absence of the revenue\ncutter doing police duty on the coast, the people, in a moment of fear,\nappealed for help to the officer of an English vessel that happened to be\nlying in the harbor. This humiliating incident was sufficient to attract\nthe attention of some who had been indifferent.\nIt is true that the Forty-first Congress appropriated $100,000 for\nindustrial and other schools among Indian tribes not otherwise provided\nfor. It was thought by the Board of Indian Commissioners, whose attention had been specially called to the neglected condition of the natives\nof Alaska, that at least a portion of this sum might be expended for the\nestablishment of schools among them ; but in considering the proposition it was feared that doing this would establish in Alaska the Indian\npolicy. Here was a peculiar difficulty. The natives of Alaska gave the\ngovernment no trouble and occasioned no expense. The introduction\nof the Indian policy would lead to the establishment of reservations, the\nconsequent idleness, lack of self-respect, demoralization, and ultimate\ndisturbances and conflicts, up to that date so common among our\nuntaught and abused aborigines. The Bureau of Education, therefore,\ndid its utmost to introduce education, which was all the aid the people\nneeded, and to co-operate with the purpose to prevent the subjection of\nthe Alaskans to the fatal evils of the tribal and reservation policy, and the\n5100,000 were wasted, as were millions annually, either feeding or fighting Indians, until reforms were introduced by General Grant. In the\nsummer of 1877 Rev. Sheldon Jackson, D.D., who had for nearly twenty\nyears been an untiring synodical missionary of the Presbyterian church,\nestablishing schools and churches in the vast region west of the Mississippi between Canada and Mexico, visited Alaska, and placed Mrs. A. R.\nMcFarland in charge of a school commenced by the natives themselves\nat Fort Wrangell, and proposed to locate Mr. J. G. Brady the next year\nat Sitka. From this time forward Dr. Jackson became the most efficient\ncoadjutor of fhe bureau in the interest of Alaska. In his statement to the\nCommissioner of Education he called attention to the fact that Alaskans\nare far in advance of the blanketed Indians of Dakota — in the north residing in permanent underground houses, in the south having large plank\nhouses above ground and adopting in some measure European dress.\nHe emphasized specially several facts : first, parents selling their daughters for purposes of prostitution ; second, witchcraft, in the practice of\nwhich many persons were tortured to death; third, neither law nor courts\nhad extended to Alaska; fourth, ignorant and degraded as the people\nare, they are self-supporting, and need only schools and guidance in\nimproving their industries and employing the arts and customs of civilized\n\n"}
{"page": 228, "printed_page": null, "text": "2l8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nlife; fifth, there is no necessity for recognizing tribal relations, which\nhave been so injurious among our Indians. By the aid of the bureau Dr.\nJackson was able to bring his views to the attention of educators. He\naddressed educational conventions ; one of those, on education in Alaska,\ncontained in a circular of the bureau, was distributed in answer to\ndemands to the number of 80,000 copies. Educators and other intelligent citizens petitioned and conventions memorialized Congress and\nseconded his efforts. He called the attention of the churches of the\ndifferent Christian denominations, Catholic and Protestant, to the situation, and suggested their dividing the territory so as to supply schools\nas widely as possible without interfering with each other's work. They\nresponded heartily. Every effort thus made revealed the needs of the\npeople, and brought evidence of their desire and capacity for education.\nIn his effort to awaken interest and secure action Dr. Jackson went before\nthe committees of the Forty-sixth, Forty-seventh, and Forty-eighth Congresses. The awakened interest in Alaska was declared due to him more\nthan to any other man. The secretary of the interior and the president\nindorsed the urgency of the Commissioner of Education, who added to\nhis reports personal appeals to congressmen ; but no action was taken by\nthe government until Hon. Benjamin Harrison became United States\nsenator and took his place in the committee on territories, and the facts\nwepe called to his attention. He could not be bribed, nor deceived, nor\nthe edge of his apprehension be turned. It was objected the natives were\ntaking care of themselves and needed no legislation. There were those\nwho did not see how laws could be enacted or their administration carried on in a territory geographically separated from us. In their minds\nthere were grave constitutional difificulties. Legislation would inaugurate\na new policy threatening the destruction of our cherished liberties. A\ncarefully prepared bill for the extension of law over Alaska was presented,\nand Senator Harrison did not abate his support until it became a law;\nand thus, after seventeen years of neglect, the income from the rental of\nthe seal islands having more than paid the purchase money, Alaska was\norganized into a district. The opposition defeated some of the most\nbeneficent features of the bill, but it provided for schools-^$25,ooo was\nappropriated for their establishment, and the Commissioner of Education\nwas ordered to organize them. In April, 1885, with the approval of the\nsecretary of the interior, he appointed Dr. Sheldon Jackson general\nagent of education, who at once proceeded to employ teachers, erect\nbuildings, and furnish supplies. Schools were opened at the most important and accessible points- — some of them so far away that they can be\ncommunicated with only once a year. What the natives have of advantage in their hereditary adaptation to climate and in their rude skill has\na value. Careful instructions were issued to the teachers, in teaching\nletters and industry, to take special care to guide the people in taking on\n\n"}
{"page": 229, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nAND\n\nGOLD\n\nIN ALASKA\n\n219\n\nthe new life so as to lose no advantage from the past. With an agent\nless untiring, resourceful, courageous, and faithful, the schools might\nhave halted ; but they are today going bravely on under the wise direction of our able and efficient Commissioner, overcoming every obstacle\nbut the lack of appropriations. The last report gives twenty day schools,\ntwenty-three teachers, and 1,267 pupils in government schools, and about\nas many in attendance in mission schools, or in all some 2,500 pupils. •\nThe natives, in the main, live in villages in the winter and scatter out\nfor fishing and hunting in the summer. As yet there has not been money\nto try the adaptation to their necessities of ambulatory schools, common\nin the north of Europe. It would be instructive, in the diverse conditions under which the schools are conducted, to visit the teachers in these\nremote regions, sometimes from one year's end to the other without the\nsight of another white person, in the midst of their little communities.\nTheir houses and the dress of teachers and pupils are adapted to the rigor\nof the climate. After the autumn begins, the cold grows greater and\nthe days grow shorter, according to the latitude, until the sun is seen but\nlittle, or not at all, or the reverse, as the summer draws near. Not a little\nis done by private aid to increase the facilities furnished by the government appropriations. Already Christian family life and the industries of\ncivilizations are having their influence. The instruction of the natives in\nEnglish has enabled them to be more useful in all their intercourse with\nthe whites, whether in fishing, packing, mining, or trading, and more\nwisely to adapt themselves to all new conditions, as is confirmed by much\ninteresting testimony. Hon. J. G. Brady, the excellent governor, in his\nreport declares : \" It is safe to say that no work under the care of any\ndepartment of the government has been more fruitful of good results\nthan the labor of this bureau in Alaska.\"\nThe introduction and conduct of schools in Alaska have not been\nwithout peril to agents of education and to the teachers. Mr. C. H.\nEdwards was killed by smugglers in 1892 ; Mr. H. R. Thornton was\nkilled by Eskimo desperadoes in 1893; John Torgerson was drowned in\n1885, S. A. Saxman and Louis Paul in 1886; Mr. and Mrs, V. C. Gamble\nand Mr. and Mrs. E. L. Weber were lost at sea in 1898.\nWho has not heard of the community on Annette island, in southeast Alaska, that has accepted Christian civilization under the guidance\nof William Duncan, an English layman ? They built their first village\nin Canada, but, Canadian ecclesiastical and civil authorities interfering\nwith their plans, they sought a home under the American flag, and\nCongress granted them Annette island, when they left behind them\nhouses and all their possessions but what they could carry in their hands.\nFortunately, Hon. H. R. N. Dawson, then Commissioner of Education,\non his visit to Alaska was present to welcome them at their landing on\nAmerican soil and rearing of the American\nflag. By their industry,\n\n"}
{"page": 230, "printed_page": null, "text": "220\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nthey now have a village of one thousand souls, living apart in families in\nseparate houses of their own building, with profitable industries, townhouse, schoolhouse, and church. Their village has a water supply piped\nto it from a distant height; they have a system of police and courts of\ntheir own ; no intoxicating liquors are allowed, and they furnish a conspicuous example of the possibilities of the Infiian when separated from\nthe vices of civilization and controlled by the principles of Christianity.\nThe only aid they have received from our government is the support\nof their school furnished by the Commissioner of Education.\nIn 1890 Dr. Jackson, in his visit to arctic Alaska for the establishment of schools, found the Eskimo population slowly dying off with\nstarvation. The natives, without the necessary forethought in the use of\nnew implements of fishing and hunting, and other new conditions, had\ntoo rapidly killed off their food supply by land and water ; restocking\neither land or water was out of the question. Siberians, just across the\nway, found an unfailing food supply in herds of domestic reindeer.\nAlaska had an abundance of the moss, their proper food. Dr. Jackson\nsaw the solution of the situation in the education of Alaskans in the\nraising, management,\n\nand use of domestic reindeer. He appealed to\n\nCongress, but there was no response. Many asked: \" What have reindeer\nto do with education ? \" Several friendly editors aided him in securing\n^2,146 for the experiment. Immediately there were those who saw\ninsurmountable difficulties. Siberians were declared to be extremely\nignorant and superstitious, and would not sell the reindeer on whom they\nwere so dependent. It was declared interpreters could not be had;\nbesides, the deer were very sensitive and would die rather than be transported to Alaska. The whole proceeding was under the direction of the\nCommissioner of Education. The secretary of the treasury, in sympathy\nwith the movement, instructed Captain Healy of the \"Bear,\" the revenue\ncutter charged with policing that section, to co-operate. Appropriate\narticles to barter for the deer were procured ; Siberia was visited ; there\nwas no difficulty in purchasing the reindeer or in their transportation ;\nand, there being lack of money for their herding during the approaching\nwinter, the deer were landed on Amaknaks island, in the harbor of\nUnalaska, and left to take care of themselves. Dr. Jackson, returning, by\nthe direction of the Commissioner of Education, with the \"Bear\" in the\nspring, found them alive and thrifty. Hon. Henry M. Teller and others\ntook special interest in these efforts. The success of the experiment was\nso complete that a small appropriation was made by Congress, and in 1892\n171 reindeer were purchased and landed at Port Clarence, and the training of the natives in their raising, management, and use commenced.\nBut the Siberians employed were extremely ignorant ; better teachers\nwere needed. These were abundant among the Laplanders in northern\nEurope, where the raising of reindeer is as well understood as the raising\n\n"}
{"page": 231, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nAND\n\nGOLD\n\nIN ALASKA\n\n221\n\nof cattle and sheep among Americans; but there were no public funds for\nthe emergency. Dr. Jackson advanced the necessary money. Mr.\nWilliam A. Kjelmann, who had immigrated to Madison, Wis., and was\na master of the business, was employed as agent to visit Norway and\nsecure herders, and from that day to this the enterprise has gone successfully forward under the direction of the Commissioner of Education,\nillustrating at every step its importance in the instruction of Eskimos in\nthe new industries necessary to their existence. They easily learn all\nthat is required of herders, and the reindeer's skins and entrails furnish\nthem clothing ; the meat and milk, food ; the horns and bones, implements, and the trained deer, the best means of transportation.\nThe deer at stations and schools, according to the last report, had\nincreased to the number of 1,466; by a wise distribution of schools, as\nthe natives are educated to be herders, and to families, as they are able to\nearn them, they will soon furnish the food supply needed for the new\norder of life.\nDogs, much used for traveling by explorers, must expend much of\ntheir strength in carrying their supply of food ; whereas the deer are not\nonly better adapted to the climate, but have no need to carry food, as\nthey find it in the moss where they go. Thus the deer will soon take\nthe place the horse occupies with us in traveling, freighting, and carrying\nthe mail. In this way education may be expected to supply the food\nand clothing needful for the support of the people, and the means of\ntransportation which will bring the most remote arctic regions into\ncommunication with the world.\n'\nBy degrees, in the interest of trade, exploration, and science, tlie\nrevenue service and mails have been extended, and different departments\nand bureaus have become active in finding out and reporting what there\nis in Alaska, and furnishing a large amount of literature giving information in. regard to its harbors, rivers, and fish ; its climate', soil, forests, and\nminerals; indeed, all conditions of interest to the public. But the rush,\nfor gold in the last ei^teen months has done more than all else to make\nthe names of its harbors, rivers, passes, household words the world over.\nGold there has been known to the natives time without date, and for\nyears to traders and missionaries. Placer mining for several years has\nbeen prosecuted with success, while on Douglass island, opposite Sitka,\nstamp-mills among the largest in the world have been turning out their\nmillions. The great yield from placer mining on the Klondike, over\nthe line in Canada, waked up adventurers in every quarter. Gold dustis found in the bed of almost every stream, pointing to large deposits in\nthe mountains. Explorations do not warrant the fixing of the limits of\nthis supply. Should $20,000,000, as estimated, be brought out this\nseason, this generation will not see the supply exhausted. Moreover,\nthe coal and other sources of wealth will awaken new industries ; the\n\n"}
{"page": 232, "printed_page": null, "text": "222\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nconditions of permanent settlement will be devised. It remains to be\nseen whether the rush for that section, united with the wisdom which has\nso far directed education, will secure the needed appropriation for schools\nand the legislation required for the proper protection to persons and\nproperty.\nIt is well known that we all have great satisfaction in the improve-'\nments in our Indian service, and have only words of commendation for\nthe ofificers in charge. But you will not expect me to dismiss this subject\nwithout pointing to the results of the policy of introducing education for\nAlaskans and opposing the introduction of our so-called Indian policy.\nOur Indians number, approximately, 300,000. For the administration of\ntheir affairs there are still required a separate bureau, and a large corps of\nclerks and other officers, and a total appropriation of $7,189,486.79, of\nwhich, under the improved policy, we are happy to say, $2,517,265 is\nfor schools. For Alaska an outline or skeleton of a government is maintained for whites and natives at moderate cost — I have not the exact\nfigures ; but the annual appropriations to be expended under the Bureau\nof Education in Alaska for schools were $30,000 ; for the introduction of\nreindeer, $12,500, or a total of $42,500. This was administered by the\nCommissioner of Education, with the addition to his office of only Dr.\nSheldon Jackon, general agent of education, and Mr. William Hamilton,\nthe assistant ; and this, it should be remembered, includes schools for\nwhites as well as the natives. I need not extend the comparison ; the\ndifference between the two policies is sufficiently apparent.\nThe facts connected with the story of education and gold in Alaska\nleave no doubt that legislation and administration by the United States can\nbe made effective in territory separated from them geographically, or that\nthe Bureau of Education is the efficient agency for the administration of\neducation in those remote regions where the population is not prepared to\ndirect its own education. They emphasize the fact that the interest of\nthe teacher should not be confined to the instruction of the young minds\nbefore him in the schoolroom in the three R's,but that his thoughts\nshould go out to the duties of the citizen and include not a little of\nstatesmanship. His intelligence increases his responsibility for the things\nbeyond, and he should give the public the benefit of his larger patriotic\napprehensions, and these need not in any sense be partisan. The united\njudgment of the 300,000 and more teachers in our land need not be in\nvain, and should be voiced in the support of schools in the remotest hamlets of our vast domain. Had the wisdom of their experience been earlier\napplied to the education of the Indian, how much sooner our honor would\nhave taken the place of our shame ! Slowly we have come to understand\nthe methods of elevating degraded races and submerged populations.\nThe Bureau of Education, focusing the experience in education not\nonly of America, but of the world, and according to its means distribut-\n\nJ\n\n"}
{"page": 233, "printed_page": null, "text": "SessionsJ\n\nLESSOAS\n\nFROM\n\nAMERICAN\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nHISTORY\n\n223\n\ning it for the benefit of the remotest and humblest efforts of all teachers,\nshould have their united, vigilant, and hearty support. Today their\nimmediate attention is demanded to the supply by the government of a\nhome for its library, museum, and the prosecution of its work now conducted in inadequate and inappropriate quarters, but conducted so faithfully and efficiently by Hon. W. T. Harris, our practical and philosophical Commissioner.\nNeither the search for gold nor the profits of trade primarily prepared\nthe Hawaiian islands to come to us with ideas, customs, and institutions\nso in accord with our own as to shock neither themselves nor us ; but\neducation. Christian education, which led them forward in that course of\ncivilization which enables them to report an attendance upon schools of\n96.20 per cent, of those who are between the ages of six and fifteen. No\nlanguage but English is now taught in public schools. The air is full of\npromises of our future. If our responsibility for other and less intelligent people is to be increased, let us make haste to turn into intelligent\nand virtuous citizens the millions of our illiterates who share equally with\nthe most intelligent the suffrage upon which depend the conduct of our\nhome affairs, the preservation of our free institutions. If American citizenship fails, then we shall invoke in vain the patriotism and heroism of\nour noble navy and army just now commanding the deserved applause\nof the waiting world.\n\nLESSONS\n\n.FROM\n\nAMERICAN\n\nBY\n\nA.\n\nREV.\n\nD.\n\nMAYO,\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nLL.D.,\n\nBOSTON,\n\nHISTORY\n\nMASS.\n\nA careful study of the educational history of the American people,\nfrom the earliest colonial period until the present year, in connection\nwith its environment in the origin and religious, social, industrial, and\npolitical characteristics of the different elements of our cosmopolitan\npopulation, will reveal several very distinct conclusions, which have not\nattracted the attention of our historical writers as often as their great\nimportance demands.\nI. The American common school is the most original and characteristic development of our American civilization. It was, indeed, the first\nattempt on record of a people to educate itself toward a republican order\nof society and government. The people of the colonies of Massachusetts\nbay, Connecticut, and New Haven struck the keynote of American civilization inthe fundamental idea of a primary and supreme personal allegiance to Almighty God and obedience to his law which underlay every\nobligation to king, priest, and social order; the higher law which super-\n\n"}
{"page": 234, "printed_page": null, "text": "2 24\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nsedes every statute and order of affairs that stands between man and his\nmaker. In that rock-bound, barren, and unlovely soil of the New England theocracy was rooted the mighty tree of liberty that was \"for the\nhealing of the nations.\" The church and the school over which they\nhad supreme control, and, as far as possible, the unique state which they\nbuilt in the wilderness, were the direct creation of the responsible\npeople; established, supported, and administered by themselves, in conformity with what they understood to be the will of the Most High.\nThis idea was the most valuable contribution of New England to the\nnational life. For this reason the people of these colonies, not being\ndistracted by the contentions of a cosmopolitan population and conflicting religious sects, were able to keep on the ground the colonial form\nof the common school during the 150 years from their settlement till the\nfoundation of the union. As their population became more varied and\ndivided into the various religious sects, the same fundamental idea\nenabled them to meet and dispose of the successive questions that came\nup in the administration of public education during the first half century of the national life, until the period of the great revival and reorganization ofthe American common school, from 1830 to i860. During\nthese momentous years, under the leadership of Horace Mann, Henry\nBarnard, and a group of coworkers only less able and devoted, the\noriginal common school of New England was established, essentially in\nits present form, in every northern state of the union, from the country\ndistrict school to the state university. Since the close of the Civil War\nthe American system has been established in every state of the South and\nevery territory of the union.\nThe soul of this vast and beneficient organization is the idea that the\nresponsible people of a state have the right, and are bound by the obligation, to educate the coming generation for the American citizenship that\nis the world's highest position and holds within itself the reserved authority to do any and every thing which the whole responsible people,\nacting thru a flexible majority that involves the possibility of all needful\nexpansion and reform, may determine as in accord with the law of God\nand the providential order of human society.\n2. The American common school, as now established, has been built\nup by the whole people of the United States, under the leadership of the\neducational public of every state. That educational public is formed by\nthe union and co-operation of all sorts and conditions of people who\nbelieve in the fundamental American idea of universal education and propose to organize that idea into the innermost life of the republic. In\ndoing this it has used, and still uses, the professional educators of various\ndegrees, the clergy and the church, the politicians and statesmen and the\ngreat political parties, the press and literature, the accumulated wealth of\nthe nation, and all the agencies of civic and social reform in manners\n\n"}
{"page": 235, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nLESSONS\n\nFROM\n\nAMERICAN\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nHISTORY\n\n225\n\nand morals. But it has not been indebted to any one of these agencies\nand institutions for its great achievement. Indeed, at different stages of\nthe development of the common school, all these powerful agencies and\ninstitutions have been encountered in opposition. But each has been\novercome, reconciled, or set aside, in the irresistible march of the people\nto the final victory for the children.\nOne of the most illuminating illustrations of this fact has been the\nhistory of the Peabody Educational Fund, well named by its giver,\nGeorge Peabody, \"a gift to the suffering South for the good of the\nunion.\" George Peabody was himself the product of the district common school of New England, in the early years of the republic. The\npresident of the board of management, Hon. Robert C. Winthrop, as\nchairman of the joint committee on education in the Massachusetts\nlegislature of 1837, drafted the law that established the state board of\neducation, of which Horace Mann was the first secretary. As president\nof the Peabody board, Mr. Winthrop called Dr. Barnas Sears, the second\nsecretary of the Massachusetts board of education and immediate successor of Horace Mann, and Dr. J. L. M. Curry, a member of the\nlegislative committee that drafted the first law establishing a commonschool system in the state of Alabama, in succession, to the general\nagency of the board ; and Dr. Eben Stearns, principal of the first American state normal school, and Dr. William H. Payne, professor of pedagogics in the State University of Michigan, to the presidency of the\nPeabody Normal College in Nashville, Tenn. Of the gentlemen who, at\ndifferent times during the past thirty years, have served as members of\nthe Board of Peabody Directors — the most distinguished body of men\nthat ever took counsel together concerning the education of 20,000,000\npeople — only one member, save the two agents and two presidents of\nthe Peabody Normal College, has been a professional educator — -President\nDaniel C. Gilman of Johns Hopkins University, himself trained in the\nadministration of the common schools of Connecticut. No body of\nprofessional educators representing all sections of the country in 1867\ncould have arrived at any practical agreement for the disposal of this\ngreat gift of $2,000,000. But this group of men, representing the highest ability and experience in public affairs, in accordance with the feeling\nof George Peabody, under the leadership of Robert C. Winthrop, General Ulysses S. Grant, and Barnas Sears, came to the unanimous decision\nto use the fund for the first establishment of the American common school,\nin its completeness, in the sixteen states where it could never have been\nestablished for all orders of people during the years before. Never since\nthe world was made has $2,000,000, the income of the Peabody Fund\nin thirty years, been so wisely applied, with such abundant results. The\nboard has done wisely in not distributing the original fund ; and it\nwill score another success in educational statesmanship by inaugurating\n\n"}
{"page": 236, "printed_page": null, "text": "2 26\n\n■ NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\na movement to add another million in honor of Robert C. Winthrop, chief\namong the educational statesmen of the reconstructed republic.\n3. The American common school has grown, from the beginning, by\nthe acceptance, adaptation, and assimilation to itself of many valuable elements of good school-keeping from all ages and every land. But it has\nnever permanently adopted or retained any element that conflicted with\nits own fundamental idea. It has steadily outgrown the European educational ideas and habits brought to the country by the successive groups\nof original colonists and later immigrants from all quarters of the world.\nAnd whatever innovations may have been attempted by individuals or\nparties of scholars, educators, ecclesiastics, public reformers, or publicists,\nwho, from time to time, have attempted to become its leaders, the people,\nas fast as they have become really assimilated to the national order of\nsociety and government, have refused to follow any anti-American leadership, and, from their own ranks, have elected guides and administrators,\nunder whose direction they have fallen into line with the American idea\nof universal education.\nThis is one of the most significant lessons of the educational history\nof the United States — the wonderful insight and pertinacity with which\nthe people of every American state have worked upward toward the\nAmerican idea of the common school, often thru conflicts and complications that threatened its destruction, to its final assimilation to the\ninnermost life of the commonwealth. The record of the development\nof the common school in the state of Louisiana is, in itself, one of the\nthrilling historical romances of this, the romance land of the republic.\nAt the organization of the state the idea of universal education was outlined by the state administration in a way more comprehensive than had\nbeen formulated in any American commonwealth. From that day, ninety\nyears ago, till the present year the educational public of the state has\nbeen working toward its fulfillment, against what has often appeared to\nbe insurmountable obstacles — obstinate differences of race and religion\nin its white, with a numerical superiority of its colored, population. But,\na generation ago, the school statute declared that, except where it was an\nactual impossibility, public instruction should be in the English language,\nand that no common-school funds should be appropriated to private\nand ecclesiastical parochial schools. A true record of the common\nschool in the city of New Orleans would be one of the most interesting\nhistorical documents, not only for home use, but for every metropolis in\nChristendom.\nSo will it be to the end. Our young scholars are every year coming\nback to us from abroad, filled with enthusiasm for some excellent feature\nof educational method or administration, or some philosophy of human\nnature or social evolution, announced as an absolutely new departure in\nour national school life.\n\nBut, in due time, the \"fad\" subsides, all that\n\n"}
{"page": 237, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nLESSONS\n\nFROM\n\nAMERIC.iN\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nHISTORY\n\n227\n\nis in the theory conflicting with the ideas and ideals of our republican\norder of society and government goes to its own place, and whatever is\ngood for us is absorbed into the life-blood, bone, and gristle of the American common school.\n4. In education, as in all else relating to the organization of society\nand government, the people of the United States, in building for the\nchildren, have reversed the old-world dogma, which asserts that a people\nis educated from the university downward, by proving that our own\npeople has been educated from the elementary school upward. Of\ncourse, in a general sense, all inspiration toward an uplift in human\naffairs begins in the new light of the thinker or the vision of the saint.\nBut in a work like the training of such a people as ours in the supreme\nart of living and \"working together for good\", in the direction of selfgovernment, the \"sober second thought\" of the many not only supplements but supplies the materials of thought and the inspirations of conscience to the leaders of men. Certain it is that the American system of\nuniversal education, while greatly aided in its development by the leadership of the educated classes, has fought its way up to its present position\noften thru a hand-to-hand conflict with the old-time college and secondary academy during the past 200 years. Today the denominational\nsystem of the secondary and higher schooling of our people, altho\nstill assuming the superior title of \"Christian,\" as opposed to \"secular,\"\neducation, is able to retain its prestige largely as it conforms to and\nco-operates with the people's common school.\nAll the great American universities have emerged upon their final\nupland career of prosperity by the gradual adoption of methods of discipline and instruction, including the entire spirit of their administration,\nwhich, for generations, were repudiated, or appeared in only a few of the\nmore progressive institutions. The state university of today is as certainly\nthe outgrowth and culmination of the people's common school as the\nmagnificent orange groves of California are the offspring of the seed\nplanted in friendly soil.\n5. Finally, the American people, in the development of the American\ncommon school, have solved what has been called the religious question,\nnot only for the schooling of the children, but the entire administration\nin every department of governmental activity. The separation of state\nand church at the beginning of the national life was at the demand of a\npeople educated thru 150 tremendous years in the great university of\nAmerican colonial society. At the beginning every group of European\nimmigrants brought over the European system of what is now known as\nthe church parochial school of their own country. The obstinacy with\nwhich this idea was held by the different ecclesiastical bodies prevented the\nestablishment of any effective system of general instruction for half a century in several of the original Atlantic northern, and was a decisive obstacle\n\n"}
{"page": 238, "printed_page": null, "text": "2 28\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nto the introduction of the common school thru the entire southern,\nstates. The final emancipation of the common school from ecclesiastical\ncontrol was wrought out by the people under the guidance of a masterly\neducational statesmanship. And, in doing this, it has avoided, at once,\nthe ecclesiastical, reactionary policy of England and the extreme secularism of France.\nThe educational public of our country has solved this distracting\nquestion by showing that the new education in its American form — thru\nits fundamental idea of human nature, as revealed in the child ; its expansive ideal of the possibilities of human culture ; its spirit of benevolent\ndiscipline ; its natural method of instruction ; its invitation of woman to\nevery opportunity as student, teacher, and administrator in the common\nschool ; and in its broad and profound conception of the manhood and\nwomanhood essential to good American citizenship — is, in fact, the last\nand highest incarnation and organization of the absolute religion taught\nand lived by the world's great Teacher, as far as it relates to the entire\nrealm of American public affairs. And this idea, never so completely\napprehended and applied as in our own country, will be one of our most\nimportant contributions to the long-delayed, but inevitable and final,\nChristianization of Christendom.\n\nBY\n\nTHE\n\nDUTIES\n\nMISS\n\nSARAH\n\nAND\n\nLOUISE\n\nPRIVILEGES\n\nARNOLD,\n\nSUPERVISOR\n\nOF THE\nOF\n\nSUPERVISOR\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nBOSTON,\n\nMASS.\n\nThe supervisor is an ill-named functionary, and it is due to his title\nthat he fails to be properly appreciated. Under different names, in various\nplaces, he strives to do the work required of him. Director, inspector,\nhead teacher, supervisor, assistant superintendent he may be. Sometimes\nhe is all these and more, under the name of superintendent.\nThe common interpretation of his responsibilities is plainly indicated\nby his titles. He is to direct the work of the schools, to inspect them,\nto lead the teachers, to assist the superintendent, as directed by him. Free\ntranslation of these officers presents him as a formidable creature, who\nshould be pictured as Argus-eyed and many-tongued, well supplied,\nfurthermore, with scepters and rods.\nBut he is no such ogre. He has but one function, to help his fellows.\nHe is set in his place for that purpose alone. Had he a \"given name,\"\nit should be Moses, for he is commanded to lead his people into the\npromised land. Pictured, he should be placed at the head of a troop\nof children, who, trustful and confiding, walk with their teachers hand in\nhand.\n\n"}
{"page": 239, "printed_page": null, "text": "\\\n\nSessions]\n\nSUPERVISOR'S\n\nDUTIES\n\nAND\n\nPKIVILKGES\n\n229\n\nFor the statement of his duties we have not far to seek. They are\nstamped upon the statute books of the school committee in cold lead :\n\"He is to visit the schools as often as practicable.\" He is to \"direct the\ninstruction.\" He is \" to report to the superintendent or committee his\nestimate of the teachers.\" It is our province this morning to consider\nthese duties and the manner in which they are fulfilled.\nHe \"visits the schools as often as practicable.\" And for what? Not\nas a spy, to discover failings. That were an irksome task, foreboding no\nwarm reception, and ill repaid.\nHis time can be put to better use.\nThe legend runs that in certain schools of a certain city the teachers\nsend from room to room some flag of warning when the supervisor is in\nthe building. \" Miss Smith,\" says a little boy who innocently bears the\nmessage, \" Miss Brown says it is sixty-eight by her thermometer.\" Then\nthe word flies to other rooms : \" Shut your door ! Get your room in\norder ! Make ready for your best lesson ! Supervisor is in the building.\"\nThe tale, if true, is a sad commentary upon something, somebody.\nWhy should not the supervisor himself send word the day or week\nbefore : \" I hope to visit your building next Thursday. Show me the\nwork you most want me to see\" ? The record of the race horse is reckoned on the fastest mile ; of the ship, on the fastest sailing. To brute\nbeast, to the creature of wood and steel, we accord fair play. Why not\nto a teacher ?\nAnd here is the curious part of it (such is human nature, teacher\nnature) that, if one greets the teacher with, \" Good morning, Miss Smith;\nwhat do you and the children want me to see this morning ? \" not only\nwill the best bubble forth as joyously as the clear water from a spring on\na fresh May morning, but the ill, too, will follow after. The teacher, justified byrecognition of her good deeds and confident of the friendliness\nof her visitor, says frankly: \"That is my best division ; the others would\nnot do as well.\" Or: \"They do this well; they would fail in that. I\nwonder if you could suggest anything to help me there.\" So help is\nmade possible and the visit counts for good. The supervisor fulfills his\nmission.\nBut note, the revelation comes only with confidence, because the\nteacher judges the supervisor to be her friend. Not as an inspector, a\njudge, a police officer, could he see her best work. It is only in the sun\nof confidence that our best effort flowers. No free and confident work\ncan be done in the atmosphere of fear. The weaker, the more fearful the\nteacher, the poorer will her work appear under criticism.\nTherefore I fancy the wise supervisor, in making his visits, withholds\ncriticism until his teachers know and trust him, gives every opportunity for\nthe exhibition of the best and strongest work, speaks the word of approval\nwhen it is deserved, and, by his sympathetic comment, assures the teacher\nof his co-operation with her in her work.\nSuch visits are profitable ones.\n\n"}
{"page": 240, "printed_page": null, "text": "230\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nto teacher and supervisor alike. He sees the best, is encouraged and\ntaught by it, and may make his experience bear fruit for other teachers if\nhe will. The teacher, recognizing a friend in the dreaded official, forgets\nher reserve and her fears, loses the personal sense of hurt under criticism,\nand readily welcomes suggestions made for the good of the common\ncause.\nBy means of such visits the supervisor and teacher become acquainted\nwith each other. Each is known to the other as a human being, an individual, aside from class marks. Now is the ground prepared for the next\nsowing, in pursuance of the injunction of the school committee: \"He\nshall further the instruction in accordance with the course of study.\"\nAnd now the teacher takes her place as a member of the community of\nteachers — at the teachers' meeting, where, I may say, the supervisor's best\nand most effective work is done. If common standards of instruction are\nto be upheld, there must be meetings of grades, meetings of the entire\nbody of teachers, meetings of districts, meetings of the teachers of subjects. .Each sort has its advantages. It is good for all the teachers to\nmeet together at intervals; it strengthens the spirit of fellowship.\nGrade meetings are necessary for detailed study and direction. District\nmeetings afford opportunity for the discussion of district conditions —\nother than general — environment and its effect upon the children. Teachers of subjects discuss courses of study and specialties of their own, with\ntheir peculiar problems. All of these should the supervisor be fitted to\norganize and direct effectively. But all these are \"called,\" not necessarily\n\" chosen.\"\nThe voluntary meeting is by far the most helpful, the most satisfactory.\nAt the call of the supervisor, which reads, \"Whosoever will, let him\ncome,\" assemble the teachers who recognize a higher than their present\nattainment, and desire the fruits of conference with their peers. At these\nmeetings, whose subjects are appointed beforehand, teachers compare\nnotes of experience, question, comment, consult. Types of work are\nshown, outlines are discussed, and the work of the day is interpreted in\nthe light of experience. Young teachers drink in the words of the older\nand stronger ones, who describe what they have found good. This experiment, which seemed in the beginning doubtful, has been proven, accepted,\nis no longer an experiment. That practice to which we unconsciously\nclung, because used to the fashion of it, is questioned, and a better suggested. The sources where help may be found are named ; one teacher\nafter another describes experiences which have been helpful to her. Those\nwho dare, because they have learned what experience means, tell of their\nmistakes, and what they have taught them to do or not to do.\nObviously, the supervisor must here, as in his personal visits, disclose\nthe power of placing the teachers at their best, and here it counts for\nmuch that he has come to know his teachers personally, that he has seen\n\n"}
{"page": 241, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nSUPERVISOR'S\n\nDUTIES\n\nAND\n\nPRIVILEGES\n\n23 1\n\ntheir best work. He calls out the helpful suggestion, the recital of\nprofitable experience, the detail of successful plan, thus enabling all to\nshare in the fruit of the sanest experience. Herein lies the virtue of the\nvoluntary meeting. It is made up of those who desire to come, truly ;\nthose who recognize their need, assuredly ; but, better yet, those who have\ngrown to realize the advantages, the privileges, the necessity of co-operation.\nThis is the task of the twentieth century, to learn how to live together.\nSlowly the nineteenth century has been spelling the first lesson in\ncoworking. This is the secret of the trades unions, the college settlement, the National Educational Association, the teachers' meeting. \"We\nthat are strong ought to bear the infirmities of the weak.\" \" If the Syrians\nbe too strong for me, then thou shalt help me; and if the children of\nAmmon be too strong for thee, then I will come and help thee.\" It is\nhard for the nature that rejoices in personal independence to learn this\nlesson of interdependence, to discover that his work is incomplete except\nas it is supplemented and supported by the work of others. Every one\nof us needs everyone else.\nWe halt and stumble alone.\nIn this truth lies the answer to the objector who is the bugbear of\nsupervisors — the teacher who doesn't thank anybody to supervise her.\nShe has taught seventh grade for twenty years now, and if she doesn't\n\" know how by this time, 'tis a pity.\" Everyone agrees with her last\nstatement — it is indisputable — and likewise agrees that there is but one\nwise course for the supervisor. Remembering the parable of the sower,\nhe casts his seed on more promising ground for the present, and bides\nhis time. No dictum of sage or prophet can command a thankful spirit.\nUntil the teacher above noted really desires help, it is useless to proffer\nit. Better for the present to concern himself in striving to help those\nwhose attainments are not so satisfactory to themselves and who, by\nvirtue of shorter experience or broader vision, realize that life yet holds\nfor them other fields to conquer.\nBut another holds back and says: \"Why must there be this endless\nprocession of teachers' meetings? Doesn't my certificate say that I have\npassed my examination and am qualified to teach in the city? Then why\nmust I attend teachers' meetings to be taught ? Am I not already qualified to instruct ?\"\nThis feeling is natural, and likely to occur wherever independent and\nthoughtful work is done ; and often it is strong in proportion to the\nskill of the worker. A certain degree of self-confidence necessarily\naccompanies skill in any form of labor, in any department of life.\nFurther, we are not surprised to find this expression of feeling in districts where supervision is a new feature, and the supervisor is a pioneer.\nAll are loath to relinquish the scepter of authority. We delight in personal independence. But it is the narrow\nworker who most highly\n\n"}
{"page": 242, "printed_page": null, "text": "232\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nestimates her own- skill. Shut in by the four walls of the schoolroom,\nand working year after year in the same round, one easily becomes fixed\nin habit and ideal, becomes blind and deaf to what the rest of the world\nis doing. Self-satisfaction is heightened by isolation. \" It is required\nof every man that the spirit within him shall walk abroad amongst\nhis fellow-men and travel far and wide.\" No man's work is effective\nexcept as it is inspired, upheld, and completed by the work of\nother men, every one of whom his life needs in order to succeed.\nHumility is the virtue of the wise, and is best developed by generous approval of good in others. Herein is the supervisor's excuse\nfor being. The teacher is of necessity held to her place in the schoolroom,\nshut in with immature minds, accustomed to directing others, perhaps\neven to dictating. It is impossible for her to see many schoolrooms, to\ndiscover all that is good in fashion and practice other than her own, to\nlearn how easily others accomplish that which she achieves with difficulty\n— succeed where she fails. It is entirely possible for her to plod toilsomely, tho patiently and faithfully, thru long years, committing again\nand again the same blunders, because no opportunity is given of\ncomparing herself with others — ^ of seeing herself as others see her.\nHence the generally admitted necessity that some competent person shall\nbe appointed who shall be able to view the entire field, to study, not one,\nbut many schools, and who shall unite the teachers in one body, urging\nthe strong to help the weak, to share with them their successes, to yield\nto them the fruits of their experience.\nAgain, by herself, the teacher becomes fixed in individual ways, and\nthe course of the children from kindergarten to college, passing from\nteacher to teacher, is a zigzag career at best. The evils of the graded\nsystem are mitigated if there be unity of purpose along the line. Just so\nfar as the schools unite in a common aim, the path of the child's progress\nbecomes more direct. Co-operation is the crying need of our publicschool system ; unity, not uniformity ; coworking, with a definite\ngoal in mind ; not the blind following of an empiric, nor the upward\nefforts of the misguided zealot. Somebody must secure this co-operation,\nor the work of the whole is not the sum of the work of the members.\nOnly by unity of purpose and harmony of plan can the force become\nthe most effective. This the supervisor attempts by means of his teachers' meetings.\nBut let him be mindful, however, that there may be too much of a\ngood thing, even if the good thing is a teachers' meeting. The hours of\na teacher's day are numbered, her weeks hold but six working days each.\nIn cities where specialization has run to extremes and there must needs be\nsupervisors of drawing, of music, of manual training, of gymnastics, of\nprimary work, of nature study, these meetings may be so multiplied that\nthey become an evil ; so numerous that they leave no time for individual\n\n"}
{"page": 243, "printed_page": null, "text": "ScssionsJ\n\nSUPERVJSOH^S\n\nDUTIES\n\nAND\n\nPRIVILEGES\n\n233\n\nstudy or recreation. The stoutest and most loyal heart might be\nappalled at the flood of circulars and notifications that at times pours in\nupon the teachers, who are justified in replying : \" If co-operation is good\nfor teachers, why not for supervfsors? Does every supervisor forget that\nwe have to teach a dozen subjects besides his specialty ? One would\nthink there were nothing else to be done.\" Superintendents and supervisors may well take warning here. The study of the diary of a teacher\nwho tried to attend all the meetings to which she was called might lead\nto reconstruction at headquarters, and result in the pursuance of a\nmiddle course in the future. By the wholesome exertion of the central\nauthority such landslides should be prevented.\nIt will not be overlooked that these pages do nowhere represent\nthe supervisor as a dictator. In this capacity he is not effective. He\nmust forego greater privileges and responsibilities, if he becomes commander of details. He is not to stand in the rear and say \" Go,\" but\nto lead the way and cry \" Come.\" He may choose to dictate every step,\nbut it is at his peril. He is a leader of freeborn citizens, who are in their\nplaces because they are accounted intelligent. It is not the part of wisdom to assume the opposite, to do all the thinking for those who\nmust teach the children. Teachers, like other humans, grow thru\ntheir own activity. It is a debatable question whether the uniformity\nsecured by dictation of details is worth the price paid for it, the sacrifice\nof strength which comes from effort in individual lines. Principles,\nwhich are eternally true and cannot be gainsaid, must be repeated and\nmade plain, over and over again. But there is danger in the weak and\ndocile imitation of outward devices, tricks of the trade which succeed\nonly by virtue of the personality of the teacher — and fail when they\nleave the hands of the inventor.\nNo, the supervisor's effort should be to help the teachers to attain\nfreedom, to master the principles which shall serve as do the measures of\nthe poet\n\". . . . who sings\nIn strictest bonds of rhyme and rule,\nAnd finds in them not bonds but wings.\"\n\nLet the teacher work out her own salvation — yes, even if her success\nhangs in the balance — while we do our utmost to shed new light on her\npath, and inspire her with courage. \"She must paddle her own canoe;\nwe will sing the boat song.\" But we must not forget the truth which\nBrowning writes in strong words :\n.... Better youth\nShould strive, through acts uncouth,\nToward making, than repose on aught\n.... found made.\n\nTo withhold the manifold suggestion, to wait patiently for the slow\n\n"}
{"page": 244, "printed_page": null, "text": "2 34\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\ngrowth, may this not be wiser than to thrust ourselves unthinkingly into\nthe place of another and assume the burdens which of right belong to\nhim — his privilege of responsibility and freedom? However selfsacrificing our effort to serve, the result remains the same, if the power\nof self-direction is wrested from those we would aid. Their strength\ngrows with their efforts — not ours. Who shall be skillful enough to\nsteer his bark clear of both Scylla and Charybdis ?\nWe have pictured the supervisor as promoting, or trying to promote,\ngood instruction. It must be in the hope of furthering the same purpose\nthat the committee demands of him that he shall report upon the work of\nthe teachers whom he visits and directs. The reason for this demand\nis obvious. The schools exist that the children may be well taught, and\nthe committee, standing for the public, has a right to know whether they\nare so taught.\nYet here lies the hardest task of the supervisor, not in the ninety and\nnine cases which are good, but in the one. Be he supervising principal\nor supervisor-in-chief, he finds it a painful duty to record failure, and it\nis with a heavy heart that he makes such a report. His sympathies are\nwith the teacher. For her sake he would be glad to speak the word which\nwill retain her in her position. Her bread and butter depend on her\nretaining it. What can he do ?\nBut one thing, in justice and honesty — and in mercy, too. In his\noffice he stands before the parents of the children, these hundreds of\nlittle ones who are receiving so unconsciously the instruction which shall\nmake or mar their future. To these parents he is virtually saying : \" So\nfar as I know and can judge, your children are receiving the best possible\ninstruction which can be procured under the conditions you provide.\"\nIf he sees, in a certain schoolroom, that the children receive little, where\nothers receive much ; if he finds them so taught that the precious hours\nof youth are lost ; if bad habits are induced; if indifference usurp the\nplace of alertness, and antagonism and rebellion the place of harmony\nand co-operation ; if the weeks pass without yielding the knowledge\nwhich other children are gaining, and which these should gain — what\nword, in justice to the children, must be spoken ? To the children it\nis not the question of a day's, or a week's, or a term's loss. But thru\nall time they shall miss what these days should have taught them, go\nhalting where they should have leaped, walk blind where they should\nhave seen. If we look into their faces and know their need, there is but\none verdict which can be pronounced ; and, hard as it may be, it must be\nspoken.\nBut never is this judgment made, I trust, without full conviction.\nNever is it determined until the teacher has had every opportunity to\nredeem her work. What are the conditions under which she is working ?\nIs she receiving every possible aid and encouragement?\n\nIs there a pre-\n\n"}
{"page": 245, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nSUPERVISOR'S\n\nDUTIES\n\nAND\n\nPRIVILEGES\n\n'\n\n235\n\nvious history which makes the class hard to govern ? Is there illness at\nhome, or double work ? Is she carrying the burden of a wayward\nbrother, an aged father, some child who must be educated, caring for a\nhelpless mother? Is she paying the mortgage on the home, and denying\nherself proper food ? Ah, then how unutterably hard to make final the\nverdict ! How one looks then for another opportunity, a more favorable\ndistrict, an easier school, a new beginning ! And, then, how ought every\nteacher in the city to rally to her support, with words of encouragement\nand helping hand ! Ah, many a teacher fails, who would succeed if all\nfaces were friendly and all hearts kind. When the superintendent is\npowerless and the supervisor can give no aid, the teacher next door may\nhelp the young traveler across the quicksands, and save her for good\nwork.\n\nNot until every helpful word has been spoken, and every opportunity seized, shall the last judgment be pronounced. Then, if the\nteacher must go, that a stronger hand may guide where hers had failed,\nthere is no bitterness in her feeling. Each can say : \" I have done what\nI could.\"\nWe have crudely outlined the chief duties and privileges of the supervisor ;the two are identical.\nWhat must the qualifications be ?\nHe must know his subjects — that goes without saying. It would be\nwell for him, perhaps (I am not sure), if he knew them better than any of\nhis teachers ; but he never will. Each in his own field will do better than\nhe ; the expert teacher of Greek, of science, of arithmetic, of reading,\nof gymnastics, will be greater in his line than the general supervisor\nwould be, were he to take his place. And the generous-minded director\nwill take off his hat to the expert ; for herein is one of his chief\nvirtues : he knows good work when he sees it. His knowledge of\nteaching, his mastery of principles, enable him wisely to estimate good\nwork, and often to pay to it a higher tribute than would the teacher\nherself.\nBut the greater knowledge and power by virtue of which he will succeed, ifhe succeed at all, is his knowledge of human nature. The unnamable quality which brings out the best in coworkers, as the summer sun\ncalls forth the fragrance of the sweet fern, the everlasting, and the pine —\nthis is his qualification. The innate power of delicate sympathy which\nenables him to put himself in another's place — by this he wins his degree.\nHowever exalted his estimate of professional technique, he never forgets\nthat teachers are human beings, and that children are children. Teacher\nnature and child nature he understands. The fine art of self-forgetting\nhe has mastered ; his personal hurts he ignores, but he never forgets the\nteacher's, the child's personality. Behind the teacher — the man, the\nwoman; behind the pupil — the boy, the girl. Thru all the current of school\ntasks, of grades, of classes, of graduations — human life. Therefore the\nschool system in his mind never sinks into a machine ; methods never\n\n"}
{"page": 246, "printed_page": null, "text": "236\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nbecome formal ; directions are never dictatorial. He asks no blind following, no servile allegiance. He stands before his teachers to help them to\nthe truth which shall make them free. \"One-half of nine,\" explains the\nyoung graduate to her primary class. \" One-half of nine is four and one\nover.\" \"No,\" explains the supervisor to her in turn; \"one-half of nine\nis four and one-half;\" and patiently he strives to make her see it. His\npatience is rewarded by her willing conversion. \"Well, I will teach it\nfour and one-half, if you wish me to.\" No, no, no ! a thousand times\nno ! A power greater than the supervisor decrees the half of nine, and\nhow it must be taught. Truth demands it. He speaks well only if he\nspeaks the truth. His heart's desire is not that his teachers shall think\nas he thinks, say what he says, want what he wants ; but that they shall\nknow the truth, which shall make them free.\nTherefore, I say again, he is not a dictator, nor does he delight in\nmandates. He not only tolerates, but he encourages expressions, of contrary belief— -of legitimate opinion. Too wise to think a thing is so\nbecause he says so, he does not strive to encourage immediate acceptance\nof his dicta. He knows belief cannot be commanded. Teachers are\nreasonable creatures ; set them to reasoning, and let time and willing\nwork test and prove that which is good.\nPatience, tolerance, genuine fair-mindedness, and humility, it would\nseem, are demanded of the supervisor ; without these he fails. His other\nvirtues we need not enumerate. They are legion — and this paper is\nlimited to thirty minutes. Enough to show that it is character, here as\neverywhere, which commands confidence and wins success.\nOne word more. As these pages are written, our wide land, from east\nto west, is rejoicing over the victory of our fleet at Santiago, The tidings\nare solemn, and thanksgiving is mingled with prayer, as we read the\nmessage in its full meaning. \"To whom shall we give glory?\" men ask.\n\" To this commander or to that ?\" And a newspaper replies : \"Not alone\nto the one nor to the other — ^not theirs the glory. It belongs to the men\nbehind the guns, and to the country who trains her boys in the public\nschools.\"\nFellow-workers, our task is a mighty one. Not alone to such victories\nas these, but to unrecorded triumphs, to unwritten conquests, shall our\nboys and girls go forth. Our combined strength and wisdom are not too\ngreat to equip them worthily. Hushed be the petty strifes, forgotten all\npersonal bitterness. Forward for the good of the children— the future\nbulwark of our beloved land !\nAnd\n\nto all who give of their utmost endeavor, all who strive or\n\nserve, all who lead or -follow, there shall be equal honor and equal\nglory.\n\n"}
{"page": 247, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessionsl\n\nWOMEN'S\n\nWOMEN'S\nBY MISS MARGARET\n\nCLUBS\n\nCLUBS\n\nAS AN\n\nAS AN\n\nJ. EVANS,\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nFACTOR\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nCARLETON\n\nCOLLEGE;\n\n237\n\nFACTOR\n\nNORTHFIELD,\n\nMINN.\n\nWomen's clubs are, in their origin, practice, and purpose, educational.\nThru the three ideas of the value of the individual mind, of organization, and of the responsibility of every individual for the welfare of every\nother, has it come about that, by the most conservative estimate, one\nhundred and sixty thousand women are enrolled in clubs.\nA large number of the clubs are study clubs and seek the mental\nimprovement of their members in literary, sociological, and artistic lines.\nThey are, therefore, educational ; are, indeed, a part of that great current\nof universal education by which has resulted that condition portrayed by\nPresident Hall : \"Woman is no longer beautiful as an angel and silly as\na goose.\" The courses of study pursued in many of these study clubs are\nas thoro and exhaustive as any university course, and in nearly all the\nclubs the outline of study is worthy of the respect of any educator.\nA close student of political economy is well quoted as saying : \" I consider the women's clubs movement as one of the most logical developments of the new education which have yet been evolved.\"\nFor the home and the community the club is also an important, indirect\neducational factor. At least one hundred thousand homes are being educated by club study.' The tone of community life is also improved thru\nthese mature students, by the open sessions of the clubs, as well as by the\nlectures and by the university extension courses given thru the clubs.\nIt is thru the expression of their sense of responsibility and of duty as\n\"daughters of the voice of God\" that the clubs are bound together,\nand secure that \"unity in diversity\" which their motto enjoins. No form\nof activity has, however, aroused so much interest and enlisted so many\nmembers as that of public education in all its phases. Of the great mass\nof evidence on this subject only a few significant facts may be adduced.\nLibraries have had much attention. The need is evidenced by the\nfact that few states have adequate library facilities ; that even in New\nHampshire forty towns are without public libraries ; that in nearly all\nstates the libraries, except in large cities, are few and meager ; that in\nmany states not half of the population, in others not a third, have anything to supply adequately mind hunger. Hence, club women have initiated libraries and induced the cities to assume them. In Georgia seven\nlibraries have thus been given by the clubs.\nTraveling libraries have been secured in many cases from the states,\nas in Ohio and Iowa. Where state libraries cannot yet be obtained, the\nclubs are operating local traveling libraries. Nearly every club in Georgia\n\n"}
{"page": 248, "printed_page": null, "text": "238\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nnow operates such libraries. The Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, and\nNew Jersey clubs have many such in circulation. Nearly every state\nfederation is working for them. School libraries have also been encouraged and aided in many ways. The Colorado clubs have secured many\nnew school libraries. The Chicago clubs have aided nearly every school\nlibrary in the city. Other Illinois clubs have contributed largely to libraries, one club contributing ^1,200.\nThe Georgia clubs circulate books in remote country districts. The\nMinnesota federation issues a list of children's books.\nIn nearly every one of the thirty state federations, as in Iowa, where\nforty-five clubs have aided libraries, the good work is going on.\nOne part of man's complex nature has, in our civilization, received\nscant nourishment. It is the aesthetic nature. To remedy this defect, the\nwomen's clubs are exerting themselves to promote in every way the knowledge and love of art. They are decorating schoolrooms and giving to the\nschools reproductions of the masterpieces of art in pictures, casts, and\nportfolios of photographs. They lend fine pictures to homes, and admit\nschool children free to art exhibitions. Such work as that of the Minneapolis Improvement League, which has given to twenty-five schoolrooms\nvaluable pictures as prizes for the cultivation of flowers, speaks for itself.\nThe school art leagues indicate another form of result from aesthetic\ndevelopment.\nOutdoor art and village-improvement work for children is another\nfield worked by the clubs. The next generation will have, thru these\nefforts, better notions of civic cleanliness, and may be able to avoid the\nthree direful D's — disorder, dirt, and disease — so prevalent now. The civic\nwork for children in New York, Philadelphia, and in many large cities;\nthe placards, enjoining care for beauty and cleanliness of the Minnesota\nschoolrooms, emphasized, as they are, in language lessons ; the Rochester,\nN. Y., prize questions on the natural, architectural, and possible beauty\nof their cities, are educational straws of value.\nInstruction in household economics and manual training has also\noccupied the women of the clubs. Two quotations from the Minnesota\neducational circular emphasize the need : \" Half of the money earned in\nthe United States is spent for food;\" \"Six hundred million dollars are\nannually wasted in American kitchens.\" The clubs are expending large\namount-s of money and energy in securing instruction in cooking, as well\nas in sewing and other manual training, and in obtaining departments\nof household economics in colleges and universities.\nIt is said that the chief of police in San Francisco once said : \" If there\nwere kindergartens enough for all children, no police would be necessary\nin the next generation.\" There is truth enough in the optimistic statement to warrant the efforts of the clubs in twenty states in laboring to\npromote\n\nfree kindergartens and\n\nto incorporate them\n\ninto the public-\n\n"}
{"page": 249, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nWOMEN'S\n\nCLUBS\n\nAS AN\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nFACTOR\n\n239\n\nschool system. The clubs of several states have largely succeeded ;\nothers, as the Chicago and the 'Georgia clubs, are operating many free\nkindergartens as an object-lesson.\nThe establishment of vacation schools and playgrounds also makes\nthe clubs an educational factor. To prevent the training in crime and\nimmorality which the idleness and the associations of the streets give\nto many children, schools and playgrounds have been provided and aided\nby the clubs in New York, Chicago, and other cities, with most encouraging results.\nNight schools and schools for needy working boys and girls have also\ndone good work. In one city sixty teachers in the poor districts are supported bythe clubs.\nMothers' clubs, parents' and teachers' leagues, and child-study classes\nhave all come under the fostering care of the clubs. One of the important steps of the year has been the organization of a large number of such\nclubs, and the union of those which already existed into a closer bond.\nThe special committees of the state federations for this purpose have\naccomplished much. Of one typical mothers' club it is said : \" Hebrews,\nCatholics, Protestants, and those of no creed meet continually in harmonious emulation.\"\nSimilar to this interest has been that in the establishment of children's\nleagues and reading circles. Georgia reports 130 such circles started by\nthe federation.\nOpen educational meetings have done much where no mothers' club is\norganized.\nAuxiliary clubs for self-supporting women, for girls and boys, for all\nsorts and conditions of women, indicate a wider educational effort.\nVisitation of schools and investigation of school conditions have been\norganized by the clubs, to remove the anomalous separation hitherto\nexisting between the home and school. \" Mother, don't you come again\nto visit our school ; no one else does, and the boys all think I've gotten\ninto trouble ! \" is the thought of more than the Chicago boy who uttered\nit. Nearly every club has now a committee to study personally the needs\nand excellencies of the schools. The clubs have, in consequence, secured\nby petition more schoolrooms, better ventilation, greater cleanliness —\nneeded chatiges in arrangement and school conditions. The statement\nof one state superintendent of instruction is still true of some schools in\nalmost every state : \" The condition of things would disgrace an Apache\nIndian.\" But information is beginning to bring reformation. The needs\nand excellencies of our schools afford abundant room for investigation.\nHostile criticism has no place in the club scheme.\nCo-operation and co-ordination with other educational forces mark a\nfurther advance. Union with teachers' associations, local and state, has\nbeen found fruitful.\nDiscussions in meetings on such topics as, \" How\n\n"}
{"page": 250, "printed_page": null, "text": "240\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nthe homes may help the schools,\" and, \" What the schools may do for\nthe homes,\" have brought parents and teachers together. In fifteen or\ntwenty states conferences between the women of the homes and of the\nschools have been held. Club women have been invited in large numbers to address educational associations. County and state superintendents have been glad to accept the aid of the clubs and to co-operate with them. It is manifest that club work must rest its greatest\nhopes on this co-operation. It must enter the social world also ; not\nuntil parents and all interested realize what they owe to noble, faithful\nteachers, and come into friendly, social intercourse with them, by inviting\nthem to their homes, can any true sympathy. exist between the parents\nand the schools.\nLegislation to improve school conditions has occupied the clubs.\nThe results may only be hinted at. Georgia has secured a library commission, with the chairman of the federation committee upon it ; and is\nalso seeking to open her university to women. Missouri has taken steps\nto provide for women on school boards. Minnesota has secured permission for a public vote on library suffrage for women. Maine clubs aided\nin passing twenty bills to improve school conditions. Many states have\nprepared bills for traveling libraries ; for better truant laws ; for free textbooks ;for skilled superintendence for united schools. In one case the\nclubs have aided in securing 2 per cent, of the school funds for raising\nteachers' salaries. There is concerted effort everywhere to induce good\nwomen to serve on school boards.\nKnowledge of school conditions and general interest are, however, the\ngreatest result already accomplished by club educational efforts. That\n160,000 women are now studying the needs of our schools, and are eager\nto help in every way, is a promising indication. In many states all the\ndifferent lines of work mentioned have been taken up by the clubs. In\ntwenty-five states one or more has been undertaken. The reports from\nnearly all of these twenty-five states read like that of Colorado : \" In\nseveral towns new public or circulating libraries and reading rooms have\nbeen opened. Three clubs have established traveling libraries. The study\nand appreciation of the best in music and art have been promoted in\nhundreds of towns in the state. Three clubs have given exhibitions of\nfine pictures, and have loaned pictures to the schools. Kitchen-garden\nwork has been successfully carried on, and the study of household economics with classes. In five towns child-study circles have been formed by\nthe women's clubs; in ten, parents' meetings are held; in nine, women\nare members of the school boards ; in four, public kindergartens have been\nestablished ; in three, manual training has been introduced in the public\nschools. . In all the club towns of Colorado the teachers are welcome\nmembers of the clubs and heartily co-operate with the appointed school\n\n"}
{"page": 251, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nvisitors.\n\nWOMEN'S\n\nCLUBS\n\nAS AN\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nFACTOR\n\n241\n\nThe club members have studied, and have a good understanding\n\nof, the excellences and the faults of our schools.\"\nIn all these departments of education the women of the homes in the\nclubs have been laboring with other educators, to make more effective\nthe public schools. There has been no ambitious effort to strike out in\nentirely new lines.\nOne phase of education not much considered does seem, however, to\nclub women to be worthy of their deepest consideration. The subject of\nsystematic instruction in morals in the public schools is, therefore, the most\ndiscussed feature of the clubs as an educational factor. That right moral v\ncharacter is of more importance than all other things which I have mentioned, put together ; that to secure it for pupils is success, and not to\nsecure it is failure in education, all are agreed. Yet, practically, upon\nthis part of education is placed less emphasis ; to it is given less thought\nand attention ; to it applied less system and method, than to any other\npart.\nTheoretically, the responsibility for moral education is laid upon the\nhome. But the home, accustomed to shift educational responsibility, is\noften intrinsically inadequate to the task of giving moral instruction.\nBesides, in most cases the moral tone of the home depends upon the\ntraining which the parents have received in the schools. Even the best\nhomes need, too, in moral training the co-operation of the schools. To\ngive adequate moral education neither Sunday school., church, nor press\ncan be depended upon. The public schools are intended to give it.\nThe solemn and majestic declaration of the \"ordinance of 1797\" is:\n\"Religion, morality, and knowledge being necessary to good government and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of education\nshall forever be encouraged.\" Religion, morality, and knowledge! A\nreaction against denominationalism has made the teaching of religion, as\nsuch, in our schools objectionable.\nMorality and knowledge are still in our purpose; morality, as distinguished from religion, being chief. Yet, in some strange way it has\ncome about that moral education receives less scientific attention than\nany other phase, is treated in most schools in the most haphazard, incidental way, or is not considered at all, being left at the option of the\nmost indolent, indifferent, or inexperienced teacher, who is always hard\npressed for time for what are called \"the regular studies.\"\nTo be sure, a large part of the school routine and discipline tends\ndirectly to aid in building up moral character. School virtues, such as\nobedience, self-control, and many others, are developed in some degree.\nThe incidental lessons of history and literature cannot be overestimated.\nThe example of noble teachers is an incalculable power, which, with the\nother aids, has kept our nation and its citizens from moral destruction.\n\n"}
{"page": 252, "printed_page": null, "text": "242\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nThe roseate theory is : \" Morals in the public schools are absolutely\nwithout intermission, but without intrusion. The entire atmosphere of\nthe schoolroom and of the playground is redolent with grace and truth.\"\nThat the facts do not support this theory we all acknowledge. Every\nteacher wishes for a higher tone of moral life in the school, and for\nnobler moral character in the pupils. Do present means accomplish\nwhat is desired, or may reasonably be expected ?\nPicked-up ideas and a pervasive atmosphere of morality serve as well\nas a preparation for the business of living as picked-up ideas and a\npervasive atmosphere of arithmetic would serve as a preparation for the\nbusiness life, and little better. Yet we trust to picked-up ideas and a\npervasive atmosphere of morality. In all other subjects we have evolved\ngood methods of teaching and of training teachers.\nOnly a visionary expects the immediate perfectibility of the race. Is\nit visionary, however, to expect to secure thru the schools a constantly\nennobled moral character ?\nThe women's clubs, while valuing highly all that has been done, are\nquestioning the possibility of a great advance in education. It is to\nsecure for every pupil of our public schools, even for the 80 per cent,\nwho leave school forever at the end of the fourth grade, a scientific, systematic, continuous course of instruction in morality, as distinguished\nfrom religion.\nIn few things has there been greater progress in the last two decades\nthan in education in general. Yet, in moral instruction, has there not\nbeen a lack of progress, if not retrogression ?\nWith the Bible and the teacher's prayer went out of the school, not\nmuch religious instruction, but much explanation and emphasis of moral\ntruth, and of its application to daily life. What has taken the place of\nthis moral instruction ? In most schools, nothing.\nSystematic instruction is necessary to give clear distinction between\nright and wrong. Miss Addams tells us how the voters in a certain ward\nof Chicago elected a corrupt alderman, because to them the big-hearted\nfriend who gave turkeys, flowers, and wedding gifts, and, above all, employment, even from stolen wealth, seemed a good man. She says : \"It is precisely on the undeveloped morality of voters that municipal corruption\nflourishes. Theirs is largely the crime of ignorance of what morality is;\nthey live up to their highest conception of morality and civic duty.\"\nWhere shall the next generation of voters get their higher conceptions\nof morality and civic duty, if not in the public schools ? Where shall the\narmy of boys who, at twelve years of age, enter business life get their\nclear, high ideas of morals? In business itself ? with its present practices in all but the highest grades ?\nSystematic instruction in morality is also necessary to secure that\nrobustness of moral power which preserves from self-deception in moral\n\n"}
{"page": 253, "printed_page": null, "text": "SessionsJ\n\nCHILD'S\n\nOR\n\nTEACHER'S\n\nCOURSE\n\nOF\n\nSTUDY\n\n/\n\n243\n\nemergencies. \" Yes, it was right for me to lie then ; I had to ; there\nwasn't any other way out of it,\" said a boy. He has many companions,\nself-deceived from lack of moral robustness. Where shall they obtain\nthe instructions which will give them moral vigor ? At the need of a\nplace for systematic training of the will in our school curriculum I may\nonly hint.\nTo prevent crime by this means is surely wise.\nThese are the burning educational questions discussed in the women's\nclubs. They appreciate the difficulty of reconciling the schools of philosophy which differ on the basis of morality. But women believe that this\ndifficulty is mainly theoretical, and need not interfere seriously with the\nteaching of that body of moral truth which is the possession of the age.\nThe women see the difficulties as to methods of teaching. It is evident\nthat preaching and the tedious repetition of moral maxims will avail\nlittle. The instruction must manifestly be concrete and by illustrative\nexamples adapted to the age and experience of the pupil. That time be\nallowed to every teacher, and she be instructed how to use it for moral\nteaching, is the main need. All difficulties as to principles or method\nwill doubtless vanish, as they have vanished in other departments, when\ndue attention and thought are given by educators to these things.\nThe clubs are asking : Is it too much to hope that this National Educational Association may give due attention and thought to this, the\nmost important subject possible for its consideration ? Is it too much\nto hope for a special committee upon it ? It is surely as pressing as any\nsubject which has come before committees of ten or fifteen. Teachers\ndesire it ; parents long for it ; Catholics and Protestants, Lutherans and\nagnostics unite upon this : \"Lift up the child.\"\nThe women's clubs desire, in this as in all other ways, to be an educational factor.\n\nDISCUSSION\n\nTHE\n\nCHILD'S\n\nBY MISS SARAH\n\nCOURSE\n\nOF STUDY\n\nJ. WALTER,\n\nSTATE\n\nOR THE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nTEACHER'S— WHICH?\nWILLIMANTIC,\n\nCONN.\n\nMy story does not begin with \"Once upon a time,\" or \"A long, long time ago,\" but \"A\nshort time ago.\" A few years ago a gentleman was elected to take charge of a system of\nschools. He was earnest, interested, and ambitious for the welfare of the schools. He ascertained the number of grades, the advancement of the pupils, and the average age of the\npupils of the several grades. Before school opened in September, he had formulated a course\nof study for the schools of which he had assumed charge. For whom was this course\nintended ? Certainly not for the pupils. It was based upon what the teacher thought the\npupils ought to be able to do, and was not a growth proceeding from the needs of these\npupils, and an outgrowth of the same. A pupil's course of study must have the quality\nof local adaptation.\n\n"}
{"page": 254, "printed_page": null, "text": "244\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Genetal\n\nA superintendent sits in his office and prepares outlines ; the amount of work in each\nsubject is indicated; the subjects are prescribed — just so many topics to be presented; the\noutlines are printed and distributed, and scores of teachers begin to experiment with hundreds\nof children. The teachers are loyal and heroic ; there are many struggles, some breakdowns, and not a few pupils fall out by the way; but by the end of June the ground has\nbeen covered, and the teacher has been victorious so far as the course of study is concerfted.\nThe superintendent has been busy thru the year; he has not had time daily to watch the\nwork ; the teachers did not protest, altho one teacher did say to her next-door neighbor of\nthe schoolroom that she knew that she could do a great deal more for her boys, so far as\ntheir morals were concerned, if she could only place before them more ideals as presented\nby characters in history instead of giving them so much formal language work ; another\nfelt that the arithmetic was entirely too much for her grade at its present stage of\nadvancement ; but the course must be followed. The teachers did not make a protest ;\ntheir criticisms were not solicited ; and during the summer the superintendent revises and\nenriches the course of study.\nThere are schools noted for their excellent work — boast is made of the beautiful\npenmanship, executed by the weak muscles (and, later, weaker nerves) of little children of\nthe first year. In these same schools, by the time the pupils are fourteen years of age,\nthey have had more arithmetic than they can possibly use in a lifetime, no matter\nhow long it may be. The time has come, so far as the physical welfare of the youth of\nthis nation is concerned, when the work presented in our schools should not be done at\nhigh pressure, and recognition should be made of the truth that there is time and more\nthan time enough for the work to be presented, if it can be given at the appropriate time.\nThe courses of study I have described are logical — one step grows out of the other in a\nmost orderly way. A proper relation is maintained between the abstract and the concrete.\nThey are comprehensive, they are complete ; but they are courses of study for the teacher*\nand not necessarily for the child.\nThe ability to make out a child's course involves close acquaintanceship with three\nlines of work :\nFirst, knowing well, being well acquainted physically and sympathetically with, the\nmaterial upon which the effort is to be expended, namely, the child ; to know his different\nmental moods thru the varying periods of growth. There are teachers who meet their\npupils twice daily, but at the end of the year they are strangers to each other. In that\nbeautiful glimpse of child life given in Kenneth Graham's Golden Age you will remember\nthe story of the road to Rome. The artist and the boy visited Rome that sunny afternoon, and, when the shadows began to lengthen, the artist said to the boy :\n\" I hope we shall meet again.\"\n\"Certainly, we shall.\"\n\"In Rome ?\"\n\"Yes, in Rome, or in Piccy^the other place.\"\nThe artist had been to Rome ; the boy recognized it. He had met someone who\nunderstood him.\nSecond, he must know how to select and adapt the subjects to the various stages of\ndevelopment. There are many subjects, many topics in each subject presented for selection.\nTo select wisely one must have breadth of scholarship. The richest course for Washington\nmay not be adapted to the children of manufacturing New England, or to the mining states\nof the mountain district. To know how to select and adapt, scholarship and latitude are\nnecessary requirements. The teacher must be absolutely free and untrammeled in giving\nto pupils what they require for their development. No One can judge of the particular\nneeds of a school so well as the teacher, and the teacher should be free to select, adapt,\nand administer. This is especially true in the grammar grades. It is here pupils lose\ninterest, drop out ; it is the crucial period in the public-school course.\nThe boy does not\n\n"}
{"page": 255, "printed_page": null, "text": "Session!]\n\nCHILD'S\n\nOR\n\nTEACHER'S\n\nCOURSE\n\nOF STUDY?\n\n245\n\nwant to go to school ; the father does not make him ; the father meets the difficulty by\nsaying that, when he was John's age, he left school, too ; didn't want to go. In a certain\nmanufacturing city only about 20 per cent, of the pupils entering the first and second\ngrades graduate from the grammar grades into the high school, and in this same city the\nnumber of pupils graduating from the high school is proportionately less than that of the\ngrammar school. This city is, perhaps, no exception. It is not the struggle for existence\nalone, or the necessity for becoming breadwinners, that accounts for this falling off. It\nis due to starved interests — the pupils lose interest.\nThe grammar- and lower high-school courses should be especially broad, rich, and\nsufficiently enticing to the pupils of these grades ; in other words, they should be manysided in order to meet the activities and many-sided interests of this active age.\nTeachers of these grades should realize that it is their duty to prepare the boys and\ngirls, not for promotion into a high school, or entrance into a college, but to fit them for\nliving. This means more scholarship on the part of the teachers, more frequent promotions, and a program rich in culture materials.\nThird, there must be in the mind of the one who prepares the course of study a\nclear idea as to the end to be attained.\nWhat higher, more complete ideal than that given by Marcus Aurelius : \" But this\neducation and the teaching of youth aim at something. In this, then, is the value of the\neducation and the teaching that the thing which has been made should be adapted to the\nwork for which it has been made.\" What higher ideal of child development thru education than this — to do well the work of life? The aim is high living, not mere intellectual development.\nIn a pupils' course of study the natural interests of the different stages of the child's\ndevelopment are given due consideration. Indeed, they are paramount in importance.\nMaterials are carefully chosen in order to give right adaptation to the social and industrial environment.\nA natural course of study for the pupil is based upon the needs of his unfolding\norganism. The course recognizes that the child stands with open eyes, ears, and hands\nto take in what the world of men and things offers ; that he is full of poetic fancv and\nimagination, and possesses artistic taste and feeling.\nTo provide for the healthful growth of the imagination, to cultivate artistic taste\nand feeling, to develop broadly the perceptive range, may be considered as the chief\nfunctions of a natural course of study for the elementary schools.\nNature, literature, art, relations of magnitude and number, manual training, physical activity, and original work provide the materials for a culture course of study. In\nthe brief time allotted the value and place of each subject named cannot be shown, but\nseveral of them cannot be passed over in silence.\nBy nature is meant all life ; natural phenomena ; the earth ; the air, its properties and\nmovements ; the water, its forms and work ; the metals and minerals in the occupations\nand arts ; the life of the field and forest, with habits and conditions of growth ; insects as\nhelps and pests in garden and field ; the bee, earthworm, toad, and bird have new significance when their wonderful work is considered. These are some of nature's objects ; they\nare not foreign to the child, but are around him and furnish the materials for sensory\ntraining, and form the foundation upon which much of his future knowledge is to be\nbuilt.\nGeography is a culture subject for the grammar grades, and gives, when approached\nin a scientific way, much valuable training. Huxley has said that \" Physical geography\n(for want of a better name) is the peg upon which the greatest quantity of useful and\nentertaining scientific information can be suspended.\". One of the best things connected\nwith the study of geographical material is its universal presence and abundance — \"wherever our home is, there lie all the materials which we need for the study of the globe.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 256, "printed_page": null, "text": "246\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Genera\n\nWhatever the general theories may be regarding the desirability of sense training\nthru the study of nature, observation and printed outlines of study seem to indicate\nthat sensory development is a good thing in the kindergarten and primary, and is practiced there, but is not of much importance in the grammar grades. Many grammar\nschools do not offer the pupils any systematic instruction in elementary science. The\ngrammar grade is the place of all places in the school system in which nature should be\nstudied. The nature studies offer to an unusual degree opportunity to develop concentrated attention, and this thru subjects which appeal to natural interests and stimulate and\nsatisfy the child's native curiosity.\nConcerning number work, young children have very little use for what is ordinarily\ntaught under this name. In place of formal number, the end of which means acquisition of number facts, exercises with geometric forms and quantity, which have for their\naim exact imaging, comparing, and constructing, are far more valuable. Almost all of\nthe work known under the name of arithmetic should come into the upper grammar and\nlower high-school years. Arithmetic is for the more mature school age, and when\nbegun should be pursued in a strong, vigorous manner.\nIn an ideal course, literature, history, art, and music receive prominent emphasis on\naccount of their refining and emotional values. They represent man's highest and best\nideals.\nThe school can well afford to spend time upon these culture subjects, to have pupils\nlove and feel the true and beautiful, before they are prematurely forced to take up the\nformal side of these subjects.\nHistory, when presented in the concrete, is a most fascinating and inspiring subject.\nLet us not limit it, however, in area or time in the grammar grades, but give broad range\nand allow the pupils to become acquainted with those characters and events which have\nstood for human progress in all ages.\nNo course can be complete which does not provide for the child's demand for\nactivity. There is too much seat work — sitting on seats to work. More board work,\nmore table work, of a character to give a chance to use the lower limbs, should be\nemployed.\nIt has been said again and again that American pupils lack imagination. If this is\ntrue, then the course of study is largely responsible for it in not bringing to the child the\nright subjects at the right time, and in not giving time to the pupil to work over the\nmatter presented. In so far as possible, the pupil should put something of himself, of\nhis own thought and making, into each school subject. The pupil who originates, who\nconstructs, will not be mechanical and lack in creative power.\nThe points that have been presented are these : (i) A course of study, to be stimulating and conducive to the highest development of the pupil, must be based upon the\nnatural interests of the growing child. (2) That those who prepare courses of study need\nwisdom along three lines : they must be earnest, sympathetic students of children ;\nthere must be scholarship to select and adapt subject-matter, freedom to give to pupils\nwhat they need at the time they need it; a high ideal of child development. (3) A\nnatural course of study must be rich in content and suggestion, especially for the grammar grades, to meet the many-sided interests and activities of this active period. I-astly,\nthe life of the course — of any course — - is the teacher. The need of our schools today is the\nstrong teacher, vigorous, inspiring, scholarly. One of our own countrymen has well said\nthat \" The key of an efficient school system is not the school property, nor the appropriations necessary for its maintenance, indispensable as they are. Reason, experience,\nthe common consent of all great thinkers and authorities upon the subject agree that the\nteacher is the school,'''\n\n"}
{"page": 257, "printed_page": null, "text": "Session.]\n\nBY\n\nMISS\n\nLILLIE\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHER\n\nAS A TRAVELER\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHER\n\nAS A TRAVELER\n\nA.\n\nWILLIAMS,\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nTRENTON,\n\n247\n\nN. J.\n\nThis seems to be a rather unfortunate time to urge upon you the advantages of\nforeign travel, now while our hearts are still palpitating with horror at the recent ocean\ndisaster. Still, in face ot this awful loss of life we must note that we take fewer\nchances of accident when we go aboard an ocean steamer than when we enter a railroad\ntrain. There is a smaller percentage of travelers lost on the sea than on land. Foreign\ntravel is for teachers the best means toward culture. Without going so far as the poet\nGray, who wrote, \"Travel I must or cease to exist,\" or as Mr. Grant Allen, who regards\na two-years' trip abroad as far more than equivalent to a full college course, we may\nrecognize the fact that we teachers — and I have women teachers more particularly in\nmind — may in this way be best drawn out of our ruts and into contact with the great\ncurrents of life and into the stream of ideas, much better than thru books, or reading\ncircles, or even clubs — for these are accompanied by more or less of brain-fag to brains\ntoo often already overworked. It is even better than this, for thru travel we not only\nturn over our ideas, but our livers ; quit of the daily grind, we bask in the unusual and\nlay up a store of health to last us thru the year.\nAll travel is good, but for us who have mostly to compress our tours into the narrow\nlimits of a summer vacation a preparation of mind is needed to secure the best results.\nWhere one cannot linger long, the only way to secure a deep impression is to have the\nmind in an attitude of expectant attention ; to know well beforehand what one is to see.\nIndeed, this is the best plan even when time is not limited. I have always remembered\nwith pleasure the story of the great historian Gibbon, how, when about to make a tour in\nItaly, he paused at Lausanne to prepare his mind for what he was to see. The list of books\nwhich he read — both ancient and modern — is appalling. He made his own guidebook,\nand, when he did cross the Alps, surely Italy never before found a more appreciative or\nsympathetic visitor. No wonder that, while visiting the Roman forum, he conceived the\nidea of his great work, and that the outcome of his tour was The Decline and Fall of the\nRoman Empire, \" the splendid bridge which unites ancient and modern civilizations.\"\n\" He that would make his travels delightful must first make himself delightful,\" says\nSeneca. Du Maurier in one of his pictures, in which he satirized the world around him,\nrepresents an American mother and her daughter who, having made a tour in Italy, visit\nLondon. They are introduced to Sir James, who, seeking to make talk, says : \"So you\nhave been in Italy. Did you visit Rome ?\" \" Well, no, 1 guess not. Say, Belle, were we\nin Rome?\" \"Why, yes, mamma, certainly; don't you remember those excellent lisle\nthread gloves we got in Rome ? \" The lone mother of dead empires, the city of the soul,\nwas anchored in that ill-furnished mind by the single mean association of a place where\na bargain in clothes was secured.\nRead, then, as copiously as may be beforehand, but do not fall into the delusion, from\nwhich some suffer, that walking the streets of Paris and Rome with Hare in the pages\nof his books, or viewing the Alps with the artist's eye of Ruskin, or climbing them\nwith the scientific ardor of Tyndall, is as good as seeing these sights with the bodily eye ;\nand so one might as well save one's money and stay at home. Read as deeply as you\nmay, still the first great cathedral you enter will fill you with an awe which you cannot\nfeel without the actual experience. I may seek to paint in words the Matterhorn as it\nlooks down on Zermatt, or try to tell how\n\" The midnight sun on the waters lay,\nAnd blood -red was its hue :\n\n"}
{"page": 258, "printed_page": null, "text": "248\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nIt was not night, it was not day,\nBut wavered twixt the two ; \"\n\nbut the sight of the reality makes the word- picture poor.\nBut no amount of previous preparation will enable one to take in apprehendingly\nthe whole of Europe in a two-months' tour ; or, even if we restrict our travels to but few\ncountries and their most famous cities, can we take in all that they have to show. It is a\nsad sight to see in a great art gallery, or palace, or cathedral, an American woman — and\nshe is too often a teacher — rushing around, guidebook in hand, only glancing at the\nobjects before her long enough to check them off on the margin of the book, so as to be\nable to say, \" I saw them.\" Some are goaded on by the terrible fear that, after returning\nhome, someone will say to them, \" Did you see so and so ? \" and she, with shame and confusion of face, must answer no. I saw a tourist hastily passing thru room after room of\none of the richest of the great European art galleries, scarcely able, seemingly, to give\nthought to the treasures around her, so absorbed was she in the quest for the man without\narms who copies pictures in this gallery with his toes. Some friend had seen this man\non a previous tour, and she felt that her trip would be a failure unless she saw him also.\nAs a part of our previous preparation, we must select the best pictures and statues, the\nplaces with the noblest literary and historic association, but these must be dwelt upon,\nnot simply glanced at, if we mean to make them part of our memory treasures. The\nideal way to see such things was Wordsworth's way.\n\nYou remember how he tells us :\n\nI wandered lonely as a cloud\nThat floats on high o'er vales and hills.\nWhen, suddenly, I saw a crowd,\nA host of golden daffodils.\nContinuous as the stars that shine\nAnd glitter in the milky way.\nThey stretched in never ending line\nAlong the margin of the bay ;\nTen thousand saw I at a glance,\nTossing their heads in sprightly dance.\nThe waves beside them danced.\nBut they out-did the sparkling waves in glee.\nA poet could not but be gay\nIn such a jocund company.\nI gazed and gazed, but little thought\nWhat wealth the show to me had brought.\nFor oft, when on my couch I lie\nIn vacant or in pensive mood,\nThey flash upon that inward eye,\n_^ f Which is the bliss of solitude,\nAnd then my heart with pleasure fills\nAnd dances with the daffodils.\n\nWe must bring to the treasures of the old world a sympathetic spirit. It is possible\nto see in \" The Last Supper \" of Da Vinci nothing but a faded blotch ; to see nothing in the\nscene of \" Rizzio's Murder \" but the smallness of the room. Mark Twain, thru his Innocents\nAbroad, is perhaps responsible for a large amount of the shallow jocularity which many\nAmericans think it knowing to display in the presence of the relics of the heroic dead.\nWe must bring with us, too, a fine imagination. Lowell, in his Fireside Travels,\ncomplains that the fault of modern travelers is that they see nothing out of sight. \" Tourists,\" he says, \"defraud rather than enrich us. They have not that sense of aesthetic proportion which characterized the elder traveler. Earth is no longer the fine work of art it\nwas, for nothing is left to the imagination.\"\nWhatever else we see abroad, we must see the people, or our trip is a failure. I do\nnot mean kings and queens and high nobility — tho they are interesting, too — but the\nplainer folk. How stimulating I found it to discuss the situation in the Transvaal with a\ncultivated clergyman from the Cape of Good Hope ; to listen to a criticism of Olive\n\n"}
{"page": 259, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nDEMOCRACY\n\nAND\n\nEDUCATION\n\n249\n\nSchreiner's Story of an African Farm from the lips of his wife, who had passed her childhood among the Boers there described, to hear of the tea industry of Ceylon, and its\neffect upon the prosperity of the island, from a lady recently come from one of the tea\nplantations. As a teacher, let me urge a closer acquaintance with the foreign teachers.\nWith what pleasure I recall amiable French teachers, and their kindness, or the courtesy\nof the two kindly Dutch women teachers — my traveling companions of a day. What\ninteresting accounts they gave me of the two queens, and of the politics of their country.\nThey longed to travel in America, but, having but five weeks' summer vacation, had contented themselves with a tour in the Hartz mountains. I recall, too, the intelligent young\nNorwegian who, as a special favor, was assigned to us as our guide up into the fjeld and\nback. A lineal descendant of the great Thorvaldsen, he had been trained for the profession of teacher in the training school of his district. He spoke English, French, and\nGerman. In the winter he taught a school of thirty pupils, teaching the languages and\nslojd, and this for a sum incredibly small. I recall the two young ladies, teachers from\nTrondhjem — our kindly guides thru the wonders of Skansen. And the two Swedish girls,\nwho, having spent their vacation at the exposition at Stockholm, were our fellow-voyagers on the canal, and sang by moonlight of Sverige, sweet Sverige, till one could almost\nwish to be a Swede oneself.\nAnd, finally, one of the highest culture values of travel is found in coming home\nagain. No one really knows and values his country till he has temporarily detached\nhimself, and, returning, glimpses the familiar from a slightly changed standpoint. Never\ndid I estimate at their true worth our American ways and our American manhood, and\nits attitude toward womanhood, till the occasion of my return from a certain foreign\ntrip — but that is a story too long to tell ; it would take another ten minutes. -\n\nDEMOCRACY\nBV EDWIN\n\nP. SEAVER,\n\nAND\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nEDUCATION\nOF PUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nBOSTON,\n\nMASS.\n\nWhen Germany, prostrated and humiliated by disastrous war with the\nfirst Napoleon, sought to re-establish her national power on a solid foundation^ her far-seeing statesmen rested their best hopes on popular education. Then was formed that admirable system of public instruction\nwhich other nations have been willing to study as a model, but which no\nnation has yet surpassed.\nAfter two generations Jena was avenged at Sedan ; and the third\nNapoleon surrendered the destinies of France to the leaders of the victorious, school-taught German army. Then the French people, in the\nbitterness of their humiliation, recognized one great cause of their\nnational weakness, and forthwith resolved to make universal popular education a matter of chief concern in their restored republic. They even\nturned to Germany for educational models. Partly by adopting -these,\nand partly by reanimating ideals of their own, handed down from their\nfirst republic, the French people have now taken rank among the most\nprogressive of nations in respect to popular education.\nEngland, too, in the last two or three decades, has made a long\n\n"}
{"page": 260, "printed_page": null, "text": "250\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nadvance toward universal popular education. She has been moved to do\nthis, not thru the humiliation of defeat in disastrous war, but by the rising\ndemand for universal suffrage, and by a view of the national dangers\nwhich threaten to grow out of the ignorance, the misery, and the sullen\ndiscontent prevalent among the populace of her towns and the peasantry\nin her rural districts. \"Let us educate our governors,\" say the now ruling classes, \"if, in the end, the people are going to govern.\"\nIn European nations popular education has been adopted as a governmental policy, either to raise the national spirit from humiliation or\nto promote national power and security by making the masses of the\npeople intelligent and loyal, prosperous and contented. The most absolute of governments — Russia, for example — may and do foster popular\neducation for national ends, or for the general welfare of their subjects.\nIn the latter case it is paternalism. All European governments, even\nrepublican France, are paternal in a greater or less degree. The more\ncentralized the government, the more paternal its action.\nBut in America popular education owes little to paternalism. It has\nnot been conferred as a boon by the government on the people ; but the\npeople themselves have chosen to promote education thru the action of\ntheir governments. With us the institutions of popular education have\nbeen a growth attending, stimulating, and stimulated by the growth of\ndemocratic principles. As the colonies, and later the states, have grown\nmore and more democratic m spirit and in policy, so have free schools\nbeen multiplied and improved, in order that a good education might be\nbrought within easy reach of all the people. It early became an accepted\nmaxim that every child had a right to an education. There were laws by\nwhich the unwilling or negligent parent might be compelled, and the\nparent who was unable assisted, to do his duty in this regard.\nBut this was not for the child's sake' alone. The child's right to an\neducation was, more properly speaking, the community's right that the\nchild be educated. The right to an education rests not only on the relation of child to parent, but largely also on the relation of the child to the\nstate. The child is soon to become a free citizen of a free state. He is\nto be a sovereign ; and much will depend on his being intelligent and\nhonest. His right to an education, therefore, has been embodied in the\nfundamental laws of our states as a part of that security for free men and\nfree institutions which those laws are designed to give.\nIn the constitution of Massachusetts, for example, may be found this\nlanguage of the patriot John Adams :\nWisdom and knowledge as well as virtue, diffused generally among the body of the\npeople, being necessary for the preservation of their rights and liberties .... it shall be\nthe\nduty the\nof interests\nlegislatures\nand magistrates,\nin all future\nperiods\nof' thisof commonwealth,\nto\ncherish\nof literature\nand the sciences\nand all\nseminaries\nthem.\n\nHerein is declared a principle broad enough to support the most lib-\n\n"}
{"page": 261, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nDEMOCRACY\n\nAND\n\nEDUCATION\n\n251\n\neral educational policy any free state might desire to adopt. It is the\nbroad democratic principle of free public instruction.\nBut John Adams was a federalist in politics; and, however democratic\nhis doctrines, he may possibly not be accepted as a high democratic\nauthority. Let us then cite the highest democratic authority, Thomas\nJefferson, who is rightly called the father of American democracy.\nThis great statesman again and again, in his state papers and in his\ncorrespondence, insists on free and universal public instruction as a fundamental element in the domestic policy of a free commonwealth. He\nadvocated for Virginia, tho without success in his own day, the establishment of a system of common schools, to be supported by local taxation,\nfor the elementary education of all children. He further advocated a\nsystem of academies or colleges for the instruction, at the public cost, of\nall youth discovered in the lower schools to possess the talents and the\ndisposition worthy of a higher education. And, finally, he succeeded in\nsecuring public support of the highest education, when he persuaded\nthe legislature of his state to establish the University of Virginia.\nThis renowned institution adorns the memory of Jefferson no less\nworthily than does the immortal Declaration of Independence itself.\nBut Jefferson's interest in the promotion of universal popular education never waned.\nLate in life he wrote :\nA system of general instruction, which shall reach every description of our citizens,\nfrom the richest to the poorest, as it was the earliest so it will be the latest of all the\npublic concerns in which I shall permit myself to take an interest.\n\nAccepting, now, the democratic principle of free public instruction in\ncommon schools, in high schools, and in universities, we are next to meet\nthe questions : What limits, if any, should be observed in its application ?\nHow far may the state legitimately proceed in depriving the parent of\nthe benefit of his child's labor and service in order to secure the child's\neducation ? To what extent ought the public revenues to be applied to\nthe education of the comparatively few youth whose circumstances in life\npermit their remaining longer under instruction in high schools and in\nuniversities ? These, and questions like these, are often asked as if answers\nwere to be got somehow out of the theory of democratic government.\nLet us see what the right answer is. Our high authority, Jefferson,\nnowhere suggests limits to the public support of education. In his view,\nprimary education, supported by local taxation ; secondary, supported\npartly by local communities and partly by the state, and superior, supported\nwholly by the state — all these should be carried to any extent the people\nin their wisdom might determine. The people will decide. The only\nanswer, therefore, to the question of limits to the public support of\neducation is the answer returned by the best public opinion that can,\nthru public discussion, be made at any time to prevail.\nTheoretically\n\n"}
{"page": 262, "printed_page": null, "text": "252\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nthere are no limits beyond which a government of the people and by the\npeople may not act for the people in education as in anything else.\nBut, it may be said, granting there are no limits to what the people\nmay rightly do in supporting the higher education, if they choose, yet\nthere ought to be reasons proving it wise for the people to go so far as is\noften proposed. If the benefits of the higher education can be bestowed\non only a few, why should they be bestowed on any, at the public cost ?\nIs it democratic to educate the few at the expense of the many ? Let\nJefferson answer in language used by him in setting before the legislature\nof Virginia the purpose for which the university of that state was to be\nsupported at public cost:\nTo form the statesmen, legislators, and judges, on whom public prosperity and\nindividual happiness are so much to depend ; to expound the principles of government,\nthe laws which regulate the intercourse of nations, those fonned municipally for our own\ngovernment, and a sound spirit of legislation, which, banishing all arbitrary and unnecessary restraint on individual action, shall leave us free to do whatever does not violate the\nequal rights of another ; to harmonize and promote the interests of agriculture,\nmanufactures, and commerce, and by well-informed views of political economy to give\nfree scope to public industry; to develop the reasoning faculties of our youth, enlarge\ntheir minds, cultivate their morals, and instill into them precepts of virtue and order ; to\nenlighten them with mathematical and physical sciences, which advance the arts and\nadminister to the health, the subsistence, and the comfort of human life ; and, finally, to\nform them to habits of reflection and correct action, rendering them examples of virtue\nto others and of happiness within themselves — these are the objects of that higher grade\nof education, the benefits and blessings of which the legislature now propose to provide\nfor the good and ornament of their country, the gratification and happiness of their\nfellow-citizens.\n\nThe doctrine here set forth is that a democracy must educate its\nleaders. So, indeed, must an aristocracy, or the ruling class under any\nform of government. All civilized governments provide higher education for the youth who are expected to exercise the higher functions in\nthe state. If the government and society be aristocratic, the higher\nplaces in the public service and the opportunities for political leadership,\nas well as the education necessary for these, are restricted to the privileged\nand wealthy classes. But in a democracy the opportunities for leadership\nand places in the public service are open freely to all. Native talent for\nleadership, the power to persuade multitudes of men and to determine\ntheir action, are inborn gifts, not restricted to any one sort or description\nof men. Leaders spring up anywhere, at any time; and the people,\nwhose delight is to be led, trust them and follow them more or less\nblindly. There are no questions of public policy, of peace or war, of\nannexation or conquest, of revenue and expenditure, of commerce and\nindustry, of banking and currency, or of ethics, law, and justice, which\nself-appointed popular leaders, however ignorant or however knavish, do\nnot presume to discuss and decide for their followers. Hence in a\ndemocracy, much more than under other forms of government, does the\n\n"}
{"page": 263, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nDEMOCRACY\n\nAND\n\nEDUCATION\n\n253\n\npublic weal depend on the character of the men who assume popular\nleadership — whether they be demagogs or whether they be wise and\nhonest statesmen. An absolu,te government can suppress demagogs ;\na democracy must educate them.\nAnother high authority, Francis Wayland, says :\nIn order to the most perfect condition of any society, it is necessary that, whatever\nunusual talent of any kind exists, it be so cultivated as to be able to accomplish the\nhighest results of which it has been made capable. This talent is very equally distributed\namong the various orders of society ; least of all is it limited to the rich. But the means\nfor the thorough and radical training of a human mind are very expensive. They involve\nthe cost of libraries, philosophical apparatus, laboratories, and a formidable array of\nteachers of distinguished ability. Were these to be provided by individual enterprise,\nthe expense would be so great that none but the rich would be educated, and by far the\nlarger part of the talent of a country must perish in useless obscurity. Hence arises the\nreason why a larger portion of these means, all that which involves the outlay of considerable capital, should be the property of the public, and why it should be open to the use\nof all who might by the use of it be rendered in any way the benefactors of the whole.\nThe design, therefore, of university establishment, so far as the public is concerned, is\n.... to foster and cultivate the highest talent of the nation, and raise the intellectual\ncharacter of the whole by throwing the brightest light of science in the path of those\nwhom nature has qualified to lead.\n\nIn this passage the former president of Brown University has clearly\npointed out the great public purpose for which university endowments\nexist, whether those endowments are made by the state or by private citizens. There is always a danger, even among a democratic people, lest\nthe institutions of higher education be managed in an undemocratic\nspirit, as happens when education in them becomes so costly that only\nthe rich can afford it, while those who receive it as a gift are thought to\nhave compromised their self-respect by accepting a charity. Institutions\nso managed do but foster certain aristocratic tendencies which are always\nlatent in a democratic society ; but to which the spirit of the higher education ought always to be opposed.\nLet us now consider the stage of education which precedes that of\nthe university, but follows the common schools, and inquire what is\ndemanded here by an enlightened democratic policy.\nThe interest of the commonwealth in the higher education of all the\nablest and worthiest of her youth being, as we have seen, predominant, it\nfollows that free schools for secondary education — ^that is, academies and\nhigh schools — should be easily accessible to all, should be efficient, and\nshould be kept at all times in close and vital relations with the universities.\nThe public high school, supported by local taxation, has now to a large\nextent displaced the classical academy of our grandfathers' day. The\nacademies were always closely bound to the universities ; they lived but\nfor them ; and the academies that have survived to the present day have\nbeen able to do so by becoming nothing else but mere fitting schools for\n\n"}
{"page": 264, "printed_page": null, "text": "2 54\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nthe universities. But the relations between the public high schools and\nthe universities, more especially in states having no state university, have\nnot been satisfactory until quite recently. This has been because the\nuniversities have heretofore insisted on a narrow, tho excellent, line of\nstudy — the classical curriculum — as the only proper course of preparation for the university ; while the people in their public high schools\nwere preparing youth, some for the university, but many more for active\nlife, by using for the latter purpose a much broader range of studies.\nNone of these latter studies, however, were accepted as a part of the\nrequired preparation for the university. And so it happened that many\nan excellent youth, tho fired with intellectual zeal by some of his highschool studies or teachers, and able to offer substantial proofs of intellectual strength and maturity, nevertheless found no thorofare to the\nuniversity, save by turning back and traveling the old classical highway.\nBut of late there has come a change for the better. There is no doubt\nbut that the recent action of Harvard College in enlarging the range of\noptions in the list of requirements for admission to the cpurse leading to\nthe bachelor of arts degree will be followed by similar action on the\npart of many other universities. So the old classical highway is no\nlonger the only road leading to the university ; other good roads have\nbeen opened, and are now traveled by many. Preparation for the university and preparation for active life in the public high schools are not\ntasks so different nor so difficult of simultaneous accomplishment as once\nthey were. Thanks to the labors of the Committee of Ten, the value of\ncertain studies other than classical, as affording good preparatory discipline, has been recognized by the universities ; and so it has become practicable to bring high- school studies into living contact with university\nstudies at many new points.\nIn this way has university education been brought within reach of\nmore youth, and of youth endowed with a greater variety of native\ntalent. All this makes for the popularization of the higher education in\nthe best sense of the word.\nThe movement is essentially democratic.\nThe next great step in the popularization of the higher education will\nprobably come in a very considerable enlargement of the courses of study\nin the public high schools themselves. Some branches hitherto taught in\ncolleges, more especially those taught in the first two years of the usual\ncollege course, might well be taught in our high schools. In other words,\nour high schools might well grow to fill the place hitherto occupied by\nthe colleges, while the colleges were encouraged to develop themselves into\nreal universities. That is just the uplift which education in America most\nneeds at the present time. Our public high schools should hold to our\nuniversities the same relation which the German Gymnasien and Realschuleti, or the French lycees, hold to the universities in those countries.\nUntil our high schools reach these European standards, and so become\n\n"}
{"page": 265, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessionsi\n\nDEMOCRACY\n\nAND\n\nEDUCATION\n\n255\n\nthe direct feeders of universities, also not inferior to European institutions of the same kind, there will be desirable enlargements and improvements to be made in our public high schools. And the signs of this\npresent time seem to indicate that the people will be ready and willing to\nenlarge and improve their high schools in this way, and to support their\nuniversities in leading the movement.\nConsider now another great body of youth of high-school age — the\nboys and girls from fourteen to eighteen years of age who, having left the\ncommon schools with or without a knowledge of all the studies there\ntaught, have no purpose to fit themselves for the university, or even to\nenter the high schools for the studies hitherto usually pursued there —\nwhat should public instruction do for them ?\nHere we enter a broad field which public instruction in this country\nhas hardly more than begun to occupy. It is true, we have evening\nschools in many of our large cities for the instruction of adults and youth\nin elementary branches. There are also a few evening high schools and\nevening drawing schools. We have, too, whatever small beginnings have\nbeen made in the way of industrial education, a few industrial art schools,\nand a few manual training schools. But all these agencies are capable of\ngreat and useful extension.\nTo realize fully what may be done thru public instruction to promote the industrial and commercial interests of a nation, we must turn\nfrom the slow and inconstant operation of our democratic governments\nto the prompt and systematic action of the centralized governments of\nEurope. For about twenty years past the states of the German empire\nhave been perfecting a system of commercial and industrial education, the\neffects of which are now apparent in a greatly increased foreign commerce\nand in a large output of industrial products that win a preference in foreign markets over similar products of French and English manufacturers.\nThese commercial and industrial schools have become very numerous\nin Germany ; and their instruction touches every branch of commerce or\nindustry in which any considerable number of people is engaged. They\nare usually started by trades unions under the encouragement of the government; and when success has justified their continuance in any case,\nthe state usually assumes the payment of the teachers' salaries, and the\ntown the cost of buildings and equipment. The fees, which are small,\nmeet incidental expenses. These schools are not under the jurisdiction\nof the minister of education, but under that of the minister of industry\nand commerce.\nIf the United States were as well supplied with schools of this kind as\nGermany is, they would contain more pupils than do all our public high\nschools at the present time. Boston, for example, would have twenty\nsuch schools with four thousand pupils, Philadelphia forty-six with over\nnine thousand pupils, and other cities in like proportion.\n\n"}
{"page": 266, "printed_page": null, "text": "256\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n■\n\nIGeneral\n\nThe German industrial schools are not always nor chiefly given to\ninstruction in the mere manual operations of the craft itself. These are\noften acquired in the workshops, where the pupils are already engaged as\napprentices, their attendance at the industrial schools taking place evenings and Sundays. Here the pupils are taught the general principles of\ntheir chosen craft; and, in addition, the drawing, the modeling, the\ndesigning, the geometry, the physics, the chemistry, the economics, the\naesthetics, the historic development, or the superior technical skill or\nknowledge of any kind which promises to make each craftsman more efficient, and therefore more valuable, to himself and to the community.\nWhen England, a few years ago, perceived that industrial supremacy\nwas passing from her people, and that German manufactured goods were\nrapidly displacing hers in foreign markets, she set on foot a parliamentary\ninquiry commission, and discovered that the one great cause of the recent\ncommercial and industrial advance in Germany was the very thoro system\nof technical education which had grown up under the fostering care of\nthe government. This system had been borrowed from France, where\ncommercial and industrial schools have flourished for a much longer time\nthan in Germany. England has not been slow to heed the lessons taught\nher by France and Germany. She is now developing a system of technical education which will soon be, if it be not already, inferior to none\nin Europe. Now, what lesson has the United States to learn from these\nEuropean examples ? When the industries of our country, no longer\ncontent with the home market, shall seek for a share of the trade in foreign markets, and so shall come into direct competition with the industries of Europe, they will require for their support, not higher protective\ntariffs, but more men and women industrially educated. The only sure\nprotection of home industries, in the long run, is the protection afforded\nby industrial education.\nBut industrial advancement and supremacy are not the only ends that\nmay justify the government in promoting industrial education. There is\na worse national evil than the loss of supremacy or of importance in the\nworld's marts of industry, and that evil is industrial ignorance. By industrial ignorance we mean not merely the illiteracy of working people, but\nthe lack of such knowledge and technical skill as should make them\nresourceful and independent amidst the frequent revolutions in industrial\nconditions and methods which characterize the present age. Industrial\nignorance is the prolific source of the idleness, the poverty, the misery, the\ndespair, and the lawless violence which too often possess masses of unemployed wage-earners, and make them a ready prey of the scheming demagog or the willing hearers of the gospel of anarchy. Industrial education will remove, or at least mitigate, this social danger.\nIf it be asked, again, how far industrial education may properly be\ncarried at the public cost by a democratic government, the answer is the\n\n"}
{"page": 267, "printed_page": null, "text": "ScMions]\n\nDEMOCRAC\n\nY AND\n\nEDUCA\n\nTION\n\n257\n\nsame as before. The people in a free commonwealth ought to do no\nless for themselves than is done by monarchical governments for their\nsubjects. As there are no limits beyond which public instruction in the\nso-called liberal arts may not be carried, save in the will of the people,\nso there are no limits beyond which public instruction in the industrial\narts may not be carried. Surely a people that taxes itself to foster infant\nindustries, and even to aid them when full grown, would act wisely in\nusing some of its revenues to educate its youth for employment in those\nindustries, instead of leaving them to be carried on by industrially educated foreign immigrants.\nWe have now passed over the ground covered by the higher and by\nsecondary education. Debatable ground, at some points, it is admitted\nto be. Yet the aim has been to set forth those views of education which\nseem best entitled to prevail in a democracy.\nTurning now to the education of young children, we may say, with\ngeneral assent, that democratic principles require education thru this\nstage to be universal. To this end, public instruction should be both\nfree and compulsory. During a certain period of childhood — say from\nseven to fourteen years of age — every child should be in school — in a\nprivate school if his parents so desire, otherwise in a good public school.\nThis requirement should subject the parent to no pecuniary burden, but\nshould compel him to accept the benefit of his child's education.\nPublic education is in no sense a charity bestowed by wealthy taxpayers on the children of their poorer neighbors. It is rather the best\nsecurity the taxpayers can take for the safety of the very property out of\nwhich the taxes are gathered. No man having property, or the hope of\nany, can afford to take on himself, or on his descendants, the risks\ninvolved in the neglect of public instruction in the common schools.\nBut. not alone as a security for social order or for property values is the\ncommon school interesting to the wealthy citizen ; it is the best place for\nthe education of his own children ; his own children will be irreparably\nharmed by being denied the privilege of going there. All this is easily\nadmitted as a matter of theory ; but there are difficulties in the way of its\nbecoming the universal rule of practice. There ought not to be, but\nthere are, people who permit themselves to cherish the notion that the\npublic schools, tho good enough for the many, are not quite nice enough\nfor their own children. They fail to realize what their children lose by\ngrowing up apart from the children whom they are to meet as fellow-citizens later in life, and out of the reach of those civic and patriotic influences which only a public school can impart. There are some words of\nthe late Phillips Brooks, bishop of Massachusetts, spoken by him on the\noccasion of the celebration of the 250th anniversary of the Boston Latin\nSchool, which nobly express the true democratic sentiment on this point.\nHe says :\n\n"}
{"page": 268, "printed_page": null, "text": "258\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Genen.1\n\n. In the twentieth century, as in those that have gone before, our school will be a city\nschool. Its students will find that enlargement of thought and life which comes from\nclose personal connection in the most sensitive years with public life. Here, let me- say\nagain, is a blessing which no private school can give\nWould that [this] blessing\nmight be made absolutely universal ! Would that it might be so arranged that once in\nthe life of every Boston boy, if only for three months, he might be a pupil of a public\nschool, might see his city sitting in the teacher's chair, might find himself, along with\nboys of all degrees and classes, simply recognized by his community as one of her children '. It would put an element into his character and life which he would never lose.\nIt would insure the unity and public spirit of our citizens. It would add tenderness and\npride and gratitude to the more base and sordid feelings with which her sons rejoice in\ntheir mother's wealth and strength and fame.\n\nThere is another difficulty in the way of bringing all children of\nschool age under public instruction, and that comes, not from the wealth\nor social exclusiveness, but from the poverty of parents. But the poverty\nof the parent must not be relieved by a sacrifice of the child's education.\nThe law of compulsory attendance comes in here for the protection of\nthe child, as well as of the community. The poverty of the parent must\nbe relieved in other ways than by permitting the premature withdrawal\nof the child from school for the sake of the small wages he might earn.\nThen there are the unwilling and the careless or indifferent parents,\nwhom the law should compel to school their children ; and there are the\nmorally weak parents, who need the law's aid in controlling their wayward and truant children. It is only by a thoro exec'ution of compulsoryattendance laws that public instruction can be made to accomplish all\nthat should be expected of it for all classes of children. The difficulties\nhere encountered are growing daily more serious in our large cities; but\nso are the efforts put forth to overcome them growing more strenuous.\nPublic opinion is awakening to the importance of the matter, and the\noutlook is encouraging.\nOne more grade of public instruction — that for children under seven\nyears of age — claims a brief notice before closing. For a long time our\npeople seem to have acted on the Spartan rule, that public instruction\nshould not begin before the age of seven years. Up to that age Spartan\nchildren — or boys, rather, for we find no mention of girls — were left\nabsolutely to the care of their mothers. This we must regard as fortunate,\nwhen we remember how intensely public their education was ; for the\nboys were taken out of their homes and kept all the time, day and night,\nunder the eye of public officials, who administered upon them the severest\ncourse of discipline known in the history of education. Perhaps many of\nour common schools of former days were of that Spartan type that made\nthem unsuitable places for young children to be in at all. However that\nmay be, we know that primary schools are quite a recent addition to our\nsystem of public instruction, and the kindergarten is still more recent.\nMoreover, the theory and practice of education, as applied to voung chil\\\n\n-\n\n"}
{"page": 269, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nDEMOCRACY\n\nAND\n\nEDUCATION\n\n259\n\ndren in a school, are of quite recent growth. This growth has been greatly\nstimulated, as well as guided, by the kindergarten of Froebel. The best\nreason for bringing the kindergarten into our system of public instruction\nis not that the school may thereby be brought as near as possible to the\nnursery, highly desirable tho this is for vast numbers of children, but\nthat the kindergarten, by its constant presence and example, may inspire\nwith its benign spirit the whole body of primary instruction.\nWe have now traversed the whole field of public instruction, from the\nuniversity to the kindergarten. We have found that democratic principles\nrequire its support in all grades; that an enlightened democratic policy\ngives it a large scope ; and that its limits are such only as the people may\nsee fit to adopt. There is no sort of intellectual training, no useful knowledge, no profitable skill, which public instruction may not legitimately\nundertake to impart. It should go as far as an enlightened public sentiment can be found to sustain it.\nAnd yet the great purpose for which a democratic government ought\nto do all this has not been stated in words, tho more than once suggested.\nThis great purpose, above all others — including and controlling all\nothers — is the education of the young citizen to good citizenship. And\nthis is a moral purpose ; for it aims not only to preserve the institutions\nof civil liberty, but, thru these, to help on the progress and elevation of\nthe human race.\nWe well know that men maybe intelligent, but not wise ; may understand their individual rights, but fail to respect the rights of others ;\nmay be keen in the pursuit of private interests, but selfishly indifferent to\nthe public welfare ; maybe restive under the restraints placed upon them,\neven by their own government, and yet unwilling to hold over themselves\nthat control which makes governmental restraint unnecessary.\nWe learned long ago that universal suffrage, in itself, affords no guaranty of civil liberty. Nor does universal suffrage joined with popular\nintelligence give the desired guaranty. It was a highly intelligent people\nin France that used universal suffrage to ratify the coup d 'etat of Louis\nNapoleon, thereby subjecting itself to a corrupt empire, which ignored\nor injured its best interests for twenty years, and ended by plunging\nthe nation into the most humiliating catastrophe known in modern\nhistory. To come nearer home, do we not see the intelligent voters\nagain and again commit the amazing folly of submitting themselves\nto the absolute despotism of the political boss ? Do we not see great\ncities and great states held in subjection by the power of organized corruption and plunder ? The astounding betrayals of public interests are\nwrought by the voters at popular elections. They are wrought by men\nwho can read and write ; by men who can reason ; by men who understand what are the highest interests of the community, but who choose,\nnevertheless, to serve their own selfish ends.\nThe worst disease which\n\n"}
{"page": 270, "printed_page": null, "text": "26o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nnow afflicts our body politic is political indifference. Spread among the\npeople of our larger cities, it has already made our municipal governments\na national reproach, and, if not stayed, will soon make them sources of\nnational danger. The cure for this disease is not to be found in the\nexclusion of illiterate men from the voting body, nor in the application\nof reading and writing tests to foreign immigrants.\nIt is not more intelligence that we want, but more conscience ; not\nmore knowledge of the duties of citizenship, but a more patriotic resolve\nto discharge them. The great reason why a democracy educates its\ncoming citizens, rich and poor alike, is that all may grow up under the\nobligations of conscience and patriotism to use for the public service those\npowers which have been fostered and matured by public instruction.\nDe Tocqueville said : \"In the United States politics are the end and\naim of education.\" His meaning is that every man has political duties;\nevery man is a public man ; and the supreme aim of his education is to\nfit him for the discharge of those duties, however high or however humble\nmay be his part in public affairs. These duties are imposed on every\ncitizen by the very forms of free government ; and on the patriotic fulfillment of these duties rest the life and safety of free government itself.\nTherefore, let Public Instruction meet the young citizen in the tender\nyears of childhood ; let her accompany him all the way thru the common\nschool, the high school, and the university ; let her impart to him all\nuseful knowledge, all desirable skill; let her enlarge his mind for the\nreception of all truth, purify his tastes for the appreciation of all beauty,\nawaken and guide his aspirations toward all excellence: let her give him\na knowledge of his rights as a citizen, and a disposition to maintain\nthem ; let her lead him to understand the equal rights of others, and to\nrespect them ; let her point out his duties to his neighbor, to his town,\nto his state, and to the nation, and inspire him with a purpose to fulfill\nthem ; and, finally, when she takes leave of him as he goes out into active\nlife from the doors of the university, or of the high school, or of the\ncommon school, may she rejoice in having sent him forth with a heart\ngrateful to the republic for having given him so gracious a companion,\nand filled with a high purpose to serve the republic so long as life may\nlast.\n\nDISCUSSION\nMcHenrv Rhoads, superintendent of schools, Frankfort, Ky. — Democracy and\neducation — these two are so closely connected, so nearly allied in all relations,\nhat one feels himself on unassailable territory in asserting that one does not exist without the other, that the one has not existed without the other, that the one cannot exist\nwithout the other.\n\n"}
{"page": 271, "printed_page": null, "text": ",]\n\nDEMOCRACY\n\nAND\n\nEDUCATION\n\n261\n\nIt may be difticult to determine whence comes the idea- the right of a peoi)le to\ngovern itself thru delegates selected by itself. We may search for its beginning\naround the dikes of Holland, or in the woodland ceremonies of the ancient Teuton,\nor in the declamations from the tribunes of Rome, or beneath the blue skies of once\nbrave and heroic Greece, and find only faint appearances revealing themselves in the forms\nof the governments studied. However fruitless may be our search for the beginning, the\nprinciple stands in full and complete operation today, as a fact ; its embodiment, the\nAmerican republic, being, perhaps, the most powerful exponent of the truth among the\ngovernments of the earth. What was an experiment is an accomplished fact, and a government of the people, by the people, and for the people is the result.\nThe restless and resistless passion for independence, for individual liberty, more\nthan a desire to escape religious proscription and persecution, was the great moving\nprinciple that prompted men to leave their home and country on the other side of the\nocean, and make for themselves and their posterity both a home and a country in an\nunknown world, on a principle which, as yet, had been but imperfectly understood and\nbut partially tried. This spirit of liberty, more than all charters wrung from Saxon lord\nor Norman baron, became the propelling and controlling force in the formation of the\ngovernmental policies of the new country. The corner-stone of this government is that\nevery man shall govern himself, and this is democracy. Broadly stated, the one is\nselected by the many, to conduct those affairs which pertain to other and more than the\nindividual ; hence the community, the state, the nation, each in turn, performing government functions which do not relate exclusively to the individual.\nA government will be wise and liberal as those who administer it are educated in a\nbroad and liberal humanistic sentiment. The framers of our national constitution\nrealized this fact when they constructed that immortal document. Justice cannot be\nestablished by a people ignorant of the highest rights of man. Domestic tranquility\ncannot be insured by those who know not the duties of the individual to society. The\ncommon defense cannot be provided for by those who realize not who nor what should\nbe defended. The general welfare cannot be promoted by those who are not devoted to\nthe good of the whole people. The blessings of liberty can never be secured by those\nwho know not the highest and truest meaning of that liberty which respects in every\nparticular the rights of their fellow-man. Nor can these be perpetuated by any save\nthose who realize the great aim of representative self-government and the ultimate\ndestiny of life.\nIn the past, when govermenl became more liberal and the right of self-government\nwas meagerly doled out to the people thru the enlargement of the right of suffrage, it\nwas given only to the best and most intelligent of citizens, and, altho we at one time\nextended this privilege to a class totally unprepared for its use, we set about correcting\nthe possible evil results by educating that class in the right exercise of this privilege or\nduty by furnishing to them free education in an elementary way.\nThe pilgrims, who brought with them to this country an intense love of liberty, loved\nlearning as well, and sought to extend knowledge as the only safe and sure bulwark of\nfree institutions which they founded on virgin soil.\nThe author of the Declaration of Independence, that sheet anchor of faith in popular\ngovernment, believed in the aristocracy of intellect rather than the aristocracy of\nwealth or ancestry. His biographer says : \"The third great object of his life was to\npromote popular education as an essential condition to the safety of the republic.\"\nWhile he advocated unbounded liberty, he knew well enough that it would degenerate\n'into license unless the people were informed.\nDuring many centuries the exclusiveness of scholarly attainments was a matter of\ngreat pride, but now the universality of educational possibilities is not only the pride but\nstrength of representative government.\nThere is a great and noble ideal in the educa-\n\n"}
{"page": 272, "printed_page": null, "text": "262\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\ntional life of the present century. The theories of great educational reformers are\nbearing a bountiful, beneficent fruitage. The mutual and intimate relations existing\nbetween the political and intellectual life of the individual and nation are clearly discerned,\nand the prosperity and peace of the masses are recognized as essential to the prosperity\nand peace of the nation.\nOur criterion of education is fixed by the end to be attained thru its agency. If the\nhighest aim of education is to fit the individual for the enjoyment of the rights and duties\nof citizenship, and to enable that individual to get the most out of life, then he should be\neducated in all that pertains to the enjoyment of these rights and the fulfillment of thes\nduties.\nHe should know something of geography, for here he finds the natural causes which\nhave helped him forward to his destiny. He should know something of language, for\nhere he enjoys the pleasures of intercourse, and the delights of a literary life. He should\nknow something of science, for here he sees the handmaid of man in his struggle for\nexistence. He should know something of mathematics, for here he engages in those\npursuits that enable him to subdue natural difficulties. He should know something of\ncivics, for here he studies the rights and duties of man to his fellow, to his community,\nto his country. He should know something of morals, for here he is taught the highest\nduty of the individual on earth, and the hope of the hereafter.\nIf. the state has a right to educate at all (and I hold it has), it has the right to educate in all those things which will, in the end, conserve both the highest interest of the\nperson and the government to which he is subject — the individual and the nation.\nIt is not far from axiomatic to assert that every person must be allowed the privilege\nof enjoying the fruits of his own honest labor in any way pleasing to himself that does\nnot interfere with the similar privilege of others, or is not detrimental to the general good\nof the social organization of which he is necessarily a component part. The relation of\nman to society necessitates that he fit and prepare himself for usefulness and enjoyment in life. The proper training of the individual \"enriches life, deepens and broadens\nhis own view of truth, ennobles his aims, strengthens his choice for the right, clarifies his\nvision,\" and in numerous other ways prepares him better for living.\nThere are those who maintain that the state, in educating its youth, fosters a spirit\nof paternalism which is, in itself, a destructive agent in national life. They reason that\nit is the business of the individual to educate himself, at his own expense, and as the\nresult of his own effort. The value of individual effort is so great that some degree of\nplausibility attaches to their argument. They do not, however, seem to consider that\npopular and general education, altho conducted by the state, may avail itself of individual\nenergy far more readily, and with better possible results, than the unassisted individual\nmight ever be able to accomplish for himself. Moreover, the absolute necessity of an\neducated people is so apparent that the social organization is practically forced to direct\nthe education of its members, in order successfully to perpetuate its own existence.\nAgain, there are those who hold that with the educational progress of the past half\ncentury crime has kept even pace, and have us infer, by a kind of innuendo, that the one\nwas in some way connected with the other, if not its natural and direct progeny. They\nrecite volumes of statistical information, talk learnedly of the percentage of crime to the\npopulation, and assert that the educational efforts of half a hundred years has not materially\nimproved the condition of man in this regard. But the thoughtful student and investigator finds abundant cause for congratulation in his careful analysis of the supposed relation\nbetween education and crime. In a carefully prepared report on criminal statistics, an\ninvestigator of truth says : \" Intemperance is a parent of a greater part of this crimfe,\nand 95 per cent, of it comes from, uneducated homes.\" Another authority says : \" There\nis a class of our children who receive no instruction, and from this class comes the bulk\nof our\n\ncriminals.\"\n\nThe\n\nNational Reform Society, years ago,\n\nin one\n\nof its reports,\n\n"}
{"page": 273, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nDEMOCRACY\n\nAND\n\nEDUCATION\n\n263\n\nestimates that from 3 to 7 per cent, of the population of the United States committed\nmore than 30 per cent, of all its crimes, and that less than one-fifth of i per cent, was\ncommitted by those who were educated. In my own state, a late report shows that out\nof 561 prisoners received in the local prison only one man claimed to have a good education. After a careful investigation of this objection to popular education, I am forced\nto the conclusion that the objectors reason from false premises to conclusions equally\nillusive, and that their objections are as groundless as their argument is deceptive.\nThey might find some cause for a part of the crime so prevalent in these degenerate days\nin a relaxed home discipline and insufficient parental control, which in turn begets a\nspirit of insubordination to regularly constituted authority and a complete disregard for\nlegal restrictions. In so far as the school assists the home along this dangerous course,\nit is subject to the severest censure.\nRichard Hardy, superintendent of schools, Ishpeming, Mich. — The city superintendent isconfronted by two sets of conditions : the pedagogical, representing the\ndirect management of his schools ; the sociological, which has to do with the relations\nexisting in his school and his community. From these arise all the problems that vex his\nsoul, and with them he must deal when he takes up the subject of my discussion, \"The\nmost Important Problems to be Solved in the Supervision of City Schools.\"\nGrowing out of the first set of conditions are such problems as the course of study,\neducational values, preparation of teachers, grading of pupils, etc.; while from the second\narises all the multitude of problems that must be met and solved before the school can be\nin perfect harmony with the community.\nThe educational world has thus far given its attention very largely to a consideration\nof the pedagogical side of the matter. This phase of education has engaged and\nengrossed us, and it is safe to say that never has an educational meeting given less than\n90 per cent, of its attention to the purely professional side. This is undoubtedly as it\nshould be, and yet it may be possible that we should have made even greater progress, had\nwe given more thought to what may be termed the sociological side. We are deeply\nconcerned in any movement that will further educational progress, and I believe that we\nare generally agreed that the schools of today suffer quite as much from inadequate equipments as from inadequate preparation on the part of teachers. It has not been a difficult\nmatter to bring about the higher standards for {jualifications for teachers, because the business world has felt that in such matters it would better not interfere, and for business reasons; but it has been a hard task to bring it to see the necessity for better equipment.\nAnd why? The community does not take the teacher seriously; it looks upon him as one\nwho has to do with children and children's things. It rarely considers him as a business\nman, and it rides over him rough-shod when he tries to lift his views to attention. There\nmust be some reason for this, and there is. It is because he is 90 per cent, professional and\n10 per cent, business. It is because he has always preferred to be considered a school-teacher\ninstead of the director and age'nt of the largest expenditure of a community. It is because\nhe has always preferred the society of books to the society of men. If any care to make\na practical test, select twenty-five of the best schools of the country, and then make an\nexamination of the men at their heads. You will tind them, very generally, men in\nwhom the business sense has been developed ; men who have studied the needs and\ndemands of the material world, as well as of the world of spirit. You will find, too, that\ntheir schools are excellent because of their equipments, and this is due to the fact that\nthe superintendents have impressed themselves upon their communities as business men.\nThey have studied their communities, and understand their needs. If, then, this matter\nlies so neai that of progress, it is highly essential that it be given our attention, and that\nsuperintendents give more of their time and thought to the demands of their individual\ncommunities. It must be borne in mind, too, that conditions are not always the same.\nThe statement that a superintendent in a city of 10,000 has trials that are verv like those\n\n"}
{"page": 274, "printed_page": null, "text": "264\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nexperienced by one in a city of 200,000 may be true, and it may not. Hence there is\nnot absolute truth in the assertion that what applies to the larger cities applies with\nequal force to the smaller municipalities. Every community has its own problems to\nsolve, its own conditions to meet, and he is wise who early gives his time to them.\nIt has always been made to appear that an education that is best for one is best for\nall ; that a preparation that is best for the children of the wealthiest and most cultured\nfamilies of a community is also best for the children of the entire community. It is the\nold spirit of scholasticism, ever a powerful influence in matters of education. But must\nwe be guided by this spirit ? Are we to believe that the changed conditions of life are\nnot to necessitate a changed condition in school management and school life ?\nFor what is the school established ? What is its purpose ? It is my contention that\nthe school is for the community and that it must keep the interests of the community ever\nbefore it. Do communities differ ? Are they all alike in sentiment, in culture, in modes\nof thought and life, in occupation ? Is there no difference between the school conditions\nof a New England village and a city whose population is largely of foreign birth and\nwhose sole occupation is mining ? Are there not different problems to be met with in\nthese communities, and must not the school management be necessarily different ? Every\nsuperintendent in a city of 100,000 knows that in some of his wards he must work upon\nan entirely different plan from that upon which he works in others. If these conditions are so\nvaried, is it not reasonable for us to advance the idea that a supervising officer's first duty\nis to learn the needs and conditions of his community ? As these differ, so must his provisions for his own school.\nIt is, then, very apparent that a schoolman's first and most important duty is to provide in the community the best school that he can for the boys and girls of that community. Itis not to be taken for granted that, because some good results have followed\nthe introduction of a certain policy in one city, similar results will follow its introduction\nin another city where conditions are very different.\nI have in mind two cities of my own state that well illustrate the matter. One is the\nseat of our university ; the other is a city of twice the size, but containing a population\nthat is largely made up of people who are of foreign birth and who have not ideals of\neducation that are very lofty. The one is a preparatory school for a great university ;\nthe other is a preparatory school for life. One holds before its students the necessity of\nso preparing their work that they may be able to meet the requirements of the various\ndepartments of the university ; the other holds before the boys and girls the necessity\nof so working that they may become useful, honest, self-respecting, self-reliant men and\nwomen. One gives a splendid preparation in the languages and mathematics and other\nrequired subjects ; the other has a splendidly equipped manual-training school and is\nmaking its work center about this department. One school will send its students into the\nprofessions ; the other will send out mechanics and skilled artisans. Does not each fill\nits function ? Has not each its place, and is not each equally entitled to our commendation and regard ? How silly it would be for the second to make of his school a college\npreparatory school ! And yet there is a strong demand that this should be done, for we\nare not yet free from the fashions in things educational. It is, then, of the greatest importance that a superintendent should be keen enough to see the demands of his community,\nand to work for them regardless of the criticisms that may be made by those who may be\nable to see but one side of a matter that has two very distinct and well-defined sides. It\nis a fact, also, that most of the children of a community are absorbed by it and become a\npart of its life. ' Their future homes are to be in the place where they receive their education, hence a new responsibility upon the part of the school to fit them that they may\nbe of the greatest benefit to themselves and to their fellows. It must be the aim of the\nsuperintendent to learn, as far as possible, the requirements demanded for this best life.\nHe must close his ears to the present cry for uniformitv.\nThere is too much of this at\n\n"}
{"page": 275, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nDEMOCRACY\n\nAND\n\nEDUCATION\n\n265\n\npresent. There is too little study of actual conditions. Uniformity is demanded in courses\nof study, until inspiration and individuality on the part of- teachers are almost a thing\nof the past ; uniformity in university requirements, until our high schools have become\nnothing but feeders for higher institutions of learning. There may be too much of it.\nThere are fundamentals in the instruction of youth that must be regarded, but not every\nphase of education is a fundamental.\nIn conclusion, I would not urge that this view be set down as our understanding of\nthe most important problem confronting the superintendent. It is, however, one of the\nmost important, and it is gradually coming to larger attention. It certainly seems that\n\"there can be nothing of greater importance to us than the demands and needs of our\ncommunities. They give us our support, and to them we must look for our futures.\nHow can the school be conducted for the greatest good of the patrons, the supporters,\nand the children ? Let us keep in mind the diverse conditions that exist and the diverse\ndemands of life upon all. Let us study our communities more carefully, more thoroly,\nand from the fuller knowledge obtained from this gtudy we shall derive the power to make\nour schools of the greatest possible value.\nCharles D. McIver, president of The State Normal and Industrial College, Greensboro, N. C. — Without faith and generosity it is impossible to be a democrat. On the\ncontrary, a superficial view of one's environment, a little pride and selfishness, a little\ndeification of tradition under the soothing name of conservatism, proclaiming as a religion\nthe doctrine that \" Whatever is is right,\" are the chief ingredients which go to make up\na thorobred aristocrat.\nThat the wisdom of all the people is greater than the wisdom of a part of the people\nsounds mathematical and axiomatic, yet the practical adoption of this principle by individuals or governments requires faith of the mountain-moving variety. The average\nman, even among intense democrats, frequently betrays the weakness of his faith in the\npeople by showing that he has more confidence in the wisdom of a small committee, of\nwhich he is chairman, than he has in the wisdom of all the people combined. Because of\nthis weakness of our faith we are inclined often to give more attention to preparing men\nto serve on the small committees of life, so that they may manage the people's affairs,\nthan we are to educating the people so that they may direct their own affairs, and so that\ntheir voice, which in theory is supreme, may be supreme in fact.\nThomas Jefferson stood alone among the fathers of this republic in his advocacy of\nabsolute democracy and universal education. His first important act as a public man\nwas the introduction of a bill, in the legislature of his state, for the abolition of slavery,\nand his second was for the establishment of a thoro public-school system. He wanted\nneither physical nor intellectual bondage in a democratic government, and while he\nnever saw his ideas adopted in either direction, and while he himself died a slave-owner,\nyet his implicit faith in the people, and his unswerving advocacy of their education, will\nmark him forever as one of the patron saints of democrats and educators. It was while\nadvocating his favorite doctrine of universal education that Aaron Burr exclaimed querulously at him : \" What do you want to educate them for ? They are hard enough to\nmanage now.\"\nAnd there are men today who, driven from Aaron Burr's position by the omnipotence\nof truth and time, are retreating as slowly as possible, and, under the guise of generosity\nand patronizing friendship, are saying : \" I am willing to give them the three R's,\" or, \" I\nam willing to give them a four-months' school term,\" or so many years of school work, etc.\nIn this republic, who gives the people anything ? Are they not the government\nthemselves ? God speed the day when the public school shall have done its work and\nthe people shall have come into their own inheritance.\nThe subject \" Democracy and Education \" suggests to me that we must have democracy in education.\nThis means :\n\n"}
{"page": 276, "printed_page": null, "text": "266\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\n1. Teachers who believe in genuine democracy.\n2. The source of revenue must be democratic.\n3. The administration and application of the funds must be democratic.\n1. Teachers should be men and women who believe, and have the courage and tact\nto teach, that every person has an inalienable birthright to a fair chance in life, and that\nno man or woman can escape labor of some kind without shirking his duty ; that idleness\nis a crime, and the idler a moral vagrant whether he be tramp or a millionaire ; that many\nof the greatest sins and the greatest blunders of government and society can be traced to\nthe idleness of the rich and the ignorance of the poor ; that every attempt at an aristocracy on any other basis than the golden rule laid down by the Great Teacher is a sham*\ncombination of selfishness and hypocrisy, and that an aristocracy founded upon the\ngolden rule is ideal democracy.\n2. I do not want to be misunderstood in what I shall say about the sources of educational revenue. I yield to no man in doing honor to those who have given of their\nmeans to endow educational institutions; but, if the people desire to have the scholarship\nof these United States in grateful sympathy with their own interests, I think that their\nsafest policy will be to provide sufficient means to give every man and woman an opportunity for the highest culture in institutions supported by public taxation. I want my\nchildren to respect and honor the great educational philanthropists of the world ; but I\nprefer that they should owe their education and their preparation for the battle of life to\nall the people, and, together with this debt, a feeling of obligation to repay all the people\nby using their powers so as to bless the world, rather than to owe this same debt and\nobligation to the best philanthropist that the world has ever produced. If the people are\nwise, they will continue to secure the grateful obligation of the trained intellects which\ndirect public thought in any civilization.\n3. There have been two very undemocratic methods of applying the public-school\nfunds of this country. The lower public schools have for many years been open to all children, and a child with no education at all could enter them ; but for many years only those\npeople could enter the colleges and universities of the state who had been able, at their\nown expense, to secure the necessary preparation in secondary schools, unaided by the\nstate or any other agency. A university open to all the people, but with no schools within\ntheir reach to prepare them for the university, is a sort of mockery from the standpoint of\ndemocracy.\nBut the most serious blunder, and the most remarkable one, is that for nearly a hundred years we have levied taxes and appropriated money for the support of educational\ninstitutions where only men could enter, and said to women that they must get their liberal education in their own way ; that the state had no concern about it. This blunder\nhad its origin in the undemocratic idea of education to which I referred in the beginning,\nnamely, that education was to prepare leaders. The church educated churchmen as\nleaders, and the state educated statesmen as leaders. As it was impossible, under our\nconditions of thought and policy, for a woman to become either a statesman or a churchman, we naturally came to the conclusion that liberal culture was not for her. Of course,\nmany sections of the country have outgrown this idea, and the best educational institutions of the country are opening their doors to men and women alike, and other states\nand sections are making annual appropriations to institutions for women, and are raising\nendowments for their colleges. But it is strange that we have been so slow to move in\nthis direction. Our theory is that we no longer educate men merely for leadership, but\nfor greater productiveness and better citizenship. The money invested in the training of\na man returns an increased productiveness as a laborer. In other words, the dividend on\nthe investment is material. The investment in the education of a woman, on the other\nhand, pays its dividend in kind, and results in the education of her own children and the\nchildren of others.\nIn other words, the education of women propagates itself. The edu-\n\n"}
{"page": 277, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nSOCIOLOGY'S\n\nDEMAND\n\nUPON\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n267\n\ncation of men generally does not. You cannot improve the civilization of any people\nexcept thru their homes and their primary schools. Homes and primary schools are\nmade by women, and not by men.\nThe greatest problem in \"the education of the race today is the proper treatment of\nthe white girl jn the country districts of the United States. And let us remember that over\nhalf, largely more than half, of native American citizenship is still in the country.\nWhen the United States government shall decide to make another appropriation\nfrom the land funds, it should be directed exclusively to the better training of all classes of\nwomen for the industrial warfare in which they are required to play so important a part.\nIf we want real, as well as theoretical, democracy, then our chief educational\ninstitutions must be of all the people, by all the people, and for all the people.\n\nSOCIOLOGY'S\nBY J. F. MILLSPAUGH,\n\nDEMAND\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nUPON\n\nTHE\n\nOF SCHOOLS,\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nSALT\n\nLAKE\n\nCITY, UTAH\n\nTwo basic elements enter into our conception of education : the first\ndepends upon the possession, by every person, of certain natural powers,\nand is, therefore, by nature, individual ; the second connects itself with\nthe function of these powers in meeting the various requirements of life,\nand is, therefore, in large degree, social. The one is a necessary correlate of the other. Without the first, education would be impossible;\nwithout the second, it would be meaningless. Necessarily, then, attempts\nto build upon either foundation alone always will result, as they always\nhave resulted, in a superstructure at once distorted, unsafe, and ill fitted\nfor any valuable purpose.\nUnfortunately, however, the influence of social forces in the evolution\nof society has not always been estimated at its true worth. Self-interest\nand ignorance have often combined to exaggerate the normal influence\nof the individual in human affairs, and to disparage the value of social\nunion. The doctrine \"Every man for himself,\" which, in case of primitive society, was the sole formula of success, has never been without\nadherents. Hence the trend of education has usually been in the direction of the enlargement of individual power, while its social side has been\ncorrespondingly subordinated. The ideal has been such development\nand training of the individual as would make him, as far as possible,\ncomplete in himself, independent, self-sufficient. Self-interest, rather\nthan community welfare, has too often been the guiding principle of the\nrace ; resistance, rather than co-operation, too often the method of achieving success.\nNo thoughtful man can remain unconcerned while he contemplates\nthe results of extreme individualism in society. They constitute the\nproblems of today.\nBut there is dawning upon the world a consciousness that society is\n\n"}
{"page": 278, "printed_page": null, "text": "268\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nsomething more than an aggregation of individuals, collected and held\ntogether by chance. The studies of a few devoted men are slowly discovering to us the history and processes of social evolution. Gradually\nwe are acquiring some knowledge of the laws which govern the relationships of men. We are coming to know that some of the influences which\npermeate society may, like many of the forces of nature, be analyzed ;\ntheir causes, intensity, and effects determined, and, in a measure, their\noperations controlled.\nAs this department of knowledge enlarges and acquires greater reliability, its educational bearing becomes more important. In the light of\nthe new knowledge we are beginning to see that education means more\nthan the development of faculty ; that with the idea of development and\ntraining we must associate the other idea of purpose — that purpose the\nachievement of manifest destiny in the common good of all. Our intellectual and moral powers vainly seek for interpretation, save in social\nrelationships. Individual attainment is made possible only because of\nwhat society has been and now is. The educational process is but the\ncoming into possession of that accumulated inheritance of knowledge\nand culture and achievement which registers the evolutionary status of\ncivilization.\nIn its origin, conduct, and aims, then, the school is a social organism.\nAssuming the possession by the child of a certain stock of powers and\ncapabilities, its mission consists in training those native gifts and in assisting the child to discover their meaning and purpose in the promotion of\nsocial ends. Hence it follows that, to the degree in which the school\naccomplishes this benign mission, its regulations, its discipline, its exercises, its agencies, its motives, must embody and illustrate the needs and\naims and spirit of ideal community life.\nThat such views and practice do not obtain everywhere at the present\ntime is unfortunately well known. It is not denied, to be sure, that the\nschool, from its very nature, connects itself with a degree of social experience and training. The attritions produced by contact of numbers, the\ncompetitions of classes, the modifications of rights and duties produced\nby personal association and intercourse — all these are influences tending\nstrongly to correct extremes of individualism and to develop knowledge\nof community relations. But these results accrue in spite, rather than in\nconsequence of, our deliberate aim and purpose. Instead of permitting\nregulations to develop naturally as an outgrowth of the conscious needs\nof those for whose benefit they exist, we curtail our pupils' opportunity\nto acquire sOcial experience by insisting that the teacher enact, interpret,\nand execute all the laws which have place on the statute books of the\nschool. We are entirely satisfied when they respond perfectly to incentives, not of their own construction, and not even in harmony with their\nown ideas, but brought to them from without and held up to them for\n\n"}
{"page": 279, "printed_page": null, "text": "Session.]\n\nSOCIOLOGY'S\n\nDEMAND\n\nUPON\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n269\n\ntheir enforced respect. Thus, I believe, many valuable life lessons are\nlost to the children — a loss for which there can never be adequate compensation. The interests of society, then, require a removal of all such\nartificial limitations upon the exercise of powers granted for beneficent\npurposes, and the establishment of such freedom as will permit the social\nforces, inherent in the school, to work out their rightful ends.\nIn like manner the interests of the social whole require that the raison\nd'etre of the curriculum be explained on grounds of common utility as\nwell as of mental discipline. Until the studies of our schools are felt by\npupils to be a response to discovered needs, until their function is made\nevident by their solving some present problem, they fail to yield their\nfullest educational value. Illustrations of failure in the direction to\nwhich I refer are not far to seek. For example, language is pre-eminently a social instrument. Its study in the schools should be so directed\nas to make it subserve this interest. But this it accomplishes in a very\nimperfect degree only ; the subject has usually been taught from the\nstandpoint of scholarship, and its function as a school exercise has been\nregarded as disciplinary rather than social. Even such studies as literature and history and civics have been pursued chiefly for their culture\nvalue and for the satisfaction of scholarly curiosity. But when pursued\nin this way, however valuable the result, it is evident that these distinctively social studies miss their proper end, namely, a knowledge of\nsociety, the springs of its activities, the motives of its conduct, the\nsources of its control. Moral teaching also, as a rule, has aimed at a\nsubjective effect, with comparatively little thought of its altruistic function. Teachers have too often encouraged emotional influences terminating in sentiment, rather than motor activities resulting in character.\nSociology's interpretation of human relationships on their moral side\nfinds its best expression in words uttered two thousand years ago : ** He\nthat seeketh his life shall lose it, and he that loseth his life shall find it.\"\nIt is the demand of sociology that manual and ocular training receive\neverywhere, as it now receives in many places, its proper recognition in\nthe scheme of study. Not alone on utilitarian grounds is this recognition\nurged ; but still more because without it the child can never adequately\nshare in the experiences thru which the race has passed in reaching\nits present status of achievement. His education is thus incomplete at a\npoint where the defect is vital — the point where, historically, physical,\nintellectual, and moral forces have found expression in the agencies of\ncivilization.\nThe increased attention given to instruction in patriotism in the\nschools of this country is a gratifying evidence that the social function\nof education is receiving fuller recognition. But before this instruction\ncan satisfy reasonable demands, as a force in large degree determining\nsocial welfare, the current conception of patriotism must be freed from\n\n"}
{"page": 280, "printed_page": null, "text": "2 70\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(General\n\nsome of its limitations. Love of the soil, pride in national achievement,\nhomage to the flag, are all elements of patriotism ; but they are not the\nwhole of it. Our children need to be taught that, tho patriotism is sentiment, like all other sentiments it is empty and profitless save as it issues\nin conduct ; that no bad citizen can be a patriot, that the noblest patriotism finds many forms of expression, all of which connect themselves in\nsome tangible way with social well-being.\nThe limit of my time has been reached. I have been able only to\ntouch upon some of the social aspects of instruction. It remains for me\nonly to express the hope that such able presentation of the social bearings of education as have enriched the earlier portions of the present\nprogram of the National Educational Association may be repeated again\nand again, until we shall all come to know ourselves as units of a larger\nwhole, whose status we each have part in fixing, and whose achievements\nare the highest register of our individual worth.\n\nBETWEEN\n\nBY\n\nCARROLL\n\nG.\n\nDAY\n\nPEARSE,\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nREFORM\n\nSCHOOL\n\nOF\n\nOMAHA,\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nNEB.\n\nOur civilization has grown complex. The cloth for family garments,\nwhich was formerly grown, clipped, carded, spun, and woven at home, is\nnow the product of many persons and many machines working in many\nplaces. So the processes of education have become similarly complex.\nThe knowledge and training given in the home in the elder days are now\ngiven in the Sunday school, in the day school, by the music master, the\ndrawing master, the dancing master, by the sewing school, the cooking\nschool, the manual-training or the trade school ^by many persons in\nmany places. But complexity — the division of labor — has become the\norder of the day ; and, since we have gone so far in this direction, I am\ngoing to enter a plea for a still further division of labor, and ask that two\nmore cogs be added to the educational machine.\nWhere is the teacher who has not in her school a child, perhaps more\nthan one, who is troublesome because he is in some way abnormal ?\nThe child is not criminal. He may or may not be vicious, but he is\nhabitually troublesome. He may be truant to such a degree that he can\nmake no satisfactory progress in his school work. The home influence\nis weak ; or the boy cannot be reached by the influences which appeal to\nnormal children. Instead of being truant he may be simply troublesome\n— turbulent in disposition, rebellious, or mischievous to an abnormal\ndegree. Such children do more to exhaust the vitality and break down\nthe courage of even the best teachers, many times over, than all the wear\n\n"}
{"page": 281, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nBETWEEN\n\nDAY\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nREFORM\n\nSCHOOL\n\n271\n\nand tear of usual work, which is in itself sufficiently wearing. These\nchildren, too, are a nuisance to their school companions. They trouble\nand annoy the well-disposed children. The time of the school is taken\nup by \"discipline \" and in contests, in which the teacher, if a good one,\nis victorious, but at a wrongful waste of the time of the school and of her\nown power to do proper work.\nFor these cases a special school should be provided where they can\nbe placed with children of their kind. The measures necessary for their\ngovernment will not then be unjust to other children with whom they\nare. Teachers specially fitted by nature and experience for dealing with\nthis class of children may be placed in charge of these schools, which can\nthen be carried on with profit to the children and without undue wear\nand tear upon the instructors. Special care, too, can be given to the\nattendance of children in these schools, thru special truant officers.\nThe knowledge, on the part of the children who have truant habits, that,\nif not present promptly, they will at once be sent for and, no matter\nwhere they may be lurking, brought to school and properly dealt with,\nwill go far to get regular attendance.\nAnother class of children, no less troublesome to the schools because\nthey are less frequently found in attendance there, forms a more serious\nmenace to the community. These are the children who, because they\nhave bad homes, or because they have no homes, will soon cross the line\nthat separates them from the criminal class. These children are not\nthieves, but are in daily danger of becoming such. It is unjust, on\naccount of their personal habits and qualities, to put them in the usual\nschools; nor can those schools do for these children what they need.\nEven the special schools spoken of before cannot provide properly for\nthem. These children need not only to have their intellects instructed,\nbut to have their lives regulated, until they can form habits of decency\nand usefulness. They ought not to be sent to reform schools, for these\nare schools for young criminals. No one who has spent any time in\nreform schools, or knows anything about them, would willingly incur the\nresponsibility of sending to live with even young criminals children who\nhave not entered upon that experience.\nFor these children must be provided a school which shall be at the\nsame time a school and a home; where their time of rising and of retiring, their hours of work and of study, shall be regulated, and even the\nhours of recreation, so far as necessary, shall be supervised.\nIn such a school, with proper food and clothing, with firm and\njudicious management and instruction, they may acquire regular habits,\nas well as intellectual development and a training in the useful arts of\nlife.\nWhen the state feels the responsibility for the establishment of such\nschools\n\ninstead\n\nof permitting these children, as now, to become\n\ncon-\n\n"}
{"page": 282, "printed_page": null, "text": "272\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nLGeneral\n\nfirmed in their truant and vicious habits, a very considerable stream\nwhich now feeds the idle and vicious classes in the community will be, in\na large measure, dried up.\n\nTHE\n\nPROPER\nBY\n\nG.\n\nN.\n\nEDUCATION\n\nGRISHAM,\n\nOF AN\n\nA.M.,\nPRINCIPAL\nKANSAS\nCITY,\n\nAMERICAN\n\nOF LINCOLN\nMO.\n\nHIGH\n\nCITIZEN\nSCHOOL,\n\nWhen the present French republic was engaged in a great political\nduel with imperialism, Gambetta, the leader of republicanism at the time,\nannounced as the policy of his great party \"universal suffrage, based upon\nuniversal education.\" It was this policy that inspired France and gave\nher that unity of feeling and purpose that lies at the basis of the most\nstable and satisfactory government which that nation has had since the\npassing of the ancient regime. At the time when this policy was\nannounced, we had witnessed theadoption in our own country, not as\nthe policy of a party, but as the settled practice of our nation, universal\nfreedom, universal citizenship, and universal education. We stand by\nthat policy today, with no intention of departing from it. The spirit of\neducation is the most intense that any people ever before presented in the\nhistory of the world.\nHowever, the educator of today feels somewhat hampered. Side by\nside with the earnest, intelligent worker is the educational quack, who,\nwhile profiting by the educational enthusiasm of the age, casts discredit\nupon every serious endeavor. And, naturally, there are critics. They\ndare not oppose the settled policy of the states and the time-honored\nconvictions of this nation with Herbert Spencer's arguments against state\neducation ; but they insist that the cost of education is frightful ; that the\nresults are not what they should be; and that our educators go too far\nin offering secondary and university training free of cost to the recipient.\nThe quack will be driven from the great centers of population to\nremote corners, to escape the intense light emanating from this great\nassociation. The educator is justified in turning directly upon the critics. Admitting that he falls short in results, he makes no apology, but\nrelies upon an enlightened public opinion to favor even greater expenditures of money to give to the American nation better citizens and better\nleaders. The responsibilities thrown upon the American citizen are too\ngreat to be borne by ignorance, or even narrow intelligence. We have\nall seen men who knew too little, but none that knew too much, to understand and do the duties which society has a right to demand. The\neducation of a person has both a social and an individual side. It has a\nyalue to the many as well as to the one. For the individual, education is\n\n"}
{"page": 283, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF AN\n\nAMERICAN\n\nCITIZEN\n\n273\n\nan absolute necessity as a means of affording the requisite knowledge and\ntraining to enable him to make a satisfactory adjustment of life conditions. The more complex and. the more advanced the social life, the\ngreater is the demand for intense preparation. The child in the civilized\nstate requires more to be done for him than does the child living in\nprimitive conditions. The citizens of a republic demand more training\nthan the citizens of a country under monarchical rule. Social progress\nmakes the struggle for existence more intense ; yet this is not a sufficient\nreason for offering liberal culture to all citizens. True it is that the\nindividual does not exist for the sake of society, but, as De Maistre tells\nus, \"society exists for the sake of the individual.\" But that is the best\nsociety which by its constitution makes possible the existence of the\nlargest number of the best individuals. If society needs every person at\nhis best, then society is concerned in calling forth the best there is in every\nperson. It is for this reason that the state, standing as the sole representative ofsociety, sees its needs, codifies its thought, and executes its\nwill in behalf of the individual who may in course of time prove helpful\nor hurtful.\nThere are those who urge that our country is encountering certain\nperils which can be evaded only by the greatest precautions. But why\nspeak of the perils of a young nation like ours, now for the first time\nconscious of its power, conscious of its manhood, conscious of its noble\ninheritance of principles and memories, conscious of a great past and\ngreater destiny ? Rather speak of the problems for whose solution intelligent provision must be quietly made.\nFirst and foremost stands the general problem of self-preservation\nand progress. It is one problem, but presents two phases. In one act\nevery organism provides for both nutrition and growth ; similarly, society\nprovides for simple existence and that peculiar mode of existence called\nprogress. In this country we shall never be satisfied with simply balancing the constructive and destructive tendencies in social life. We live\nto lead a larger life, the fullest and completest known to man. Every\nnew generation without preparation for the exercise of its rights and the\nperformance of its duties is the antagonist and possible destroyer of all\nthe best products of thousands of years of human thought and endeavor.\nSociety must save itself from this ever-present foe. Our institutional life\ncannot be floated along nature's strong blood current of heredity, but\nmust seek an artificial channel all its own, and must reach each new generation thru the schools which interpret and sustain civilization. Thru\nthem alone can we hope to comprehend the present by studying the past,\nand guarantee the future by properly using the opportunities of the present. Thus do we hope to check the desire for change by a just conservatism, and, while recognizing and eliminating the evils that vex us, steadily\nand faithfully maintain the good that has been achieved by the race thru\n\n"}
{"page": 284, "printed_page": null, "text": "2 74\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nall its perilous history from barbarism and the rule of tyrants to enlightened liberty. Our nation is justly proud of what she has done for mankind. Nor shall we be satisfied to occupy any inferior position among\nthe peoples of the globe. America is ambitious to offer mankind the\nmost exalted ideals and the highest realizable good. So far she has\nenlarged every idea and broadened every institution brought from Europe.\nThe press came, but with freedom of thought ; religion came, but with\nuniversal toleration ; the state came, but with universal freedom ; education came, but as the one common good, accessible to all the people alike.\nWe take the position that there is nothing that is good for man that may\nnot be shared by all men. To maintain a civilization so rich and so liberal\nmust demand for all the broadest culture possible among men. , In the\ngreat and honorable rivalry for progress, the state must justify her right\nto live by doing the most for the individual, and engage in tasks of\nadvanced research upon problems out of the range of private investigation.\nThe strength of a nation lies in the intelligent devotion of a satisfied\npeople. Those who lead and those who follow will be more effective in\ntheir necessary relation if conscious of equality of privilege and confident\nof the justice of society in offering advantages. The state should, therefore, create universal opportunity, and instead of attempting to classify\nmen by the opportunities offered them, rather let men classify themselves\nby the use they make of their opportunities. Our schools have been\nundergoing a rapid centralization and steadily improving in the process.\nOne more step should be taken. Our national bureau should have\ngreater reach and greater authority, and our various state systems should\nbe but so many expressions of one definite national aim. We should at\nleast have a national university, backed by the resources of a great people, for training every kind of capacity that our civilization demands.\nNext to the creation of great life conditions is the safe transmission\nof the same to posterity. In our national defense' schools and colleges\nrank in importance above forts and batteries and ships of war. We cannot\nafford to overlook the fact that our nation is confronting a problem of\nnational unity, threatened by multiple causes. There is need of unity of\nthought and feeling to diminish friction and guarantee those victories of\npeace which the modern world has learned to praise. With our rapidly\ngrowmg population there is a visibly larger anti-social element requiring\nan ever stronger hand to hold it in check. Our rising standard of civilization causes this element to multiply more rapidly than the general\npopulation. Withal, capital and labor, employer and employee, are ever\nclashing, and more than once in the last twenty-five years have their\nquarrels reached national proportions. Besides this clash of classes in\ntheir war of an imperfect industrialism, with the frightful ulcers of need\nand greed for our people to contemplate, there are difficulties growing\n\n"}
{"page": 285, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF AN\n\nAMERICAN\n\nCITIZEN\n\n275\n\nout of the imperial domain of our republic. We are a unit today, sustaining the cause of a young republic in the name of liberty and humanity ;\nbut, when this matter is settled,, we shall be compelled ere long again to\nconsider and harmonize the jarring interests of an agricultural South, a\nmanufacturing East, and a mining West. Nor can we forget that all\nthese difficulties are made greater by the fact that our population is made\nup of fragments of nationalities taken in no inconsiderable quantities\nfrom the extremes of humanity ; men who come from the bitterness of\noppression to the enjoyment of a freedom they do not fully appreciate;\nmen who must learn duties as well as rights, who by their very distance\napart engender jealousies fruitful of discord and strife. The strength of\nthe nation calls for the welding of all these elements into oneness. The\nbest unifying principle we know of is education. There is nothing in the\nmind of any human being antagonistic to the institutional life of the best\ncivilization that needs survive the training of a first-class school. Besides,\nlines of prejudice, whether national, racial, or sectional, lie parallel with\nother lines of real or imaginary interest, and can be erased only by intelligence. Where the vision is limited, imagination often constructs ghosts\nthat cast discredit upon human reason. To dispel these there is need of\nlight.\nLet it not be supposed that this great task can be accomplished by\nknowledge alone, tho men, of whatever intentions, do need intelligence\nto distinguish between remote and immediate interests, between accessible and inaccessible good, and, more than all, to see the identity of\ntheir own real interests and those of other men, in the same community.\nBut this kind of knowledge would be of small value unless education take\non its double phase of intelligence, reinforced by clear, moral ideas. We\nare already strong on the knowledge side. We need to be just as strong\non the character side, to the end that men may have self-control, a keen\nsense of justice, respect for authority, and as strong a disposition to halt\nat the boundary of their rights as to stop others about to trespass.\nOur nation has a great future. She will continue to march in the van\nof nations. She will continue to be the inspiring ideal of people struggling for liberty and light. She will exalt man by subduing nature and\nsoftening the asperities of the life-^ruggle. But, in view of the problems\nthat confront us, preparation must be made for the intelligent action of\npublic opinion at critical times, by laying the lines of our culture broad\nand deep. It must be our policy (i) to have a good school within reach\nof every child ; (2) to have every child in some school under competent\ninstructors ; (3) to provide for adequate moral as well as intellectual training; (4) to maintain higher institutions of learning, to preserve the\nstrength of the lower, and at the same time guarantee that advanced\nstatesmanship which, in the framing and enforcing of all legislation, will\ninspire all classes of our complex population with the fundamental sense\n\n"}
{"page": 286, "printed_page": null, "text": "276\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(General\n\nof fairness and justice. Education is a lever of great length, great\nstrength, and enormous power to lift the masses of mankind. With\nnational intelligence and national manhood, we may not only be sure of\nsolving the general and special problems that face us, but we may count\non inspiring the respect of all nations for the great republic of the new\nworld.\n\nTHE\n\nBY DR.\n\nA. E. WINSHIP,\n\nSCHOOL\n\nEDITOR\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nFUTURE\n\n\"JOURNAL\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION,\"\n\nBOSTON,\n\nMASS.\n\nThis audience will pardon me if there is no attempt to be profound.\nThese heroic men upon the program have come to you one after another\nwith profound truths, and you have not cared a picayune for anything they\nhave said; and if you did care to know what these wise men think upon\nthese great questions, they have too little time to give a sample even of\ntheir hopes and fears, their convictions, and their judgments. It is a\nstrange commentary upon the situation that these men who have spoken\nwisely and well upon themes in which we have a common interest have\nappealed to you less than these musicians who forgot their classic music\nand indulged in a merry bit of medley, in which even the echo of the cornet was more inspiring than all the philosophy and oratory of the platform. *\n\"The School of the Future\" — what a topic to speak on, while you still\ncry out for more of the fun and frolic of these instruments ! The only\nexcuse for speaking of tomorrow today is the fact that today gets all its\nemphasis from being either the yesterday of tomorrow or the tomorrow\nof yesterday. The school has never done its best work when the schoolmaster has been content to round out the labors of the past. Without in\nthe least forgetting that feature of our work, we must address ourselves as\nnever before in making the school of today focus itself to become the\nyesterday of a more glorious tomorrow. This meeting, with its ten thousand teachers, will be of profit to the municipalities in which we labor, and\nthru them to our land, only as it shall prove itself the yesterday of a\nmore intense and vigorous tomorrow.\nThere is time merely for a few suggestive sentences, with no attempt\nat explanation or development. The schools that deal with children in\nthe mass, the elementary schools, as we speak of them, must not become\nlifeless thru undue reverence for logic, but must be alive and vibrant thru\ninformation which satisfies the passion for knowledge, which was never\nso keen as today. Not only does the geography of the world change without warning, but science, and eve^ philology — yes, history and literature\n— take on new phases in an hour, without so much as sa^Mng, \"by your\n\n"}
{"page": 287, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nSessions]\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nFUTURE\n\n2 11\n\nleave.\" There was a time when the knowledge of the fathers was allsufficient for the children, but in this age, and infinitely more so in the\nfuture, the boy must be the father of the man behind him rather than of\nthe one that is to come after.\nThe school of the future must be interesting. All the world appeals\nto our boys and girls. The field of sport in spring, summer, and autumn ;\nthe daily paper, with its millions invested in tantalizing active minds ; the\nmagazines, that are already threatening to become universities as well as\nlibraries, will make it impossible for the schools to hold the attention of\nthe children and youth to intellectual discipline, unless they match the\nmoney and genius of outside attractions with features of scholarship and\ntraining that command their attention and respect. The day of the\ntruant officer and the rod as schoolroom attractions will soon pass away.\nThe school of the future will be imperial. This is a popular word\njust now. It has the fiber of Manila in it. Three months ago the world\nhad little respect for our navy, and we had less. Today our navy has the\nadmiration of every nation, with Spain leading the bowing hosts. The\nAmerican school has made the American navy. Not a man on one of\nthose ships occupied a post so humble that he had. not a fair education.\nThe American school had laid its hand on every one of those boys ; and\nthe eye that aimed the gun, the hand that held the wheel, the arm that\nheaved the coal, had behind it the American school.\nFour hundred years ago the Spaniards promoted the discovery of the\nnew world, and then gave the discoverer a taste of Spanish cruelty.\nNearly three hundred years ago England began her conquests in the new\nworld, and Englishmen and their American descendants went from conquering to conquer, with vast areas ever ready for the ambitious and the\nrestless. Two years ago it dawned upon these men of the far West, who\nhad known no limit to their inheritance of territory since the days of\nJohn Smith and Governor Bradford, that there was no more land for\nthem to inherit. Startled by the impossibility of going farther west, they\nsurprised the East by a sudden countermarch. The feeling of the East\ncan be better imagined than described. Now a merciful providence has\nsuddenly opened the Atlantic and the Pacific, saying to all restless Americans— and this seems to include us all — \"Enter in and inherit the sea,\nand the islands thereof.\"\nThese events that are transpiring, with so much that is tragic and\ncomic, teach us that the schools themselves must be imperial. We have\nalready proved that we have the best navy and the best army in the\nworld. We will soon prove that we have the best statesmen. We have\nthe best genius in inventions. We must not stop until we show the world\nthat we can develop the best artists, as well as artisans, the best sculptors\nand musicians, the best philosophers and poets. The call is for the school\nof the future to enter in and possess the earth and the fullness thereof.\n\n"}
{"page": 288, "printed_page": null, "text": "278\n\nNATIONAL\n\nTHE\nBY DR. ELMER\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nLARGER\n\nE. BROWN,\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\n[General\n\nIDEA\n\nOF CALIFORNIA,\n\nBERKELEY,\n\nCAL.\n\nWe have seen in recent days a strange phenomenon — the universities\nhave become popular. Never before have the doings and happenings\nwithin college walls commanded such general interest. This is the age\nof university expansion ; the age of great university builders. I wish to\nsay a word as to the significance of this university era.\nIt seems to mean, first, that our American universities sustain a peculiarly close relation to' our American life ; and, secondly, that their\nhighest prosperity depends upon fidelity to that relation.\nOur universities come close to the American public because they come\nclose to the public schools. In European systems the primary school\nwhich leads to the university is not the primary school for the common\npeople. Here we know nothing of a primary school that does not lead\nto the top. Every child in our common schools, we may say, is started\ntoward the university ; and so far as he goes he is on his way to the\nhigher education.\nEvery teacher in the common schools is fitting for college. The work\nmay be well done or ill, but it cannot be fairly judged by itself apart. It\npoints to the higher learning and to the highest. Great numbers of our\nteachers recognize this fact and are taking all pains to put themselves in\nline with university ideals. They do not rest content with the mastery\nof mere \"school sciences.\" They seek to know real sciences. The\nteaching of the elementary schools must be such as shall stand the highest\ntests of truth. We may glory in the fact that our teachers show great\nhunger after real knowledge, and think it a shame to offer their pupils\nless than the best. The kingdom of knowledge suffers violence ; the\nteachers of the common schools take it by force. They stand at every\ngateway of learning and cry : \"Teach us, that we may know.\"\nI believe I have not overstated this strange and inspiring fact, which\nis coming to pass before our very eyes. In such ways as these the American universities are drawing near to the American people, and the\nAmerican people are drawing near to the universities.\nThis university era means, in the second place, that our American\ninstitutions of learning have an opportunity it behooves them not to lose.\nThe future belongs to the university which shall realize the full unity of\nAmerican education. Here is the larger university idea. The future\nbelongs to that university which shall make the primary school and the\nsecondary school parts with itself in the larger university, wherein dwells\nliberty.\n\n"}
{"page": 289, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nLARGER\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nIDEA\n\n279\n\nThis larger university is not to be attained by subordinating the lower\nschools to the immediate purposes of the college. No greater mistake\ncoaild \"be made. The problem of unification is as delicate and difficult as\nit is inviting. It calls for intimate knowledge of the present condition,\nthe functions, and the capabilities of the lower schools ; it calls for a\nbroad comprehension of the means and ends of higher education. The\nlower schools must be uplifted ; the higher schools enlarged. Lower\nand higher must be firmly knit together ; but the relation must conserve\nthe freedom of the schools. The higher schools must not be held down\nunduly by the lower ; and* the demands of the higher upon the lower\nmust be guided by knowledge and sympathetic appreciation. The\ndesire to keep open a clear way from the lowest schools to the highest must not be allowed to hamper the development of technical education at such nodes of the scholastic course as the public good may\nrequire.\nThe larger university is a tree of knowledge. It has a strong central\ntrunk of liberal culture, running from its root up to its topmost tip, like\nthe trunk of a great pine tree; and it has many branches of industrial\nand professional training, which bear fruit in the several occupations of\nhuman life. The branches have need of the trunk, and the trunk has\nneed of the branches. How can you hope to perfect any part in separation from the whole ?\nIf this is a true view of the university, it follows that one chief function of university pedagogy is to promote the organic integration of all\nthe schools. It must see each part of our public education in the light\nof all the rest, and in the light of all related institutions. It must concern itself with the politics of education. Our schools have suffered\nenough, as everyone knows, from partisan politics and from personal\npolitics. But the best remedy for politics of the baser sort is politics of\nthe higher sort. If practical politics are bad, so much the greater is the\nneed of sound political theory. And I know of no more inviting field of\npolitical inquiry than that which has to do with the relation of part to\npart in our systems of education, and with the intrinsic relation of the\nschools to the state, to the church, to industrial and civil society. Here\nwe have the larger university becoming truly conscious of itself in a university subject of the highest interest.\nTeachers of whatever grade of school have everything to gain and\nnothing to lose from this larger view of the university. It is always good\nto realize our oneness with a greater unity. And then it is good to find\nthe broad lines of limitation with which each human institution is surrounded. can\nI\nthink of no nobler study for any man than to find his\nplace in the great struggle that is going on in the world. I can think of\nno nobler study for any body of men. We know we are for Ormuzd. We\nknow we are against Ahriman.\nBut where is our company ; where is our\n\n"}
{"page": 290, "printed_page": null, "text": "28o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\ncorps ; what is our part in the fight ; where are our immediate allies\n?\nWe seek for unity, because it is our nature so to do. We expect our little\nwork to be a constituent part of some great, all-embracing work. We\nshall never rest content till we be assured that we are building some little\npart of the city of God. And we cannot doubt that some great responsibility for such building rests with the larger university.\n\n"}
{"page": 291, "printed_page": null, "text": "MEMORIAL\n\nSessions]\n\n281\n\nADDRESSES\n\nflDemorial a^^re00e0\nConstituting tbe \"Kcport ot tbc Committee on \"KecrolOflB for 1898\n\nEDWARD\n\nAUSTIN\n\nSHELDON,\n\nBIRDSEY\n\nGRANT\n\nNORTHROP,\n\nMRS. REBECCA\nSAMUEL\n\n.\n\nD. RICKOFF,\n\nMARTIN\n\n.\n-\n\n-\n\n.\n.\n\n-\n\n.\n.\n\n-\n\nOswego, N. Y.\n- Clinton, Conn.\n\n.\n\nINGLIS,\n\nNew York, N. Y.\nSpringfield, 111.\n\nJ. C. GILCHRIST,\n\nLaurens, la.\n\nMRS. SUSAN\n\nGIVEN\n\nCOMMODORE\n\nPERRY\n\nPATTERSON,\nROGERS,\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n- Union City, Ind.\n-\n\nMarshalltown, la.\n\nWILEY\n\nT. POYNTER,\n\nShelbyville, Ky.\n\nJOSEPH\n\nC. JONES,\n\nChicago, 111.\n\nJOHN\n\nH. TEAR,\n\nSOLOMON\n\nChicago, 111.\n\nPALMER,\n\nWALTER\n\nS. PERRY,\n\nEUGENE\n\nD. BAGEN,\n\nHENRY\n\nWOLCOTT\n\nEDWIN\n\nAZRO\n\nWALTER\n\nEast Lake, Ala.\n-\n\nAnn Arbor, Mich.\nNew York, N. Y.\n\nBLAKE,\n\nSpringfield, Mass.\n\nCHARLTON,\n\nBroadhead, Wis.\n\nM. JAY,\n\nSalina, Kan.\n\nThe following names of deceased active members of the association,\nconcerning whom reliable data for memorial sketches could not be\nobtained, appear in the report of the committee :\nN. B. THOMPSON,\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\nWaterville, Kan.\n\nL. A. GRAY,\n\nPortland, Me.\n\nGEORGE\n\nR. FOWLER,\n\nBoston, Mass.\n\nA. CUMMINGS,\n\nBuffalo, N. Y.\n\nANNA\n\nHenry Sabin, Chairman,\nE. E. White,\nW. E. Sheldon,\nA. R. Taylor,\nE. C. Hewett,\nCommittee on Necrology.\n\n"}
{"page": 292, "printed_page": null, "text": "2^2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nDr. iE&war& H. SbelOon\n[prepared by w. e. sheldonJ\n\nThe death of Dr. Edward Austin Sheldon, for thirty-five years\nprincipal of the Oswego (N. Y.) Normal School, and for thirty years an\nactive member of the National Educational Association, removes from\nthe educational world one of the most devoted and successful pioneers of\nprogressive ideas in elementary instruction.\nDr. Sheldon was born at Perry Centre, Wyoming county, N. Y.,\nOctober 4, 1823. For three years he supplemented his thoro elementary education as a faithful and earnest student at Hamilton\nCollege, and, altho he did not graduate, subsequently received the\ndegree of A.M. from that institution. On leaving college he entered at\nonce upon his life-work as a teacher. His success was such as to give\nhim unusual prominence, and won for him the position of superintendent\nof schools of Syracuse, N. Y., and later he was chosen to a similar post of\nresponsibility and honor at Oswego, N. Y. He was a genuine disciple of\nPestalozzi, and for more than forty years was a foremost leader of the\ngroup of great educators who introduced and defended progressive ideas\nin the American public schools.\nSo deeply impressed was he with the importance of improved practical\nmethods in the elementary grades of instruction that, in 1861, he organized a training school for teachers, and arranged and published a systematic course of objective instruction which attracted great attention\nfrom all earnest instructors of the young. His system and course of\ninstruction were adopted by the normal schools of the state of New York,\nand also by many institutions in other states of the union.\nIn 1862 he was chosen principal of the Oswego Normal School, which\nposition he filled with distinguished ability until his death. In the early\nhistory of his professional work in the normal school he had to face and\novercome much persistent opposition. He was richly rewarded for his\ngreat struggles for the principles and methods he advocated and applied.\nHis success was so marked that the Oswego Normal School became a sort\nof ** Mecca,\" and attracted to it from all parts of the world thoughtful\neducators to study and observe its work. It also brought to it enthusiastic\nstudents from all sections of the country.\nDr. Sheldon's marvelous influence and power with children and\nstudents arose primarily from his great and generous heart ; from his\ncomprehensive knowledge of, and his deep and full sympathy with, the\nnature of children. He understood their needs and adapted his methods\nof instruction to help them.\nLike all born educators, he loved the young, and aimed by example\nand precept to inspire them with a desire to acquire knowledge, and\n\n"}
{"page": 293, "printed_page": null, "text": "Scions]\n\nMEMORIAL\n\nADDRESSES\n\n'\n\n283\n\npointed out to theni the methods of acquiring it that would best develop\ntheir minds and hearts and contribute to their enjoyment in the pursuit.\nHe had almost a magic power to win the confidence of his pupils and\nstimulate them to do their best work.\nDr. Sheldon's abounding kindness of heart; his unselfish devotion to\npersonal and public duties ; his charming modesty ; his genuine and\nsincere desire for the welfare of all who came within the* sphere of his\nacquaintance, combined with strong common sense, discretion, and tact,\nequipped him to mold and guide young teachers as few men have been\nenabled to do. So winning and persuasive was his manner of dealing\nwith his associates and pupils that it was a common thing for them to\nspeak of him as \"Good Father Sheldon.\" In later years, at the meetings\nof the national and other educational gatherings, he was usually surrounded bya group of his graduates, wjio loved and honored him.\nNot only was he eminent as an educator and organizer, but he occupied the position of a successful author of schoolbooks, reports, and\npapers on educational topics that will perpetuate his memory. In private\nlife his influence was felt in promoting the happiness and well-being of\nfamily and friends. A true Christian gentleman, an exemplary, patriotic\ncitizen, passed away from earth when he died August 26, 1897, peacefully,\nand with almost no premonition. We shall miss him from the activities\nof his busy life, and feel that another beacon light has ceased to shine\nand send its beams forth to warn and guide. Reverently we say in\nthe words of the poet :\nGood rest to the gray head and tired feet\nThat walked the earth for seventy steadfast years.\nBury him with fond blessings and few tears,\nTears only of remembrance, not regret ;\nOn his full life the eternal seal is set.\n\n1Rex>. JBtrDsep (3rant Vlortbrop, XX.I).\n[prepared\n\nby EMERSON\n\nE. WHITEJ\n\nRev. Birdsey Grant Northrop, LL.D., was born in Kent, Litchfield\ncounty, Conn., July 18, 181 7. His boyhood was spent on the farm, but\nhe early desired to follow the example of his grandfather, Amos Northrop,\nwho graduated from Yale College in 1762. He prepared for college at\nEllington, Conn., and was graduated from Yale in 1841. Four years\nlater he graduated from Yale Theological Seminary. He taught school\nseveral terms, while pursuing studies. After graduating from the theological seminary, he was pastor of the Congregational Church at Saxonville, Mass., for ten years. His earnest and intelligent interest in the\nimprovement of the schools of the town, while pastor, attracted the atten-\n\n"}
{"page": 294, "printed_page": null, "text": "284\n\n•\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\ntion of the Massachusetts board of education, and in 1857 he was\nappointed agent of the board, and, for ten years, he filled the office with\nmarked efficiency and acceptance.\nIn 1867 he was called from this position to be the secretary of the\nboard of education of Connecticut, his native state. He filled this\nimportant office with great ability for nearly sixteen years, and his labors\nresulted in a fnuch-needed improvement of the schools. He was tireless\nin his efforts to arouse public interest in school progress. He held\nteachers' institutes and educational conventions in the different towns\nand cities, furnished the leading papers with school information, and\nenlisted the colleges and academies in the improvement of the common\nschools. During his administration legislation was secured against the\nemployment of young children in factories and stores, the rate fee was\nabolished and the schools made .free, the school term was lengthened,\nand the qualifications of teachers raised. Dr. Northrop also gave special\nattention to methods of instruction and discipline, the improvement of\nschoolhouses, and the beautifying of school grounds.\nHis efforts to suppress the sale of bad literature were as heroic as they\nwere successful. Not content with the suppression of the sale of bad\nbooks, he disseminated needed information concerning good books, and\nearnestly promoted the establishment of town and district libraries. The\nresults of these efforts were most beneficent.\nDr. Northrop retired from the office of secretary in his sixty-sixth\nyear, receiving the high commendation of the state board for his important services.\nIn this quarter of a century of successful school administration, he\nhad also won a high and honorable place among the educators of the\ncountry. He was president of the American Institute of Instruction in\n1864-66, of the National Superintendents' Association in 1866, and of\nthe National Educational Association in 1873. He was one of the board\nof visitors of West Point Military Academy in 1863-64; was one of the\noriginal trustees of Smith College ; and for some years was a trustee of\nHampton Institute, Va. In 1872 Williams College honored him with\nthe degree of LL.D.\nDuring the remarkable transition in Japan, Dr. Northrop became\ndeeply interested in the educational movements in that empire, and\nmembers of the Japanese embassy opened negotiations with him to go to\nJapan to inaugurate the proposed system of public education. These\nnegotiations did not issue in his undertaking this great work, but he\naccepted the guardianship of the Japanese girls who came to this country\nto be educated, and had also the supervision of the education of most of\nthe Japanese young men, as well as of many Chinese youth — a responsibility which he cheerfully assumed and which he met with praiseworthy\nfidelity.\n\nIt was largely thru Dr. Northrop's efforts, continued for nearly\n\n"}
{"page": 295, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions!\n\nMEMORIAL\n\nten years, that\nUnited States.\n\nreceived\n\nJapan\n\nthe\n\nADDRESSES\n\nShimonoseka\n\nidemnity\n\n285\n\nfrom the\n\nIn grateful recognition of- these and other unselfish services, the\nJapanese government presented Dr. Northrop with a costly set of china,\nand, on the occasion of his visit to Japan in 1895, received him as the\nguest of the nation. A reception was given him at Tokyo, attended by\nofficial representatives of the empire, and by many leading citizens. The\naddresses delivered by Marquis Saionji and Mr. Kanda, who spoke on\nbehalf of Japanese students in America, expressed the highest esteem and\ngratitude.\nA noble and characteristic incident in Dr. Northrop's visit to Japan\nwas his successful efforts to secure the release of Captain Choy Ting Kon,\nthe leader of the Chinese torpedo fleet, who was captured by the Japanese\nand held as a prisoner at Osaka. Learning that Captain Choy would be\nput to death if returned to China, Dr. Northrop pleaded for him before\nthe Japanese officers, and he was secretly permitted to escape. The letter\nof the former Chinese student in America to Dr. Northrop on his release\nis a most touching expression of gratitude. \"A father,\" says Choy,\n\"could not have done more for his son.\" While in Japan, Dr. Northrop\ndelivered in various places, chiefly in colleges and schools, some forty\naddresses.\nHe was everywhere recognized as a benefactor of Japan.\nThe closing years of Dr. Northrop's life were devoted to the improvement of American homes, and for this noble service he will doubtless\nbe most widely remembered and honored. \"It has long been my\ndesire,\" he wrote at four-score, \"to help improve the homes and home\nlife of the American people. In every land the homes of the people\ntell their condition.\nThe wigwam means savage life.\"\nHe early took a deep interest in tree planting as a means of beautifying villages and towns; and, in 1877, he visited Europe officially to\nexamine, not only its industrial schools, but especially its schools of\nforestry, and the experiments in progress for the reclaiming of waste\nlands by tree planting. He returned with a fund of valuable information, which was made public in his annual report, and later in a volume\nentitled Forestry in Europe.\nHe was quick to recognize the value of \"Arbor Day,\" which, at the\nsuggestion of Hon. J. Sterling Morton, had been adopted by Nebraska,\nand to Dr. Northrop more than to any other man belongs the credit of\nits wide adoption by other states. In 1876 he started the scheme of a\n\"centennial tree planting,\" which spread across the country. At the\nmeeting of the American Forestry Association in 1883 ^is resolution in\nfavor of Arbor Day in schools, already celebrated in Cincinnati and\nseveral other cities, was adopted, and he was appointed chairman of\na conimittee to push the movement, and has been reappointed every\nyear since.\nArbor Day has been adopted in nearly all the states and\n\n"}
{"page": 296, "printed_page": null, "text": "2 86\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nLGeneral\n\nterritories; also in Canada, Australia, several European countries, and in\nHawaii and Japan. Millions of trees wave their banners of leaves in honor\nof this eloquent apostle of tree culture.\nIt should be added here that Dr. Northrop's objective point in the\nadvocacy of Arbor Day in schools was the beautifying of school grounds\nand the homes of the people. He took little interest in showy celebrations\nof the day that left the school premises treeless and barren. Arbor Day\nwas but a factor in a larger movement for home and village improvement.\nThe last fourteen years of Dr. Northrop's life were largely devoted to\nvillage improvement, in which he had been long interested. His model\nin this beneficent work was the pioneer society of Stockbridge, Mass.,\nwhich had made the town famous. In advocacy of village improvement\nhe visited over forty states and territories, and thru his labors hundreds of \"village-improvement societies\" have been organized, and\nscores of villages and towns have been greatly improved. His zeal in\nthe good cause was unabated at four-score, and his last illness is attributed to overwork and exposure in a series of lectures in the South.\nIt must be added that Dr. Northrop's entire public service was\ninspired by high ideals of human life and an abiding faith in the possibility of an indefinite improvement of the moral condition and happiness\nof the race. He saw in the humblest child large possibilities of growth\nand service ; and the home, the school, and the library of good books stood\nfor opportunity and helpfulness for children. The rights of childhood\nwere to him sacred and inviolable. This made him a civilizing force,\nand the movements he set in motion will live after him. .\nHe wrote several books, including Education Abroad, Forestry in\nEurope, and Lessons in European Schools, and numerous pamphlets and\ntracts. He was also a frequent contributor to educational, religious, and\nother papers.\nDr. Northrop was married in 1846 to Miss Harriette Eliza Chichester,\nand their home life was happy and beautiful. The writer well remembers\nthe first time he was a guest in their New Haven home before the sad\ndeath of a promising son. Mrs. Northrop died February 20, 1892, and\nDr. Northrop passed away April 27, 1898, his death resulting from heart\ndisease. Two children survive — Harriette, wife of Principal Dwight\nHolbrook, of Clinton, Conn., and Henry E., professor in the Brooklyn\nPolytechnic Institute.\n\nObxQ. IRebecca H). IRicftoff\n[prepared by miss\n\nbettie a. dutton]\n\nDied January 4, 1898, at her home, 374 Central Park West, New York\ncity, Mrs. Rebecca D. Rickoff.\nBuried in Cleveland, January 20.\n\n"}
{"page": 297, "printed_page": null, "text": "ScHsions]\n\nMEMORIAL\n\nADDRESSES\n\n287\n\nAmong those who have passed from our membership within the year\nis Mrs. Rebecca D. Rickoff, since 1880 a life member of this association.\nThis tribute must necessarily be too brief to allow any full mention of\nthose qualities of character which endeared Mrs. Rickoff to her friends\nand made her a valued member of this body.\nWe can only trust that it may be helpful in recalling to those most\nfamiliar her most stimulating educational work, and in suggesting to\nothers some of those forces which gave value to her life.\nEntering the school before she was five years old, she completed the\ncourse of study in the schools of Cincinnati, graduating from the Hughes\nHigh School at sixteen with special honor, and entering two years later\nupon her work as a teacher of little children.\nHer marriage to Mr. Andrew J. Rickoff, then superintendent of\ninstruction in Cincinnati, followed ; and from this time her interest in educational work broadened and intensified, until she stood in the front rank\namong students of educational problems, and one of the most heroic in\nmaking possible their practical solution. She had a brilliant mind, rare\nconversational gifts, and was a felicitous writer. Her contributions to\neducational literature are a part of the treasured history of this association, and her readiness in address has often served to vitalize its discussions.\nShe was one of the first to recognize the value of the kindergarten\nand to take active measures for its introduction into the city of Cleveland ;\nwas quick to discern the need for a high-class literature for the schoolroom and to devise means for its attainment ; was earnest in her belief in\nall wise educational forces ; and thru the fifteen years of Dr. Rickoff's\nsuperintendency of the schools in Cleveland was the trusted helper in\nhis professional work.\nIt was her custom to visit the schools for the younger children, to\ntake for a day, often for a longer time, the teacher's place, sending the\nyoung \"school mother\" to see the work of associates or to her home for\nthe needed rest ; and, on occasion, carrying on this service of love for\nweeks, her sole compensation the joy of making others glad, thus saving\nchoicest teachers to further work.\nFew who are not responsible in supervision have given to its most delicate problems such wealth of study and of personal care ; and much that\nis best in the schools over which her husband presided still bears witness\nto the permanent value of her work.\nMrs. Rickoff had a rare appreciation of childhood, and was a firm\nbeliever in very early entrance upon school life. Her plea for the child's\nfreedom in the expression of its own understanding of the literature of\nthe reading lessons, her suggestions on the transition from home to school,\nand her discussion of the needs of the young colored people of the\nSouth, the latter based on her observations while living for two years in\n\n"}
{"page": 298, "printed_page": null, "text": "288\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nthe Carolinas, are among her most characteristic contributions to studies\nin education.\nMrs. Rickoff was much attached to this association, and was a strong\nfactor in its social life. Endowed with personal ^beauty and with grace of\nmanner, she easily attracted to herself those who, on close acquaintance,\nbecame her lifelong friends.\nAnticipating the Congress of Education in Chicago, in 1892, the\nElementary Department chose Mrs. Rickoff as its president, believing\nthat she would represent effectively and graciously its membership\nand its ideals. But this meeting at Saratoga Springs proved her last\nin attendance with us, as, following the meeting at Saratoga, she joined\nher husband in a journey to the Pacific coast, to spend a few months with\ntheir only son, who had nearly two years before preceded them.\nLetters from the northland were soon received, full of the enthusiasm\nand delight of the mother, happy in her loved ones, and of the poetic and\nimaginative traveler amid scenes of entrancing beauty.\nA year of these happy associations was followed by an immeasurable\nsorrow in the sudden death by drowning of the manly son. The shock\nwas severe, the prostration too great for full recovery ; and, with broken\nhealth, she returned to the home in New York city, where, tenderly\nwatched over by her husband thru the months of suffering, she passed\nbeyond the shadow.\nIn a word of farewell, and with the possibilities in an untried journey\nvividly in mind, our friend repeated familiar lines, which come back to us\ntoday with tender interest :\n\" I know not where His islands lift\nTheir fronded palms in air ;\nI only know I cannot drift\nBeyond His love and care.\"\n\nSamuel /ID, llnglis\n[prepared\n\nby\n\nEDWIN\n\nC. HEWETT]\n\nOn June i, 1898, his friends and the people of Illinois were startled\nat the telegraphic announcement that Samuel M. Inglis, the state superintendent ofpublic instruction, had died suddenly at the Pennoyer Sanitarium in Kenosha, Wis. Superintendent Inglis' health had not been\ngood for some months, and, by the advice of physicians, he had gone to\nthe sanitarium, hoping to recruit for the active duties of the institute\nseason. From time to time very favorable reports of his condition\nreached his friends, and he was confidently hoping soon to return to\nSpringfield and resume the active duties of his office. But, on the\nevening of June i, while chatting and laughing with friends on the\n\n"}
{"page": 299, "printed_page": null, "text": "SesslonsJ\n\nMEMORIAL\n\nADDRESSES\n\n289\n\nveranda of the sanitarium, he was suddenly stricken and died in a few\nminutes.\nHis remains were brought to Springfield, where imposing funeral\nservices were held in the state capitol. The flag over the building was\nplaced at half-mast, elaborate and beautiful floral tributes decorated the\nwalls and bier, the public ofifices were closed for the day, and a large concourse of state officers, leading educators, and friends from various parts\nof the state joined in the services. Attended by a large number of relatives, state officers, and other friends, the body was removed the same\nevening to Greenville, the home of Mrs. Inglis' father. On Saturday,\naft£r further elaborate funeral ceremonies, it was followed by almost the\nwhole population of the city to the beautiful Montrose cemetery, and\ninterred in the family lot.\nSamuel Martin Inglis was born in Marietta, Pa., August 15, 1840.\nHis father. Rev. George S. Inglis, was a Presbyterian clergyman, and\nSuperintendent Inglis himself was an earnest and active member of that\nChristian communion during his life. While a boy he removed- with his\nfather, first to Ohio, then to Illinois, settling in Henry county. He\ngraduated with the highest honors from the Mendota Collegiate Institute\nin 1861. The next year he enlisted in the One Hundred and Fourth\nregiment of Illinois volunteers, and was commissioned as second lieutenant byGovernor Richard Gates ; but, on account of his ill-health, he\ndid not long continue in the service.\nIn the fall of 1894 he was elected state superintendent of Illinois,\nreceiving a majority of 130,000 on a popular vote. His term of office\nwould have closed in January, 1899. In 1897 he was an active member\nof the National Educational Association.\nSuperintendent Inglis was twice married. His first wife was Miss\nAnna L. Jackson, of Hillsboro, 111., who died in 1892. Three years later\nhe married Miss Louise Baumberger, of Greenville, 111., who lives to\nmourn his great loss.\nHe leaves no children.\nHis educational career was long, varied, and successful. It began in\n1856 as a teacher in the district school of Hickory Grove, Henry county,\nat $28 a month. It included work in country schools, grammar schools,\nacademy, as superintendent of city schools, professor in a normal school,\nand terminated in the highest educational position in the state. It was\na continual movement upward, with growing advance in position, power,\nand compensation till the end. And it is said that he never applied for\na position or for an increase of salary. In 1865 he was made principal\nof the Academy at Hillsboro, IlL, where he remained two years. He\nthen became superintendent of schools in Greenville, 111., where he\nremained fifteen years, accomplishing an excellent work in grading the\nschools and putting them on an efficient basis. During his stay in\nHillsboro\nhe read law in the office of Judge\nRice ; but he never\n\n"}
{"page": 300, "printed_page": null, "text": "29°\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nentered the profession. All his subsequent life was given to educational\nwork.\nIn 1881 the governor appointed Mr. Inglis as one of the trustees of\nthe Southern Illinois Normal University at Carbondale. Two years later,\nat the request of his fellow-trustees and members of the faculty, he\naccepted the chair of mathematics in that institution. After three years\nof successful work he was transferred to the chair of English literature\nand rhetoric, which he continued to fill till he was chosen to the office in\nwhich he died. In the spring of the present year he was talked of as a\ncandidate for renomination to the office of state superintendent ; but on\nApril 12 he was unanimously chosen by the board of trustees of the Eastern\nIllinois State Normal School, about to be opened in Charleston, to be\nthe president of that new institution. He accepted the trust, expecting to\nenter upon the discharge of its duties next year. Some years since,\nBlackburn University conferred on him the honorary degree of A.M.; and,\nthe day before his death, it followed this with the degree of LL.D. He\nnever heard of the latter honor.\nIn person Superintendent Inglis was a man of good presence, possessing a physique that promised a life of more than fifty-eight years.\nIn manner he was kindly, earnest, and sincere. He was a man of clean\nand honorable life, a genial and faithful friend, and true in all life's relations. That he was an earnest patriot was shown by his early enlistment\nin the military service of his country. His last word for the press, written\nMay 15, was in commendation of the patriotism of the boys of a school\nwho had just raised an American flag over their schoolhouse.\nSince the death of Superintendent Inglis, the tributes paid to his\nmanly character have been many and warm. At his funeral in Springfield, Rev. D. T. Logan said: \"Public office of itself confers nothing\nupon a human character. It cannot make a bad man good, nor can it\nmake a good man bad, a fact which needs to be emphasized in these days\nof wholesale and indiscriminate criticism of public men. But when the\ncharacter is there, its influence is intensified by the prominence of the\nstation. As a man is, so is his strength. What he is in his personal\nrelations to his fellow-men he will be in his relations to his public duties.\nSamuel M. Inglis would not have been faithful in the performance of\nevery duty, from the day he began to teach in the Old Hickory schoolhouse at Andover till the day he was called suddenly to lay down the\noffice of state superintendent of public instruction, if he had not been a\nman of sterling integrity and consistent Christian character. The son of\na Presbyterian minister, trained from infancy in the principles of righteousness, his name adds another to that already long list of sons of the\nmanse who have attained an honorable prominence in business, professional, and political life.\"\nOn the same occasion, Hon. Richard Edwards, his predecessor in the\n\n"}
{"page": 301, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nMEMORIAL\n\nADDRESSES\n\n29 1\n\noffice of state superintendent, said : \" He has been an efficient officer.\nBut we believe that a grander thing than this is true of him. In the\ngrammar school he was a good teacher ; in the Southern Normal, an\nefficient exponent of the laws of pedagogy; and in all these positions\nhis clean, manly character, his pure motives, his high ideals of life, were\nan inspiration to all who came within reach of his personal influence.\nAnd here, we think, is the man's crowning glory.\"\nThe board of trustees of the Charleston State Normal School, at a regular meeting on June 8, 1898, passed memorial resolutions, in which they\nsay : \" In his relations, as teacher in the public schools, as superintendent\nof city schools, as professor in the normal school, as state superintendent\nof public instruction, and as a member of the various educational boards\nof the state, he was always industrious, honest, earnest, and faithful in the\ndischarge of his duties\nThousands of men and women are better\nmen and women because Professor Inglis lived. And a better monument\nthan can be made from bronze or marble exists for him in the love and\nrespect for his memory\n\nin the hearts of thousands of his surviving\n\npupils.\"\n\nprcsi&ent 5. C. 61lcbrt0t\n[prepared by henry sabin]\n\nBorn in Allegheny City, Pa., May 20, 1831. Educated at Antioch\nunder the care and guidance of Horace Mann, whose memory he held in\ngreat reverence. In i860 he took charge of the seminary at California,\nWashington county, Pa., and was instrumental in converting it into a\nnormal school. He was for a time president of the Fairmont Normal\nSchool, in West Virginia. In 1871 he came to Iowa to engage in instistute work, and was chosen superintendent of the schools at Mason City in\n1873. I^ 1876 he was elected president of the State Normal School, then\njust established at Cedar Falls. He continued in this position for ten\nyears, and during that time laid broad and deep the foundations of solid\nlearning and high scholarship upon which the school rests today. He\nwas afterward president of the Northern Iowa Normal School, at Algona,\nand later dean of the normal department of the Northwestern University,\nat Sioux City. He filled all these positions creditably and with usefulness\nto the cause of education.\nHe died at Laurens, la., August 12, 1897.\nOne who knew him well writes of him : \"President Gilchrist was an\nenthusiast — bold, defiant, impulsive, sometimes pleasantly obstinate.\nTalleyrand would have us ' beware of the enthusiast,' but I never thought\nthere was a particle of the enthusiasm in the make-up of him whose\nmemory we this night honor that an honest man need beware of. His\n\n"}
{"page": 302, "printed_page": null, "text": "292\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nenthusiasm never carried him off his feet, nor turned his^head, nor\ndetracted from his usefulness as a teacher or his manliness as an associate\nof men and women.\"\nAnother who was associated with him as a teacher for ten years pays\nthis tribute to his memory : \" As a teacher he magnified his office.\nTeaching was to him 'a high and holy calling, worthy of the ambition of\nthe best minds.' He held before his pupil-teachers, as an ideal, the placing of their vocation among the learned professions. To him the\nteacher's mission was second to none ; its aims were not temporal, but\neternal ; its rewards not human, but divine.\"\nAnd yet another, who often counseled with him concerning the interests of education : \" When I saw him for the last time, the same old\nspirit was within him. His body was failing him, he had lost something\nof his vigor of mind, but the great light of hope burned as bright as\never in his heart, and he was planning as broadly for the education of\nteachers and the improvement of the schools as tho he expected to work\nin the ranks for another fifty years. In the breast of a great man hope\nand courage go hand in hand, and when they die, his life work ends.\"\nIt is proper to add that, as a Christian believer, he was liberal in his\nconvictions, but was ardently attached to the church of his choice, the\nMethodist Episcopal church, of which he was a consistent member, and\nin which he was an able minister. However arduous his duties in the\nschoolroom, he was never too busy to accept a call to preach the gospel\nof salvation in the pulpits of his own denomination, or of others, and so\nacceptable was his ministry that such calls were frequent and continuous.\n\n/IDrs, Susan ©. ipatterson\n[PREl'AR^D\n\nKY\n\nW.\n\nH.\n\nBOWERSj\n\nMrs. Susan Given Patterson died September 12, 1896, at St. Paul,\nMinn. She had gone to that city, during the vacation months, for the\npurpose of regaining her health. She was stopping at the home of her\nsister. She graduated at the University of Wooster, O., in 1876, with\nthe highest honors of her class. She was a teacher of science in the\nWooster High School .for nine years, where her strong personality made\na lasting impression. She was married in 1886 to George E. Patterson,\na graduate of Wooster University. After eighteen months of married\nlife, her husband died. With the energy of her character, she obtained a\nposition as teacher in the Union City, Ind., public schools. Here her\nwork was very successful, and for several years she ably filled the position\nof principal of the high school. She removed to St. Paul, and taught\nfor one year in the schools of that city. She was recalled to Union City,\n\n"}
{"page": 303, "printed_page": null, "text": "f\n\nSessions]\n\nMEMORIAL\n\nADDRESSES\n\n29.^\n\nInd., to fill the position of superintendent of schools. This position she\nfilled for two years with honor to herself, and much credit to the schools.\nThe esteem in which she was held and her influence as an instructor are\nfully expressed in the following testament of appreciation which was\nadopted by. the teachers of the city schools :\nWe, the teachers and board of education of the public schools of Union City, Ind.,\ndesire to give expression to our sense of loss in the death of our beloved superintendent,\nMrs. S. G. Patterson, and to testify as to her excellent life and character.\nIn the death of Mrs. Patterson we have lost a leader, whose qualities of head and\nheart made her the successful teacher and ideal superintendent. Balanced, self-poised>\nable to command her resources, with a mind not only well stored, but systematically well\ntrained, she was not only intelligent, but educated in the truest sense of the word.\nIn discipline she was gentle yet firm ; self-disciplined, she ruled without seeming to\nrule. Her methods developed the moral possibilities as well as the intellectual. Full\nof tact, she led many a one up to a larger faith in God and to nobler views of human\nliving.\nShe brought to her responsible position not only high intellectual and general culture,\nbut those high moral and spiritual qualities by which she brought to us each day a fuller\nappreciation of the dignity, worth, and responsibility of our profession.\nWe feel that the influence which she exerted in our midst will continue with increasing power, giving us better, nobler aspirations in the work which she so much loved and\nadorned.\nAs a friend, Mrs. Patterson was kind, generous, self-sacrificing, and sympathetic ;\nready to assist not only by her wise counsel and encouraging word, but always ready with\nwilling heart and skillful hands to assume the burden itself. We feel that our loss is not\na professional one alone, but to each of us a personal loss.\nWere a star quenched on high,\nFor ages would its light.\nStill traveling downward from the sky,\nShine on our mortal sight.\nSo when our great one dies.\nFor years beyond our ken,\nThe light she leaves behind her lies\nUpon the paths of men.\n\nC, IP. IRooers\n[prepared by henry sabin]\n\nC. p. Rogers was born in Kingston Center, O., June 22, 1844. He\nwas a member of the One Hundred and Forty-fifth regiment Ohio volunteers during the war of the rebellion. His regiment was stationed on\nthe plantation of General Lee, at Arlington Heights. He graduated\nfrom the State University of Iowa in 1869. He was superintendent of\nthe Marengo schools 1869-74, and of the Marshalltown schools 1874-96.\nMr. Rogers was an earnest man, who gave himself without reserve to\nthe work of teaching. He was prominent among the ranks of Iowa\nteachers, wise in his counsels, and strong in his leadership. They honored\n\n"}
{"page": 304, "printed_page": null, "text": "294\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nhim with the highest professional ofifice in their power to bestow, and his\nuntimely death filled many hearts with sorrow. Under his fostering care\nthe schools of Marshalltown rose to a position of prominence unexcelled\nby any in the state, if, indeed, by any in the Northwest.\nOne who had known him from his youth wrote this of him : \"Iowa's\neducational history, if it commends the deeds and ability of any of this\ngeneration, can never be silent concerning the career and the professional\naccomplishments of the lamented Commodore\n\nPerry Rogers.\"\n\nm. XT. pointer, H),2).\nW. T. Poynter was born in Montgomery county, Ky., August 14,\n1838, the son of Thomas and Angeline Poynter. While he was yet a\nchild, his parents removed to Franklin county, near Frankfort, the\ncapital- of the state, where he grew up a strong, vigorous, and industrious\nboy. He was educated at Frankfort by Mr. B. B. Sayre, one of the most\ndistinguished educators of the country, leaving school at the age of\nseventeen, and two years afterward marrying Miss Pattie Poston, of Winchester, Ky. At the time of his marriage he was principal of the Winchester Academy, one of the oldest institutions in the state, and by his\nthoroness in discipline and instruction made for himself, even at that\nearly age, a reputation which most men acquire only after years of patient\nand laborious effort.\nIn 1867 he connected himself with the Kentucky conference.\nFour years at Winchester, four years at Millersburg, four at Paris, and\na single year at Carrollton completed that portion of his life which was\ndevoted to the pastoral work. It was while at Carrollton that he made\nthe purchase of the famous Science Hill Female College, which, under\nthe fifty years of the presidency of Mrs. Julia A. Tevis, had become one\nof the most prominent educational institutions of the country.\nHis death occurred on Thursday, July 30. Funeral services were\nheld Saturday morning in the chapel of the college, conducted by Revs.\nW. F. Taylor, John R. Deerings, Victor Savage, and T. J. Dodd, the\nlatter of whom preached the funeral discourse. The chapel was crowded\nto its utmost capacity by friends from far and near, prominent among\nwhom were not a few of those who had been Dr. Poynter's sturdiest\nopponents upon the field of controversy and debate — all now come\ntogether, equally testifying their sincere regard for the many distinguished\nvirtues of the great man who had been taken from their midst, all equally\nsorrowing that their friend and brother was now no more.\nSince 1879 l^J\"- Poynter had been the president of the female college\nknown for nearly three-fourths of a century as Science Hill, at Shelby-\n\n"}
{"page": 305, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nMEMORIAL\n\nADDRESSES\n\n295\n\nville, Ky. As a teacher he was earnest and thoro, and in turn he required\nthoroness of every worker in his school, whether student or assistant.\nHe was a cordial hater of pretense or show. His teachers were graduates\nof the best institutions in the country, and the work done by them in\nthe education of young ladies was of the highest order. This is shown\nconclusively in the fact that students bearing his certificates were admitted\ninto the places for which they were recommended, in the very best institutions of the North and East.\nSays one who knew him as a personal friend :\nHe was. a man of honor in the largest, most exalted meaning of the word. From\nthe earliest manhood we had known him, had been admitted to his intimate friendship,\nand had understood him as we have understood but few, and we can say deliberately that\nwe can recall no instance in the long lapse of years of his having done a dishonorable\ndeed or acted from a sinister motive ; and we have no recollection of such deed or motive\never having been ascribed to him.\n\n3osepb C. 5ones\nJoseph C. Jones, who died recently at his home in Chicago, was a\nman well known among educators in this country. He was born near\nAdrian, Mich., about fifty-seven years ago. His parents were New Englanders, who had but lately immigrated to what was at that time a comparatively wild and unsettled region. His early education was acquired\npartly at the district schools, but chiefly at the Friends' Seminary, in\nRaisin Valley, near his home. During the winter of 1864-65 he taught\nin the village school at Dundee. The next year he attended the high\nschool in Detroit, and in September, 1866, he entered the University of\nMichigan, at Ann Arbor. Circumstances prevented his remaining long\nin college at that time, and so, at the beginning of the following year, he\nreturned to Detroit to accept the principalship of the Houghton School\nin that city. After a successful experience of two or three years in the\ncapacity of school principal, he resigned and again entered the university,\nfrom which he was graduated in 1872.\nHe had scarcely received his degree when he was elected to the\nsuperintendency of the Pontiac schools, a position which he retained\nwith distinguished success until 1877, when he was called to a similar,\nbut larger, field of labor in East Saginaw. He remained eight years in\nEast Saginaw, bringing the schools of that city to a very high degree of\nefficiency, and placing them on a level with the best schools of the entire\ncountry. Thru his efforts the first high school in that city was established, and a training school for pupil-teachers was organized, which has\nsince accomplished incalculable good. The free text-book system in\nMichigan owes its existence to Mr. Jones, his schools in Ea.st Saginaw\n\n"}
{"page": 306, "printed_page": null, "text": "296\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nhaving been the first to adopt and make trial of it. His influence during\nthose eight years was felt not only as a school superintendent of rare\nabilities, but as a citizen and man of affairs having a high standing in\nthe community of which he was a member.\nIn 1885 Mr. Jones resigned his position at East Saginaw in order to\nbecome manager of the educational department in the publishing house\nof Harper & Brothers, in New York city. In the performance of his new\nduties he proved to be as energetic, efficient, and successful as he had been\nin the superintendency of schools.\nApart from the professional or business side of his life, Mr. Jones was\na man of varied attainments. His conversational powers were of the\nhighest order. There were few subjects with which he was not in some\ndegree familiar. \" He was a manly man in the truest sense of the word,\"\nsays his school board at Saginaw ; and everyone who knew him will repeat\nthe assertion. He was generous to a fault, and willing to sacrifice everything for the good of his friends. His heart was tender to every appeal\nfor right and justice. He was always ready to shoulder more than his share\nof a load ; to give the largest half of any good thing to his friend, reserving less the a moiety for himself; to suffer discomfort, if by so doing\nhe could increase another's enjoyment. His life was a practical illustration\nof altruism in its best sense. \"Be brave, be true, be unselfish\" — this\nwas the rule of conduct which he tried to impress upon the young people\nwith whom he came in contact; and in his own character he presented\nthe best exemplification of this teaching — for he was a living illustration\nof courage, truth, and devotion to others. Such men are few in this\nworld, and they can ill be spared. In his death not only have his family\nand friends suffered irretrievable loss, but the cause of education, to which\nhe gave his life, loses more than can ever be known or estimated.\n\n5obn lb. Uear\nJohn H. Tear was born in McLean\n\ncounty, Illinois, in 1856. He grew\n\nup on the farm, attending the district school, and later attending the village high school. After attending the State Normal University, at Normal,\n111., for a term, he began teaching a district school in the fall of 1874.\nIn 1877 he again took up work at the Normal University, graduating\nfrom there in 1881. After graduating he had charge of the schools at\nAstoria, 111., for two years, going from there to Delavan, 111., where he\nremained four years.\nIn September, 1887, he came to Chicago, taking the principalship of\nthe Von Humboldt School ; two years later he was transferred to the Wash-\n\n"}
{"page": 307, "printed_page": null, "text": "i\n\ns,>Mon>J\n\nMEMORIAL\n\nADDRESSES\n\n297\n\nington School, where he remained till his death, which occurred February\n15, 1897, after one week's illness of pneumonia.\nSome years before his death he received the degree of Ph.B. from the\nIllinois Wesleyan University, taking the non-resident course. At the time\nof his death he was working at the University of Chicago for the degree\nof Ph.D., going there in the afternoons after school to recite. In his\nschool work he made a specialty of philosophy and pedagogy.\nHe served as president of the Northern Illinois Teachers' Association,\nas president of the Chicago Institute of Education, and was at the time\nof his death vice-president of the Chicago Principals' Association, the\nsuperintendent of schools always serving as president.\nMr. Tear was a student of educational systems and principles. He\nwas practical, and measured the value of all theories by what they would\ndo for children. He was progressive, and tested methods before adopting them. He was honest, earnest, patient, modest, charitable, faithful.\nHis teachers respected, trusted, honored him. His pupils loved him.\nHis associates in the Principals' Association, in the Institute of Education, in the State Teachers' Association, and in every department of educational work, recognized his stability of character, his untiring energy\nin his profession, his clear perception of the true ends of education, and\nhis hearty co-operation in all movements for great efficiency.\nHis life was an illustration of the motto which he often urged upon\nhis pupils :\n\" To be thoroughly in earnest is everything,\nTo be anything short of it is nothing.\"\n\nSolomon palmer\nSolomon Palmer was a native of Blount county, Alabama. His whole\nlife was identified with the interests of that state. He was a gallant soldier\nin the war and was promoted to the rank of major.\nIn 1884 he became state superintendent of education, and in that\nposition stamped his name and fame indelibly upon Alabama history.\nHis superintendency was an era of progress and reform in Alabama\neducation. During his administration state institutes were held all over\nthe state, and wonderful advancement was made by the body of teachers.\nHe was a man of genial presence, and was usually present at meetings\nof the teachers wherever held in the state. For many years he was president of the Alabama Educational Association. He founded, in 1890, the\nF^ast Lake Atheneum, in which he met with marked success.\nHe was a frequent attendant upon the meetings of the National\nEducational Association and represented his state upon many important\n\n"}
{"page": 308, "printed_page": null, "text": "2y8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\ncommittees. He was a pleasant, honorable gentleman, of thoughtful ways\nand quiet demeanor, yet full of earnest zeal in the cause of popular\neducation.\n\n■QXaalter S. pertp\nWalter S. Perry was graduated from the State Normal School at Ypsilanti in 1856, and from the University of Michigan in 1861; received the\ndegree of Master of Arts from the university in 1871, and of Master of\nPedagogy from the normal school in 1890. He was superintendent at Marshall from 1861 to 1864, and at Coldwater from 1864 to 1867. While at\nColdwater he founded the Weekly Republicati, in 1866, being its first editor.\nHe was county superintendent of Branch county for 1867-68. In the\nspring of 1868 he became principal of the Toledo High School, completing the school year, when he was called to the presidency of the\nPrairie. Du Chien College, Wisconsin, which position he held for two\nyears, when, in 1870, he was appointed superintendent of the Ann Arbor\ncity schools. This position he occupied with distinguished success until\nhis death, December 15, 1897, a period of over twenty-seven years. He\nwas president of the Michigan State Teachers' Association for 1876.\nThe following resolution, passed at the last meeting of the Michigan\nState Association, expresses the appreciation and love of his fellowteachers :\nResolved, That we hereby express our deep sense of loss in the removal from us by\ndeath of our friend and colaborer, Superintendent Walter S. Perry; that we feel his life\nhas been a constant stimulus to that which was good and true in all who have been\nbrought into contact with his pure, unselfish, and noble character ; that in this association, of which he was a member almost from its organization, and in which his presence\nand his voice have been features most familiar and enjoyed, he has been an efficient\nofficer and trusted counselor in all its affairs ; that in the shaping of the elementary and\nsecondary educational systemi of Michigan we recognize him as one of the strongest\nforces working through the past thirty years.\nFilled with sorrow by his death, we yet rejoice in the life he has lived — simple, yet\nvigorous ; scholarly, though unpretentious ; gentle, yet manly and uncompromising when\nany question of integrity was at stake ; a life which has been an incentive to the truest\nmanhood in all who have personally known him.\n\njBuaene H). Baaen\nThe death of Eugene D. Bagen came with a severe shock to his associates and friends. He was born in New York city, in 1 85 1 . He attended,\nas a boy, Grammar School No. 20, of which Mr. Alexander Morehouse is\nnow principal, and from this school he went to the city college.\nHe was a\n\n"}
{"page": 309, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nMEMORIAL\n\nADDRESSES\n\n299\n\nmember of the same class of '81 in which were Commissioner Charles\nStrauss and ex- Commissioner Livingston, and Wallace F. Lyons, principal of Grammar No. 91. A few weeks ago a dinner was given to the\nclass by Mr. Lyons, at the Hotel Endicott, at which Mr. Bagen and many\nof the members were present. Mr. Bagen did not graduate from the college, but he left after two years, taking a course of civil engineering in\nthe University of the City of New York. He was interested in architecture and took up the study of that profession, but other circumstances led\nto his appointment as a teacher in Grammar No. 20 ; from which, after\nseveral years, he went to No. 7, of which Mr. Townley is principal. His\nknowledge of business details made him a valuable member of the Teachers' Mutual Benefit Association, and a few years ago, when the teachers'\nfair was held, Mr. Bagen was one of its most active workers and promoters, giving his services largely without remuneration for that work.\nHe has since been interested in the many plans for increasing and adding\nto the efficiency of the work of this association. No one of its members\nhas, probably, given more of his time in its behalf. He was also financial\nsecretary of the Teachers' Building and Loan Association, where all the\nloans and investments of the association were made under his supervision.\nHis nature was gentle and unassuming, and his friendships were\nformed on all sides by those with whom he was known in the course of\nhis official or social duties. He was one of the youngest of the staff of\nassistant superintendents, and none were more earnest and conscientious\nin their work.\n\n•fcenri? W,* JSlafte\nNews of the death of Henry W. Blake came upon ipost of his friends\nas a surprise and shock. Few outside of his family and those closest to\nhim knew that he had been dangerously ill with pneumonia since Friday.\nNever of robust health, he had been overworked, and it was feared from\nthe first that his constitution might not withstand the attack. This is\nthe end of a life upright, honorable, and useful in an exceptional degree.\nHenry Wolcott Blake was born in Coventry, Conn., July 20, 1848. He\nwas the son of Rev. Henry B. Blake, now dead, who is well remembered\nin western Massachusetts. The father was a graduate of Williams College\nand received his theological training at East Windsor, Conn., and his\nfirst settlement was at South Coventry, where he remained from 1845 to\n1855 ; then for ten years he was settled over the Congregational Church\nin Belchertown, where the son, Henry W., passed some of the pleasantest\nyears of his life, and where he married his wife at a later period. Rev.\nMr. Blake was, for some years after 1868, engaged in missionary and\n\n"}
{"page": 310, "printed_page": null, "text": "300\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\neducational work in Wilmington, N. C; and then came north and\npreached in West Springfield and other places. Henry W. Blake attended\nMonson Academy and entered Williams College, where he was graduated\nwith the class of 1871. Among his classmates and friends were Judge\nDunbar, of our superior court ; Professor Terrett, of Hamilton College,\nand Frank Foxcroft, of Cambridge. Mr. Blake displayed a fondness for\nwriting, and contributed to the Williams Quarterly. After leaving Williamstown he taught in North Carolina for a year or two, and was for a\ntime with General Armstrong at the Hampton (Va.) Institute.\nBut his bent was toward newspaper and literary work, and about 1877\nMr. Blake became a member of The Republican staff. His earlier work\nwith the paper was as a news-gatherer up and down the Connecticut valley\nin Hampshire and Franklin counties, and he made many friends in that\nregion. There were some whom he especially esteemed, like the Champneys, of Deerfield, while the best people of two county seats came to\nknow and value him. Later on he did more work in Springfield, and\ncame to largely direct the work of the local department. His work was\ndone with the utmost faithfulness and conscientionsness, and he was\ngreatly respected by his employers and associates. After about ten years of\nthis service, Mr. Blake withdrew, in 1888, to establish an advertising\nagency in company with William P. Derby. The business not meeting\nhis expectations, Mr. Blake, within a year or two, made an engagement\nwith Milton Bradley, and, for seven years until his death, was the head\nof the educational department of the Milton Bradley Co., and editor of\nthe Kindergarten News. His training had especially fitted him for\nthis work, and it was to his liking. He gained a broad knowledge of\neducational matters and a wide acquaintance with educators, while the\nkindergarten monthly publication gave him the field in which to indulge\nhis fondness for writing. All who have read it will agree that the Kindergarten News was edited with exceptional taste and care, while his own\ncontributions were always of value.\nMr. Blake was always regardful of his duties as a citizen. His was a\nreligious nature, and during his life in Springfield he was identified with\nchurch work, first at the Memorial Church and of late with Park Church,\nwhere he was one of the deacons.\n\nmalter /ID. 5as\nOn September 2, 1896, our beloved brother and fellow-worker, Walter\nM. Jay, was called to his reward. He was born April 25, 1857, at Elmwood, Peoria county. 111. Graduating in the high school at that place,\nhe entered Knox College at Galesburg, 111., completing the full classical\n\n"}
{"page": 311, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nMEMORIAL\n\nADDRESSES\n\n30 1\n\ncourse four years later. He entered a law office and was admitted to the\nbar in 1878. After practicing law for about a year, he accepted the\nsuperintendency of the Avon city schools. In August, 1883, he married\nMiss Grace Townsend, immediately moving to Wellington, Kan., serving\nas superintendent of city schools there for four years. He again resumed\nthe practice of law at Van Buren, Ark.; but later he accepted the superintendency ofthe Beloit, Kan., schools. In August, 1890, he was elected\nheadmaster and bursar of St. John's Military School, at Salina. From the\nmoment he assumed the duties of his new office his friends recognized\nhis eminent fitness for the place. His education and experience enabled\nhim to adapt himself at once to the great work of building up and\nenlarging the influence of the school. His fine social qualities and his\nreadiness as a public speaker gave him recognition wherever he went,\nand at the time of his death the school had entered upon an era of great\npromise. The purity of his life and nobleness of his aim, and the devotion with which he consecrated himself to the discharge of every trust\nconfided to him, awakened the profoundest respect and the hearty\nco-operation of young and old. One who knew him well says : \" He\nwas great in honest, earnest purpose. One of his cardinal virtues was\nhis unselfish devotion to the good of others.\"\n\nJEOwin H. Cbarlton\nEdwin Azro Charlton, eldest child of Walter and Mindwell Charlton,\nwas born in Littleton, N. H., September 29, 1828. Died November 14,\n1897.\nHe graduated from Dartmouth College in the class of 1854. Under\nthe administration of President Lord, class honors were not in vogue,\nbut Mr. Charlton's record placed him in the first third of the class, numbering fifty-seven, giving him election to the honorary Phi Beta Kappa\nSociety. The next fall he became principal of the Haverhill Academy,\nthen resuscitated after a long lapse, and remained there one year. In\nSeptember, 1855, he went to Gilmanton, N. H., and was preceptor of the\nacademy one year and a term, returning to Claremont in the beginning\nof 1857 to take up the study of his chosen profession, law, in the office\nof Freeman & McClure. Early in April, 1857, he was called to Lockport, N. Y., to take the principalship of the Union School. Here he\nremained for four years, teaching with such marked success, and so enjoying the work, that he abandoned all thought of the law. From this position\nhe was called to the vice-principalship of the Union School in Schenectady,\nN. Y., where he remained until the summer of 1862. In March of that\nyear he was married to Helen Elizabeth, daughter of Judge Alfred\n\n"}
{"page": 312, "printed_page": null, "text": "302\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nHolmes, of Lockport, N. Y., and in the fall returned to Gilmanton to\nagain assume the duties of preceptor of the academy. However, he\nremained only one year; the board of education of Schenectady offering\nhim the place of city superintendent of schools, he returned to that city\nand resided there for five years. Receiving an urgent call to come to\nAuburn, N. Y., as city superintendent of schools and principal of the high\nschool, he accepted it, but the climate did not agree with him, and after\ntwo years of successful and agreeable work he was peremptQrily bidden\nby his physician to try another climate. Being invited to the presidency\nof the First State Normal School of Wisconsin, at Platteville, he resigned\nhis position in Auburn and went west in the fall of 1870. He remained\nin this school eight years and a term, when he permanently retired from\nthe teacher's profession. In the spring of 1879 ^^ purchased the Brodhead Independent, a weekly paper published at Brodhead, Wis., and continued to edit the paper till the time of his death. Tho not engaged\nin the actual work of the schoolroom, Mr. Charlton did not lose his\ninterest in education. How highly his work was esteemed is shown by\nthe fact that, in 1884, his former pupils in the normal school made him\na life member of the National Educational Association.\nHis evident literary taste was shown the first year after his graduation\nin the preparation of a book entitled New Hampshire as It Is, which\nmet with reasonable success. Owing to the pressure of professional\nduties and a lack of physical strength, he performed but little literary\nwork in the later years, except in occasional addresses, school reports,\netc., but his writings are all marked by the use of \"classic English,\" and\nhe was highly esteemed as a critic for his candor and his scholarly ability.\n\n"}
{"page": 313, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF SUPERINTENDENCE\n\nCHATTANOOGA\n\nMEETING\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\nFIRST DAY\nMORNING\n\nSESSION.— Tuesday, February\n\n22, 1898\n\nThe Department of Superintendence was called to order at 10 : 30 A. M., in the New\nAuditorium, by the president, N. C. Schaeffer, of Harrisburg, Pa.\nHon. E. Watkins, mayor of Chattanooga, delivered an address of welcome on behalf\nof the citizens of Chattanooga.\nHon. Price Thomas, state superintendent of public instruction, Nashville, Tenn.,\nextended a welcome on behalf of the state.\nHon. Henry Houck, of Harrisburg, Pa., replied to the words of welcome in the name\nof the department.\nC. J. Baxter, state superintendent, Trenton, N. J., read a paper on \" The Township\nHigh School,\" which was discussed by J. Q. Emery, state superintendent, Madison, Wis.;\nW. W. Stetson, state superintendent, Augusta, Me.; A. K. Whitcomb, city superintendent,\nLowell, Mass.; R. K. Buehrle, superintendent of schools, Lancaster, Pa.; W. W. Pendergast, state superintendent of public instruction, Hutchinson, Minn., and John MacDonald, editor Western School Journal, Topeka, Kan.\nThe department then adjourned.\nAFTERNOON\n\nSESSION\n\nThe afternoon was devoted to a conference on the educational problems in the South,\nconducted by G. G. Bond, superintendent of city schools. Athens, Ga.\nThe first topic considered was : \" What Kind of Normal Training Should the Common-School Teacher Receive ? \" It was discussed by E. C. Branson, professor of pedagogy. State Normal School, Athens, Ga.; W. N. Sheats, state superintendent, Tallahassee,\nFla., and W. F. Slaton, superintendent of city schools, Atlanta, Ga. \" A Plan for the\nBetter Supervision of the Common Schools \" was the second topic, and was presented by\nCharles D. Mclver, president Normal and Industrial School, Greensboro, N. C, and discussed by Otis Ashmore, Savannah, Ga.; Superintendent Sheats, Tallahassee, Fla.;\nCaptain George Le Roy Brown, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tenn.; J. S. Wilson,\nSt. Elmo, Tenn.; Hon. R. J. Guinn, Atlanta, Ga.; Superintendent J. H. Phillips, Birmingham, Ala.; W. B. Thompson, Chattanooga ; J. N. Rogers, Sandersville, Ga., and\nSuperintendent Pendergast, of Minnesota. \" What the Negro Gets from Common-School\nEducation in the South and What He Gives to It \" was the third topic, which was discussed byG. R. Glenn, state superintendent, Atlanta, Ga.\n< By resolution of the Department of Superintendence at its meeting in Indianapolis, Ind., February 17,\n1897, the Secretary was directed to use the following amended spellings in all publications of the department,\nviz.: Program — (programme); tho — (though); altho — (although); thoro — (thorough); thorofare —\n(thoroughfare); thru — (through); thruout — (throughout); catalog — (catalogue); prolog — (prologue);\ndecalog — (decalogue); demagog — (demagogue); pedagog — (pedagogue).\n\n"}
{"page": 314, "printed_page": null, "text": "304\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chattanooga\n\nThe conference of state superintendents on the \" Minimum Preparation for Teaching,\"\nconducted by Grace Espy Patton, Denver, Colo., met in the Chamber of Commerce.\nHon. Price Thomas, of Tennessee, presented a paper on the subject, which was discussed\nby Hon. O. T. Corson, of Ohio.\nEVENING\n\nSESSION\n\nPresident Schaeffer called the meeting to order and appointed the following commit e s :\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON RESOLUTIONS\n\nCharles R. Skinner, Chairman.\nA. G. Lane.\nE, W, Mackey.\nCOMMITTEE\n\nL. B. Evans.\nW. H. Anderson.\nJ. F. Millspaugh.\n\nON NOMINATIONS\n\nG. R. Glenn, Chairman.\nO. T. Corson.\nF. Louis Soldan.\n\nW. W. Stetson.\nE. O. Lyte.\n\nThe report of the Committee on Elementary Schools, prepared by Dr. John Dewey,\nChicago, 111., was, in his absence, read by Dr. W. N. Hailmann, Washington, D. C. A\nviolin solo was rendered by Professor Joseph Cadek, of Chattanooga. Martin G. Brumbaugh, professor of pedagogy. University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa., read a paper\non \"The Mission of the Elementary School,\" after which the department adjourned.\n\nSECOND\nMORNING\n\nDAY\n\nSESSION.— Wednesday,\n\nFebruary\n\n23\n\nThe department was called to order at 9 : 30 by President Schaeffer.\nRev. Dr. J. W. Bachman, of Chattanooga, offered prayer.\nThe subject for this session was : \" What Can Child-Study Contribute to the Science\nof Education ? \" Papers were read by Professor J. P\". Gordy, Columbus, O., and Professor R. P. Halleck, Louisville, Ky. The subject was further discussed by Professor\nCharles O. Hoyt, Ypsilanti, Mich.\nBUSINESS SESSION\nProfessor Ossian H. Lang, New York city, as chairman of the Committee on the,\nMinimum Standard of Professional Requirements of Teachers, asked that the committee\nbe given at least one year more for the completion of its plans and recommendations.\nOn motion, this request was granted by the department.\nDr. Hailmann called up the resolution offered by the Committee on Elementary Education and asked for its adoption by the department. On motion, it was laid on the\ntable, to be considered at the business session of Thursday.\nThe selection of a place for holding the next meeting of the department was then\ntaken up.\nInvitations were received from the following cities : Columbus, O.; Albany, N. Y.;\nAsheville, N. C; Detroit, Mich.; Austin, Tex. A vote of preference was then taken, with\nthe following result : Columbus, 75 ; Detroit, 17; Austin, 12 ; Albany, 5 ; Asheville, 3.\nThe session then adjourned.\nAFTERNOON\n\nSESSION\n\nThe afternoon session was devoted to a conference on \" School Hygiene,\" conducted\nby Superintendent G. V. Buchanan, Sedalia, Mo. Superintendent Carroll G. Pearse, Omaha,\nNeb., read a paper prepared by Dr. W. A. Mowry, Hyde Park, Mass., on \" Lighting and\nSeating of Schoolrooms,\" after which it was discussed by Superintendent F. Louis Sol-\n\n"}
{"page": 315, "printed_page": null, "text": "\\\n\nSuperintendence]\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\n305\n\ndan, St. Louis, Mo.; Superintendent J. R. Preston, Water Valley, Miss., and Mr. W. A.\nBell, Indianapolis, Ind. On motion. Dr. Soldan's time was extended, and he closed the\ndiscussion.\nA paper on \" Ventilation of Schoolrooms,\" prepared by Superintendent A. P. Marble,\nNew York city, was read by Hon. H. R. Pattengill, Lansing, Mich. The subject was\nfurther discussed by Superintendent S. M. Inglis, Springfield, 111., and Superintendent\nJ. L. Holloway, Fort Smith, Ark.\nSuperintendent T. A. Mott, Richmond, Ind., read a paper on \"Contagious Diseases.\"\nSuperintendent B. C. Gregory, Trenton, N. J., continued the discussion.\nSuperintendent J, H. Snyder, Tiffin, O., was absent, but he sent his paper, which, for\nwant of time, was omitted, but was submitted as a part of the record.\nIn the conference of state superintendents, Z. X. Snyder, president of the State Normal School, Colorado, read a paper on \" Reciprocal Recognition of State and NormalSchool Diplomas by Other States.\" A paper was also read by Superintendent W. B.\nPowell, District of Columbia, on \"Medical Examination of Children in the Public\nSchools.\"\nEVENING SESSION\nProfessor A. J. Gantvoort, College of Music, Cincinnati, O., read a paper on \"The\nInfluence of Music and Music Study upon Character.\" President Schaeffer introduced\nDr. S. F. Scovel, president of the University of Wooster, O., who discussed the subject\nbriefly.\nMrs. Pratt, of Chattanooga, favored the department with a vocal solo.\nDr. W. T. Harris, Commissioner of Education, Washington, D. C, then read a paper\non \" The Value of the Tragic and the Comic in Education.\"\nSuperintendent Carroll G. Pearse was allowed to introduce the following motion,\nwhich was adopted by the department :\nThat the president of this department, at this meeting;, be authorized to appoint a committee of seven,\nwhich shall consider the matter of the classification of receipts and expenditures of state and city school systems, and recommend to the department forms of financial reports suitable for use by all state and city schools ;\nand that the Board of Directors of the National Educational Association be requested to appropriate a sum of\nmoney sufficient to pay for the printing of the report of this committee, so that the report may be in the hands\nof the members of this department at the next meeting.\n\nThe department then adjourned.\n\nTHIRD\nMORNING\n\nDAY\n\nSESSION.— Thursday, February\n\n24\n\nThe department was called to order by President Schaeffer, and Rev. Thomas V.\nTobin, rector of Sts. Peter and Paul Church, of Chattanooga, offered prayer.\nPrincipal Richard Waterman, Jr., Chicago, 111., read a paper on \" Vacation Schools.\"\nIrwin Shepard, president State Normal School, Winona, Minn., read a paper on \"Continuous Sessions of Normal Schools.\" These papers were discussed by Superintendent\nA. T. Barrett, of Chattanooga, Tenn.; Superintendent R. K. Buehrle, Lancaster, Pa.,\nand Superintendent D. L. Ellis, Asheville, N. C.\nHere Bishop Goodsell, of the Methodist Episcopal church, who was honoring the\ndepartment with his presence, was introduced by President Schaeffer and briefly discussed\nthe subject under consideration.\nBUSINESS SESSION\nSuperintendent R. K. Buehrle introduced the following resolution, which was\nadopted :\nResolved, That, in view of the great progress already made in the amendment and simplification of English orthography, as shown by 'the dropping of the final letter or letters in ax, program, etiquet ; of one of the\ndouble letters in traveler, worshiping, and woolen ; of the a in pedagogy and phenogamous ; of the o in\n\n"}
{"page": 316, "printed_page": null, "text": "30b\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chattanooga\n\neconomy, the w in honor and labor; and many similar changes and words ; a committee be appointed to consider the advisability of certain additional changes to be advocated, looking toward the further and more\nrapid amendment and simplification of English orthography, said committee to report at the next regular\nmeeting of this department.\n\nA. C. McLaughlin, of the University of Michigan, chairman of the Committee of the\nAmerican Historical Association and the Study of History in the Secondary Schools,\nspoke of the nature of the work of his committee and asked the co-operation of the members of the department.\nThe following resolution on elementary education, referred to in this section, was\nthen called up by the president:\nResolved^ That the present president of the Department of Superintendence appoint a committee of four,\nto be known as the Commiteee on Elementary Education, whose duty it shall be to collect and collate data in\naccordance with the proposition of Dr. Dewey's report ;\nThat this committee be empowered to complete its organization by the appointment of nine additional\nmembers, in accordance with the recommendation of the same report ;\nAnd that the officers of the Department of Superintendence are hereby instructed to petition the Board of\nDirectors of the National Educational Association, on behalf of the Department of Superintendence, to appropriate a sum not exceeding $i,ooo for the year 1898-99, and a sum not exceeding $1,500 for the year 1899-1900,\nto be placed at the disposal of the Committee on Elementary Education for the purposes named in Dr. Dewey's\nreport.\n\nUpon motion, action was postponed for one year.\nThe following Committee on Uniform Reports was named by the president : C. G.\nPearse, Omaha, Neb.; W. W. Stetson, Augusta, Me.; D. M. Geeting, Indianapolis, Ind.;\nJohn R. Kirk, Jefferson City, Mo.; C. A. Babcock, Oil City, Pa.; E. B. Prettyman, Baltimore, Md.\nThe Committee on Nominations reported the following names for officers of this\ndepartment for the ensuing year :\nFor President — E. H. Mark, Louisville, Ky.\nFor First Vice-President — G. H. Conley, Boston, Mass.\nFor Second Vice-President — A. T. Barrett, Chattanooga, Tenn.\nFor Secretary — J. H. Van Sickle, Denver, Colo.\n\nThe report of the committee was accepted, and the persons named declared officers\nfor the ensuing year.\nAFTERNOON\nSESSION\nThe session was devoted to a conference on \" Grading and Promoting with Reference to the Individual Needs of Pupils,\" conducted by Dr. Edward R. Shaw, School of\nPedagogy, University of City of New York.\nDr. John T. Prince, agent of the Massachusetts board of education, read a paper on\n\" Some New-England Plans and Conclusions Drawn from a Study of Grading and Promotion.\" This paper was discussed by Professor W. S. Sutton, School of Pedagogy,\nUniversity of Texas. A general discussion followed, in which the following took\npart: Superintendent E. Coleman, Le Mars, la.; Dr. W. T. Harris, Washington, D.C.;\nSuperintendent R. K. Buehrle, Lancaster Pa., and Dr. C. C. Rounds, New York city.\nSuperintendent James H. Van Sickle, Denver, Colo., read a paper on the \" Plan of\nthe North-Side Schools of Denver.\" Superintendent William J. Shearer, Elizabeth, N. J.,\nread a paper on \"The Elizabeth Plan.\" The discussion was opened by Superintendent\nR. H. Halsey, Binghamton, N. Y., who was followed by Superintendent George Griffith,\nUtica, N. Y.; Supervisor George Martin, Boston, Mass., and Superintendent J. M. Greenwood, Kansas City, Mo.\nEVENING\nSESSION\nThe Committee on Resolutions made the following report, which was adopted by the\ndepartment :\nThe members of the Department of Superintendence express their grateful appreciation of the efforts of\n\n"}
{"page": 317, "printed_page": null, "text": "i\n\nSuperintendence]\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\n^\n\nthe local committees of Chattanooga, municipal and educational, and of- its citizens generally, to provide for\nour comfort and entertainment, and for their cordial and fraternal greetings.\nThe profit of this meeting has been enhanced by the privilege of viewing the scenes where conflicts were\nwaged that are memorable in the history of the nation and of the world. Tho memorials of strife and of valor\nstand upon the fields of Chickamauga. Missionary Ridge, and Lookout Mountain, there has been no bitterness\nin our hearts as we have discussed measures designed to promote the permanent prosperity and to secure the\npeace of the republic. Let us hope that education everywhere may teach the sentiments of humanity, and that\nhenceforth all differences between nations may be amicably settled thru the peaceful means of arbitration.\nWe heartily appreciate the courteous attention and the full reports which the press of Chattanooga has\ngiven the proceedings of the department, and accept its intelligent, comprehensive reports as an assurance of\nthe efficacy of the press as an educational factor. May the example of the press of Chattanooga inspire journalism everywhere to give closer attention to educational problems, and to lead in the solutions of questions\nwhich concern the development of intelligence and character among the people.\nThe progress of educational affairs in the South during recent years is a cause for congratulation and\nencouragement. This progress is evidenced by the larger enrollment, the longer school terms, and the\nimproved equipment of schoolhouses, but more particularly by the greater interest on the part of the people,\nand the increasing enthusiasm on the part of school officials. We learn with gratification of the improved condition of the negroes, the sympathy between the educators of both white and colored races, and express our\nconfidence in the ultimate moral and intellectual elevation of the negro race by means of proper education.\nThis department approves of the plan of creating a committee whose duty it is to make or cause to be\nmade a scientific determination of the factors involved in the subjects of seating, lighting, ventilating, and\nheating of school buildings ; and to this end prepare and present to this body, at the meeting in 1899, a preliminary report setting forth the nature of the problems involved and its recommendations for the further\nprosecution of the inquiry — said committee to consist of nine members, as follows: the United States\nCommissioner of Education, two state superintendents of instruction, two presidents of normal schools, two\ncity superintendents, and two other persons.\nWe commend intelligent child- study, but believe that great caution should be observed in using the child\nas a subject for psychological experiments, particularly by those not familiar with the essential principles\nwhich should be regarded in such investigations.\nWe recognize the force of utterances made in favor of closer and more intelligent supervision of the\ninstruction given in our schools ; the importance of selecting the best supervisors at adequate salaries ; of professional training, and the determination to make our schools more useful by making them more attractive,\nby quickening in them an educational spirit, and by the adoption of proper courses of study and insisting upon\nthe best methods of teaching.\nWe favor the further consideration and discussion of plans for continuous sessions of normal schools.\nWe indorse all suitable efforts that may be made to secure uniform qualifications for teachers' licenses for\nthe different grades of school work, to be accepted in any state in the union ; and we also favor a permanent\ntenure of service for worthy teachers who hold such licenses.\nThe department expresses its obligations to all railroads which have given unusual special rates for this\nmeeting.\nThe thanks of this body are hereby tendered to the retiring president for his work in the preparation of\nthe program which has been furnished ; for the firm, courteous, and dignified manner in which he has presided\nover our deliberations, and in general for the successful conduct of the meeting now closed.\nCharles R. Skinner,\nAlbert G. Lane,\nE. W. Mac KAY,\nL. B. Evans,\nW. H. Anderson,\nJ. F. Millspaugh,\nCotninittee.\n\nMrs. Watson, of Chattanooga, favored the department with a vocal solo.\nThe closing address was then delivered by Dr. S. F. Scovel, president of University of\nWooster, Wooster, O., on \"Realizing the Final Aim of Education.\"\nThe retiring president, having expressed his gratitude for the courtesies shown him\nduring the meeting, introduced the president-elect, E. H. Mark, who thanked the members for the honor conferred upon him, and declared the department adjourned.\nW. L. Steele, Secretary.\nADDENDA\nPresident Schaeffer reserved the right, before adjourning the department, to name\nthe committees on school hygiene and spelling reform at a later date. The president has\nappointed these committees as follows :\n\n"}
{"page": 318, "printed_page": null, "text": "3o8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nSPELLING\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chattanooga\n\nREFORM\n\nSuperintendent R. K. Buehrle, Lancaster, Pa.\nSuperintendent T. M. Balliet, Springfield, Mass.\nHon. W. T. Harris, Washington, D. C.\nMr. E. O. Vaile, Oak Park, Chicago, III.\nDr. C. C. Rounds, New York city.\nSCHOOL\n\nHYGIENE\n\nHon. W, T. Harris, Washington, D. C.\nSuperintendent A, P. Marble, New York city.\nHon. Frank A. Hill, Boston, Mass.\nDr. E. Oram Lyte, Millersville, Pa.\nHon. John R. Kirk, Jefferson City, Mo.\nProfessor W. E. Watson, Providence, R. I.\nSuperintendent F. L. Soldan, St. Louis, Mo.\nProfessor W. L. Bryan, Bloomington, Ind.\nProfessor W. A, Mowry, Hyde Park, Mass.\n\nW. L. Steele,\nSecretary.\n\nPAPERS\nTHE\n\nBY\n\nSTATE\n\nAND\n\nTOWNSHIP\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nDISCUSSIONS\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOI\n\nC. J. BAXTER,\n\nConspicuous and predominant among\n\nTRENTON,\n\nN. J.\n\nthe educational needs of the\n\nUnited States today is the need for extending our high-school system.\nA plea for the township high school is, because of existing conditions, a\nplea for the rural high school.\nIt should be established\nI.\n\nAS\n\nA\n\nMEASURE\n\nOF\n\nJUSTICE\n\nTO\n\nOUR\n\nRURAL\n\nPOPULATION\n\nMany of our towns, nearly all of our cities, and some of our larger\nvillages already enjoy a very liberal development of this system, and the\nyouth in these centers of population are able to acquire an education\nthat fits them for the ordinary duties of life. The fully equipped high\nschool, in addition to some purely commercial lines of work, gives its\nstudents an intelligent appreciation of our literature, a good knowledge\nof American history ; lays a good foundation for both a mathematical and\na scientific education ; teaches the art and establishes the habit of speaking\nand writing good English ; is prepared to give such instruction in the\nlanguages as our colleges require for admission ; and, last but not least, it\nshould instill a love of knowledge for its own sake and a purpose to persist in its acquirement ; also continue the social development, the character-building, and example in manners and morals that are begun in the\ntrue kindergarten and which are characteristic of it. If equal to these\nrequirements^it furnishes the pupil with the master-keys of knowledge,\nand performs the important function of connecting the grammar school\nwith both the world and our higher institutions of learning. Tho many\nof the so-called high schools fall below this standard, still our present\nhigh-school education is a fairly comprehensive system, whose provisions\n\n"}
{"page": 319, "printed_page": null, "text": "SuperintendenceJ\n\nTHE\n\nTOWNSHIP\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n309\n\nare liberal, whose results are good, and whose aims are distinctly high and\nimportant, because tending to elevate the standard of average intelligence,\nand to advance our people along the lines of enterprise, culture, and\nmorality.\nUp to the present time this valuable provision for larger development\nhas been enjoyed only by those who reside in, or near, our centers of\npopulation. The many whose lines are cast outside these centers, on the\nfarms, in the forests, in the mines, and who are connected with various\nother industrial interests located of necessity where towns and cities are\nimpossible, are denied the privileges and benefits of the system. Our\nprovisions for public education, primarily designed to be of equal benefit\nto all our youth, are today, because of the development of the highschool feature in the towns, tending to divide our citizens into two distinct classes: first, those for whose training and development a fairly\nsuitable provision has been made ; and, second, those* whose advantages\nare confined to the rural school, with its limited curriculum and still more\nmeager equipment. That these two classes will show marked and undesirable contrasts is as certain as that effect follows cause. The urban-bred\ncitizen will be more alert, more progressive, more polished, more\nresourceful, more capable of discerning or creating opportunities within\nhis environments, or of seeking them beyond, and thus far better fitted to\nfight the battle of life. The rural-bred citizen will be far less capable of\nhandling new questions or treating complex subjects, less capable of\nadapting himself to new conditions when forced out of his accustomed\nsphere, or of making the most of any environment, because natural\npowers, fully the equal of those of his more favored urban contemporary,\nhave not been so well developed.\nTho our past history affords us shining examples of those who have\nbroken away from conditions most unfavorable, who have risen supreme\nabove every difficulty, and made for themselves a name and fame that are\nworld-wide, this does not disprove the fact that the contrast in culture,\nenterprise, thrift, and general intelligence between any two communities\ncorresponds with the difference in their educational facilities. Inequality\nof opportunity does not become a nation which disavows all class distinctions, whose antecedents are democratic, and which professes to be\nsuch in principle and practice.\nII.\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nEQUALITY\n\nIS\n\nESSENTIAL\nHARMONY\n\nTO\n\nPROGRESS\n\nAND\n\nDOMESTIC\n\nDifferences such as I have endeavored to portray are too important to\nbe overlooked. They mean the radical division of a free people along\nthe lines of educational and intellectual inequality. This division is not\nfanciful. It exists today, to an unfortunate and ofttimes embarrassing\nextent, in every commonwealth of this republic.\nIt shows itself in the\n\n"}
{"page": 320, "printed_page": null, "text": "310\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chattanooga\n\nadjustment of matters purely local, in the administration of the affairs of\nthe county, the state, and the nation. We see progression on the one\nhand, and jealousy and obstruction on the other. Elements so diverse in\nthought, feeling, and motive refuse to harmonize and co-operate, and\nimportant public interests are thus sacrificed. Some of this diversity of\nopinion and purpose is frequently attributed to conflicting personal or\nsectional interests ; but deeper rooted and more potent for right influence,\nbecause more closely allied to the higher and nobler self, are the character\nand the measure of development of the sovereign voter or legislator himself. If these shall come up to the full measure of his responsibilities,\nhe simply seeks to learn wherein lies the greatest and most enduring good\nto the body politic, and, intent upon securing this, he reaches a right conclusion as to the measures he should support.\nNot only in our own, but from all other civilized countries we\nhear murmurings \"of discontent, of the need of greater harmony and a\ncloser identity of interest between capital and labor, of a widening breach\nbetween the rich and the poor. Educational inequality will tend to\nincrease and intensify this unfortunate antagonism, and the most certain\nand effective means of counteracting it is to place all communities and\nclasses, in the matter of public education, upon an even footing.\nIII.\n\nA\n\nMORE\n\nLIBERAL\n\nPUBLIC\n\nEDUCATION\nECONOMY\n\nIS\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nINTEREST\n\nOF\n\nIn the cities and towns where a more liberal educational policy has\nlong prevailed it is found that the tax rate is lowest. The common\ncouncil of the capital of my Own state recently voted to erect a highschool building at a cost of g 150,000. A committee was appointed to\nvisit other cities and towns for the purpose of learning the most modern\nand desirable plans of construction, and among the things incidentally\nlearned is the fact that an adequate provision for public education is not\nonly in the interest of morality, enterprise, and social advancement, but\nis also a measure of economy. A higher standard of intelligence tends\nto a larger average of personal and family possession. This means a\ngreater total aggregate of wealth ; and the larger the assessable value of\nany district or municipality, the lower the tax rate required to secure a\ndefinite sum. Whatever promotes prosperity lessens the demands of\ncharity and the cost of maintaining government. It is far wiser and\nmore humane to give $5 to the cause of education than to pay twice\nthis amount for the support of almshouses, penitentiaries, and courts of\njustice. The one city of my acquaintance most niggardly in the support\nof its schools is most heavily burdened with the care of its poor and the\ncontrol of its criminal element. This is, however, not offered as the\nsupreme motive for an adequate support of a civilizing and elevating\nforce whose\nhighest, most certain, and most\nenduring\nrewards\nare\n\n"}
{"page": 321, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nT//£\n\nTOWNSHIP\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n31 '\n\ncapacity for higher enjoyment, for larger service, for right living, and\nwhich are inherent, and neither incidental nor accidental.\nWe hear much of the claims of poverty upon wealth. Many believe\nthat no one has a moral right to hoard millions within hearing of the cry\nof distress, of the pleadings of starving children. The broadest, truest,\nand most effective charity is the humane foresight which so trains the\nhead, the hand, and the heart as to give the masses right views of life,\nmakes them valued and valuable members of our social fabric; which\ncauses them to be self-reliant and self-helpful, and makes them good citizens. This is the right conception of public education, is its high purpose, and is what it should aim to accomplish. This is the debt that\nwealth owes the commonwealth which gives it protection and which has\nmade its accumulation possible. It is its first and highest obligation,\nwhich, if higher motives shall not prevail, it yet should cheerfully meet\nfor its own sake.\n\ni\n\nIV.\n\nBETTER\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nADVANTAGES\nRURAL\nPOPULATION\nMORE\nENVIRONMENTS\nMORE\n\nARE\nREQUIRED\nCONTENTED\nAND\nATTRACTIVE\n\nTO\nMAKE\nITS\n\nOUR\n\nThe products of the soil not only furnish our entire support, but constitute the basis of our national prosperity. Their cultivation, manufacture, and distribution provide employment for more than three-fourths\nof our population. Foresight, judgment, and personal culture are quite\nas much in place on the farm as in other pursuits, and intelligent, welldirected labor will always be the most remunerative. Thru the schools\nand the influence of our teachers, both in and out of school, we should\nendeavor to correct the popular impression that only the most rudimentary education is required for agricultural pursuits, that learning\nunfits our youth to engage in them, and that it is quite unnecessary for\nthem to spend much time in school, unless they purpose fitting themselves\nfor one of the so-called learned professions or wish to engage in some\nemployment which they regard as njore congenial and genteel. Views\nthus erroneous are adverse to progress and culture in the rural community, cause its youth to appear at a humiliating disadvantage when\nbrought into contact with those who are urban-bred, early engender a\ndislike for country life and a desire to get away from it. Because of this\nfeeling the attendance of many rural schools is greatly diminished,\nothers are attended only by the children of the farmer's tenants, and some\nare closed ; while the school boards of our cities and towns are finding it\nmore and more difficult to provide adequate accommodations.\nOur rural interests are so vitally important that it behooves us to furnish educational advantages that will promote their highest development\nand materially add to the attractions and advantages of rural life.\nInstruction is needed that will instill a love of nature, introduce more\n\n"}
{"page": 322, "printed_page": null, "text": "312\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chattanooga\n\nintelligence and culture into the rural home; that will beautify it and its\nsurroundings, and thus bring city and urban life into closer touch.\nV.\n\nTHEY\n\nARE\n\nDEMANDED\n\nBY\n\nTHE\n\nTIMES\n\nFrom the close of the great Civil War to the present time our population has nearly doubled, and our great industrial interests have so multiplied and grown in magnitude, have become so diversified and complex,\nthat there is today, not alone a demand for experience and skill, but for\nintelligent, self-directing labor. This is not peculiar to any single industry, but is a palpable want that is everywhere met, from the carpenter shop\nto the counting-house. A contractor recently said: \"What a blessing it\nwould be could I find workmen competent to execute the plans placed\nbefore them without constant oversight and direction. If supervision is\nwithdrawn, even for a short time, then work wrongly done has to be torn\ndown, and time, labor, and money are lost.\" A higher order of intelligence is needed on the farm. Farming along the old lines has in many\nlocalities ceased to be remunerative. A knowledge of plant life, of the\nsoil and its elements, is essential- to the adaptation of means to ends.\nTho the school may fail to impart this special line of knowledge, it should\nat the least develop an intelligence that will make it easily acquired.\nThese higher demands are not peculiar to our industries, but include\nthe so-called professions as well. Pupils who have acquired but the simplest rudiments of an education are no longer welcome to our leading\ndivinity, medical, law, and dental schools. Many of our state boards of\nmedical and dental examiners decline to examine applicants for license\nwho cannot present a diploma from a college or an accredited high school\nas evidence of preparation to enter upon the professional course of study\nrequired. The same, or an equivalent, demand will ere long be made\nupon all who seek admission to our normal schools and teachers' training\nclasses.\nVI.\n\nESSENTIAL\n\nTO\n\nA\n\nSAFE\n\nSTANDARD\n\nOF\n\nCITIZENSHIP\n\nOur so-called elementary or common schools do not prepare the great\nmajority of our youth for the duties of citizenship. Any pupil of average ability can, under a good school system, easily complete the usual\ncommon-school studies by the time he reaches thirteen or fourteen years\nof age. He is then graduated, not educated, and sent adrift into the\nworld unprepared for its experiences, unfitted for its duties, unfortified\nagainst its temptations, and this at the most receptive period of his life —\njust when best prepared to learn. There is not a teacher of extended\nexperience who has not\" seen many pupils of this age, who have been\ngiven further school advantages, make more substantial progress in a\nsingle year than during any previous three years of their school life.\nWithout the secondary or high school, the pupil is deprived of the instruc-\n\n"}
{"page": 323, "printed_page": null, "text": "k\n\nSuperintendence!\n\nTHE\n\nTOWNSHIP\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\nI'il\n\ntion to which all his past life has led up and prepared him to receive ;\ndeprived of the instruction needed to enlarge his mental horizon, that is\nrequired to carry his thoughts beyond the environments of home and\ncommunity to the interests of the state and nation ; denied the advantages\nthat would introduce him to a higher manhood, and which would count\nfor so much in his future career as a social and civic factor. Not until\nthis stage of development is reached is the teacher, however skillful, able\nto lead the pupil to discern and acquire a taste for what is best in literature, permanently to interest him in the affairs of state, and successfully\ninstruct him in the duties of citizenship which it is his birthright ere\nlong to assume. ^ We as educators cannot, and no fair-minded citizen\nshould, close his eyes to the fact that the education which our elementary\nschools now provide is not broad enough and strong enough for a sovereign people.\nVII.\n\nWILL\n\nPROMOTE\n\nENTERPRISE\n\nAND\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSECURITY\n\nGo where you will, you will find that the village, town, or city- that\nstands pre-eminent in intelligence holds pre-eminence of rank and is\nregarded as an example for emulation. You will also find there the\ngreatest business enterprise, the best churches, schools, libraries, and\nhomes, and also the greatest security to person and property. It has been\ngrandly said : \" Intelligence is the life of liberty.\" It is its soul aind\nsafeguard. In the intelligence of its people lies the safety of the state.\nEnlightenment is far more efficacious in promoting the security of a people than military safeguards. Could the large amounts expended by the\nseveral states for such safeguards and the maintenance of their expensive\naccompaniments be diverted to the broadening, strengthening, and\nupbuilding of their public-school systems, this republic would be without\na peer in educational facilities, and within its confines disorder and\nrumors of disorder would soon be gloomy specters of the past.\nMany, with much regret, have noted that, according to our last census,\nthere were in the United States in 1890 6,324,702 persons above ten\nyears of age who could neither read nor write. It is a matter for still\ngreater regret that we have far more than this number who, in point of\nintelligence, are hardly one whit the superior of these illiterates, and who\nhave good reason to be far less innocent. Tho they can call words,\nthey either read not at all or read that which is trifling or corrupting.\nTheir thoughts revolve in the same narrow circle, and their feet tread in\nthe same aimless, unaspiring, monotonous round of life. They took the\ninitial steps to an education, but were not long allured in the way. Mainly\nin this class have the agitators, trouble- mongers, and demagogs found\ntheir following and the corrupt politician his purchasable votes. Not\ncomprehending the high privileges conferred, and the great responsibilities entailed, by the elective franchise, it is only charitable to assume that\n\n"}
{"page": 324, "printed_page": null, "text": "314\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chattanooga\n\nmany who thus sell their birthright do not fully realize the seriousness and\nthe enormity of the offense. This is the class of citizens that would be\nindefinitely multiplied were the advocates of the \"three-R\" school curriculum able to dominate and direct our educational policy. In this age\nof enlightenment and progress, it seems almost incredible that any citizen of any state should insist that our public schools should be tied down\nto imparting the merest rudiments of an education. No state can expect\na higher order of fealty and service than it qualifies its citizens to render.\nThe dangers which threaten us originate among the ignorant. Their\nblind acceptance of the political and industrial heresies so constantly\npromulgated, and consequent tendency toward socialism and anarchy, can\nbe counteracted and restrained only by the uplifting influence of education. As a nation we are vitally interested in the masses. The children\nof the plain people constitute the great majority. They will furnish our\nfuture voters, legislators, and rulers, and will, just as we shall elect, become\neither a scourge to threaten and plague us, or a power to dignify and\nbless.\nVIII.\n\nESPECIALLY\n\nNEEDED\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nIMPROVEMENT\n\nOF\n\nRURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nWhile it must be admitted that important concessions have been made\nin many states to the rural population, as regards the levying of school\ntaxes and the apportionment of school funds, it is equally true that the\nconditions have been such that the rural schools have been operated at a\ngreat disadvantage. Tho no material with greater capabilities can be\nfound, such schools have also in the matter of elementary education\nfailed to keep in line with those of our cities and larger towns. The\nspirit of our institutions and the vital principle of our government\ndemand equality under the law. The indispensable concomitant of\nequality under the law is equality of opportunity, and this is the central\nidea of popular education.\nEvery citizen whose intelligence and manhood serve to dignify the\ntitle, while acutely alive to local interests, is at the same time capable of\nregarding the matter of public education from a high and unselfish standpoint. Our several states support and control systems of public schools\nin which over 90 per cent, of our youth receive their only equipment\nfor life. Therefore the state is the true educational unit, and to it must\nwe look for a remedy for existing inequalities. Such remedy is the township high school. It will give the rural schools the supervision they have\nso long needed. It is their only hope of deliverance from the rut into\nwhich they have fallen. Much time and money, and a large measure\nof the golden opportunities of school days, have been lost to the youth\nof our rural communities because their schools have been without\nprofessional supervision. Such a high school would add to their character\nand efficiency, because they would be compelled to adapt themselves to\n\n"}
{"page": 325, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nTOWNSHIP\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n3'5\n\nits requirements. It would stimulate purpose in their pupils by holding\nup to them a measure of attainment, and induce them to remain in school\nthat they might graduate at the end of the course. It would be a spur to\ntheir ambition by placing before them a goal to reach. With the child\nthe standard of attainment is always the one in sight. Such high schools\nwould relieve our ungraded and some of the so-called graded schools of\npupils who have outgrown the opportunities they have to offer.\nEvery rural school with whose conditions I am familiar has several\nsuch pupils. They are so far in advance of the others that separate classification is necessary, and the attention they receive consumes an undue\nproportion of the teacher's time and energy. Tho the instruction\ngiven them is in some cases of doubtful benefit, there is no question as to\nits detriment to the lower grades. The law very graciously extends to\nthese advanced pupils the privilege of attending school, but fails to provide educational advantages adapted to their needs. It would do better\nwere it to close the doors of our elementary schools against them and\nwelcome them to the township high school, which, together with the\nkindergarten, is required to round out and complete a public-school\nsystem.\nIX.\n\nWOULD\n\nPROVIDE\n\nA LARGER\n\nRANGE\n\nOF SELECTION\n\nFOR SERVICE\n\nIf mental endowment were confined to fortune's favored few, to those\nwho have at their command educational advantages and all other good\nthings which wealth will procure, then the desirability of. a higher standard of popular education would not be so apparent. But the sturdy\nchildren of the day-laborer sometimes furnish far better material for\ndevelopment than the offspring of his wealthy neighbor. Not all the\nchildren of the poor were ordained to be \" hewers of wood and drawers\nof water.\" There is no broad-minded democratic teacher who fully\nrealizes his equal measure of obligation to each pupil, and who sincerely\ndesires for each all the good the world has to offer, but has many limes\nearnestly wished that this or that bright child might have educational\nadvantages beyond its parents' means, and be delivered from its hard and\nofttimes debasing environments. How often has he regretted that so\nmuch of good seems placed beyond its reach, and thought how much\nmore life could be made to mean to it than is ever likely to become a\nreality! And not alone, how much of light, and joy, and good, exists in\nvain so far as such child is concerned, but how much is lost to the community and the state !\nThe state has need of all the gifts that can be brought into- its service,\nand, thru its failure to develop these gifts, to marshal all its available\nforces, falls far short of securing the high order and full measure of\nservice that is its privilege.\n\n"}
{"page": 326, "printed_page": null, "text": "3i6\n\nNATIONAL\nX.\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nAS A MATTER\n\nOF\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nNATIONAI,\n\n|Chattanooga\n\nI'RIDE\n\nWhen history and all human experience prove to us that a state or a\nnation becomes strong, safe, and prosperous in the ratio that it advances\nin intelligence, it would seem that further reasons for promoting such\nintelligence need not be adduced. But there are some subjects of abiding interest not easily divorced from sentiment. In the world's onward\nmarch we as educators cannot endure to see our country fall behind.\nHer reputation is so dear to us, and so closely allied to our own, that we\ncannot avoid anxiety for that which makes or mars it; cannot avoid feeling\ndeeply concerned for the interest with which we are connected, which we\nprofess to serve, and which it is our high prerogative to advance. It\nwould be a reproach to us should the United States fail to keep in line\nwith the most progressive of the nations.\n\nDISCUSSION\n\nJ. Q. Emery, state superintendent of public instruction, Madison, Wis. — In what I\nhave to say on the topic under discussion I keep in mind the intimation of the president\nof the department, when inviting me to take part, that the experience of Wisconsin would\nbe the contribution expected from me.\nIn 1874 the then state superintendent of Wisconsin, in his annual report upon the\nconditions and needs of the schools in the state, strongly urged the adoption of a system\nof township high schools, and in his report clearly, forcibly, and eloquently outlined his\nideas of what the character of these schools should be. He showed that his purpose in\nadvocating this measure was not to provide a \"few long ladders by which to climb to the\nsolitary peak whence all the wisdom of the earth is under view, but rather many short\n^nd convenient and inexpensive ones by which to climb to the broad and fair and wholesome table-land of secondary culture.\" He did not urge the schools that he would have\nestablished as preparatory schools, in the sense primarily of fitting pupils for higher education, but rather as supplementary schools, which should afford facilities for instruction in\nthe secondary branches better and more systematic than could be obtained in the district\nschools, which were then largely overcrowded. *\n*\n*\n*\n* . *\n*\nFollowing his recommendations, that were strong, urgent, and enthusiastic, the legislature enacted a law which authorized the formation of high schools by towns, cities,\nvillages, or school districts. They were to be aided in their maintenance by a direct\nappropriation of ^$25,000 from the state, giving to each not to exceed one- half the amount\npaid for instruction, and not to exceed, in any case, J5500 in any one year. To secure\nstate aid, these schools were to be maintained at least thirteen weeks each year.\n*\n*\nIf any state has made a strong and persistent effort to promote a township system of\nhigh schools, that is true of Wisconsin. The leading teachers and educators everywhere\nwere heartily in sympathy with the movement ; a system of normal schools had been\nestablished, and they, too, were in sympathy with it ; and it has received the cordial support of the state department all these years.\nThe clause in the original law which authorized villages, cities, and districts to\norganize these high schools was soon discovered to be a feature that could be used to their\nown great advantage.\nVery quickly free high schools began to be organized in cities\n\n"}
{"page": 327, "printed_page": null, "text": "SiiperintendenceJ\n\nTHE\n\nTOWNSHIP\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n31?\n\nand in village districts, in connection with the graded schools already existing. In many\nplaces where graded schools were not sufficiently organized, efforts were made to bring\nthem into conformity with required conditions, that they might also have a high-school\ndepartment under the state system. These schools continued to increase. Their value\nas a part of the school work of these places was recognized, and they became very\npopular.\nAfter some years a state superintendent called the attention of the legislature to the\nfact that cities and villages had so largely utilized the proffer made by the state for aid\nin supporting high schools that they had absorbed all the appropriation without being\nable to receive one-half of the amount paid for instruction, as originally provided, even\nwith the low minimum of S500. He recommended that* the state appropriate an additional $25,000, to be used exclusively for the maintenance of high schools in towns where\nno graded schools existed, thus making a specific and direct appropriation for the encouragement of township high schools. This law was enacted by the legislature, and has\never since been on the statute book. Every state superintendent has urged towns to take\nadvantage of the law. *\n**»**•**••\nIn the course of legislation several features have been added to the original law.\nProvision has been made that in the regulations for the organization of these schools not\nless than twenty-five pupils must be found resident of the high-school district organizing\nthe school, who can pass a satisfactory examination in the common-school branches.\nWhen the high school is authorized and established, it must be taught by principals who\nare university, college, or normal-school graduates, or who hold state certificates. A\ncourse of study approved by the state superintendent must be administered. Another of\nthese additions in recent years is that, when the second $25,000 appropriated for schools\nin towns where no graded schools exist is not called for by that class of schools, it is permitted to divide the fund among the high schools of the other class.\nThese schools have also been placed under the direct supervision of the state superintendent, and, as assistant to the state superintendent, a state inspector of high schools\nhas been provided, who is paid a generous salary, and who spends his time in inspecting\nthe schools, advising the teachers, inspiring the communities with a good sentiment\ntoward high schools, and in enforcing the laws and regulations relative to the qualifications of ?issistants and principals. The qualifications of each principal and of each assistant must be approved by the state superintendent. ••**•*\nNotwithstanding the purpose of the original law, all the efforts of the leading educators and teachers' associations of the state, of the state department of education, and\nthe direct aid proffered by the state, the people of Wisconsin have not made the township\nthe unit for organizing high schools. . They have readily seen the value and acknowledged\nthe worth of high schools, and have established and maintained them liberally ; but they\nhave been organized in connection with the district unit rather than the township unit.\nSo they have beeh organized very largely, almost universally, in connection with our\ngraded-school system. We have three schools in the state that are maintained by towns\nin which no graded schools exist. No more than four such schools have ever existed at\nany one time. Different schools of this class have, from time to time, changed their basis\nof organization from the township to the district unit.\nWhile we must admit that the original and continued effort to establish and maintain township high schools has not resulted as anticipated, and that their advantages, in\nthe indirect way, which were hoped to be produced upon the rural schools, have net been\nsecured, still Wisconsin has developed a free high-school system of which she is\nproud. »•»♦»»♦*♦*«»**\n*\nThe Wisconsin free high schools, as now organized and administered, are a great\npower in the state educational system. They furnish the requisite academic preparation\nfor the admission of their graduates to the state university, the state normal schools, and\nthe college. They are the chief reliance for preparing the great body of teachers re<iuired\n\n"}
{"page": 328, "printed_page": null, "text": "3i8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nfChattanooga\n\nin the district schools. Their influence is very great on the work of the lower related grades\nand on the work in surrounding rural district schools. The high schools receive a very\ngreat stimulus from the university, the normal schools, and the college, and in turn furnish\nincentives that give a great uplift to schools of lower grades. And they are the local\nsecondary schools in which many young people find their only opportunity for supplementing their common-school education.\nState Superintendent W. W. Stetson, Augusta, Me. — Illiteracy is increasing in\nthe older states. One of them has dropped to the fourteenth place, another to the twentyfourth, and still another to the twenty-sixth. These changes are due to three principal\ncauses : children have not the sterling qualities whicl^ make it possible for them to provide means for their own higher education ; the expense of a secondary education has\nlargely increased within the last twenty-five years ; the local interest in academic education is not as influential as in former days. It is a noticeable fact that primitive and\ncoarse surroundings, which were means of grace to a pioneer people, are sources of poison\nto poor people in old communities.\nThese conditions indicate the need of high schools in rural towns. Where maintained, itis noticed they are helpful in producing the following results : They exert a\nwholesome influence over pupils in the lower grades by stimulating the boys and girls to\ncontinue their education in higher institutions of learning. They elevate the standard of\nthe local teaching force, and thus furnish a higher grade of instruction. They breed\nan intelligent interest in education in the community. They save parents large sums\nof money by permitting them to educate their children without sending them abroad to\nattend fitting schools. They bring college boys with their stimulating influence into the\nhomes of the country people. In many instances they become the literary center of the\ntown, and have connected with them libraries and other helpful agencies. The high\nschool should be located in the common-school building which will best serve the largest\nnumber of pupils in any town. Funds for its support should be furnished, one-half by\nthe state and one-half by the town. The course of study should include instruction\nin three sciences, three departments of mathematics, and four years of work in English.\nIn special cases Latin may be substituted for a part of the English and one or more of\nthe divisions in science. The strongest personality and the best teaching force of the\nschool should have charge of the instruction in English.\nA. K. Whitcomb, superintendent of schools, Lowell, Mass. — I am glad to be able\nto report that what Horace Mann called \" the inalienable right \" of every child in the\ncommonwealth to all the education for which God and nature fitted him is secured, so far\nas a free public high school can do it, for every boy and girl in Massachusetts. By state\nlaw, every town, or township as our towns would be called in most states, must maintain\na high school or pay the tuition of its children in the school of some other town or city.\nIf the town is so small that compliance with this law would be an unreasonable burden,\nthat is, if its total valuation is less than one half million dollars, the state pays the tuition.\nFree transportation is also provided in some cases, and the road is thus opened for every\nchild in the state to go straight from his mother's knee to the university, by the way of\nthe free public school.\nMore we could not well do; less we would not\\\nR. K. BUEHRLE, superintendent of schools, Lancaster, Pa. — I wish to ask whether\nthe conditions described as existing in Massachusetts are not those of urban schools\nrather than schools in sparsely settled rural districts. We are told that Massachusetts\nhas the longest school term, pays the highest wages to teachers, and offers high-school\nfacilities to all her pupils. Is this not due to the fact that the population of Massachusetts is centered in large cities and thickly settled communities ? This is a point to be\ntaken into consideration whenever we make comparison of educational advantages in\ndifferent states in the union.\nW. W. Pendergast, superintendent of public instruction, Minnesota.- — The rural\n\n"}
{"page": 329, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nNORMAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nFOR\n\nSOUTHERN\n\nTEACHERS\n\n3^9\n\npopulation of Minnesota is very large and the urban comparatively small, yet all that the\ngentleman fron? Massachusetts said about the high-school privileges enjoyed by the\npupils of that progressive commonwealth is equally true of the North Star State, where no\ntuition is paid by or for non residents.\nEvery high school, in consideration of the special aid received from the state, holds\nits doors invitingly open to all scholars under twenty-one who are fitted to enter, no matter in what part of the state they may live.\n\nWHAT\n\nKIND OF NORMAL TRAINING DOES\nSCHOOL TEACHER OF THE SOUTH\n\nBY E. C. BRANSON,\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nOF PEDAGOGY,\nATHENS,\n\nSTATE\n\nTHE COMMONNEED?\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nGA.\n\n1. The common-school teacher of the South does not seem to me to\nbe uniquely conditioned either in his resources or his needs. If his\nscholarship or pay be poor, this has not been without parallel elsewhere.\nIf he is an apathetic drudge in need of spiritual awakening, this again\nis a state of things common enough among underschooled and overschooled teachers alike.\nTo be sure, the common-school teacher has only recently come into\nexistence in the South, but he has been embarrassed by untoward surroundings, yet no more than elsewhere at the start. Whenever he has\nhad ability and character, he has come into public place and power as\noften and as easily in the South as in the North or West. He wears the\nbadge of inferiority no more in my state than in yours. His measure\nof contumely in the South is no more than his Peck in the North. There\nbe Pecks south and Pecks north. Perhaps they might be called Pecksniffs all.\nAnd so it may be that a discussion of the professional needs of the\ncommon-school teachers of the South will be of general application.\nWherever this is not the case, you will not hesitate to set me right, for I\nhave no wish to be impertinent.\n2. In a prefatory way I desire to urge certain conditions precedent to\nthe largest usefulness of our normal schools.\n(i) Our normal schools need to be open to students thruout the entire\nyear. Otherwise they do not reach the teachers who are already teaching\nand who in the South are coming widely to feel a need for help. Organization of the work would require something like progressive twelve-week\ncourses, and four stated registration periods between these during the\nyear. The leisure of the faculties for professional search and research\nwould be infringed upon, Sut doubtless each of us would discover compensating satisfactions in the new adjustments necessary.\nI believe the\n\n"}
{"page": 330, "printed_page": null, "text": "320\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nLChattanooga\n\nboards of control would split differences with us, in salaries and in courtesies, wisely and generously; but, in any event, I am in favor of a continuous session in our normal schools in order to reach especially the\nteachers who are already teaching, and who want to spend their vacations\ndoing college work with us. As a rule, these students are the most\nvaluable material we have in our normal schools. We had more than five\nhundred such students in the Georgia State Normal School last year,\nwhere our session runs thruout the summer.\n(2) The common-school teacher needs to find the gross total of\nexpenses reduced to a minimum in our normal schools ; otherwise they\nare beyond his reach, for his salary in the South is a bare pin's fee. The\ncost need not be beyond $8 per month for fees, fare, room, room attendance, light, fuel, and laundering ; so the problem has been solved practically in the State Normal School of Georgia.\n(3) The faculties of our normal schools need to be out in the open\nfield, working in the institutes and addressing popular audiences whenever\noccasions arise and chances permit. That is, there is need of missionary\nwork, normal-school extension work, correspondence courses — anything,\neverything, that will widen and strengthen the influence of our normal\nschools. Normal-school faculties, like all other college faculties, stand in\ndanger of insularity. It may mean a ripening of scholarship, but it also\nmeans a weakening of social and professional power. Besides, there is\nurgent need in the South of David Page's spirit of propagandism. We\nhave our Horace Mann in Georgia, but we stand in need of David Pages.\n(4) I enter upon the next item with pain and hesitancy, but I am\nbound to say that I believe the officers and instructors in a normal school\nought to be completely committed in conviction and in conscience to the\nnormal-school idea. It is not always the case. Indeed, it is frequently\nnot the case, and I have observed that it vitally affects the usefulness of\nthe school. The most spirited contentions I have ever had in favor of the\nutilities of professional teacher training have been with teachers and\npresidents in normal-school faculties. Just as Luther found skepticism\nrife in the Holy City, so I have found professional unbelief in the high\ncourts of normal-schooldom, prudently silent or cautiously avowed, as\nthe temper of the individual varies. I have sometimes felt that a thoroly\nhonest man, skeptical of the utilities of professional teacher training,\nwould not undertake to direct the policies of a normal school or draw\nupon its revenues ; but I may be wrong, of course.\n3. And now I come to consider the concerns of efficient normal\ntraining, having in mind, of necessity, the needs of the common-school\nteachers of the South, with whom I have been, in some way, in contact\nall my life.\n•\n(1) In the first place, there is general need of open announcement\nthat the normal school exists to prepare the fit, and, as far as may be\n\n"}
{"page": 331, "printed_page": null, "text": "SuperintendenceJ\n\nNORMAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nFOR\n\nSOUTHERN\n\nTEACHERS\n\n32 I\n\npossible or proper for it, to eliminate the unfit applicant for the teacher's\nplace. As a rule, the men who have most influenced the development of\nnormal schools were not bred in -such schools.\nThat the teacher can be made out of any kind of material is a clear\nfallacy to which normal schools stand committed apparently, and, for the\nmost part, really. Much of the opposition to normal schools in the\nSouth, in intelligent quarters, is provoked by this attitude on our part.\nWould it not be better to say frankly that the teacher can be made out of\nonly fit material; that native fitness for teaching is indicated by such\nqualities as insight, sympathy, sense, conscience, and courage; that without these no amount of culture will avail ; and that the function of the\nnormal school is merely to reinforce native teaching endowment with the\naccumulated wisdom of the race, and so to add to the gifts of each the\ngains of all in the world of education ?\n(2) Briefly and roundly, then, a proper teacher-culture endeavors to\nenrich and develop native teaching aptitudes with academic scholarship,\nwith a knowledge of pedagogy, psychology, and methods, to the end that\nthe teacher may be stimulated to go on to outfit himself still further in\nvirile and thoughtful ways of his own in his own schoolrooms. These six\nessentials of teacher-culture — native aptitudes, academic scholarship, pedagogy, psychology, methods, and thoughtful experience — are all to be duly\nvalued and set in harmonious adjustment.\nNo one of these can safely be ignored. No one of them can safely\nbe exaggerated or discredited unduly in our schemes of normal training.\nFundamental divergences begin when we overvalue any one or any combination of them, short of them all. Thus, the Philistine insists that\nendowments of birth are all-sufficient. The man of university breeding\ncommonly contends that scholarship and common sense are all that is\nnecessary. One eminent normal-school authority discredits methods and\npractice teaching, and relies upon culture, philosophy, and individuality.\nThe commonest and most lamentable thing is the normal school in which\nscholarship is at a minimum and the tricks and quirks of mere method\nare at a premium.\n(3) The student that enters a normal school needs at once to have a\nbird's-eye view of the essentials of teacher-culture, to be set safely upon\ntheir mastery and brought to realize that it means a lifetime of tuition,\nand of self-tuition mainly. There is immediate and immense uplift and\nenlargement for a teacher in getting a schematic view of his life work.\nIf he be set going properly, in a normal school or out of it, and can keep\nhimself under way vigorously, then his own room and schoolroom may\nbecome the best normal school for him. Unfortunately it is common for\nthe drudgery of a teacher's daily work to arrest rather than promote his\ndevelopment in most of these fundamental particulars. This is nearly\nalways the case, unless he have what Wordsworth called the vital soul.\n\n"}
{"page": 332, "printed_page": null, "text": "32 2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chattanooga\n\nAnd so we find men and women in our normal-school faculties who have\nceased to have, or never had, an inspiring largeness of view and a sturdy\nquick-step upward. Whatever else the common-school teacher of the\nSouth needs, he needs first and most of all a broader horizon and a certain\nprecious hunger of soul to know something more than he knows, to do\nsomething better than he does, and to become something better than he\nis. He needs uplift and uplook, and up-reach. If he gets these in our\nnormal schools, he must come into the presence of instructors who in\npossessions and powers, personality and presence, are tonic and quickening influences; who are centers of light and leadings men and women like\nthe teacher George William Curtis celebrates in Prue and I, \" who was\nlike a well of deep, pure water, into which we looked one day and saw\nthe stars.\"\n(4) The normal student has a right to expect tuition under instructors\nof large and liberal preparation, who have run the gamut of school\nexperiences, his own among them, and who are on a footing with him,\nbut are a head taller. Still we find in our normal-school faculties raw,\nyoung graduates, capital scholars sometimes, and sometimes capital\npedagogs — in the continental sense of the term — but teachers without\npractical experience in teaching. Sometimes they are very strong and\nuseful teachers ; but I dare say they would have been much more useful\nand strong if they had served a reasonable apprenticeship in the ranks\nbeforehand. Still oftener, and still more sadly, we find other instructors\nthere who are unaware of the significance of a vast professional literature,\nor are skeptical of its value.\n(5) Again, the common-school teacher down South needs to know\nmore. He needs lamentably a larger scholarship. Our normal-school\ncurricula need extension and enrichment, and need these sadly. Normal\nschools have upheld low ideals of scholarship, somehow and strangely.\nThe scholarship of normal graduates rarely ever challenges the respect of\nthe universities. The scholarship of normal-school faculties similarly\nfalls under suspicion.\nThe graduate of the normal school needs to know, not less, but more\nthan the college graduate ; to know it more thoroly, and certainly to\nknow it very differently. Our standards of entrance scholarship are low,\nand of necessity, as it has seemed. We shall probably have to do a great\ndeal of elementary academic work for many years yet. The standards of\nadmission can be raised, slowly it may be. What we can do more easily\nand more promptly is to enrich and extend our courses. The full honors\nof the school can be deferred in time and exalted in value. I believe I\nhave been in contact recently with at least two hundred teachers who\nwould return to us during their vacations year after year for ten years in\norder to win the full diploma of the school. The lesser awards of the\nschool could remain in force and their value be gradually increased.\n\n1\n\n"}
{"page": 333, "printed_page": null, "text": "SupcrintendcnceJ\n\nNORMAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nFOR\n\nSOUTHERN\n\nTEACHERS\n\n323\n\nThese lesser rewards referred to are licenses to teach, of various grades,\ngood anywhere in the state.\nThis extension and enrichment of our normal-school courses would\nimmensely magnify and dignify the ideals of teacher-culture along with\nthe whole idea of education, both in the minds of our teachers and of the\ngeneral public. It would be daring to deny that there is need of both\nthese results.\n(6)1 stand on ground much less certain when I contend that our\nieommon-school teachers need to study methods liberally in our normalschool courses. There is an aspect of this subject that doubtless raises\ngoose-flesh along the spines of us all. But the worth of a teacher is ultimately determined by what he is, what he does, and how he does it. He\nis immediately and constantly teased by the puzzles of what to do and\nhow to do it. I have been laid under .compulsion in this matter by the\nanxiety of my students, and so have many sins to confess and to regret.\nOur normal- school courses need to satisfy, as wisely as may be, what the\nstudents feel to be an immediate and urgent necessity. There are certainly very grave dangers to be avoided. The student must not be straitjacketed. He must not be allowed to drop into the imbecility of mere\nimitation. Individuality must have the full limits of rational freedom.\nThoughtfulness must be challenged at every step of the way. He must\nbe compelled to hunt down the explanations of successful teaching and\nthe causes of failure. His mind must be kept busy noting the purposes\nin the teaching, the principles of teaching at play in it or the lack of\nthem, the orderliness of the details or the lack of it, and the subjective\nresults of it all upon the pupils taught. If the student's work in methods\ncan be safely based upon observation, reflection, and expression, then,\nperchance, we may avoid turning out \"the trained teacher, who is no\nmore a normal teacher than a trained dog is a normal dog,\" as has been\nsaid. I agree that satisfactory work in methods in our normal schools is\na very, very difficult problem. I have been brought to realize this keenly,\nand have asked : Who is sufficient for these things?\nThe student needs a chance to observe model teaching in the model\nschool. The head of the model school needs to have a rational and liberal educational creed, needs to be broadly and acutely a woman of philosophic sight and insight, needs to have swept the field of educational\nideals and endeavors, needs to know what the great world is doing in its\nschoolrooms today, needs to be a woman of unconscious skill, and to have\nthe ineffable graces of the real teacher. What she needs to know and to\nbe takes one's breath away ; but every other instructor in the school needs\nto be all this no less than the model school-teacher. I have not observed\nthat it is deemed necessary for the ordinary college professor to be a master of class methods ; but it is overweeningly necessary that the noriiuilschool instructor be a real teacher, whose recitations constantly exhibit\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 334, "printed_page": null, "text": "324\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chattanooga\n\nsound principles of teaching, and are objective studies for the student in\nsafe methods.\nFormal pronouncements upon methods need to be made up by a\nman who has restepped the march of developing educational ideals and\nmethods; who knows what is ideally desirable, and what is actually possible for his students in their schoolroom experiences ; who is a sound\npedagog and a teacher of practical skill ; who knows what has been\ndone in the schoolrooms of the past, and what is going on in the\nbest schools of today ; who lays stress upon the purposes and principles of method, and arouses intense activity .of thought in his treatment of this subject. These sound like extravagant conditions, it may\nbe, yet they must be approximately satisfied, or every once in a while we\nshall have our students pitching their tents in the graveyard of dead\nmethods.\nObservation and reflection in the methods course need to be followed\nby expression of professional gains in practice teaching, wisely planned\nand conditioned. Here again is a problem of great perplexity. So difificult is it that it is easily a failure or worse. I may say frankly that it\nsatisfies me as little in our own school as it does in most of the normal\nschools in which it has been my fortune to study it. But the possible\nvalues of it seem to me to be beyond all question. It forces students\ninto pedagogic attitudes. It arouses intense activity of mind. It brings\na student into practical consideration of the purposes, principles, and\ndetails of good teaching. It evidences to him the necessity of carefully\nplanning his lessons. It discloses to him his weaknesses, his poverty of\nresources, and his need of knowledge, much beyond what is ordinarily\nthought to be necessary for the teacher in elementary work. But the\nsurroundings easily induce paralyzing self-consciousness, exaggerate themechanics of mere method, and depreciate the transcendent values of\npersonality in teaching. The fact that real teaching at the last defies\nanalysis and communication is apt to be overlooked. Real teaching,\nlike good manners, is a thing that can be learned, but cannot be taught\nin its very finest sense.\n(7) And, finally, our teachers need to be started in our normal schools\ninto a sound educational philosophy, and to come to love this side of\ntheir work with steady cumulative fervor, as their hands are more and\nmore dyed in the details of practical teaching, and their hearts are more\nand more mellowed by the companionships of youth and the widening\nrelationships of life. We have come much nearer relating the philosophy\nof thought to the problems of instruction than we have come to relating\nthe philosophy of ethics to the problems of discipline and control. What\nwe have done with ethics in our normal schools is either nothing at all,\nor is a thing altogether in the air that touches the earth at no point whatsoever. Our schemes of discipline are yet to be brought to the bar of\n\n"}
{"page": 335, "printed_page": null, "text": "i\n\nSuperintendence J\n\nSUPERVISION\n\nOF SOUTH ERN\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n325\n\nphilosophy.\nThis subject seems to me to be overwhelmingly important,\nand yet we have done relatively little toward its solution.\nWhat kind of normal training, then, do the common-school teachers\nof the South need? In a word, they need a kind of training that can be\nhad only in the presence of men and women whose lives are both concentrated and consecrated, as Froebel's was —\n\" Who grew not alone in knowledge and in power,\nBut day by day and hour by hour\nIn reverence and in charity.\"\n\nBETTER\n\nSUPERVISION\n\nOF THE PUBLIC\nSOUTH\n\nBY CHARLES\n\nD. McIVER, PRESIDENT\nCOLLEGE,\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nOF THE STATE NORMAL\nGREENSBORO,\n\nIN THE\n\nAND INDUSTRIAL\n\nN. C.\n\nThe census of 1890 showed the following percentages of urban population as compared with the total population :\nFor the United States,\nNorth Atlantic states, North central states,\nWestern states, .......\nSouth Atlantic states,\nSouth central states, -\n\n29.20\n51.81\n25.9I\n29.99\n16.03\nIO.4S\n\nThe urban population in the entire South is less than 13 per cent.;\nthe urban population in Mississippi is less than 3 per cent.; in North\nCarolina less than 4 per cent.; in Arkansas less than 5 per cent. In\nother words, two-thirds of the people in the United States live in the\ncountry, or in villages and towns too small to be considered as cities.\nLess than half the people in the northern section of the country is found\nin cities, while in the South the rural is more thaii six-sevenths of the\nentire population, counting, as the census report does, no community a\ncity whose population does not number 8,000.\nEven including all towns of 1,000 inhabitants in the urban population, it is estimated that in such states as North Carolina, Mississippi,\nand Arkansas about nine-tenths of the entire population live in the\ncountry.\nConsidering these conditions, the supervision and improvement of the\ncountry public schools is a question of supreme importance.\nPractically all public schools in our large towns and cities are under\nsome kind of intelligent supervision. It is equally true that intelligent,\neffective supervision of the public schools in the country is very rare.\n\n"}
{"page": 336, "printed_page": null, "text": "326\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chattanooga\n\nThat this is true is not chiefly the fault of the supervisor. In the\ndiscussion of this problem he should be protected from assault by some\nsuch sign as the one used in the \"big meeting,\" which read: \"Don't\nshoot the organist.\nHe is playing the best he can.\"\nLet us look for a moment at the conditions by which the average\nsupervisor of public schools in the country is handicapped.\nTo begin with, the average county supervisor in the South receives\nonly about $500 or $600 a year, and in many cases, if not all, he must\npay his traveling expenses out of that salary.\nThe difference in density of population between the northern and\nsouthern sections would render a system of supervision which is fairly\nsatisfactory in the former totally inadequate for the latter. The number\nof inhabitants to the square mile in the South Atlantic states in 1890 was\n32.98; in the South central states, 18.94; while in the North Atlantic\nstates the number was 107.37. I^^ Massachusetts the number was 278.48,\nwhile in North Carolina, Georgia, and Tennessee the number was,\nrespectively, 33.30, 31.15, 42.34Even in 1840, when the general public-school movement began to\ntake shape, the South Atlantic states had for each square mile only 14.60\ninhabitants; the North Atlantic states, 41.72. At that time Massachusetts\nhad 91.75 and North Carolina 15.51 inhabitants. Even if there had been\nno Civil War, and even if the wealth of the two sections had been approximately the same, the work of every part of the public-school system in\nthe South would have been more difficult than the corresponding work\nin the North, on account of the great difference in density of population.\nAdd to this the difficulty of eradiqating a large percentage of illiteracy\namong its white population, supplemented by the burden of a whole race\nof illiterates. The difficulties arising from poverty and sparseness of\npopulation are intensified by the necessity for maintaining two systems of\nschools, one for each race.\nThere is another difficulty in the way of developing a public-school\nsystem among us, which in some degree has been, at one time or another,\na hindrance to public education everywhere. I refer to the idea that public\neducation is a charity, and that a public schoolhouse is nothing more nor\nless than a literary poorhouse. Up to thirty years ago the best educated\nmen in many of the best sections of the South regarded, and sometimes\ncalled, the public-school fund the \" poor fund,\" and the free schools were\nregarded as places where benevolent-minded people saw fit to care for the\nindigent. This idea remained longer with the South than it did with the\nNorth, or with those sections settled by emigrants from the North and\nSouth. However, the idea of charity in connection with public education\nhas not entirely disappeared in any part of the country. In many sections outside of the South there is a system of free text-books to the\nchildren of the \"indigent poor.\"\n\nSo\n\nlong, of course, as the\n\nidea of\n\n"}
{"page": 337, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence!\n\nSUPERVISION\n\nOl' SOUTHERN\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n327\n\ncharity is connected with public education, two baneful results are inevitable first,\n:\na failure to realize that the public schools ought to be as good\nfor the supposed beneficiaries' as the supposed benefactors would want\nthem to be for their own children ; second, the pride of many selfrespecting parents would prevent them from sending their children to\npauper schools.\nIf it has been a difficult matter to secure effective supervision in the\nrural districts north, how much more difficult has been the struggle of the\nstate superintendents and the county superintendents and the other educational leaders in the South, where most of the difficulties encountered\nin the North are supplemented by poverty, sparse population, the double\nschool system, race prejudice, and kindred hindrances !\nI have not drawn this rather dark and somewhat desperate picture of\nour peculiar difficulties to make a complaining comparison, nor is there\nintentionally in anything I have said either envy, jealousy, censure, or\napology. I have simply stated the hard conditions under which we labor,\nand I desire to go on record as having faith in our ability to meet the\nobligations resting upon us, provided we will act sensibly and honestly,\nwith determination and patience.\nI have no elaborate plan of supervision to propose. What we need is\nsomething to supervise, as well as a supervisor. The average length of\nthe school term in the South is only about one hundred days, and any\nproposed plan of supervision for a southern state which does not include\nthe idea of educational leadership among the citizens in his community\non the part of the supervisor must eventually prove a failure. Certainly,\nif the teachers in the city schools, where comparatively good salaries are\npaid, need to have their work constantly inspected and criticised by a\nsuperintendent, and need his stimulating example and direction in regard\nto right principles of education and better methods of teaching, no sane\nperson would claim that there is not tenfold more need for this constant\nsupervision in the rural districts ; but it is impossible, as I see the conditions, for us to have that kind of supervision in the present generation.\nWhat we need most in every country community of the South is at least\noccasional contact with a teacher who, in addition to his professional\nskill, enabling him to rank easily among the first men of his profession in\nthe public or private schools of his community, is an educational leader,\na citizen of influence, a man of some power among men of all classes.\nIt is preposterous to suppose that such a man can be secured for $600\na year. Many county superintendents could do good work if they could\ndevote their entire time to their work. But in only twelve states of the\nthirty-eight having county superintendents is this opportunity given to\nthe superintendents.\nOutside of the larger towns and cities, a large part of the educational\nsupervision, including examination and licensing of teachers, is done by\n\n"}
{"page": 338, "printed_page": null, "text": "328\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chateanooga\n\npeople who do not even belong to the teaching profession. Indeed, the\naverage county superintendent cannot depend upon his salary for support. If-he is a man above average ability either in the teaching profession\nor another profession, he will receive the smaller part of his income from\nhis supervising work ; therefore this work, which ought to command the\nhighest order of ability, must necessarily be considered by the supervisor\nof secondary importance to his main occupation. Any system which\ndoes not propose to keep the supervisor engaged in public educational\nwork of some kind for all of his time will certainly fall short of our necessities. What we need in every county is an educational evangelist\nwho, in addition to his power to train teachers and inspect their work,\nhas especially the power to arouse people and cause them to cease trifling\nwith the great question of education. He should be able to present in a\npopular way the truth that teaching children is the most delicate and\nimportant work undertaken by the state or the individual, and, just beside\nthat truth, he ought to be able to show, as he can from labor reports, that\nthere is no kind of work calling for skilled laborers in wood, iron, stone,\nor other raw material for which the public is not willing to pay from two\nto three times as much as its pays for the teaching of its children.\nThere is not so much need among us for a new system of supervision\nas there is for more skill and power in the execution of the systems we\nhave. In the South effective supervision demands a county supervisor\nwho can build up the school system, instruct, license, and inspire teachers,\nand arouse all classes of citizens to see their duty and their opportunity.\nIf such a supervisor cannot be secured for each county with our limited\nmeans, let two or more counties be united into a larger district. I should\neven prefer one effective, strong worker for ten counties to ten or more\nfeeble supervisors for the same territory. For ten times nothing is\nnothing, but one-tenth of one is something.\n\nDISCUSSION\n\nOtis Ashmore, superintendent of schools, Savannah, Ga. — While the supervision\nof the common schools theoretically and primarily deals with the direction of the school\nwork proper, it involves practically two other vital questions, which lie at the foundation\nof all successful school work, namely, the financial support of the schools, and the selection and training of teachers.\nTheoretically and economically the school supervisor should not concern himself\ngreatly about the financial maintenance of the schools. A wise and liberal legislation,\nsupported by an intelligent and progressive public, should look to this. But legislation\nis not always wise or liberal, and the public is too often ignorant and unprogressive ;\nhence it is necessary for the school supervisor to arouse public interest in education and\ndirect the proper legislation for the support of the schools.\nThis implies a rare combina-\n\n"}
{"page": 339, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superineendence)\n\nSUPERVISION\n\nOF SOUTHERN\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n329\n\ntion of tact, energy, and wise statesmanship, together with a broad and practical professional education.\nOne of the most immediate needs in educational progress in the South is better\nschoolhouses. The majority of our country-school buildings are a disgrace to this age,\nand the supervisor should arouse and direct a better public sentiment for their improvement.\nBefore much material improvement can be made in the common schools, better\nteachers must be provided ; for, after all, the real vital forces of a school must emanate\nfrom the teacher. But this most desirable gain depends very largely upon what the\npublic is willing to pay the teacher, for it is quite evident that the great economic law of\nsupply and demand must operate in matters educational as in matters commercial. Any\nefficient school supervision must presuppose the successful operation of a public financial\npolicy commensurate with the reasonable educational needs of the community. To the\ncreation and operation of such a policy the supervisor must give his wisest and best\nthought.\nBut even under a liberal school administration it is very important that the efficiency\nof the teachers be constantly increased. Normal schools are doing great good, and I\ntrust that we may feel more and more their great uplifting influence upon our teachers ;\nbut it must be remembered that we have a large class of teachers who could not attend a\nnormal school if they would, and another large class who would not if they could. These\nmust be reached ; the former by the w/lifting hand of the supervisor, and the latter by the\n<?«/lifting hand of the school board. The summer institute is potential for much good,\nand these meetings should be wisely planned and directed. In these institutes principles\nand methods should largely predominate, and the garrulous \" exspurter,\" as we call him\nin Georgia, should give way to a practical educator who knows how to stay down upon\nthe earth, while he induces the teachers both to think and to act.\nOne of the great forces for improving the teacher is a course of professional reading,\nwisely directed. Here is a wide and fertile field for the supervisor. A small, central,\ncirculating library of professional books, if used aright, will work great good. Thru\na well-directed co-operation and a small annual fee a good library can soon be collected,\nand the beneficial results will soon be apparent upon both teachers and pupils.\nTeachers should be encouraged to attend teachers' associations ; for, aside from the\nnew educational thought gathered at these meetings, the contact with fellow-teachers\nencourages and inspires, and begets an esprit de corps that unifies and energizes the entire\neducational forces of the state.\nBut the technical and difficult function of school supervision is in directing the internal work of the school, and upon this point my limited time will permit me to speak but\nvery briefly. Right knowing is a necessary prerequisite to right doing, and unless the supervisor knows what should be done and how it should be done, his work will be a case of\nthe blind leading the blind. Alas, how many, both supervisors and teachers, are already\nin the ditch ! To direct others wisely, we should know how others are directed where\nsuccess is marked. This involves reading and study, and also occasional visits to the\nbest schools of the country, for practical illustrations are the most convincing. It would\nbe money in the public pocket if every school superintendent in the United States were\ncompelled, at least once a year, to visit at the public expense some of the best school\nsystems of this country ; and I would specially include those superintendents and supervisors who already know so much that they cannot learn any^more, for we wcSuld then\nhave more school life and less educational dry-rot than we have now.\nMuch of the loose supervision consists in ill-defined plans, both in matter and method,\nand in a failure on the part of the supervisor to lay clearly before the teachers just what\nhe wishes to be done. This involves a well-digested plan of school operations, a wise\ncourse of study carefully adapted to the conditions affecting the educational interests of\nthe community, and frequent visits to see that these plans are faithfully executed. The\nsuperior efficiency of a supervisor will reveal itself on the occasions of these visits in the\n\n"}
{"page": 340, "printed_page": null, "text": "330\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chattanooga\n\nvalue of the suggestions given to the teacher, and upon the encouragement and\nthis manner rendered.\n\nhelp in\n\nThen, briefly, the best supervision of our common schools must look :\n1. To the financial support and the physical equipment of the school.\n2. To the improvement of the teaching force.\n3. To the direction of the internal work of the school.\nThese functions require knowledge, skill, and tact, and the far-reaching results upon\nour national life deserve the sincerest thought and co-operation of our wisest men and\nwomen.\nCaptain George Le Roy Brown, United States army, University of Tennessee,\nKnoxville, Tenn. — I have traveled about a great deal in the rural districts of east Tennessee and other parts of the country, and I desire to speak of a matter that appears to\nme vitally important and easily rectified without money, and yet is priceless in its results.\nAs a rule, the country schoolhouse is located on a site that cannot be utilized for anything else. All the surroundings are bleak, bare, and primitive. Why should not the\nschoolhouse and the school grounds be made beautiful ?\nThe homes are made beautiful for the children by loving mothers, and the school should\nreceive like attention. It might be well to elect lady school supervisors to have charge o\nthis feature of moral education.\nI do not think we grown people realize fully the lasting impression made upon young\nminds by environment. I know that, for myself, I cherish among my happiest memories\nimpressions, pictures upon the mind, made by the environment of childhood.\nAs this question calls for no money and is of easy practical solution, I feel that it\nought to receive careful consideration by educational leaders.\nJ. S. Wilson, St. Elmo, Tenn. — Our brother has presented a somewhat gloomy picture of county supervison in the South as compared with county supervision in the North,\nand yet, perhaps, not more gloomy than the facts warrant. I have found some comfort\nin remembering that a little more than a half century ago, when Horace Mann delivered\nthose educational lectures which aroused the people of Massachusetts to a due sense of\ntheir obligations to their children, he often had only about a dozen hearers, but the seed\nwas sown on good ground, and it brought forth a hundred fold.\nCounty supervision in the South owes its existence to the people ; to the voter ; yes,\nto the parents ; and I am persuaded that, if those appointed to that high and responsible\noffice will impress the southern people with a due sense of the importance of this office,\nshow them that it is the means of securing good schools, they will respond with that liberality which will place real education in this high position.\nWe are gradually, tho too slowly, getting away from that old, tho barren, idea that\nanyone can teach school. Teachers, like the great apostle of the Gentiles, should magnify their office ; for to be a true teacher is to fill the highest office under heaven.\n\nWHAT\n\nTHE NEGRO\nEDUCATION,\n\nBY\n\nG.\n\nHON.\n\nR.\n\nGLENN,\n\nGETS FROM THE COMMON-SCHOOL\nAND\nWHAT HE GIVES TO IT\n\nSTATE\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\nATLANTA, GA.\n\nOF\n\nPUBLIC\n\nINSTRUCTION,\n\nThe financial answer to this question is comparatively easy. Since\nthe war the negro has received from the common-school fund of the\n\n{\n\n"}
{"page": 341, "printed_page": null, "text": "r\n\nSuperintendence]\n\nCOMMON-SCHOOL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nNEGRO\n\n33 1\n\nSouth about $100,000,000. He has contributed in the way of taxes not\nexceeding $20,000,000, and, according to some estimates, not over\n$10,000,000. Unfortunately, the- figures in many states of the South are\nnot separately kept. It is absolutely safe to say, however, that the negro\nhas received $5 from the common-school fund in every case where he\ncontributed in taxes $1. In Georgia the entire taxable property of the\nstate for the year 1897 was $412,000,000. The negroes returned of this\namount about $15,000,000. The amount of property owned by negroes\nin Georgia will be found to be considerably larger relatively than the\namount which they return in other southern states. In Georgia the\namount of money which the negro pays to the school fund on his taxable\nreturns, together with his poll tax, which in this state goes to the school\nfund, does not exceed one- tenth of the school funds of the state.\nIn North Carolina there was raised last year from taxes for schools,\nby the whites, $402,829; by the negroes, $14,708. In North Carolina\nthe negroes own taxable property amounting to $880,074, which is about\none-twenty-ninth of the taxable property of the state.\nBy any comparative estimate that may be made, from a financial\npoint of view, the negro receives a great deal more from the school fund\nthan he contributes. No people under the shining sun have ever shown\nsuch magnanimity in dealing with an inferior race as the southern people\nhave shown to educate and uplift their former slaves. The history of\nmankind does not furnish anywhere a more notable example of liberal\nand loyal generosity. In spite of misrepresentation and censure, growing out of misapprehension on the part of the people living away from\nthe South, the southern people have borne, and still patiently bear, with\na sublime and matchless heroism, a burden which never was undertaken\nby any other people under the bending heavens. The desolation and\npoverty of this entire section at the closing of the war may not inaptly\nbe represented by the picture of want that was left in the wake of Sherman's army from this city to the sea. The torch and the sword did not\nleave enough, as one has expressed it, \" to feed a crow.\" Mr. Sumner\nhimself described the situation when he said : \"The war has left nothing\nin the South but men and dirt.\" If there had been left in the South only\nthe Anglo-Saxon race, the solution of the problem would have been less\ndifficult ; but the people of the South had not only to face the destitution\nof their own people, but the absolute helplessness and want of 4,000,000\nof people of an alien race. Every bond of sympathy and every appeal\nof humanity demanded that they should extend a helping hand to these\nhelpless people ; while every demand of self-interest and every prejudice\nof racial inequality demanded that they should leave the colored man\nseverely alone. The southern people were not long in choosing which\ncourse they would pursue. They have already undertaken the educa\ntional uplift of that race. Unaided by the government that set the negro\n\n"}
{"page": 342, "printed_page": null, "text": "332\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chattanooga\n\nfree, they have opened a schoolhouse to every black child below the\nOhio river. Accepting the truth of history, that ignorance has never\nbeen anything else but a curse to the people who are ignorant, the\nsouthern people have labored patiently and loyally with their black\nfreedmen, until they have reduced the illiteracy of these people, in thirty\nyears, nearly 50 per cent. There is nothing to match it in the history of\npeople or nation.\nIn the working out of this untried experiment the South itself is\nlearning a great deal that will be of value to the entire nation. Ignorance anywhere, in any race, under all conditions, is dangerous. A cubic\nfoot of poisoned air placed anywhere in this large tabernacle will diffuse\nitself, by nature's law, until it has poisoned every other cubic foot of air\nin this building. If there be poison anywhere, it is dangerous on this\naccount. When the poison is once out, it cannot be overtaken and confined. The poison of ignorance is not only dangerous ; it is also insufferably expensive. We have discovered in the South that a schoolhouse\nis cheaper than a jail. Sad experience has taught us that it is better,\nfrom a financial point of view even, to save every child, white and black,\nthan it is to lose one of them. We are making our common school more\nand more the nursery of the republic. We have demonstrated to the\nworld that the negro can be made a useful and a valuable citizen. We\nhave shown conclusively that to leave him in ignorance and abandon him\nis to make him a standing menace to everything that we hold dear in this\nland. We have shown, further, that the negro is not only teachable,\nand susceptible of the mental improvement characteristic of any other\nrace, but his kindly, sympathetic, and loyal disposition may make\nhim a most valuable aid in working out the industrial problem of the\nSouth. In the providence of God it may turn out to be a fortunate thing, for the negro even, that his lot has been cast with the patient\nand chivalrous cavalier rather than with the cold and calculating Puritan.\nAt all events, the South is once and forever committed to the policy of\nextending a kindly and helping hand to the children of the negro race.\nWe shall redeem these children, just as the children of all other peoples\nhave been redeemed from the curse, by the benign and holy influence of\na Christian education.\nI know it has been said, and frequently of late it has been printed in\nthe papers on the other side of Mason and Dixon's line, that the education of the negro is a failure. One bold writer in a northern review\nrecently stated that one of three things must happen to the negro : he\nmust be exported from the country, reduced to slavery, or put to death.\nThe South will not be a party to any one of these alternatives. It is\nalso charged that crime by the negro race in the South has been more\nrampant in the last decade than ever before. These critics remind me of\nan incident that occurred in the lobby of a leading hotel in the city\n\n"}
{"page": 343, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nCOMMON-SCHOOL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nNEGRO\n\n333\n\nwhere I live. Two drummers were discussing a man who has a national\nreputation. One of them said : \" Well, you must admit that he is a very\nsmart man. He attracts the people everywhere, because he knows so\nmuch.\" \" Yes,\" said the other drummer, \"that's true, but the trouble is\nhe knows so much that isn't so.\" The trouble with those writers and\nspeakers who solemnly declare that education has not helped the negro is\nthat they know so much that isn't so. Such products of education as\nBooker Washington, Professor Council, Professor Adkins, Bishops Gaines\nand Turner demonstrate beyond cavil that education will do for the\nnegro race what it has done for every other race among the children of\nmen. It may be that crime is on the increase ; but I can prove more conclusively that crime is on the increase in New York, in Chicago, and\nPhiladelphia, than any intelligent man can prove that crime is on the\nincrease among the negroes of the southern states. If crime is on the\nincrease anywhere, it is because the right kind of intelligence is not on\nthe increase. Almost without exception the negroes who commit horrible\ncrimes in the South are ignorant, and brutal and vicious because they are\nignorant. Intelligent negroes have never been known to commit this\nclass of crime. The penitentiary records of my state show, furthermore,\nthat nine-tenths of the negro prison population cannot read and write.\nIf statistics teach any lesson at all on this subject, they teach that the\nnegro has received and is now receiving a great deal from education that\nnot only benefits the members of his own race, but makes life and liberty,\nand the pursuit of happiness, safer for all people of this country.\nBesides, it is unwise and unfair to compare what the negro has done in\nthirty years with what the white race has accomplished in four hundred\nyears. It is absolutely safe to say that no race of people under the sun,\nstarting in illiteracy and without property, has ever accomplished more\nthan the negro has accomplished in the way of reducing the illiteracy of\nhis race, and in the accumulation of property, since he has been set free.\nUnaided by the white race of the South, of course, it would have been\nimpossible for the negro to have accomplished so much. In this connection itought to be stated, over and over again, that it was little short\nof a crime on the part of the general government not to have aided the\nsouthern people in carrying the enormous burden that the ignorance and\nhelplessness of the newly enfranchised race imposed upon them. Private\nbeneficence on the part of patriotic individuals and denominational\nassociations in the North have established a few schools for the higher\neducation of the negro, and to those who have helped in this way belongs\nunstinted praise. Among the noblest benefactors of this class stand\nPeabody and Slater, whose generous and patriotic gifts stand out in bold\nrelief. The perpetual income from the princely gifts of these lordly\nmen come like the free, glad waters of a perennial spring to enrich and\ngladden the waste places of the South.\nBut the Congress of the United\n\n"}
{"page": 344, "printed_page": null, "text": "334\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chattanooga\n\nStates, that set the negro free, has done absolutely nothing in the way of\ncontribution to the common schools of those states that have had to\nbear the brunt of the hazardous risks which his freedom along with his\nignorance imposed. I believe that the Blair bill was one of the most\npatriotic measures ever offered to Congress, and that its defeat was not\nonly a calamity to the southern people, but a calamity to the nation as\nwell.\nBut in spite of all the croaking, doubt, and skepticism as to the benefits of education to the negro, tho.se who have studied the question\nthoughtfully and seriously, on the ground where the experiment is being\nY^orked out, have no longer any doubts or any fears as to the results.\nThe intelligent and far-seeing people of this country are beginning to see\nthat the negro can be made a most potential factor in the industrial revolution that is rapidly going on in the South. As Dr. Harris so well and\nwisely says in one of his reports : \" We are rapidly moving now to the\nage of the machine. One machine, under the control of the intelligent\nbrain of the operator, is accomplishing now that which it took a hundred\nhands to accomplish a few years ago.\" The machine is making its way\nrapidly to the farm, to the forest, to the mine, and to the workshop.\nIntelligent labor will be the only kind of labor that the world will want in\na few years from now. The day of the mere drudge is rapidly passing\naway. The negro himself is beginning to realize that he must be an intelligent laborer, or he will not be wanted anywhere. The southern people\nare rapidly coming to see that it is cheaper for them to spend money in\nmaking the negro intelligent and useful as a citizen, and capable as a\nworker in raw material, than it is to allow him to grow up in ignorance,\nand become vicious by reason of his ignorance, and a costly burden as a\ncriminal. The southern people are realizing, as never before, that it is\neasier to raise a tax to build a schoolhouse than it is to raise a tax to build\na jail and a penitentiary. We have exhaustless raw materials in the South.\nWe need intelligent labor to work up these raw materials into manufactured\nproducts that the world wants. Intelligent and skilled labor, applied to\nthis raw material, will make the southern people the richest people on the\nface of the earth. Hitherto this raw material has been shipped away from\nthe South to have the intelligence of Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, and other north^n states stamped upon it. We shall use the\nnegro and the intelligence that we have developed in his race to work up\nthis raw material here in the South. We shall rapidly convert water\npower into electric energy. We shall plant a machine-shop and a cotton\nfactory at every railroad station, and in a very few years the northern visitor to our section shall measure his railroad miles by the towering smokestacks that catch the first sunbeams of each new day.\nIt may turn out, after all, that the negro may prove to be a blessing to\nthe southern people.\nNaturally the negro is patient, kindly, sympathetic.\n\n"}
{"page": 345, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence] PLAN\n\nFOR\n\nA REPORT\n\nON ELEMENTARY\n\nEDUCATION\n\n335\n\nand loyal. As a laborer he is easily controlled. He never strikes. He\nneeds only the intelligent industrial and moral training which in this day\nand time must be given to any class of labor to make it trustworthy and\nprofitable. Before the war, as a slave, he made his white master rich.\nWho knows that he may not again, as an intelligent freeman, make the\nsouthern people rich ? W^ would not exchange him for the class of labor,\ngodless, homeless, and countryless, that is dumped into America at Castle\nGarden. As the negro shall acquire intelligence, as he shall possess a\nhome of his own, along with these he will learn to produce something\nthat the world wants. That is a glad hour in the life of an individual, or\nin the life of a race, when the consciousness of ability to produce something useful is born. This hour can come to any man or to any race only\nalong the way of mental and moral growth. When this hour shall come\nto the entire negro race, there will be no longer any race problem in the\nSouth. The negro, with his intelligent use of the machine, with the\nmixing of his brain with the soil of his native clime, will learn to sing a\nnew melody as he toils with skillful hands in field and workshop and mill.\nThis new melody will mingle the sympathetic tones of the old plantation\nsong with the notes of hope which intelligent industry and thrift will\nbring into his life.\nThe North has had her day of triumph and prosperity. Thirty years\nago, after a fearful fratricidal conflict, the North was declared victorious\nin the conflict with bayonets. But in the next thirty years, in a more fraternal conflict, the South will win her triumph with cotton spindles. If\nthe negro shall become, thru intelligent training, a potential factor in\nthis generous rivalry for industrial dominion, the North can have no reason to repine, and the South will have no cause for regret.\n\nREPORT\nFOR\n\nBY\n\nOF\nTHE\nCOMMITTEE\nON A DETAILED\nPLAN\nA REPORT ON ELEMENTARY EDUCATION\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nJOHN\n\nDEWEY,\n\nUNIVERSITY\nCHAIRMAN\n\nOF\n\nCHICAGO,\n\nCHICAGO,\n\nILL.,\n\nIn his paper of last year, Dr. W. N. Hailmann indicated the point of view which has\ncontrolled the discussions and the considerations of your committee in formulating the\nfollowing report.' As that paper puts it, school instruction and administration must\ngrow out of the pupil's experience ; must remember that its object and goal are found,\nnot in itself, but in enriching the child's life experience, and furthering his powers of selfexpression and achievement; and that this development must be conceived as social —\n\" the sympathetic co-ordination of individual purpose with that of others in common\nsocial endeavor, and in active mutual devotion to worthy universal ideals.\"\n^ Milwaukee Report, 1897, p. 199.\n\n"}
{"page": 346, "printed_page": null, "text": "336\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chattanooga\n\nThis conception of the relation of school work to individual growth has formed the\npoint of departure of the following report. Such an inquiry obviously rules out investigation of general pedagogical principles on their own account, and equally rules out\ninvestigation of the details of school instruction and administration, so far as these\noperate merely to increase knowledge of such subjects or increased facility in the use of\ncertain school arts. It includes consideration of both details and principles, so far as\nthey have to do with the conduct of the school considered as an intermediary and instrument in the development of the child himself. This limitation, of course, means no\ndepreciation of the value of the former considerations. It merely states the confines,\ntheoretical and practical, within which the work of this particular committee is contained.\nThe following report deals :\n\nand\n\nI. With the general spirit and aim of the proposed investigation.\nII. With the general character of the methods to be pursued in reaching this aim ;\n\nIII. With suggestions regarding the specific methods to be employed. The latter\npoint is again subdivided into recommendations as to method on the practical or\nadministrative side, and suggestions regarding method on its intellectual side.\nI. Spirit and aim.\nAny proposed investigation which requires the expenditure of time and money\nshould grow out of some specific need in the existing situation. If undertaken on\nmerely general principles, it is foredoomed to failure. Moreover, the exact nature of\nthe particular need dealt with determines the peculiar character of the inquiry undertaken. We assume, therefore, that the best introduction to the recommendations which\nensue is in the statement of the needs of the present educational situation in this\ndirection.\nA word of caution may, however, be in place. It is not for a moment meant to\nintimate that any conscious knowledge of the conditions and principles to be set forth is\npossessed, or need be possessed, by the teachers concerned. We wish merely to indicate,\nfrom a general standpoint, some educational changes that are going on, together with\ntheir reasons ; to suggest that these have a deep-seated cause and significance ; and to\nintjmate further that, since the main phases of the problem are common to all who are\nworking in educational interests, the experiences of those who have been most successful\ncannot fail to be serviceable to others. We aim simply to put the educational changes\nin their general social perspective.\nIt would undoubtedly be an exaggeration to say that we are in an educational crisis.\nBut it is within the bounds of sober reason to say that educational materials and methods\nare undergoing a decided readjustment, and that, along with positive steps in advance, a\ncertain amount of confusion and uncertainty is attendant upon the reconstruction. The\nchange in the educational system is nothing for which educators and teachers are responsible as individuals. It is the reflex of a general social change ; it is evidence of the\nfact that, whenever other social institutions and forces change, the school, as one among\nmany social institutions, must change also. This change, while in part an effect, becomes\nalso in turn a cause. The school does not passively accommodate itself to exigencies\nforced upon it from without, but has its own social function which requires it to take a\nposition in actively determining the movement of other social forces.\nOut of the large number of tendencies which are operative in modifying the conduct\nof the school, the following may be noted :\nI. There has been a tremendous enlargement of the educational equipment, of the\nresources which are available in the instruction of the young. The last century — yes,\nalmost the last generation — has set free for general use a large number of valuable\ninstruments, formerly only either in the possession of a few, or themselves so crudely\ndeveloped as not to be educationally available.\nThis increase in equipment is due, in\n\n"}
{"page": 347, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nPLAN\n\nFOR\n\nA REPORT\n\nON ELEMENTARY\n\nEDUCATION\n\n337\n\nthe main, to two reasons : the growth of science, both as pure and, more especially, as\napplied to life in inventions and industries ; and to the democratic development which\nhas brought within the scope of every individual opportunities in art, practical achievement, and scholarship, previously open only to the few.\nWhat some term the enrichment of the curriculum, and others its congestion, is\nsimply the reflex of this social development. History, literature, science in the form of\nnature study, the arts of music, drawing, painting, various forms of manual training, and\nnow, for the upper grades, elementary algebra, geometry, and one or two foreign\nlanguages, have been included within the range of elementary education. They are\nthere either as excrescences, as external attachments, or as organic factors which will not\nonly do their own work, but reinforce the value of all the educational factors. According\nas the relationship takes one or another form, the so-called \" new \" education means\neither congestion of the pupil, his distraction and over-stimulation, or else the orderly\ndevelopment and enrichment of his life.\n2. Hand in hand with this increase in the educational tools available has gone, of\ncourse, an increase in the demands made upon the school by society. The growth of\ndemocracy has furthered the necessity of training, not only social obedience and conformity in ways of good citizenship, but also of active leaders in social and political lines.\nMoreover, the revolution in the industrial sphere, consequent upon the introduction of\nmachinery and the facilitation of modes of social intercourse and communication, has\ncreated a demand for knowledge of the scientific processes and facts involved in modern\nmanufactures and commerce. It requires sufficient practical acquaintance and sympathy\nwith conditions of work to enable the pupil to assume, upon leaving school, an intelligent attitude toward these forces, which are fast becoming controlling ones in life. This\nresponse must be active as well as passive. New inventions follow each other so rapidly\nthat the individual who can only passively conform is sure to be left behind in the\nindustrial readjustments consequent upon changes in machinery, and in methods of doing\nbusiness. Unless he is to sink down to the level of semi-dependent, unskilled laborers,\nor else become an object of charity, or even a criminal, he must be trained to such power\nof using his own intelligence as will enable him to keep his own feet, and help determine\nhis own career.\n3. The democratic development, once more, has tended to make the child more and\nmore an end in himself. He is now seen to be a personality, not merely in germ or\npotentially, but actually. The same social movement which has transformed slaves and\nservile laboring classes into persons who are ends in themselves is affecting also the\nstatus and claims of the child. That such a movement is fraught with danger, as well as\nwith responsibilities of higher achievement, there is no need to argue. Unless this\ntendency is adequately directed, it can mean only still greater disintegration of the family,\nand the uprearing of youth who are undisciplined, demoralized, and who know no law\nexcepting that of their own whim and momentary interest. But the growth of the psychological sciences has given an added means of insight into child nature, so that along with\nthe new demand there has come the power of meeting it. Upon the school, however,\nalong with the family, falls the fundamental responsibility for the adjustment of problem\nand response. Here, or nowhere, must the adjustment be made. The whole matter of\nthe relationship of school methods and materials to the positive development and direction of child life is ripe for consideration.\nThese various phases of social growth have imposed upon the school new duties\nwhich, partly by instinct and partly by purpose, it is attempting to meet. It is endeavoring to see to it that the society which is in process of forming shall be met by an individual prepared to take his place actively, as well as passively, within it. To secure this\nend, it must use all the instruments put at its disposal, and use them in such a coherent\nand definite fashion that they shall be really serviceable — neither mere fads, nor mere\n\n"}
{"page": 348, "printed_page": null, "text": "338\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chattanooga\n\nextraneous devices for arousing and stimulating interest in the older and more routine\nstudies, but intrinsic tools in the development of the whole child nature.\nVarious communities have felt the demand with varying degrees of force, and, owing\nto local and variable elements, have met it with varying degrees of success. Some time\nor other, however, the demand is sure to become universal. It will have to be met in\nboth country and city, in both manufacturing and agricultural districts, and in slums as\nwell as in the sections more favored with wealth and culture.\nHere we have the particular problem set for any work of investigation to be done\nalong these lines. It is to gather up the results which mark the higher points of achievement in this direction ; and to organize these in such a way that they will be put at the\ndisposal of other teachers, thus illuminating the work of all and economizing their time\nand effort by showing channels of successful endeavor.\nIn certain schools the necessary readjustments are already fairly under way. They\nhave not been made in the light of any general considerations, such as those already set\nforth, but on account of the immediate requirements of the local situation, thru the\ninstinctive tact, sympathy, and good judgment of teachers in perceiving and meeting the\nconcrete wants of children ; or, if originally suggested by theory, have long since lost\nany merely theoretical character thru the test of application to working conditions.\nThe opportunity then, and the demand, is to gather together material of this sort, to\nsift and compare it so as to see the direction in which it is moving, the principles which\nare embodied in it ; and then to present the results in such fashion that most successful\nattainments of the few in adapting the work of the school to the needs of child life shall\nbecome available for all.\nII.\n\nMethod to be pursued.\n\nI. It follows from this survey of the relation of the proposed investigation to the\nexisting educational situation that the discussion should be inductive and experimental\nrather than dogmatic or deductive ; it should be an inquiry, not a mere exposition. It is\nno reflection upon the existing science of pedagogy to say that it is very far from being\nin a perfect condition, even as regards its more general principles. Even these can be\nassisted in their development by being brought in touch with the experiences which have\nresulted from the sympathy and practical intelligence of our best teachers. Pedagogy,\nas a science, cannot afford to despise that direct contact with experience which fructified\nall other sciences.\nAside from this, general principles may exist, and yet be practically useless thru lack\nof adaptation to the day-by-day work of the school. There is too frequently a yawning\nchasm between the realm of general principles and the details of school routine. While\nprofessedly and officially the latter may be regarded as derived from the former, as matter\nof fact, they may be, in large measure, survivals due to the mere inertia of custom, or\nempirical devices having no justification beyond their success in accomplishing some\nexternal and temporary result ; or they may be evidences of the persistence and energy\nwith which some educator has imposed his particular notions upon the schcyl system —\nproducts of one of those waves that periodically roll across the country.\nWhat is needed from the standpoint of general pedagogy is that the routine work\nshould be really illumined and interpreted by organic connection with general principles,\nwhile the general principles need to be vitalized, kept fertile and flexible, thru adaptation to detail. Our most pressing need is to escape from the current dualism between\ngeneral principle on one side, and empirical routine and rule of thumb detail on the\nother. Such an investigation as that here suggested cannot fail to promote this vital\ninteraction of theoretic principle and practical detail.\nAfter the conquests of the inductive method in all spheres of scientific inquiry, we\nare not called upon to defend its claims in pedagogy. The burden of proof certainly lies\nwith those who would proclaim in advance the sterility of such a mode of procedure.\n\n"}
{"page": 349, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence] PLAN\n\nFOR A KEPOKT\n\nON ELEMENTARY\n\nEDUCATION\n\n339\n\nWhat would be thought of the botanist who should refrain from a study of concrete\nplants and their parts, on the ground that he could collect merely a multitude of empirical\ndetails which would be scientifically and practically valueless ? Such a position can only\nargue a distrust of the general principles which are nominally professed. The more\ntenaciously one holds to the general principles and their value, the more sure he may be\nthat an investigation of the most successful educational work will bring to light those\nprinciples, not in bare abstract form, but clothed with the authority of operative success ;\nnot as universals separated from practice, but transfigured thru their embodied application in effecting their ultimate purpose — the life development of the child.\n2. There need be no hesitation in admitting that it will be a matter of considerable\ndifficulty properly to organize and to present the results attained in this inductive investigation. Two extremes, equally dangerous, would have to be avoided. On one side there\nis the danger of reading into the collected material a priori principles, thus reducing the\nmaterial until it fits into the rubrics of preconceived ideas. .Such a method would give\nthe appearance of organization, but would be fatal to the whole undertaking. On the\nother side there is the danger of presenting a crude mass of undigested particulars without reference to principle. This would merely overwhelm teachers by the mere bulk of\ndata amassed ; or, if used by them, would be likely to lead only to imitation of the letter\nwithout insight into the spirit.\nWhile admitting the possibility of such misuse of the material, the committee by no\nmeans thinks this result probable, much less inevitable. Certain principles may be suggested which tend, in the first place, to control the amount and character of the data collected ;and, in the second place, to assist in its proper interpretation.\n(a) With reference to limitation on the side of material collected, the following principles may be laid down. The traditional routine of the school is taken for granted. So\nfar as this is inquired into at all, it is (as will be indicated farther below) simply for the\nsake of indicating the conditions under which other work is done. The inquiry presupposes the running of the existing school machinery as found in the average, or more than\naverage, American community. In thus taking it for granted, the inquiry is relieved of\nthe necessity either of justifying or of attacking it. The only question is as to the special\nuse of this machinery in the one direction of furthering, instead of restricting, the immediate life experience and vital growth of the child. This limiting principle allows us at\nonce to rule out an immense amount of detail which would otherwise tend to congest the\ninquiry and obstruct its systematic interpretation. Such material is indeed valuable, but\nit is not relevant to this particular inquiry.\nAnother application of this limiting principle may be indicated as follows : The\ninquiry has nothing to do with school methods or devices from the standpoint of facilitating the mastery of a given subject. Here, for example, is a school which is unusually\nsuccessful in securing ability to read at an early age. Here is another noted for its success in enabling children to manipulate number with unusual dexterity and accuracy.\nWith such matters the proposed investigation has absolutely nothing to do. Inquiry into\nthe relative merits of the phonic, word, and sentence methods, or of any variation of\nthese, or of this or that particular method in arithmetic, lies quite outside of its view. It\nis well to have such matters taken account of, and made known to the public thru the\nmedium of educational journals, etc.; but the aim of the proposed investigation is to discuss methods from the standpoint of enlarging and enriching the immediate experience\nof the child, not of furthering the acquisition of knowledge or of school arts. This principle restricts the amount of data available by defining the precise kind wanted. As\nrespects reading and writing, for example, not that is relevant which tells how the child\nlearns to read most rapidly and accurately, but that which indicates how the capacity to\nread is utilized in the moral development of the child and in enlarging his horizon.\nWhat is there in the school life and methods of instruction which promotes the reading\n\n"}
{"page": 350, "printed_page": null, "text": "340\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chattanooga\n\nof good literature, and which facilitates the application of what is read to the child's own\ngrowth ? So in arithmetic, not methods of teaching number are important, but the ways\nin which the child is led to conceive and utilize number relations in enriching his everyday experience.\nThe same general principle may be applied to any theory. Suppose, for example,\nit is the matter of correlation. Here the problem for consideration is not success or\nadvisability of correlating one subject with another, but vital connection of the subject\nwith the life of the child as it shows itself at home and on the playground, in his daily,\nnon-scholastic occupations. It is not correlation of geography with history or with arithmetic which is in question, but correlation of geography with the child's daily experience\nin such a way that the instruction of geography grows out of it and in turn illuminates\nand interprets it.\n(^) There is, moreover, a limiting principle on the side of organization of results.\nThe whole question is that of organic relationship to the development of the child.\nWhile we are far from knowing as much about the latter as is desirable, we are, thru the\ndevelopment of physiology and psychology, now in possession of certain general principles which will serve as touchstones for the material collected. After it has been found\nthat certain methods and materials actually facilitate vital growth of pupils, much can be\ndone in telling ivhy they do so. It is quite probable that these psychological principles\ncould not have been applied in advance to prophesy or to deduce such results. But the\nresults, once presented, can be thrown into relief and illuminated by means of psychological principles. The results obtained are, we may repeat once more, largely the\nimmediate outcome of the instinct and sympathy of individual teachers. But once\nattained, they can be restated and interpreted in the light of larger principles, even tho\nthe latter would originally have been quite impotent in obtaining them.\nIt is not meant, of course, that this work of interpretation is to become a dominant\nfactor in the final presentation. The psychological principles are to be used rather than\nexhibited. They are to be used in giving the material a coherent and orderly arrangement along lines which will enable the teacher to grasp the salient features of the\nmethods reported upon ; and, by getting insight into the reasons for their success, be\nfreed from the necessity of servile imitation. Thus the confusion attendant upon the\nmere accumulation of data will be avoided ; and other teachers, by grasping the results\nreached in their organic connection with the principles of mental and moral development,\nwill be able to utilize them freely, by making adjustments freely to the needs of their own\nparticular situation.\nIII. After this survey of the general character of the proposed inquiry, and of the\nspirit of the method in which it is to be undertaken, your committee would make certain\nsuggestions regarding the practical methods of carrying it out. Under this head we shall\nhave something to say concerning both the administrative conduct of the inquiry and\nconcerning the particular points to be got at upon the educational side.\nA. Administrative aspects.\n1. The investigation should be undertaken by a committee possessed of complete\ndiscretionary power, under the limitations of the particular task imposed upon it by\nyour body. This committee should be large enough and varied enough to secure representation to a variety of points of view, not only of pedagogic theory, but of practical experience. Moreover, it should be wide enough to take in the entire country.\n2. While a large committee is indispensable in order to meet the needs outlined\nabove, there should be a smaller central committee in order that the inquiry may be prosecuted with system and method. This should serve as a directing body from which\ninstructions could proceed, to which reports could be made, and upon which should fall\nthe responsibility of final collation of results.\nAccordingly your committee would suggest some such scheme as the following : A\n\n"}
{"page": 351, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nPLAN\n\nFOR\n\nA REPORT\n\nON\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nEDUCATION\n\n34 1\n\ncommittee of thirteen to be appointed, of whom four shall constitute a central committee,\nwhile the other nine shall be district representatives selected from particular geographical\nunits in such a wav as to cover the whole country. Each one of these nine district representatives to be regarded as a chairman of a subcommittee, and to be authorized to\nappoint district conferees to enable him successfully to prosecute the necessary inquiries\nin the region assigned to him. The central committee should act upon the data thus\nturned in. The inquiry should occupy at least two years, and the possibility of an extension to three §hould be definitely contemplated. The inquiry should be prosecuted\npatiently and persistently, with sufficient time for collection of data and their subsequent\ncollation, or else it will be useless. In order to accomplish this, the National Educational Association should be asked for an appropriation for the expenses of the committee.\nThe sum should be sufficient to cover, for the first year, the services of a stenographer for\nthe central committee, expenditures for printing, postage, etc.; and the second year\nenough to cover the same items, together with the services of a secretary, who, under the\ndirection of the central committee, should carefully work over the material.\nB. Educational aspects.\nYour committee has given more time and thought to considering the details of the\nproposed inquiry with respect to the points upon which information should be sought\nthan to all other things. The committee has been subdivided and various portions of the\nfield assigned to various members. Superintendent Jones has taken the general conduct of the school in relation to child development ; Superintendent Button, the aesthetic\nphases of school work and the relation of the school to other educational factors of the\ncommunity; Miss Arnold, the subjects of the primary curriculum ; Mrs. Putnam and Miss\nBrooks, the general spirit and conduct of kindergarten and primary work, both in themselves and in their vital adaptation to each other. After consultation, it seemed wise to\nthrow the points for investigation into the form of specific inquiries, preceded by a brief\nstatement of the general problems involved. A conspectus of such statements and\ninquiries will follow. This will constitute the real heart of this report. To this the foregoing statements are preliminary. It will indicate, with as much definiteness as we have\nbeen able to attain, in advance of any actual investigation, the main lines along which\nwork should be directed. As developed by any committee your body may further\nappoint, it will set the main topics for investigation.\nQUESTIONS\n\nBEARING\n\nON\n\nTHE\n\nPROPOSED\n\nINQUIRY\n\nIn current civilization there are growing demands upon the school for increased vital connection of the\nschool work with the requirements of this civilization.\nThere are evidences that teachers in their work are responding with varying success to these growing\ndemands.\nAnalyzing in a large way, the efforts of teachers may be grouped as follows :\nI. Efforts to base the work of the school upon the pupil's experience.\n3. Efforts to systematize the extra-scholastic experience of the pupil, and to supplement this with an\nideal experience that shall lead him in his life onward and upward.\n3. Efforts to secure the completion of mental acts in actual achievement, thereby fixing them in his organization, building up character, as well as purifying and enriching heredities.\n4. Efiorts to utilize character so gained and to secure for it attributes of devotion and benevolence by\nexpanding individual purpose into social purpose; directing individual purpose-life deliberately toward\nhealthy co-ordination with the needs and aspirations, the ideals and destinies, of social groups.\nThe opportunity and the demand are to gather together material of this sort, to sift and compare it in order\nto find the direction in which it is moving and the principles embodied in it, and to present results in such a\nfashion that most successful attainments of the few shall become available for all.\nThis is the purpose of the proposed inquiry, which is to be strictly inductive and experimental.\nSuch inquiry includes consideration of matters relating exclusively to the traditional school routine, of\nspecial methods and devices, of correlation of studies and discussion of psychological principles.\nYet such principles may be used in giving the collected material a coherent and orderly arrangement\nalong lines which will enable the teacher to grasp salient features of the work reported upon, and to get insight\ninto the reasons for their success, thus freeing him from the necessity of servile imitation.\n\n"}
{"page": 352, "printed_page": null, "text": "342\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chattanooga\n\nFIRST SERIES\n\n1. What is done to ascertain the general knowledge and skill of the child on entering school ? the character of his home environment ? his tastes, predilections, disposition, hopes, and aspirations ?\n2. To what extent and in what ways does the school consider, utilize, encourage, modify, or correct these\nthings ?\n3. What efforts have been made, and with what success, to organize the interests of parents in the\nschools ?\n4. In what ways does the school utilize the observation of things and phenomena on the part of pupils, in\nand out of school, in the preparation of lessons and in recitations ?\n5. How does the school utilize unusual occurrences and interests in the work ? How does it utilize public\nfestivals ?\n6. To what extent are play, and other school exercises partaking more or less of the character of play,\nused for idealizing and extending the child's knowledge concerning the industries, commerce, and other phases\nof community life ?\n7. What uses are made of school excursions ? of travel on the part of individual pupils ?\n8. Please state your experience with school gardens and window gardens. Are there other opportunities\nfor the care of animals and plants ?\n9. In what ways does the school consider the child's scope of aesthetic appreciation, and stimulate the\nsame for further extension, in the adjustment of his school environment ? in the ornamentation of grounds\nand buildings ? in the selection of photographs and engravings, etc. ?\n10. What opportunities are afforded, in the school or elsewhere, to hear good music ? How does the\nschool utilize these in its work ?\n11. To what extent do stories told the children rest upon their own actual or probable experience ? In\nwhat ways are they used to stimulate observation, research, imagination, purpose, and aspiration ?\n12. In what ways is the child's home, community, and school environment utilized in primary lessons in\nnumber ? form ? nature study ? language ? drawing ? reading and writing ?\n13. In what ways does the school utilize experiment and more or less independent research in securing\ndata and in the formulation of general facts or laws ?\n14. What progress has been made in equipping the school with workshops, laboratories, and school gar\ndens ?\n15. What progress has been made in equipping the school with drawing outfits, musical instruments,\nlibraries, and reading rooms ?\n16. In what ways do the various studies and exercises, as carried on by you, stimulate original investigation, aspirit of research, aesthetic appreciation, and a healthy imagination ? Please answer this question\nmore particularly with reference to reading, form work, and nature study.\n17. What is the character of reviews ? How often are they held ?\n18. Please send samples of written records of the pupils' and teacher's work, plans of observation, course\nof study, time-tables, and specimens of children's work.\nSECOND\n\nSERIES\n\n1. In what ways are the gains of one lesson utilized in other lessons or exercises ? number and form in\nconstructive work ? the pencil and brush in nature study, essays and reports, geography and history, etc. ?\nstories, reading, and language in consecutive, orderly narrative, description and report work — oral and\nwritten ?\n2. In what ways do you use kindergarten occupations, devices of \" busy work,\" as well as, later on, the\nsloyd room and the laboratory, in applying knowledge and skill gained in various subjects to particular ends ?\n3. In what ways are such occupations used by you in stimulating and educating inventive and creative\npower ? in descriptive and illustrative work ?\n4. Which of such occupations, as used by you, have a direct bearing on number work, form study,\nnature study, language, etc. ?\n5. How far and under what circumstances is it found helpful to correlate singing and instrumental\nmusic with games, marches, with other studies and exercises ?\n6. In what ways does the school utilize in its work special ability on the part of pupils in oral or written\nexpression, as well as in technical skill or art skill, for purposes of instruction, recitation, or other legitimate\nschool work ?\n7. To what extent are the pupil's creative impulse and his own ideas considered in his progress toward\nthe appreciation and control of conventional art forms ?\n8. By what means do you associate and stimulate a tendency to read books with a mastery of the art of\nreading ?\n9. What specific school festivals are established, and how is the work of the school related to them ?\n10. How is continuity of progress secured within each class and thruout the school as a whole ?\n11. What are the tests of advance ? How often and under what circumstances are pupils advanced into\nhigher groups or grades ?\n12. What means have been employed to secure continuity of effort and result between the kindergarten\nand the school ?\n\n"}
{"page": 353, "printed_page": null, "text": "SuperinlendenceJ\n\nMISS/ON\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOL\n\n343\n\n13. How arc marching, changes of classes, etc., managed so as to secure spontaneous good order,\navoiding the establishment of a purely formal routine with arbitrary motives and penalties ?\n14. How are punctuality, the requisite balance of silence and communication, cleanliness, regard for\nschool property, and other school virtues, secured on a similar basis ?\n15. What evidences are there that the influence of the school upon the development of the tastes, sesthetic\nappreciation, disposition, and aspirations of the children is felt in the homes and in the community at large ?\nTHIRD\n\nSERIES\n\n1. What is done in the general organization of the school to f«ster community spirit ? to make the\nchildren feel at home ? to make each child feel that he has a place in the school as a community, not simply\nwith reference to lessons learned ?\n2. What opportunities are therefor responsible leadership and co-ordination on the playground ? in the\nschool garden ? in the ornamentation and care of the schoolroom, and of other children ? on school excursions ?on the way to and from school, etc.?\n3. How is the recitation conducted so as to furnish motives and opportunities for interchange of\nexperience and knowledge for the benefit of others, instead of serving merely as a test by the teacher of informa\ntion acquired ?\n4. Under what circumstances and conditions, both as to pupil and subject, do you teach individually, in\ngroups, or in classes ?\n5. How and in what exercises are children given an opportunity to enrich individual work thru an\nequitable exchange of products of their labor, more especially in manual work ?\n6. How and in what exercises are children given opportunity to contribute products of their individual\nchiefly manual, work to higher social ends ?\n7. What opportunities are children given to become actively interested in the work and pupils of lower\nor higher grades ?\n8. How and to what extent do children contribute by their art work or otherwise to the ornamentation of\nthe school ?\n9. In what ways are kindergarten occupation, sloyd, the workshop, or laboratory used for co-operative\nwork ?\n10. How and in what studies or exercises is division of labor secured, both in the preparation of lessons\nand in recitations, in research, and in applying knowledge and skill to common ends ?\n11. How and in what exercises do you utilize independent reading and individually prepared written\nreports in social school work ?\n12. When and to what extent are choral and orchestral features introduced in music ? What influence\ndo these exert upon the social atmosphere of the school ?\n13. In what ways are school festivals utilized in developing the social spirit of the school ?\n14. Are there evidences that attention to social phases of school work exerts a beneficial Influence upon\nhe development of strong, self-reliant individuality, coupled with a practically and intelligently benevolent\nattitude ?\n15. Are there evidences that the school, by its attention to social training, is exerting a beneficial influ\nence upon the social tastes and tendencies of the community, or, at least, of the younger members of the community?\n\nBY\n\nTHE\n\nMISSION\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nMARTIN\n\nOF\n\nG.\n\nTHE\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nBRUMBAUGH,\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nPHILADELPHIA,\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOL\n\nPENNSYLVANIA,\n\nPA-,\n\nBy common consent, students of education are taught that the movement in education isfrom the thing to the symbol, from sensation to conception, from the real to the\nideal, from the concrete to the abstract, from the letter to the spirit, from the realm of\nsense to the realm of reason, from individual notions to general notions ; that the educational process is a self-enthused movement from the things of sensation to the exercise of\npractical and theoretic reason.\nBut in our practice all these maxims are rendered relatively valueless, and even misleading, since they figure an ideal process from its initiative to its culmination. In theory\nwe take account of the whole process ; in practice we never can begin the process of\neducation.\nAny attempt to do so results in such a senseless over-concentration of our\n\n"}
{"page": 354, "printed_page": null, "text": "344\n\n'\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chattanooga\n\ncurriculum as to make us sponsors for the first nervous reactions to external stimuli that\nsweep the round of sensory and motor activity. In our efforts, therefore, to become scientific, i.e., to realize our theory, the elementary schools suffer today from a disease that, for\nwant of a better characterization, may be called over-concretedness. The child has grown\ninto an educative being. Our methods strike him dead in order to force his resurrection\nafter some self-selected scheme of educational doctrine.\nOn the other hand, we do not follow the child to the realization of the ideals figured\nas the culmination of the educational process. Hence in many upper grades there is an\nopposite evil almost as fatal — over-abstractedness.\nThis evil is not so apparent, since so few attain the highest stage of organized training. But the effect is felt in the elementary school. Here all sorts of facts and truths are\nminced into such concrete bits that the sensible and normal child is disgusted with the\nwhole business of education, leaves the school with a yell of delight, revels, even in school\nhours, in the secret haunts of bird and bloom, and drives parents and teachers to legislative relief in laws for compulsory attendance.\nTrue, indeed, for all constructive purposes, mind must begin with the concrete and\nthe one; but it is wonderful to note how, in spite of courses of study, schools of pedagogy, and multiplied apparatus, the child spirit gets a-wing and away from sense symbols.\nA child can think. A child does think. He needs no more exhortation to think than he\ndoes to eat. He enjoys the prolonged exercise of both processes. What he does need\nare right objects and right methods of thought. To impart right method to his thinking,\nand to apply this to things that fecundate, is to train the child in the theoretic and the\npractical reason, to create both a nature and a form in education, to impart knowledge\nand culture, and thereby to achieve an ethical product.\nFor the child, at least, the things of thought are best shaped in the feeling life — the\nneglected life — ^of the child, and his methods of thought, in spite of rigid discipline and\nlogical method, will follow the trail over which his feelings have swept full, free, and purposeful.\nIt follows that the feeling life of the child, the first fruit of his intellectual activity\nand the best, since this directly makes for the ethical end, is of prime significance in any\nscheme of elementary education. This feeling life must be trained, not ignored. The\nfirst thing the elementary school must accomplish is the training of the feelings.\nSince the days of Rousseau we have been endeavoring to make character, determine\nwill, by training the intellect. Altho our psychology still deals with the emotions \" in a\nvery solemn way,\" our processes do not take emotional activity seriously into account.\nIndeed, any attempt to advance the feeling life is regarded as a direct assault upon the\naccepted thought-producing function of education. Children are exhorted to think.\nPedagogs plead for power to think. We no longer exhort or train children to feel. Thus\na false antagonism has arisen, and the clamor of the practical world is responded to by\neulogizing schemes of thought exercises, and almost no effort is consciously directed to\nthe cultivation of that warmth of interest and intensity of feeling which constitute the\nbasis of all felicitous educational, processes, the material of all intellectual advancement,\nespecially of all training that makes for character.\nWe have created a pedagogical child, and we study it. We have lost the real child\nand the secret of his unfolding. This pedagogical child is a complex of philosophy and\npedantry. It is the dream creature of visionary men and women, who spend their days\nand nights evolving schemes for evolving it. And as the thing itself has no existence in\nfact, so the theories based upon it have no direct reformative or pedagogic value.\nAll educational systems, great in application, were fitted to the real child, educating\nhim for a specific purpose in a definite, if not always consistent, way.\nBalzac in Une Fille d'kve gives a description of the depressing education given by\nthe countess of Granville to her two daughters. To make smooth their path to heaven\nand. husbands, she subjected them to a regime that had at least one fatal defect — it took\n\n"}
{"page": 355, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence J\n\nMISSION\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOL\n\n345\n\nno account of the emotions. The result may be gathered from the story. But have we\nnot today mothers and teachers who pursue systems of education at the cost of the pupils'\nemotions, that is to say, at the cost of their real happiness ? We do not take account of\nthese emotions, which are the highest part of our nature and are most impressionable in\nchildhood.\nThe world of the useful is to us the world of fact. But fact has to be transmuted by\nthe imagination before it can reach and act upon the emotions. What we need is an\neducational system which parallels the appeal to the mind thru facts with an appeal\nthru the same facts transmuted by the imagination.\nIn the early church schools the emotional life of the child was appropriated to religion. It was conserved for the life to be, and the meager intellectual culture of these\nschools was designed to organize the feeling life for action in religion. When the layman\ntriumphed over the ecclesiastic, this emotional life was left to seek along its own avenues,\nby chance and accident, the comfort and strength its repose in religion gave to it, and the\nenergy of the school was devoted to a keen intellectual awakening, resulting in a biased\nand, in many cases, unfortunate training. If the ideal is to shift from the life to be to the\nlife that is, from religion to some current interest, from living to die to living to live\ncompletely, we must still utilize all the energy of the child. We must recognize the\nemotional life as the basis of appeal for all high acting and high thinking. We can never\nmake men by ignoring an essential element in manliness. To live well, we must know\nclearly and feel keenly and act nobly ; and, indeed, we shall have noble acting only as we\nhave gladsome action — action inspired of feeling and not of thought. The church made\nmen of great power, because it made men of great feeling.\nThe same is substantially true of the great Greek system, prior to the days of the\nSophists. The child was trained to feel devoutly. His enthusiasm for things mounted, in\nits personified aspects, into religious ardor, and his love for his state became the passion\nof his soul. This was the state-intoxicated man. Banishment was worse than death, and\nservice of his state the crowning act of his life. His matchless art and his exaltation of\nthe sacred Muses are but the symbolism of a patriotic spirit, of a spirit trained almost to\necstasy in the palaestra and the gymnasium and the agora. His educational progress\nwas measured by devotion, not by acquisition.\nOver against this, modern education is becoming more and more intellectual, less and\nless aesthetic ; and the cry of the pedagog is : \" How can we make education more\nethical ? \" How, indeed, when the very element that makes for ethical living is decreasingly significant in our educational schemes ?\nFor keen intellectual training in the college and the university we will all plead.\nThe career of the specialist is by no means to be decried, nor the means of its attainment\nto be attacked. But in an elementary school, by reason of the nature of the child, and\nalso for the sake of purely intellectual training in the university, the educational process\nshould enkindle in the student an increasing warmth of feeling, a keener emotional\nresponse to the things of the curriculum.\nPlato is the author of the maxim, so much respected by the Germans, that \" The feeling with which education begins is wonder.\" This comprehends the entire problem.\nEducation begins in feeling, continues in feeling, ends in feeling, provided only that\nwonder is not destroyed, but organized into all forms of beauty in art and into all orders\nof truth in science.\nThis discussion leads to the exaltation of the imagination of the child in his early\neducational career. This is the child's most dangerous power, because most intimate\nwith heaven-ordained sympathies. It is the intellect's reporter of the feeling life. It is,\nindeed, the feeling faculty. It must be active. If not trained to organize the feeling life\nof the child into crude material for intellectual functions, then, unfortunately, but surely,\nit feeds upon the self-created chimeras of 'an undirected spirit, and dominates the whole\n\n"}
{"page": 356, "printed_page": null, "text": "346\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chattanooga\n\nlife of the child, predisposing him to weakness and positive immorality. Laurie has well\nsaid : \"The leading idea which shall give us at once guidance and a criterion of judgment\nin the elementary school is nutrition of feeling, inner and outer ; that is to say, of the\nemotions within and the realities of sense without, and thru these training, with a\nminimum of discipline.\"\nThe second cardinal purpose of the elementary school is to enrich the child, and this\nwill be best done in a system that provides as carefully for reflective activity as for expressive activity. Today we assume in our practices that a change of expressional activity is\npromotive of educational progress. That the child must be busy is true ; but that he must\nbe everlastingly at the busy table fingering things is not true.\nToo much cannot be said for those contemplative and meditative moods into which\nchildhood at some stage of advance is sure to enter. Shall we rudely break in upon the\nsacred communion, and drive the child to expressional features of school work ? Shall\nwe drag the pious devotee, wjio on his knees before the crucifix is communing with the\ninvisible, from his vision splendid ? Let us learn that the soul of childhood caught in\nthe meshes of a great emotion is struggling and strengthening ; that it shall finally break\nfrom its reverie, joyous, vigorous, free ; that the soul in meditation is indeed enchrysalized\nand shall in due season arise iris-tinted, enfranchised, and glorified.\nThe nearest approach to this is our attempt to enrich the curriculum. Our best way\nto enrich the curriculum may be the best way to impoverish the child. The child is taught\ntoo many subjects in the elementary school, and the immediate need is not enrichment by\ncorrelation but by simplification. Are we not ripe for a gospel of extermination, to the end\nthat enrichment of the child rather than the text may speedily come to pass ?\nThe greatest gift the child receives in the elementary school is the gift of language —\nthe power to talk, to write, and to read simple English understandingly, and to spell\ncomnjon words accurately. We speak eloquently of patriotism, but often forget that we\nmake patriots only as we make lovers of our fatherland and lovers of our mother\ntongue. Since so large a percentage of our citizens obtain all their scholastic training\nin the elementary schools, it is essential that these schools give to the American child\ninsight into the American life by means of the mother tongue. In the first years in school\nabsolutely nothing should crowd into the curriculum 'to interfere with this language\nmastery. The only coordinate study — and that only as an occasioner of language —\nthat needs serious recognition is such an acquaintance with objective things, thru\nnature study, as will engender in the child a sincere love for the things of nature. If we\nchange our course of study from an intellectual to an aesthetic basis, the child will love\nwhat he now crudely knows, and this love of his early career will by transformation\nbecome the organized scientific knowledge of his advanced years. The basis must be\nsympathetic, not scientific. This warmth of interest will make pleasant, make easy, make\nspeedy the advance of the child thru the whole range of his effort.\n\"It is,\" says Bishop Spaulding, \"better not to teach than to weary.\" \"Sowers, reapers, and gardeners, hunters, fishermen, and the feeders of flocks, are the best society for\nboys.\" And the enthusiastic observation of golden grain, springing grass, bursting bloom,\nflowing streams, happy flocks, and changing sky, are the best sources of inspiration for the\nwhole educational process. The memory of these in years of maturity is attended by a\nwarmth of interest that makes the hand more cunning, the brain more vigorous, the soul\nmore noble.\nThis free activity and perfect play of emotional energy is suddenly suppressed when\nthe child enters school. lie is restrained where formerly he was free, and urged to\nactivity to which before he was a stranger. School becomes di.stasteful to him. He needs\nin this first restraint the greatest care, the warmest sympathy. Keep his heart warm for\nthe things he loved of his own choice, and link the new .lovingly with the old. He should\ngrow in feeling as he grows in knowledge. Ihdeed, the very source of his inspiration is\nto be found in the fact that he feels that he knows, and not that he knows that he grows.\n\n"}
{"page": 357, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superliiteinkiicel MISSION\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOL\n\n347\n\nA few years ago I saw a German schoolmaster, staff in hand, leading a score or more\nof boys along a winding stream, under towering trees, in the heart of the Thiiringer hills.\nAnd what a scene ! Teacher calm, communicative, contented ; pupils leaping with the\nwaterfall, singing with the birds, shouting with the breezes, running with the shadows,\nhappy because in a school that fed the emotions and exalted the spirit.\nAll this rich contact of knowledge should be incorporated into chaste language.\nAccompanying this process of spiritual transformation of things into symbols is the duty\nof creating in the child a desire to share in the larger life of the race thru language. The\nchild that comes to feel that the language symbol is the barrier between him and rich\ntreasures of warm human experience will early find a breach in the wall and enter. No\nset method will be required. He will learn to read, and he will read in spite of the\nmethod ; and, after all, the only permanently valuable method of learning to read is the\nmethod that will compel the child to read — that reveals thought and quickens the appetite\nfor it. In this way learning to read is not a task, but a necessity. One compasses the\nprocesses for the same reason that he climbs a mountain — to get the broader view the\nnew point of vantage affords. The child that reads is intellectually emancipated. The\nquestion of citizenship in the republic of letters is settled ; the location and character of\nhis activity are solely matters of detail.\nThis will not wholly satisfy our modern attempts to put into the elementary schools\nthe beginnings of all studies. Why should every human interest find representation in the\nelementary school ? Is the child to act forever only upon the data of his school life ? If\nwe taught less, would we not teach better ? An overwrought curriculum produces stupidity.\nThe elementary school does its best work when it creates the desire to learn, and not when\nit satisfies the learner. The best school is the one that sends the child into life eager to\nknow and equipped to learn. We are too much concerned with immediate results. We\nlack the teleologic spirit, and count as lost all that which fails to flower and fruit in a day.\nThe best products of a good school are ripened and garnered in the larger life which we\ndenominate \" after school.\" Our need, then, is a training that will make books, the reading habit, the permanent concern of the adult life.\nThe smartest child is not always the noblest citizen, nor will this land be stable and\nfree, stable in its freedom, until the elementary school, the school of the masses, sends\nforth a product that will love books and spend the evening at home, in the family circle,\nin the intimate enjoyment of good reading, and not at the barroom, the country store, or\nthe club.\nShall we longer retain in our practice the unclean spirit, long since cast out of our\ntheory, that education is measured by the number of facts imparted ; that progress in\neducation is only and wholly a quantitatively measured thing ; that quality is of no\nmoment ? Shall this be required of the schools, while we teach in our pedagogical institutions that culture, in any stage of advance, is worth more than knowledge, and shall the\nhypocrites flourish ?\nIf the mental reaction, the creation of nerve tracts, the blazing of the trees along the\nnew route until the incoming idea can run and not grow weary in its rush along a habithedged way to its own apperceiving mass, is essential to educational advance ; if, like the\nprodigal, the new idea is to return each time to its own apperceiving progenitor and help\nswell the fatted feast — there must be time for repetition and for elaboration, that the new\nidea may be \"at home,\" and that the old dwellers of the same sacred ceil may see\nenough of it to bid it welcome, to use it, and to be of use to it.\nFor the mastery of the number symbol, and elementary lessons in hygiene, history,\ngeography, and related studies, no plea is necessary, since these are today overtaught,\nand in no organization of elementary education are they likely to be undervalued.\nAre we not fundamentally foolish when multiplication of facts is accepted as enrichment of mind ? Have we not listened to false gods, to the mercenary spirits that\nmeasure all things quantitatively, instead of practicing what we know to be everlastingly\n\n"}
{"page": 358, "printed_page": null, "text": "348\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nLCLattanooga\n\ntrue — that the sum of knowledge gained does not render the mind versatile ? And yet\nversatility is the best characteristic of a mind equipped for active life.\nThere is yet one other consideration to be borne in mind. The elementary school\nought to foster the elements of true virtue by giving the child an insight into the elements\nof the higher life.\nPoliteness, conscientiousness, and humility (which trinity of powers Rosenkranz\ndeclares to be the basis of the religious life), these factors should be constantly and carefully\nfostered, even to the exclusion of much from the curriculum. For these the child is naturally\neager. His properly trained feeling life will intensify this natural desire and make, provided time and sense condition their acquisition, his days in school his happy days, back\nto which in years of worry and toil and trial he will turn with a warmth of feeling and a\ndepth of meaning that will render his school days a glad memory and a perennial source of\ncomfort and strength. It will do away with a thousand testimonies to the justice of the\nlament of St. Augustine : \" OGod, my God, what misery did I then experience when sent\nto school ! when J was told that it was as a boy my right course of life to obey my teachers\nin order that I might get on in this world and excel in those arts which lead to human\nhonors and false riches. Then I was put to school to learn things of which I, poor boy,\ndid not know the use ; and yet, if 1 was slow in learning (because of this lack of knowledge), Iwas flogged, for this course was held in high repute by my elders, many of whom\nbefore me had trodden the same road and had marked out a wearisome path along which\nI was forced to go ; thus multiplying the toil and pain of the sons of Adam\nAs a\nboy I began to pray to Thee ; and I used to ask Thee, with no little earnestness, that I might\nnot be whipped at school. I had a great dread of these sufferings and prayed earnestly\nthat I might escape them ; and yet I incurred them by not writing, reading, or minding\nmy lessons so much as I was bidden. For memory and ability were not wanting to me,\nO Lord, but I delighted in play, and was corrected foi this by those who did the same.\"\nThe elementary school fulfills its mission, then, by training the feelings ; by such a\nsimplification of the curriculum as will give the culture side of education greater prominence ;by emphasizing the mastery of language as the central possession of the child ;\nby an intellectual versatility, the best mental equipment for life ; by promoting the virtues\nof politeness, conscientiousness, and humility ; by giving greater prominence to the permanent rather than the transient results in teaching ; and by placing in the elementary\nschools teachers so thoroly trained and enthused with the ideals of the school as to\nrender the school career of the child marvelously successful by making it supremely\npleasant.\n\nWHAT\n\nCAN CHILD-STUDY CONTRIBUTE\nOE EDUCATION?\n\nBY\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nJ. P. GORDY,\n\nTO THE\n\nCOLUMBUS,\n\nSCIENCE\n\nO.\n\nA preliminary question must be answered : Is a science of education possible ? We\nall remember Professor Dilthey's answer to this question, as expounded by Professor Royce\nin the Educational Review. Professor Dilthey says there neither is nor can be a science\nof education, and for two reasons : (i) the end of education cannot be defined in such a\nway as to be true of all peoples and for all times, unless the definition is stated in such\ngeneral terms as to leave the question it attempts to deal with, to a large extent, open ;\n(2) because the material upon which the teacher works — human nature — cannot be\nadequately defined in general terms, because each individual, by virtue of being an\n\n"}
{"page": 359, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nCHILD-STUDY\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nSCIENCE\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\n349\n\nindividual, is more than the type with which alone science is capable of dealing. In\nbrief, we can have no science of education because we can never know in detail either\nwhat human nature is or what it ought to be. :\nIt may seem at first sight as tho this kind of reasoning would lead to the conclusion\nthat there neither is nor can be a science of anything. Says Professor Dilthey : \" We\nhave no science of education because wide differences as to the end of education have\nappeared among different nations, and in the same nation at different times ; because we\ndo not agree among ourselves except in the most general way, and because what we now\nregard as the end of education may not be so regarded a hundred years from now.\" May\nwe not say with equal truth that no science of biology is possible, because what we now\nregard as its fundamental law — what is at any time regarded as its fundamental law —\nmay not be so regarded a hundred years later ? Such a reply to Professor Dilthey's\nfirst argument seems to me unanswerable. All of our sciences, in so far as they deal\nwith concrete fact, consist, not of absolutely proved laws, but of what may be described\nin the last analysis as good working hypotheses, because they explain all the facts now\nknown in that field to the human race. The possibility always remains that the accepted\nlaw of today may prove to be the exploded hypothesis of tomorrow. To say, then, that\nthere neither is nor can be a science of education because we do not agree among ourselves as to what the end of education is, and because, in so far as we do agree, we may\nfind ourselves in disagreement with the next generation, implies such a conception of\nscience as would lead to the conclusion that we have no sciehce of anything except in\nthe department of pure mathematics.\nBut Professor Dilthey's second argument rests on different grounds. \" If there is a\nscience of education,\" says Professor Dilthey (and here Professor Royce agrees with\nhim), \" it would consist, in part, of such a complete and systematic knowledge of human\nnature as would furnish a complete set of rules for the guidance of education in a given\ncase. In so far as a teacher has to deal with particular cases — not by means of his\ngeneral knowledge of human nature, but by means of his insight into these particular\ncases — in so far he must be guided by knowledge which is not scientific in its nature.\nIn so far as the teacher must for all time be guided by his insight into particular cases, in\nso far he must for all time be guided by unscientific knowledge.\" If it is true that the\nteacher's general or scientific knowledge of human nature is, and can only be, useful in\nso far as it sharpens his insight into particular cases, then it is true that we neither have\nnor can have a science of education. Whoever admits that the teacher is, and forever\nmust be, guided by his insight into particular cases agrees with Professors Dilthey and\nRoyce. Says Professor Royce : \" Rules would here be suggested by the science at every\npoint ; yet they would never be rules that the educator could immediately apply, except\nwith constant reference to conditions of his own nation, age, and child. Universal these\nrules would be, yet never universal in the sense that they might be taken as precise\nguides in the particular case. Aids they would be, but never substitutes for personal\ninsight.\nIn short, our knowledge of laws would be a good staff and a bad crutch.\"\nInstead, then, of talking about the science of education, we ought, strictly speaking,\nto talk about the scientific elements in education — those laws, in other words, which\nthrow light on the business of education. But if, out of regard to usage, we continue to use the term \"science of education,\" we need constantly to bear in mind the\nlimited sense in which such a science is possible. When, therefore, we ask the question,\nWhat can child-study contribute to the science of education ? our question amounts to\nthis : What more or less general truths can child-study discover which will help us in the\nbusiness of education ?\nStill another preliminary question must be answered : What do we mean by childstudy ? Professor Barnes seems to me to have answered this question in a helpful way.\nHe describes it as the inductive and quantitative study of human beings. Child-study\nincludes, therefore, what is meant by genetic psychology.\nGenetic psychology aims to\n\n"}
{"page": 360, "printed_page": null, "text": "35°\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chattanooga\n\ndiscover the laws that govern the growth and development of human beings. The interests, tastes, instincts, ideals that predominate at different periods in human development,\nthe various capacities that exist at these different periods, and the extent of those capacities, are questions for genetic psychology to answer.\nBut child-study, as Professor Barnes has defined it, seems at first sight to include\nmore than this. We might say that all study of the adult consciousness by means of the\ninferential method, all study of the adult consciousness the object of which is to discover\npeculiarities of individuals which the student could not discover by a study of himself,\nsimply because they are peculiarities, is a part of what has been improperly called childstudy. President Eliot, for example, holds that the best way to develop respect for\nexpert knowledge is to make a man an expert along some particular line. Is he right ?\nThere is but one way of ascertaining, and that is by an actual study of experts, so as to\nlearn to what extent experts along one line have respect for the conclusions of other\nexperts. So, likewise, Mr. Galton got the notion that the power of people to form vivid,\nexact, and detailed images of things varies greatly, and he proved that he was right by a\nstudy of individuals.\nBut such study really forms a part of what is called genetic psychology. Why do\npeople differ in the respect which they have for the conclusions of experts ? Why do\npeople differ in their power to form vivid, exact, and detailed images of things ? So far\nas such questions can be answered at all, they must be answered by a study of the laws\nthat govern the growth aftd development of human beings in connection with the history\nand peculiar experiences of those particular human beings whose characteristics we are\ninvestigating ; we must say, for example, that this man has the power to form vivid,\ndetailed, and exact images of things, either because of his experiences and his education,\nor because of inherited capacities ; that that man's attitude toward expert conclusions\nis the result of one or other of the same two causes. But to determine to which of these\ncauses it is due we must have resort to genetic psychology. The question, then, which\nI am to try to answer is this : To what extent can a knowledge of the laws that govern\nthe growth and development of human beings throw light on the business of education ?\nWe shall find this an easy question to answer, if we bear in mind that the business\nof education requires as precise a knowledge as possible of the answers to six questions :\n(i) What is the end of education? (2) What instrumentalities ought society to employ\nfor the realization of that end ? (3) What subjects should students be required to study ?\n(4) In what order should these studies be taken up ? (5) By what methods should these\nsubjects be taught ? (6) What amounts of time and energy can students be required to\ngive to work without injury to their health ? He who can answer these questions most\nperfectly ; who has the most precise and detailed knowledge of the end of education ;\nwhose judgment is wisest as to the instrumentalities which society should make use of\nto realize that end ; whose knowledge of the subjects which ought to be taught, the order\nin which they should be taken up, the methods by which they should be taught, and the\namount of time and energy which students are capable of giving to their work without\ninjury to their health — has the largest amount of the knowledge that throws light on the\nbusiness of education.\nI am sure of your assent to this proposition, except in so far as it relates to the\nagencies which society should make use of in realizing the end of education. But are not\nquestions as to the best mode of selecting state school superintendents, the qualifications\nto be required of them, the duties to be assigned to them, questions which throw light on\nthe business of education ? Has not the business of education a vital interest in the\nqualifications, duties, and methods of electing boards of education ? If we select state\nschool superintendents and boards of education in any way but the best way ; if we\nassign to them any duties except those which they ought to perform; if we require\nof them any qualifications, more or less, except those which they ought to possess,\nwill not the business of education suffer ? Will not the business of education suffer.\n\n"}
{"page": 361, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence!\n\nCHILD-STUDY\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nSCIENCE\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\n35 »\n\nif society makes a mistake as to the amount of money that ought to he raised for\nschool purposes, or if it undertakes to raise that money in the wrong way ? Without\ndoubt, then, a knowledge of the agencies which society should employ, of the mechanism\nof which it should make use, is a part\" of the knowledge which throws light on the business of education.\nWe may, then, consider our question under the following heads: (i) Will genetic\npsychology throw any light on the end of education ? (2) Will it help us to see what\nagencies society should employ in the business of education ? (3) Will it tell us what\nsubjects ought to be studied ? (4) Will it tell us in what order they should be studied ?\n(5) Will it tell us by what methods they should be taught ? (6) Will it help us to see\nhow much work students can safely be required to do ?\n1. It seems to me self-evident that genetic psychology cannot tell us what the end of\neducation is. 'l\"he end of education will be determined for each individual by his conception of man. Start from Plato's conception of man, and you will reach Plato's conclusion :that the end of education is to develop the power to see those divine ideas in the\ncontemplation of which alone true wisdom consists ; that those that do not possess the\ncapacity to develop this power are incapable of being educated. Agree with Aristotle\nthat the supremely important thing in man is the. intellect, and the supremely important\nthing in life is the activity of the intellect — and you will agree with him that the end of\neducation is the development of the intellect ; that those who have little intellect to\ndevelop have no business in life except to serve those who have. Say with certain religious teachers that the supremely important thing in man is his capacity to believe certain\ndoctrines — and you will agree with them that the supremely important thing in education\nis the development of this capacity. Say with Dr. Dewey that a man ought to have no\nlife of his own, that he lives in and for and by society — and you will agree with him that\nthe education of man should be determined entirely with reference to the needs of society.\nAgree with the Herbartians that the will is not free, and yet insist with them that the\nconduct of this human automaton is a matter of the first importance — and you will agree\nwith them that the development of interests — such interests as will inevitably impel the\nindividual to a certain kind of conduct — is the supremely important thing in education.\nWhat you think of man, what you think of human life, will determine what you think of\nthe end of education. But the science that undertakes to tell us what man is, what his\ninmost nature is, is philosophy, with which genetic psychology has nothing to do.\n2. Will genetic psychology throw any light on the agencies that society should\nemploy for the realization of the ends of education ? This question, also, I should\nanswer with an unqualified negative. Such answers as this question is capable of receiving, the so-called science of education will borrow from a study of comparative politics.\nWhat methods have actually worked well in this direction? Were there any special conditions in the cases where they worked well to prevent them from working well elsewhere?\nIt is the answers to such questions as these which will tell us all we shall ever know\nabout the agencies which society should employ in the business of education.\n3. Will genetic psychology help us to decide what subjects ought to be studied ? The\ntrue answer to this question can be most clearly seen by considering the principles upon\nwhich a choice ought to be made between different courses of study. What you think\nthe end of education is will determine, to a great extent, your opinion as to the subjects\nthat ought to be studied. Suppose you say that the end of education is preparation for\nrational living ; and suppose you say, with Davidson, that such preparation consists of\nfour elements : (i) knowledge — that knowledge of the laws of nature and of life which\nwill enable us to act wisely in the various emergencies of life; (2) discipline — that\ntraining of our minds which will enable us to draw the proper inferences from what we\nknow; (3) that cultivation of the emotions which will cause us to estimate things at their\nproper worth — such a training as will make us prefer to do what is wise; (4) that training\nof the will which will enable us to do what we think we ought to do — will not your deci-\n\n"}
{"page": 362, "printed_page": null, "text": "352\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n|Chattanooga\n\nsion as to the subjects that ought to be studied be determined primarily by your idea of\nthese elements? You wish to give your pupils that knowledge which will prepare them\nfor rational living. And what is that knowledge ? Herbert Spencer has told us as well\nas anyone else, and he did not base his conclusions on genetic psychology.\nWhat kind of discipline do we need in order to be able to live wisely? Professor\nHinsdale has answered this question for us. He has told us that we cannot acquire the\npower, for example, to reason correctly about our children by studying politics, or learn\nhow to vote wisely by studying Latin and Greek ; that we acquire the power to reason\nabout any thing by reasoning about the class of things to which it belongs. But Professor\nHinsdale did not base his conclusions on genetic psychology.\nWhat kind of training do we need in order that we may be able to estimate things\nat their proper worth, to hate what we ought to hate and love what we ought to love ?\nPlato answered this question with almost ideal completeness. Bring children from their\nearliest years, he said in substance, in contact with the highest concrete ideals they are\ncapable of appreciating. Teach them to love nobleness, and bravery, and generosity, by\nteaching them to love noble, brave, and generous men. But Plato did not base his conclusions on genetic psychology.\nWhat can we do to train the wills of our pupils, to give them the power to do what\nthey have decided is wise? I think Professor James has gone as far as anyone else\ntoward answering this question. We must realize, he says in substance, the immense\ndifference between fine feelings and fine actions. We must constantly remember that\ngenerous feelings which do not stimulate their possessor to generous actions under appropriate circumstances leave their possessor less generous than they found him, that unselfish\naspirations which do not issue in unselfish conduct tend to weaken the will. But Professor\nJames did not base. his conclusions on genetic psychology.\n4. What light can genetic psychology throw on the question as to the proper methods\nof teaching ? I am not a Herbartian. I dissent radically from the Herbartian docttine\nof the will, and consequently from the Herbartian doctrine of interest. I believe that\nthe Herbartian doctrine : that all the studies in the school course may be made a means\nof revealing moral ideas, and consequently a means of moral training, is not only false,\nbut pernicious. I believe the doctrine of concentration, as many Herbartians explain it,\nis at war with the fundamental principles of psychology. But, nevertheless, I believe that\nthe main outlines of the Herbartian doctrine as to the steps or stages in the methods of\nteaching will stand the test of time. But Herbart did not base his conclusions as to\nmethod on genetic psychology.\n5. Will genetic psychology throw any light on the proper order in which studies\nshould be taken up? Undoubtedly. Altho the end of education must determine what\nis to be taught, the question as to when the various subjects we undertake to teach must\nbe taken up manifestly cannot be answered except by a study of children's capacities.\nGranted that there are things which a child must know in order to be educated : it is yet\nevident that the child cannot learn them until he has the capacity to learn them ; and\nthere is no a priori way of determining when this capacity will appear. Granted that\nthere is a certain training of his powers which a child must acquire in order to be educated : it is evident that there is no a priori way of determining when his faculties can\nbegin to be exercised, and how much, in order that this discipline may be the result.\nGranted that the child must acquire a certain training of his emotions, that he must come to\nloVe what is good, and hate what is bad, in order to be educated ; and granted, also, that\nhis training can only result from bringing his mind into contact with the noblest concrete\nideals he is capable of appreciating : it is evident that there is no a priori way of telling\nwhat are the noblest ideals he is capable of appreciating. Undoubtedly, the two great\nquestions for genetic psychology to answer are : (1) When shall we teach children the subjects they ought sometime to study ? and (2) How much time and energy can we safely ask\nchildren to give to this work?\nThis first conclusion is so nearly self-evident that it seems\n\n"}
{"page": 363, "printed_page": null, "text": "SupctinicndcnceJ\n\nCHILD-STUDY\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nSCIENCE\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\n353\n\nunnecessary to illustrate it. But a little consideration will convince us that, as a matter of\nfact, we are guided, and always have been, in our decisions as to when the subjects in our\ncourses of study shall be taken up by a sort of empirical genetic psychology. One superintendent would have technical grammar taken up in the fifth year, another in the sixth,\nanother in the seventh ; another would have it put off till the high school ; and these\ndifferences result from their different estimates of the time when the capacity to deal\nwith these subjects appears.\nWe find illustrations of the same truth when we recall the few valuable results of\nchild-study. In what way have the studies in this country and Europe as to the contents\nof children's mind been helpful ? By showing us what we can teach. What we successfully teach at any stage of a pupil's development must be brought into relation with what\na pupil already knows, and studies which help us to appreciate what a pupil knows help\nus to decide what we ought to try to teach him. Take, again, the studies of Barnes and\nWissen on children's interests. The former has shown that young children are interested\nmore in what objects can do, in what they are good for, than in what they are. What\ndoes this show? That it is these phases of objects to which we should call the attention\nof children in the early stages of their development, Wissen has shown that children\nvery soon forget the abstract moral essays which they read — essays in bravery, generosity,\nand the like — while they vividly remember stories embodying the same moral ideas,\nand like them becau.se they embody those ideas. The same kind of lesson emerges : We\nmust skip the moral essays, and teach the stories. PVom every point of view it is evident, then, that genetic psychology can render the so-called .science of education very\ngreat service in this field. If we have depended hitherto on a purely empirical knowledge of children for guidance in this direction, it must be evident that the more scientific\nwe make our knowledge, the more intelligently we shall be able to determine when our\npupils should take up the various subjects of study.\nAs to the service which genetic psychology can render in helping us to decide how\ngreat are the demands which we can safely make of children, illustration is surely\nunnecessary. All of us understand that the numerous studies of fatigue which have been\nundertaken in this country and Europe throw light on this important question, and that it\nis from such studies that we must get all the light upon it that we ever receive.\nSummarizing: (i) The question, What is the end of education ? must be answered\nby philosophy; (2) the question. What agencies should society employ to realize the ends\nof education ? must be answered by a study of comparative politics ; (3) the question,\nWhat subjects should be studied in order that the student may be educated ? must be\nanswered by general psychology; (4) the question, What methods shall be used in teaching\nthese subjects in order that they may be made to yield their educational fruit ? must also\nbe answered by general psychology; (s) and (6) the questions as to how much the student\ncan safely be required to do, and in what order he shall take up particular subjects, and\nhow long he shall pursue them, must be answered by genetic psychology.\nIf these conclusions are sound, they ought to be of value to two classes of students.\nOne class of students have become so disgusted by the vast amount of childish study which\nhas been perpetrated on an unoffending public under the name of child-study, by the\nserious and pompous announcement of new conclusions concerning children which have\nbeen known for thousands of years, and by the equally serious and pompous announcement of conclusions concerning children utterly destitute of significance for the science\nof education, that they are tempted to say that the entire movement in the direction of\nchild-study has no scientific basis, and can lead to no scientific results. If the conclusions\nreached in this- paper are sound, it is clear that there is a field, and a very important one,\nfor child-study; that questions which have a vital bearing on the business of education can\nbe answered by genetic psychology alone. .\nBut there is another class of students to whom our conclusions, if they are true, should\nbe no less suggestive.\nThis class of students have been so carried away by their enthusi-\n\n"}
{"page": 364, "printed_page": null, "text": "354\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chattanooga\n\nasm for child-study that they feel strongly inclined to elbow out of the educational field\neveryone who does not believe with them that child-study is the beginning and end of\nall scientific work in education. Are you engaged in the study of children ? these students are inclined to ask. Are you getting up questionnaires for children to answer ? If\nso, you are an original worker in the field of education. But if you are not, you are a\nquack and a pretender, and the sooner you get out of the educational field, the better.\nIf the conclusions reached in this paper are true, the attitude of this class of students is\nalso to be condemned. For great questions which have a vital bearing on the business\nof education cannot be answered by child-study.\nOur conclusions ought to be of value to this class of students from another point of\nview. Not everyone that says. Child-study ! Child-study ! shall enter into the kingdom\nof educational truth. Pile insignificant fact upon insignificant fact, and you bring not a\nsingle stone to the foundation of the science of education. Do you want a criterion to\ndistinguish between facts having a scientific value and facts utterly worthless from the\npoint of view of science ? Such a criterion is easily stated. If your facts help to answer\nquestions about children which could not be answered before, publish them by all means ;\nthey have a scientific value. But if your facts only tell an already twice or thrice told\ntale, in the name, and in behalf, of the overworked American teachers, I beg you, keep\nthem to yourselves.\n\nSOME\n\nCONTRIBUTIONS OF CHIID-STUDY\nSCIENCE OF EDUCATION\nBY\n\nREUBEN\n\nPOST\n\nHALLECK,\n\nLOUISVILLE,\n\nTO THE\n\nKY.\n\nSympathetic observation of children — in other words, rational childstudy — -has helped the science of education in certain important ways.\nChild-study has contributed little that is absolutely new, but it has\nemphasized certain truths which were only dimly known before, and it has\nemphasized them in such a way as to make them operative. There are\ntwo ways of knowing educational, as well as other, truths. We may know\na truth in a hazy manner, without acting on our knowledge. We hear\npeople assenting to truths every day, without acting on them. Lowell has\nrightly said : \" It is not the finding of a thing, but the making something of it after it is found, that is of consequence.\" A new definition\nof knowledge must be framed for the coming century. That must not\nbe called knowledge which has no outcome in action. Child-study has\npresented some old truths so definitely as to cause action in their direction. A perfect idea always has the motor element strongly developed.\nChild-study has quickened the blood in the old science of education\nby some welcome directions for developing what is potentially in the\nchild. Rational observation of children has shown some of their leading\npotential capacities, which have not had sufficient nurture under the older\neducation. If we have thru a study of children a clearer idea of their\npotential capacities, we can certainly educate the child more scientifically.\n\n"}
{"page": 365, "printed_page": null, "text": "SuperimendenceJ\n\nCONTRIBUTIONS\n\nOF CHILD-STUDY\n\nTO EDUCATION\n\n355\n\nFirst and foremost, child-study has shown that the strongest potential\ncapacity is the capacity for action. If teachers reply that it needed no\nprophetic child student to tell us this, the query must come sharp and\nquick : \" Has your teaching been such as to develop or to throttle this\ncapacity for action ? Have you trained children to become men of action\nin a world of ceaseless struggle, or have you endeavored to paralyze\ntheir love of action by feeding them almost exclusively on what Shakespeare has termed 'the alms-basket of words' ? There could have been\nno effective knowledge of these activities, unless they were ministered\nunto. The majority of teachers have today slight conception of this\ntruth. If you know and love your vocation, feed the activities of your\nlambs.\"\nRational observation of children has pointed out the fact that this\ncapacity for action takes chiefly the direction of imitation. One book of\n300 pages, on child observation, is given up to Imitation and Allied\nActivities. Before the end of the first year the child has begun to imitate the world around him. He is, consciously or unconsciously, trying\nby his own activities to create a copy of that world. Everyone who\ncomes within range of that child's senses is his keeper.\nImitative actions leave in the motor-nerv'e cells an impress or a neural\ntendency to reproduce the movements unconsciously. A child of twelve\nmonths recently imitated the opening and the closing of his father's hand.\nWhile the child was sleeping the following night, his hands opened and\nshut like his father's. Since the child was unconscious, these movements\nwere the result of a new material disposition in motor-nerve cells, which\ndischarged automatically in the direction of former activities. In other\nwords, actions effect a change in motor-nerve cells, and that change is the\nphysical basis of motor memory. Sleeping children have been noticed\nmoving their limbs, puckering their lips, and scowling, in imitation of\nparent or nurse. A permanent modification in the nerve cell is usually\nthe result of imitated actions, which will henceforth tend to become\nunconsciously persistent. This truth must be of worth in the science of\neducation. These truths ought to make us realize in a new light what is\nmeant by tying a child helplessly to his own past. If we have given the\nchild his fitting birthright, we have during his imitative period ingrained\nin his very nerve cells a tendency to habitual actions of the right kind.\nOnly such a child is ever enfranchised. He has the lower order of things\na matter of neural certainty.\nIn some respects this age has deteriorated in teaching, and some of\nthis deterioration is due to those who are ceaselessly crying, \" Parrot\nteaching.\" It is high time for someone to champion the parrot's place\nin nature, unless it can be shown that the Almighty or nature made a\nmistake in evolving the parrot and the imitative activities of children.\nParrot teaching has its place, just as much as teaching of a different order,\n\n"}
{"page": 366, "printed_page": null, "text": "356\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nLChattanooga\n\nand neither kind can take the place of the other. Since physiological psychology has shown us that repeated activities of the same- kind are\nnecessary in both motor and sensory cells to effect that stable material\ndisposition which is the physical basis of memory, repetition has held a\nhigher place in memory culture. It is a great comfort to have a brain\ncell retain something which we did not understand at the time, but which\nfuture years of thought make plain, if the memory has only retained the\nfact until the prime of thought. Many of the child's motor memories\nhave become stable before he can philosophize about movement, or even\nbefore he knows the mechanism of the muscles or how movement is produced. Luckily his lack of knowledge does not keep him from forming\nmany motor memories of the right kind, if he only has a good teacher to\nserve as a model. These memories will, be just as serviceable in future\ntime as if he understood them at the time of their acquisition.'\nChild-study has shown that the young child's most pronounced tendency is toward imitative action \\ in other words, toward parrot action.\nIn the face of these facts many teachers are gravely telling us that we\nmust not countenance nature in her mistakes. On what else can we base\nthe earlier education of the child than on his capacity for imitation ? If\nwe give the child good models at the start, we need at first care little for\nthe \"how\" or the \"why.\"\nHow any child student at all versed in neural laws can decry a large\namount of parrot teaching is simply inexplicable. When the child learns\nthe pronunciation of his own or of a foreign language, the more parrotlike he follows a perfect model, the better the result. Language is\nlargely arbitrary. A rose might as well have been called by some other\nname. Spelling is worse than arbitrary. Many results of the newer education have been of the uncertain, scattering type. There has been but\nlittle absolute neural certainty about the child's acquisitions. In these\nlater years I have witnessed the sowing of the seed for a crop of miserable\nspellers, and I have lived to see the crop reaped. Good spelling had in\nthe majority of cases required much parrot repetition, and, of course,\nthat would not do. A man brought up under the old method was told\nthat he had in an article misspelled the word \"embarrass.\" \"Have I ?\"\nhe asked of his younger informant. \"Confound old So and So! He told\nme he had grounded me so in spelling that I could never forget, that all\nI should have to do would be to write ahead without thinking of the\nspelling.\"\n\"Well, you have misspelled ' embarrass; ' you have put two r's in it,\"\nreplied the younger man.\n\"To tell the truth, I do not know whether the word has one r or\ntwo r's, but I supposed my fingers could attend to that while I was\nthinking what to write.\nLet us look up the word.\"\n'Halleck, Psychology and Psychic Culture, pp. 133, 143-5, 238.\n\n"}
{"page": 367, "printed_page": null, "text": "SupcrintendenceJ\n\nCONTRIBUTIONS\n\nOF\n\nCHILD-STUDY\n\nA dictionary was procured and\n\nthe word\n\nTO\n\nEDUCATION\n\nfound, when\n\n357\n\nthe elder\n\nexclaimed: \"Aha ! old Parrot So and So was right. Well, I'll continue to\nlet my fingers take care of the spelling, while my brain attends to the\nthought.\"\nThat old schoolmaster may not have known the technical name for\nmotor memory, but he did know better than to attempt to put frills and\nfurbelows on the garment of a child, while the garment itself was a thing\nof shreds and tatters, which barely hung together.\nThe only reason that I can see for decrying the development of the\nchild's imitative powers is because some teachers may think that this\ntraining, which merely lays the foundation, is the be all and the end all\nof teaching. A dwelling house is something more than the foundation,\nand education must build lofty stories of thought on these foundations of\nimitation, or they will be laid in vain.\nRational child . observation, coupled with the study of physiological\npsychology, has emphasized the fact that, since activity is one of the special characteristics of the child, he should have far more motor training\nthan is accorded him today. Nature, speaking thru the child, says,\n\"Act ! \" The pedagog growls, \" Keep still there ! \" Perhaps the majority\nof the education of today is comparatively of the quiescent type. Motor\neducation for the masses is in this country far behind what it was fifty\nyears ago. Only the favored few, the very few, have a small fraction of\nthe motor training which active life demands. Sensory education has\nmade vast strides of late, and altho this naturally leads to motor development, the motor factor is still systematically repressed.\nWe have in actual schools two forces directly intended to counteract\nmotor atrophy, the work in the kindergarten and in the manual training\nschool. The kindergarten keeps the child only a few years, but it does\nsome excellent motor work with him. After leaving the kindergarten,\nin the majority of cases, he gets no more training of this kind, except\nwhat he picks up in his plays and games. The manual-training school\nhas recently been established to supply this deficiency. The object is\naltogether a worthy one. Has it succeeded, or does the manual-training\nschool, like institutions of a different type, need changing in certain\npoints ? It must be understood that our attitude toward a school with\nsuch an object cannot possibly be antagonistic. Our attitude can be only\nthat of a kindly, correcting parent.\nWe have in this country a number of great technical institutions,\nwhich pre-eminently fit young men for action, whether in building bridges\nand railroads, in working mines, or in turning out and putting in position complex electrical machinery. A president of one of these great\ntechnical schools said to me not long since that, after having tried students prepared at a number of different manual-training schools, he\nmuch preferred the graduates of the English or classical high schools.\n\n"}
{"page": 368, "printed_page": null, "text": "358\n\nNATIONAL,\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\niChattanooga\n\nSuch a statement from a man whose duty it is to prepare men for action\ndemands attention. I do not know his personal reasons for this position,\nbut I do know that we cannot decry the right kind of motor training,\nunless we are prepared to hold that the child's strongest potential capacities exist on purpose to be repressed. Perhaps some light may be thrown\non that president's view, when we come to study the magnificent motor\ntraining which the majority of our great men of fifty years ago received\nin the greatest institution for motor training ever conceived.\nWhile up to a certain age nothing can take the place of the education\nof the imitative capacity, or parrot training, as some prefer to call it, yet\nsuch training, beyond a certain point, is certain to dwarf the individual.\nThe child early in life repeats myriad of his motor experiences. What\nhe needs as he grows older is to be taught how to combine these movements into new forms. Just as the same old metals, iron and steel, may\nbe combined into forms as dissimilar as a sewing machine and a fork, just\nso should the child's recurrent movements be combined in the most dissimilar ways.\nFifty years ago there was not the present crowding into cities. Men\nlike George Washington, Daniel Webster, and Abraham Lincoln had the\nmagnificent motor training of the farm. Our schools have not yet\nequaled the method of the farm. If there is one kind of training where\nparrot methods must not be employed after the beginning of adolescence,\nthat kind is motor training. If the boy, during that age, is tied down\nto drawings, patterns, and models made for him by another, the active\nside of his creative life will be nipped in the bud. There is nothing else\nso dwarfing as this type of motor education. The reason for this will be\nevident, if we consider what are the results in a growing brain of movements that are not recombined in varying ways. Of course, movements\nin hands, arms, and legs must be repeated to the end of life, like the\nletters of the alphabet. The only point to be insisted on is that, to have\nvalue, they must be combined in new forms.\nAn oft-repeated movement\n\nmakes, in the central nervous system, a path\n\neasily traversed.' This is only one result. An equally important one needs\nto be kept before us. Such a movement means not only a facile cerebral\npath in a given direction, but also a blocking of other paths in different\ndirections. There is positive neural resistance, increasing with advancing age, to the formation of new brain paths. Here is a reason why few\npersons get absolutely new ideas into their heads after thirty. An idea\nscarcely deserves to be called the shadow of an idea, unless it goes out in\naction, and there is strong neural resistance, after that age, to the combination of movements into new forms. It is hard work to teach an old\ndog new tricks.\nIn short, well-worn brain paths keep the current of action from find* Halleck, Education of the Central Nervous System, pp. 1 00, 1 01.\n\n"}
{"page": 369, "printed_page": null, "text": "SupcrimendcnceJ\n\nCONTRIBUTIONS\n\nOF CHILD\n\nSTUDY\n\nTO EDUCATION\n\n359\n\ning new outlets. In other words, habitual actions are powerful inhibitors of movements which do not tend in the same direction as the old.\nHence, youthful habits of the right kind should not be narrowed to one\nfield. They should be like good roads which open up a fertile country\nin every direction. Too much specialization in early youth can only\nhave bad cerebral results. A man may wish to use, in later life, chiefly\nthe muscles of his arms, but he had better not neglect the early development of his entire body.\n,\nOne of the inspectors of English workhouse schools, a type of school\nthat demands constant motor training, says : \" The most prominent\nfaults of workhouse boys, being rather of a negative than of a positive\ncharacter, as indolence, vacancy, stupidity, are such as would be most\nlikely cured by greater freedom of life.\" The intense specialization of\nthe present age is very dwarfing. Boys go into a factory early and spend\ntheir entire lives in making one part of one thing. They cannot help\nbeing narrow, stunted creatures. It has been found that certain factory\nhands do not improve in their output after thirty. At forty-five their\nproductive power has shown a decline of 20 per cent. If we could have\nbefore us an assemblage of men of Shakespeare's day, we should be\nstruck with the absence of over-specialized factory hands, those human\nautomatons of modern times.\nHow does the motor training of the farm differ from that of the\nschool ? The various combinations of movement demanded by farm life\nare almost innumerable. Let it be understood that such movements\nfurnish the best possible opportunity for training the powers of thought.\nI do not believe that children can be taught to think naturally in any\nother way than by movement. The child who does not think as he\nmoves will very soon meet with a painful accident, or be killed and\nremoved to make room for someone who does think as he moves. If a\nchild moves in many varied ways and survives, he cannot help thinking\nin many varied ways. If he moves in a few ways only, his alphabet of\nthinking will contain but few letters.\nOn the farm, varied motor combinations and thinking are in constant\nrequisition. The boy is called on to repair a fence with insufficient\nmaterials, to mend a wagon shaft on which a horse has stepped, to fix the\nharness on the road, to repair a horse rake or a mowing machine, to mend\na milk pail, build a hencoop, stop a leak around a chimney, build a wall\nout of irregular stone, keep the inclined doors of a cellar gangway in\nposition without support, drill holes, rivet things together, patch the roof.\nIt is a great advantage for the boy to have few tools, for he thereby learns\nhow to make ingenious shifts and new combinations of movements. A\nrule-and-line carpenter would be in despair if he had to fix things under\nthe disadvantages that confront the farmer's boy. The carpenter's training has often been so narrow that he must have everything just so, or he\n\n"}
{"page": 370, "printed_page": null, "text": "360\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chattanooga\n\nis helpless; for this reason the farmer will frequently not hire him. I\nonce watched the maneuvers of two boys, the one reared on a farm, the\nother trained in the schools. There was a small table, with two cleats\nnailed on the under side. A small piece had been planed off the ends\nof the cleats so as to hold a yardstick just out of sight under the table.\nThe ends of the cleats had swelled so that the space was too narrow for\nthe purpose. The schoolboy got a rasp, but the space was not wide\nenough to admit it. He then fried his jack-knife, but the grain of the\nwood ran diagonally across the cleat, so that the knife was making matters worse. He seemed nonplused, but the farmer's boy, who had been\nquietly watching the operation, picked up a piece of oak board, which he\nwhittled down, so that considerable pressure was required to shove it\nbetween the edge of the cleat and the table. He then took a handsaw\nand began to saw between the wedge and the cleat. Since the wedge\nwas the harder, the saw cut away the cleat. After a few trials, the farmer's\nboy had the space exactly right for receiving the yardstick. He had\ncombined the wedge, the cleat, and the saw in a new way. No demonstration of a stationary geometrical proposition could have trained his\nthinking powers half so well. No repetition of movements, planned for\nhim by another, could have made him a self-reliant thinker. The thinking which does not avail when one is confronted by a new and untried\nemergency is of little worth.\nI have often thought how Washington and Lincoln learned, in the\nconstantly recurring emergencies of farm life, to face new problems and\nto solve them. I hope to live long enough into the next century to\nhear it cry shame on any instructor who tries to teach children to think\nby divorcing them from their most pronounced characteristic, movement.\nNo thought without movement, will some day become the watchword of\nthe teacher of children. It is the head, the thinking power, that guides\nthese new combinations of movement. Close attention is requisite for\nthinking. The child finds little trouble in centering his attention on anything that moves. He is naturally more interested in his own movements, in those of other people, of animals, and of things, than in\nanything else. Unnatural attempts to think can only make a child's life\nwretched. Education today needs to turn its attention toward the\nmotor-thought training of children, until they have reached a sufficient\nage so that they can more naturally attend to subjective ideas. Introspection should not be a marked feature of childish life, because its\nmind contains but little, and it should be busy in learning the objective world.\nFortunately, the majority of children have much valuable motor training in their games. The English have long prided themselves on this\nfeature of their education. A recent English psychologist says: \"What\nour national games have done for the English race it is difficult to over\n\n"}
{"page": 371, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence!\n\nestimate\n\nCONTKIBUTIONS\n\nOF CHILD-STUDY\n\nTO EDUCATION\n\n361\n\nThe playing fields are the finest schools of organized\n\ncoroperation in the world.\"\nI know of no better way to eliminate thoughtlessness, or the thoughtless person, than to set him to \"moving. Scratches, bruises, and falls are\npowerful cultivators of thought. Movement means pain or death to the\nthoughtless. What stronger incentive to think can be given to children\nthan to make them move ? Since their most pronounced characteristic\nis movement, it is time that teachers utilized it more widely in training\nchildren to think. Verily, in spite of child-study, the adult still loves to\neducate them in the most unnatural way. Let it not be forgotten that\nhumanity, in its wonderful march from barbarism to civilization, was\ntaught chiefly in the school of movement.\nObservation of children has certainly contributed to the science of\neducation something in regard to the teaching of morality. Such\nobservation has shown that those who try to teach morality by mere word\nof mouth waste their efforts. Morality deals only with certain types of\naction. Where there is no action, there can be no morality. If the\nchild cannot interpret moral lectures in terms of its own actions, the\nlectures might as well be given in a foreign tongue. The old type of\nSunday-school book preached a good system of ethics, but it was without\nmuch result in moral action. If I might briefly define four-fifths of all\nthe morality now taught in schools, I should say that this school morality\nconsisted in the eternal negation of action. Being good consists chiefly\nin not being bad. By parity of reasoning we may define boiling water\nas water which is not cold. How many teachers show children how to be\nmoral on the active side and lead the way?\nIf a part of those well-meaning teachers who show the industry of\nthe magpie in making collections of heterogeneous facts about children\nwould study the history of the race in its development from barbarism to\ncivilization, the science of education would be the gainer. Before we can\nintelligently train the morals of children, we must understand how the\nconscience of primitive peoples was developed and educated. They were\nlike children, thinking that wrong was right at one time. What class of\nexperiences changed these views ? We shall find that movement and its\nconsequences have ever preached to savage and to child a more powerful\nethical sermon than mere words. I hope at some future meeting of this\nbody to have the luxury of listening to a paper entitled, \" Factors in the\nDevelopment of the Moral Sense of Primitive People and Their Application in the Ethical Training of the Child.\"\nMany teachers have already learned that to heap together a mass of\nsoulless statistics about children is not to study the child. However useful a reasonable number of observations may be, the one who rests content with them will always find a Rubicon between himself and the soul\nof the child.\nStatistics afford a vantage ground for studying children.\n\n"}
{"page": 372, "printed_page": null, "text": "3^2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chattanooga\n\nbut there is a great gulf fixed between the statistics of the subject and\nthat loving knowledge of child nature which can be born of sympathy\nalone. Without this sympathetic atmosphere, the science of education\nwill beat its wings helplessly in a vacuum.\n\nDISCUSSION\nProfessor Charles O. Hoyt, director of Training School, Michigan State Normal\nSchool, Ypsilanti, Mich. — Two distinct studies, involving two quite different methods, will,\neach in its own way, lead to results that, appearing in opposition to each other, may eventually join in one ultimate end in education. By the study of children in aggregates, in\nmasses, or in groups, much has been, and is being, contributed to psychology. The psychologist has reaped this great benefit, but for the common-school teacher as yet there has\nbeen but little participation in the valuable gains to this science. It may be inferred,\nhowever, that in time these and many other, and perhaps more valuable, discoveries will\ncontribute materially to the science of education. Thru a study of the single child in\nhis individuality, which is inherited, and in his personality, which is acquired, it is thought\nby some that the greatest immediate additions may be anticipated.\nWhen the common-school teacher understands each individual child better, then\nthere will be an adaptation of materially modified principles in the development of that\nnature, instead of an attempt being made to adapt the being to a few cast-iron metaphysical deductions — relics of the philosophic lore of a former age. If the whole educational\nmachinery exists for the child, and he stands at the very center of such a system, and if\nhe, thru the acquirement of new experiences by means of old ones, does for himself\nthat which may contribute toward effecting a change in himself, his fellows, and his surroundings, inproportion as teacher or parent grows into an appreciation of his powers,\nthen everything in educational theory must be tested by reference to the living child in\nthe schoolroom by the ones in daily contact with him, and not by the scientist in his\nlaboratory.\nAdmitting that much good has come to children as a result of our study of them, it\nis equally true that teachers as well have been greatly benefited and strengthened for\nthis work, and thus have become strong agencies in effecting changes in the means\nemployed in education.\nGiven a teacher equipped academically and professionally, imbue her with a spirit of\ninvestigation and a desire to observe children's ways, and she becomes a controlling\nfactor — a power in any school system ; she may disregard some educational principles\nwhich she may have learned, but never understood, but thru this close, personal touch\nwith child life a spirit has manifested itself and tempers the atmosphere of the entire\nschool. It reaches each child because she understands him. She may dare to disregard\nthe logical arrangement of the manufactured course of study, but she teaches well nevertheles . Itis altogether possible that in the selection and presentation of the subject-matter she displayed originality and departed from the philosophical, and even the accepted\npsychological, law, and yet supplied their needs as she found them, in spite of her nonconformity tofixed principles. She taught her boys and girls well withal. But we contend,\nto permit such freedom and originality would produce anarchy and wreck the system.\nGiven thousands of such teachers working with the same spirit, being untrammeled and\nfree, and a new system will come — a system that will bring with it new principles and\nnew laws, formulated, in the one instance, by the expert from the standpoint of science.\n\n"}
{"page": 373, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence J\n\nCONTRIBUTIONS\n\nOF CHILD-STUDY\n\nTO EDUCATION\n\n363\n\nbut tested and modified by the laborer from the standpoint of the child. We must not\nminimize the great work of our leaders in their studies of children in the aggregate, but\nall workers, from the kindergarten to the university, should lend all needed assistance in\ntheir study — extensive in its character. On the other hand, to the common-school teacher,\nwho is with the children day by day, month by month, and year by year, there is need\nof encouragement in a line of study that is intensive in its character.\nShe cannot do this alone. There is need of help, direction, and inspiration ; and\nwhile little that possesses large scientific value may be deduced from her investigations, it\nmay be a means of preparation for the uniting of principles and methods later on. This\nwill, in the end, result in a change, the exact character of which cannot, in the light of\ninvestigations already made, be determined.\nTwo forces appear that may serve as agencies in assisting and encouraging the\ngrade teacher to study the child — the individual, the exceptional — as she sees him from\nday to day.\nWe find the teacher already in service and the teacher who is being trained for the\nwork. With the first the supervisor in city, village, or district may do much to inaugurate\nsuch a line of study and observation. On the other hand, the work of training students in\nthe practice schools of normals may carry with it that which will fit the teacher to do this.\nNeither superintendent nor teacher can find time for the collection of data that possess not a single feature of immediate practical value ; and if they could, the chances are\nthat either would manifest but little interest in such investigations. But has it not been\nshown that it is possible to do a work of such a character that there is a study, first, of\nindividual children in each room, and so on, until all were fairly well understood ? Their\norganisms and conditions and needs being somewhat thoroly mastered, few facts that\nwould be of value to the specialist were recorded ; no tabulation of results attempted ;\nperhaps nothing new discovered ; but, best of all, for teacher and pupil alike, a new spirit\nhas been given the entire school. The first steps have been made in the preparation for\nthe reception and assimilation of new principles, or new methods, as the outgrowth of\nnew laws.\nSchool and home will not be so widely separated in the future as they have been in\nthe past. Thru a union of the interests of teacher and parent, by means of frequent\nconferences, still another force has been at work, a force by no means of inconsiderable\nimportance.\nA large part of the work in our normal schools is professional in its character.\nSome few of the students to be found there have had a limited teaching experience ; but\nof all students but a very small number have any knowledge of systematic child life,\nand fewer are in sympathy with the same or appreciate the needs of the child, because they\ndo not know them. Too often their psychology has been a mass of philosophical abstractions drawn from books rather than from the study of the living, active child. Educational principles, it is true, have been learned, method has been accepted, all has been\nreasoned out, theorized upon, or taken for granted. In the practice school they come in\ncontact with a living organism, concerning which all that has gone before seems of little\nvalue in their estimation. The ideal comes in contact with the real, and may be utilized\nfor a definite and distinctive purpose. It may not be found impossible, at this stage of\nthe course, to incorporate in the work of the training school such an intelligent observation and study of children that in all of their future teaching these student teachers may\ncarry into the schools a spirit of liberal investigation and fruitful observation of children\nthat will supplement the work of the superintendent. Teachers will be led to succeed\nwhere otherwise they might have failed. The schools will be made better, and certainly\nthe children benefited.\nIn this way, and along these lines, one may justly inquire : Is it not possible for childstudy to contribute to the science of education, and, by so doing, assist in the solution of\nsome of the great questions that are perplexing educators everywhere ?\n\n"}
{"page": 374, "printed_page": null, "text": "3^4\n\nTHE\n\nNATIONAL\n\nLIGHTING\n\nBY\n\nDR.\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nAND\n\nW.\n\nA.\n\nSEATING\n\nMOWRY,\n\nHYDE\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chattanooga\n\nOF SCHOOLROOMS\n\nPARK,\n\nMASS.\n\nLocal school superintendents have great responsibilities upon their\nshoulders. Perhaps they are oftener guilty of sins of omission than of\ncommission. Possibly no officers in the world, outside of military lines,\nought to be more independent or freer to carry out the ideas which their\nown experience, study, and judgment dictate than they. Yet, is it not\ntrue that they are very generally \"cribbed, cabined,\" and controlled by\nofficials who have little knowledge of what ought to be done, and yet\nhave full power to do, or not to do, as they please ? In many cases even\npublic opinion has but little influence, while full authority is centered in\ncertain men who are privileged to exercise it for a brief space, and who\nare quite apt to make the most of their opportunities.\nFew subjects connected with the management of the schools afe of\ngreater importance than the hygiene of the schoolroom. The scope of\nthis paper is limited to the two topics of lighting and seating. I desire\nto call your attention briefly to the matter of lighting schoolrooms, and\nbeg to be permitted to speak a little more at length upon the other\ntopic — that of desks and chairs suitable for the carrying on of school\nwork to the best advantage.\nLIGHTING\n\nVery little attention has generally been given in this country to the\nproper Ijghting of schoolrooms. Too often the children sit directly in\nthe glaring sunlight, sometimes facing it, as it pours thru the windows,\ndestitute of shutters, blinds, or curtains. Still oftener the teacher must\nsit at his desk, facing windows located behind the pupils. The windows\nof a schoolhouse are generally placed here and there by the architect or\nthe carpenter, according to his notion of what will look well from the\noutside. It is to be feared that in many communities very little attention\nis given to the proper amount of light which is required for the schoolroom, or how it should be arranged to the best advantage.\nCultivated society has its drawbacks. Certain evils are incident to the\nconditions of modern civilization. Germany found long ago that the\neyesight of the children was suffering from the conditions incident to\nschoolroom study. That country was compelled to take measures to bring\nabout a more intelligent attention to the lighting of her schoolhouses.\nThe conditions in America are more favorable than in Germany. We\nhave less dull, dark, and cloudy weather, and hence a greater quantity of\nlight.\nThe eyesight of our children ought to be good, and will be if\n\n"}
{"page": 375, "printed_page": null, "text": "SupcrintendenceJ\n\nLIGHTING\n\nAND\n\nSEATING\n\nOF SCHOOLROOMS\n\n365\n\nproper attention is given to this subject. It is, however, the general complaint that long-continued study in school or college injures the eyesight.\nThis need not be and ought not to be ; moreover, it will not be if superintendents and others directly Concerned will do their duty.\nI have in mind a private school for boys between the ages of ten and\ntwenty years. A new schoolhouse was built, with due regard to the\nproper conditions of lighting. There were in the school from 200 to 250\nboys. An eminent oculist made a record of the condition of the eyes of\nthese pupils. Two years later he again examined the eyes of all then\nremaining who were in the school at the former examination. Two\nyears after that he made a third examination. Here was an intervening\nperiod of four years, and this record showed that, with the exception of\na few cases of astigmatism, the eyes of these boys were universally in better condition than at the beginning of this period.\nStill further he found that where astigmatism existed — which generally increases at the age of these youth — its increase had been less than\nis usually found to be the case. These experiments showed clearly that,\nwith a large number of youth under proper hygienic conditions, the eyesight may be improved, altho the attention of the pupils is steadily and\npersistently confined to text-books. In this case, perhaps, one-half of\nthe boys were pursuing the study of Latin, and many of them also Greek.\nNow, what were the conditions which produced this favorable result ?\n1. The light was admitted only from one side of the schoolroom, and\nthat at the left side of the pupils as they were seated.\n2. The quantity of the window glass was 10 per cent, of the surface\nof the floor. Many claim that the best conditions require a larger\namount of glass than this. From wide experience and observation, I am\nquite inclined to think that pupils sometimes suffer from too much light,\nas well as in other cases from too little. In my opinion 10 per cent, of\nthe surface of the floor is about the right amount for window space.\n3. These windows were long and high. The schoolroom was thirteen\nfeet studded. The windows were nine feet in length and the windowsills three feet from the floor. This arrangement of windows made the\nlight far more effective. The schoolroom was forty feet in length —\nmeasuring the wall into which the windows were inserted — and was thirty\nfeet in width, so that no scholar sat farther than twenty-seven feet from\nthe window.\n4. There was an entire absence of swiveled blinds. Such blinds are\nvery detrimental to the eyesight. They cannot be made so as to shut out\nall of the sunlight,- and the light, being admitted thru these cracks,\ncrevices, interstices, between the slats, is painful and exceedingly injurious to the eyes. The windows had semi-opaque curtains of a drab or\nstraw color, which, when drawn, shut out entirely the direct glare of the\nsun, but admitted sufficient light for purposes of study.\n\n"}
{"page": 376, "printed_page": null, "text": "366\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chattanooga\n\n5. To these conditions of light were added proper heating, efficient\nventilation, and an abundance of pure air. Twenty-five square feet of\nflooring was allowed for each school seat. That is, the floor contained\n1,200 square feet, and the room had forty-eight seats. These conditions\nof a healthy atmosphere so directly affect the nerves and the mental\nstatus of the pupils as to produce no little influence upon the action of\nthe delicate optic nerve.\nMind and body react upon each other. Healthy, vigorous, successful\nstudy, mental acquirement and mental development, are exceedingly difficult in an overheated atmosphere of impure, vitiated air, and, may I\nadd, with a nervous, irritable teacher presiding over the room. Moreover, this nervous, irritable condition of the teacher is very often\ndirectly induced by the foul atmosphere of the room, which, by a normal\nand healthful condition, might perhaps be entirely avoided.\nOur country is full of old schoolhouses, badly constructed, on wrong\nprinciples, with very little attention to proper rules for lighting and\nheating. In such cases not much improvement can be made. But, I\nsubmit to you, superintendents, that it is your sacred duty, from which\nyou cannot exempt yourselves, when new schoolhouses within your jurisdiction are to be erected, to insist with all your power and influence that\nproper attention be paid, by the architect and the building committee, to\nthis important matter of furnishing to the pupils — the youth who in the\nnext generation are to have charge of all the affairs of this country — a\nproper amount of God's sunlight, which he has so generously distributed\neverywhere with such profusion ; so that these innocent children be not\ndeprived of this essential element of health and happiness in life, and\ntheir ability be not dwarfed to do good service to the communities in\nwhich their lives are to be passed.\nSCHOOL\n\nSEATS\n\nAND\n\nDESKS\n\nWe come now to take up the second division of our subject : What is\nthe proper method of seating the pupils in school, and what is the proper\ndesk which they shall use in their work ? I feel sure that few persons who\nhave carefully examined this subject will object to my statement that this\nis not only one of the most important, but also one of the most difficult,\nquestions that we can discuss in connection with our whole school\nsystem.\nIn some respects and in some directions great improvements have\nbeen made within fifty years past in the style and construction of school\ndesks and seats. But, if I am not mistaken, the problem has not yet been\nsolved. We have now cherry desks, where we formerly had them made of\npine. We have now chairs with a hard wooden seat and a back, where\nwe used to have an oak plank for a seat without a back. But, altho our\nmodern desks and chairs look much better than did those in use half a\n\n"}
{"page": 377, "printed_page": null, "text": "SupenniendenceJ\n\nLIGHTING\n\nAND\n\nSEATING\n\nOF SCHOOLROOMS\n\n367\n\ncentury ago, and while they may be somewhat more comfortable, yet the\nmain problem remains as unsolved today as it did in the boyhood of the\noldest gentleman present. We have not yet invented a proper schoolroom\nchair, and nobody yet knows how to make a school desk.\nIn the old times a shoemaker sat upon a bench, hard at work with his\nhands and arms from morning till night. His seat was a hole in a pine\nboard, covered with soft, flexible leather. That is hardly an ideal seat,\nbut I have never seen a schoolroom chair half as comfortable as the seat\nof a shoemaker's bench. I hope some genius in this great pedagogical\nprofession, some skilled mechanic, some gifted inventor, some Sir\nHumphrey Davy, or Eli Whitney, or Professor Morse, or some wizard\nlike Edison, will yet invent a decent, comfortable, hygienic school chair.\nWhen it is done we will all take off our hats to the inventor. We will\npetition the government at Washington to grant him a patent, and if he\nshould secure a moderate royalty from the manufacturers and live after\nhis invention one-half the allotted age of man, he will die a multi-millionaire. I have, however, very little faith that any of us will live long\nenough to see the invention of a school chair which shall fulfill all the\nnecessities of the case. I, therefore, propose to dismiss this part of the\nsubject, not in disgust, but really in despair, thereby running the risk of\nacquiring the reputation of being a pessimist. I am, however, very sure\nthat nobody can call me a pessimist on any other subject than this\nmatter of a model school chair.\nLet us, then, approach the subject of the school desk and see what difficulties we shall find there. First of all, the desk should not consist of\na horizontal plane, but should have a proper slant. Well, so did the desk\nin the schoolhouse where I first attended school, and that was before most\nof you were born. In the next place, the desk should have a lid fastened\nby hinges, and below it a good-sized box in which to keep the books and\npapers of the pupil. But, again, the desk in the schoolhouse where I\nwent when I was five years of age was constructed after this fashion.\nBut we have made within a few years past one grand improvement.\nWe now have adjustable desks and chairs, and, without fear of contradiction, Imaintain that it is the duty of every superintendent in the wide\nland, when new desks and seats are purchased, to insist on having adjustable desks and seats, and no others.\nThis duty surely you ought to attend to. The superintendent cannot\ninnocently shirk his responsibility in this respect. I repeat, he should\ninsist on adjustable desks and seats whenever new furniture is to be purchased for any schoolroom. This, however, goes but a short distance\ncompared with what is absolutely needed and is of the greatest importance.\nThis adjustability is yet only in one direction. It is a beginning, but\nI fear the end is far distant.\nThe adjustable desk and seat today have\n\n"}
{"page": 378, "printed_page": null, "text": "368\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chattanooga\n\nreference principally to the proper height from the floor. You remember\nthe story of some members of Lincoln's cabinet. They had discussed at\nconsiderable length, but without coming to a conclusion, the important\nquestion how long a man's legs ought to be. They finally referred the\nmatter to Mr. Lincoln as one competent to judge. It is said that the\npresident expressed gratification that they had brought the question to\nhim. He said that he had given a good deal of attention to it, being\nsomewhat interested personally. They asked him if he had come to a\ndecision about it, and he answered, \" Yes,\" he had. They then inquired\nhow long a man's legs should be. Lincoln said : \"A man's legs should\nbe just long enough to reach the ground.\" Now, we agree with Mr. Lincoln upon that point. A child's chair should be just high enough for\nhis feet to rest easily on the floor, and the desk should be of such a height\nas to allow the forearm to rest upon it in a comfortable position for\nwriting. Here is the advantage of the adjustable desk. But, good\nfriends, adjustability should go much farther than that. The school desk\nis for a double purpose, and the one purpose seems to be inconsistent\nwith the other. The school desk should be adapted to study as well as to\nwriting.\nWe have today adjustable desks that are proper and convenient for\nthe exercise of writing. The child may sit in a normal position, with his\npaper befqre him upon the desk ; his right hand may hold the pen, and\nhe may write in his copy-book, either vertically or on the slant, with comfort, ease, naturalness. So far we have succeeded. The trouble, however, comes when we ask that boy to take up his book and study his\nlesson, sitting at the same desk. Now a new problem confronts us. The\ndesk should be so constructed that the book shall be held by it at a\nproper height, the right slant, and the correct distance from the eye.\nThe seat must compel the child to sit upright, in a normal and healthful\nposition. And then, if the desk can fulfill the conditions just named,\nholding the book for the child at a proper distance frorn the eye, and not\nallowing him to bring it too near the eye or to carry it too far off, as is\nso often the case when the child holds it in his hand; if, also, this desk\nholds the book with its page perpendicular to the line of vision — then you\nwill have a desk that can properly be used for study in the schoolroom.\nUntil this is achieved, our school furniture is at fault, and we are unable\nto solve this important problem.\nAs I design this paper to be practical and not theoretical, I have ventured to call your attention only to some of the more apparent difficulties\nconnected with school seating, as I have encountered them in my own\nexperience. Following this idea, \\ will ask your attention to one more\npoint of difficulty, and it is gratifying to me to say that in this you can\nattain entire success.\nI refer to the proper distance between the back of the seat and the\n\n"}
{"page": 379, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nLIGHTING\n\nAND\n\nSEATING\n\nOF SCHOOLROOMS\n\n369\n\ndesk. I greatly fear that, as simple as this problem is, many of us have\nnot yet solved it. If you will merely turn your attention to the case, there\nis no diifficulty in easily securing the needed improvement. Everywhere\nI go, thruout the country, north and south, from Maine to Puget Sound\nor the Golden Gate, the little pocket rule, twelve inches in length, which\nI always carry with me is whipped out, and the distance between the back\nof the chair and the front edge of the desk is measured. I am frank to\nsay to you that it is an exception when I find this distance to be correct.\nThe problem is so simple that I need only to state it to you and give\nwhat I have found from my own experience to be the proper distance.\nFor children in the lowest primary the distance between the back of the\nchair and the edge of the desk should be not over nitie inches. Yet I\noften find it twelve, fourteen, and sixteen inches. The consequence is,\nthe child either sits on the front edge of his seat in order to use the desk\nbefore him, or he sits back against the back of his chair in an unnatural,\nconstrained position, calculated to produce spinal curvature. Between\nthe primary school and the higher grades of the grammar school this distance should vary only from nine inches to twelve. Twelve inches' space\nis enough for grammar-school pupils, and it is seldom in the high-school\ngrades that any stout pupil will need more than thirteen inches' space\nbetween the chair and the desk. Quite lately a chair has been invented\nwhich has a horizontal adjustment to remedy this defect. It, therefore,\nonly needs knowledge and attention to make this distance what it ought\nto be.\nI most earnestly ask that, as superintendents, whose duty it is to attend\nto these important affairs, you make whatever changes you find needful in\nthe schoolrooms under your care in this respect. In this brief paper I\nhave discussed in a practical, offhand way only three points relating to\nschoolroom hygiene — the light, the seat, and the desk. My experience,\nhowever, tells me two things : first, that these points are of great importance, and, second, that they are almost universally neglected. I wish it\nwere in my power to hold the superintendents of this country responsible\nfor the introduction of the best school furniture and the proper adjustment of the same to the wants of the pupils. Could that be done, a\nstrong impetus would be given to the cause of education, and far greater\nresults would be accomplished than in the past.\n\nDISCUSSION\nV. Louis Soldan, superintendent of schools, St. Louis, Mo. — It is difficult to\ndiscuss, with any degree of definiteness, the clear principles laid down in the paper\njust read, because there is an honest difference of opinion respecting some of the\n\n"}
{"page": 380, "printed_page": null, "text": "37°\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n,\n\n[Chattanooga\n^—\n\nleading propositions in regard to school hygiene. In presenting candidly some of\nthe points of difference, among the man}' points of agreement, with the paper, I desire to\nhave it understood that I do not claim for the views to be advanced any. weight as\ncompared with the views expressed in the paper, except what your approval or disapproval will give to the relative views. It may be that in some of the points of difference\nthe writer of the paper is right, and the authorities to be quoted are wrong. A large\nnumber of the propositions concerning school hygiene will form debatable ground.\nIn regard to the lighting of schoolrooms, the great authority on the hygiene of the\neyes of school children. Dr. Cohn, of Breslau, says pointedly that there can never be too\nmuch light in the schoolroom. The meaning of this phrase is evidently not that there\nmay not be at times too much light for the children's eyes, but it must mean that it is\neasy, when a schoolroom has sufficient window space, to prevent the excess of light by\nblinds or curtains, while it is not true, vice versa, that, when there is insufficient window\narea, light can be supplied in other ways. A superabundance of window space will do\nno harm, since it is easy to shut out some of the light ; a lack of window space is absolutely objectionable.\nMany things depend on sufficient lighting, as, for instance, the preservation of the\neyes, the correct posture of the body, which is impossible if the child has to turn toward\nor away from the source of light in order to see the book or letters. But there are other,\nless evident, but equally important, points to be remembered in connection with the\nlighting of schoolrooms. A sufficient amount of light arrests the development of bacterise ; it facilitates cleaning, and renders it easy to detect derelictions of janitors.\nNo absolute statement can be made in regard to the extent of window surface in\nproportion to floor space, since varying conditions, such as the width of the street, the\nheight of the houses across the way, the direction of the windows, modify every rule that\ncan be laid down. The Commission de I'hygiene scolaire (1882) demanded that the\nwindows should be so placed that from the last seat in the room the child can still see\nperhaps thirty centimeters of the sky.\nThe most radical demand in regard to the relation between window space and floor\nspace seems to be that the former should be at least one-fourth of the latter, and that,\nmoreover, the pupils most remote from the window should be able to see the sky. The\nmost reliable tests, however, are the photometric tests, taken in each room, and for which\napparatus is now being introduced by government inspectors of European schools.\nWhile one-fourth of the floor space devoted to window space represents an ideal condition, which I believe can be but rarely complied with, one-fifth or one-sixth should be\nthe minimum window space. I cannot recall any authority which approves of a wmdow\narea as small as one-tenth of the entire floor space. New inventions, howevef, are being\nmade that may possibly change considerably the figures given before. I refer to the\nso-called prismatic glass that has been placed on the market of late, and which is said to\nthrow light from the windows into the room a much greater distance than the ordinary\nglass.\nLocation of windows. — The windows should be located at the left of the children.\nIf they are located in the front of the room, they blind the children ; if in the back of the\nroom, they blind the teacher. Moreover, if in the back of the room, they cast a shadow\non the books in front of the children. On the other hand, windows at the back, located\nhigh above the floor, facilitate blackboard inspection in the front of the room. Windows\nat the right would throw the shadow of the hand on the letters which the child is writing.\nTo have windows both at the left and at the right would be serviceable, for the purposes\nof ventilation, and for the cleaning of the buildings, but the double shadows cast by\nobjects are not good for the eye, and, therefore, the light from one side at least must\nordinarily be closed out by blinds.\nIf there are windows on one side only, the wall space between the windows should\nbe as narrow as good construction can make it. In the Dutch schools one and one-half\n\n"}
{"page": 381, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence J\n\nVENTILATION\n\nOF SCHOOLROOMS\n\nfeet between the windows is the maximum.\n\n37 r\n\nThe best construction would be iron or steel\n\nconstruction, so that the windows have above them an iron girder which, supported by\nthe iron posts between the windows, will in turn support the masonry above. In this way\nthe whole side of the room can be filled. with windows. The top of the windows should\nbe as high as it can possibly be placed. The light from the top is the most useful for\nthe children sitting far away, and the arched top of windows is, therefore, objectionable.\nThis construction diminishes the amount of the most important portion of the light. For\nsimilar reasons, the placing of flowers on the window sill is open to considerable objection. Itmay diminish the amount of light considerably.\nThe window panes should be of large size, to reduce the woodwork which obstructs\nthe light to the smallest possible quantity. The beveling of the outside walls where they\nbound the window frame will help to admit additional light.\nThe glass itself absorbs much of the light, and transmits but a fraction. A double\npane of plate glass will absorb 21 per cent, of the light, matt glass 27 per cent., that\nwhich is called cathedral glass 12% per cent. It is clear, from the fact that glass does\nnot allow all the light to penetrate it, that the best and clearest glass should be used for\nwindow purposes. It shows, moreover, the necessity of the regular and frequent cleaning\nof windows.\nWindow blinds should not be of dark material, because even white blinds absorb 87\nper cent, of the light.\n\nVENTILATION\nBY\n\nASSISTANT\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF SCHOOLROOMS\nA. P. MARBLE,\n\nNEW\n\nYORK\n\nCITY\n\nHon. Yung Wing, a Chinese diplomat long resident in the United\nStates, was educated in this country and graduated at Yale. He once\nsaid to his old teacher, Mr. Hammond, of Monson Academy, Mass.,\nthat it would have saved his countrymen untold millions of money if\nthey had understood the principle of the draft in chimneys; they had\nalways built fires on open hearths and braziers. In health and comfort,\nif not in money, an equal amount would be saved in this country if\neverybody iinderstood the simple principles of ventilation.\nIn ventilating a schoolroom, the problem is to supply for every pupil\nabout thirty cubic feet of pure air per minute, at about 70 degrees\nFahrenheit in winter, without producing drafts. And the conditions of\nthe problem are various : between the North and the South ; in summer\nand in winter; on the windy prairie and in the shelter of the hills; in the\ncity and in the rural district. The principle is the same in each case ;\nthe application of that principle must be modified to suit the various\nconditions.\nIn the schoolrooms of this country every known variety of ventilating\napparatus may be found, from nothing except the doors and windows, to\nsystems so elaborate and complex that the air itself seems to become confused among the labyrinthine flues, and ducts, and passages. It is not\nto be expected that every teacher will understand all these ; but every\n\n"}
{"page": 382, "printed_page": null, "text": "372\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\ntChattanooga\n\nteacher should learn at once the provision made for ventilating the\nschoolroom that he occupies. On inquiring the purpose of a particular\nregister or flue in the walls of the schoolroom, we frequently hear the\nteacher say that it is designed for either the ingress or the egress of\neither fresh air or foul, warm air or cold — he doesn't know which; and\nthis answer represents the acquaintance of a majority of the teachers with\nthe means of ventilation in their own schoolrooms. They know as little\nabout it as the Chinese knew about chimneys.\nIn recognition of this prevailing ignorance, automatic regulators of\nheat and ventilation have been provided in some schoolrooms at great\nexpense ; but the thermostat, tho useful, can never take the place of\nan intelligent teacher. As the first step, therefore, in improving the\nventilation of schoolrooms from one end of the country to the other, my\nfirst proposition is this : Three pieces of ribbon half an inch wide and a\nquarter of a yard long (for patriotic reasons, red, white, and blue) should\nbe tacked above every hole in the wall, above every window and every\ntransom, thru which the air may pass either outward or inward. By\nthis simple device the teacher may see at a glance what is going on. He\nmay not know what the various registers, flues, and ducts are meant\nto accomplish, but he can know what they actually do ; and in the absence\nof the ribbons he may paste up narrow strips of tissue paper — just\nas good as long as they last. This simple expedient is far more\nvaluable than it may at first appear. It constantly calls the attention of both teacher and pupils to the motion of the air; it is a protection from drafts; above all, it daily invites to a study of the schoolroom air.\nMy second proposition is that the heating and ventilation of\nschoolrooms should be a required study in every normal school and a\nsubject of examination for teachers. As said above, teachers generally\nknow but very little about the means employed to ventilate their rooms,\nhow it is intended to operate, or whether it works at all. And why\nshould they know when they have never been taught, nor had any particular chance to learn ?\nThe movements of the atmosphere are as interesting as the study of\nthe motions of Saturn or the moon, and far more practically useful. As\nbetween astronomy and aerology in a normal school, let us have aerology.\nNotice the particles of dust, or a wreath of smoke, seen in the sunbeam\nas it enters a partially darkened room. At the flight of a fly the particles\ndance as if alive ; at a breath the wreaths circle and curl in fanciful shapes\nlike hieroglyphics. Contemplate now the blizzard that uproots trees and\nsweeps to destruction houses, villages, and even the masonry of great\ncities. Both the smoke wreath wafted gently upward and the devastating\ntornado exhibit the effect of heat upon the air; and this elastic, expansive, and sensitive air is the subtle medium to be directed and controlled\n\n"}
{"page": 383, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nVENTILATION\n\nOF SCHOOLROOMS\n\n373\n\nin ventilation.\nWho says, now, that aerology, ventilation, is not an\nessential study for normal schools ?\nThe methods employed in the ventilation of schoolrooms are of two\nkinds : the natural method, and the artificial or mechanical method. The\nfirst of these is the more simple, and generally it is less expensive ; the\nlast is the more costly at first, but more effective, especially in large\nbuildings.\nThe so-called natural ventilation consists of a heated flue, or series of\nflues, in which a draft is produced. It depends upon gravity alone ; but\nit is sometimes supplemented by the force of the wind. It is not natural\nin the absolute sense, since it depends upon the construction of the\nschoolhouse.\nThe heated air in the flue expands ; it occupies more space and is,\ntherefore, lighter than the colder air; this colder air, by its greater weight,\nfalls and forces upward the heated air, just as a balloon is raised by the\ndownward pressure of the surrounding air, and just as a cork is raised by\nthe downward pressure of the water on which it floats. The floating cork *^\nis lighter than an equal volume of water, the balloon is lighter than an\nequal volume of air; and, in like manner, the heated air is lighter than an\nequal volume of cold air, and so the lighter air is raised or pushed\nupward by the heavier. The heated air does not pull upward thru\nthe flue ; it is itself pushed up. Tho in a sense the draft is caused by\nheat, in another and a broader sense the draft is caused by gravity. With\nan open fire, if the flue is damp and cold when the lire is first lighted,\nthe chimney does not draw because the warm air becomes chilled before\nit reaches the top of the chimney, so that the downward pressure in the\nflue is as great as the upward ; on the other hand, if the room is closely\nbuilt, so that no cold air can enter thru the crevices, then the chimney will not draw because the lighter air cannot be lifted up the chimney.\nA ventilating flue, then, is constructed upon the same principle as an\nordinary chimney.\n. The jacket-stove is simply an ordinary cylindrical stove surrounded\nwith a sheet-iron cover placed several inches away, reaching to the floor\nand open at the top. Below the stove a flue extends to the outer air.\nThe stove heats the air within the jacket ; the warm air rises into the\nroom, and the cold air enters from the outside to become heated, and rise\nin its turn. Of course, being lighter, the warm air passes to the top of\nthe room. If now the room is tightly closed so that no air can escape,\nthe warm air will soon cease to come inward thru the jacket, because\nthe room is full. By lowering a window at the top, the warm air from\nthe jacket will pass outward and neither warm nor ventilate the room.\nOn the other hand, if the chimney flue or any heated flue be opened near\nthe floor, then the air is withdrawn from the bottom of the room where\nit is coldest ; and this makes room for the heated air to enter again thru\n\n"}
{"page": 384, "printed_page": null, "text": "374\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chattanooga\n\nthe jacket. In effect, the jacket is a chimney, so to speak, to bring warm\nair into the room, and the chimney or ventilating flue withdraws the air\njust as it does with an open fire. By these appliances the air of the room\nis constantly changing — the warm air from the jacket rising to the top\nof the room, and then gradually settling and warming the whole room\nas the air of the room is exhausted from the floor thru the ventilating or\nexhaust flue. The jacket is the supply ventilating flue. It ^has been\ndemonstrated that in rooms of ordinate or moderate size the warm air\ncirculates best to all parts of the room, producing a uniform temperature,\nif the opening or register of the exhaust flue is directly below the register, or top of the jacket, where the warm air enters the room. It should\nbe noted, however, that the room must be tightly built if this uniform\ntemperature is to be secured ; and that the warm air which strikes the\ncold glass of the windows in cold weather parts with its heat at once and\nfalls to the floor. The falling of this chilled air upon the pupils near\nthe window is as harmful as a cold draft thru the windows ; and it is often\nthought to be such a draft. Chilling of the air by the windows interrupts the uniformity of temperature in the room. The remedy is double\nwindows; in cold weather they pay for themselves in a single winter,\nboth in economy of fuel and, especially, in great comfort.\nThe jacket-stove illustrates every other method of natural ventilation\nby means of heated flues. The hot-air furnace is merely a large jacketstove placed in the basement. It has a cold-air supply on the same\nprinciple ; and the warm air rises from the furnace to one or several\nrooms thru metallic ducts. These ducts frequently open into the room\nthru registers in the floor. The registers should never be placed in\nthe floor, because they inevitably collect dust. They should be placed\nin the wall seven or eight feet above the floor, because the warm air\npasses to the top of the room in any case, and the elongated flues produce abetter draft.\nAgain, steam coils or radiators, inclosed each in a box thru which the\nouter air passes to be warmed, are merely another form of jacket-stove ;\nand they operate upon the same principle, so far as ventilation is concerned. If the steam radiators are collected in one large room in the\nbasement, from which ducts convey the warm air to to the several schoolrooms, then this large warming room is, in principle, only a jacket-stove\nor steam furnace. In every one of these — the jacket-stove, the furnace\nin the basement, the steam radiators distributed, and the steam radiators\ncollected in a single room in the basement — the warm air is carried thru\nflues to the top of the room by gravity, that is, by the pressure of the\nheavier cold air, which makes the warm air to rise.\nAnd in each of these cases the warm air will not enter the room unless\na corresponding volume of air is constantly withdrawn. As already\nstated, if the windows are lowered at the top, or if a ventilating flue\n\n"}
{"page": 385, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nVENTILATION\n\nOF SCHOOLROOMS\n\n375\n\nopens from the top of the room, the warm air simply passes outward\nwithout either warming or ventilating the room. Hence it is apparent\nthat the air must be withdrawn, or exhausted, thru flues opening near\nthe floor ; and these flues must be heated in some way, to produce an\nupward draft.\nThe wind has an effect upon every one of these modifications of the\njacket-stove. If it blows directly upon the radiators, the air will enter\nthe room before it is warmed, whether the radiator be the stove, the\nfurnace, or the steam coil. Moreover, the rooms on the windward side\nof a loosely constructed house will feel the pressure of the wind, and the\nwarm air will not rise from the radiators thru the flues. The effect of\nthe wind must, therefore, be provided against and discounted in advance.\nThere. are also various devices in use for utilizing the force of the\nwind in producing drafts in chimneys and ventilating flues, and so forth.\nThe trouble with them all is that they are effective only on windy days,\nwhen they are least needed.\nThe fault of this natural method is that it depends upon a wide difference of temperature between the outer air and that of the schoolroom.\nIt does not operate effectively in still, mild weather, and in such weather\nthe chief dependence must be placed upon open windows; but its simplicity commends it for small buildings, and in places where motive\npower is not easily accessible.\nArtificial or mechanical ventilation is like the natural method just\ndescribed, in respect to thg radiating surface and the conducting pipes or\nflues, both for the ingress of fresh, warm air and for the exit of vitiated air.\nIt differs from the natural method in that it propels the air either inward\nor outward, or in both directions, by means of a fan, or blower, or a form\nof air-pump, driven by steam or other power. It, therefore, acts uniformly,\nand independently of wind and weather.\nThere are various forms of fans driven by steam or electric power ;\nbut it is unnecessary to describe them here. They are sometimes used\nto force the air over the radiators and into the schoolroom ; this is called\nthe plenum system. Sometimes the fan is used to withdraw the air from\nthe schoolroom thru the ventilating flues or ducts ; this is the exhaust\nsystem.\nThe exhaust fan may withdraw from the room thirty cubic feet per\npupil each minute. The vacuum so created should be supplied thru the\nwarm-air or radiating flue ; but practically the air comes in partly thru\nthe crevices in the doors and windows. The exhaust system is a failure\nwhen used alone.\nThe plenum system forces the requisite quantity of fresh, warm air\ninto the room every minute. If the exhaust flues are properly heated, a\nlarge part of the vitiated air will pass out thru these flues; but a certain\nproportion of air will be forced from the room thru other orifices, with\n\n"}
{"page": 386, "printed_page": null, "text": "37^\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chattanooea\n\nno serious consequences, and yet with some interruption of the best ventilation. The plenum system is vastly superior to the exhaust system,\nwhen each is used alone; but the best results can be attained by a combination of the two.\nWhen thirty cubic feet of air per pupil per minute, and at the proper\ntemperature, are forced into a schoolroom, and an equal volume of\nair is withdrawn by means of fans, it would seem that the ventilation\nmust be perfect; but there are difficulties still. In the first place, a very\ndelicate adjustment of flues is necessary, if one central fan is to force the\nwarm air uniformly to twenty or more rooms variously located and at different distances ; and an equal nicety of adjustment is necessary for the\nexhaust fan and its flues and ducts. If this adjustment is successful:\nin the second place, we meet the difficulty of drafts in the schoolroom.\nIn no case should the air move at a greater velocity than two hundred\nfeet per minute. Even at this rate, currents may be felt in some part of\nthe room, unless the incoming air is dispersed at the ceiling, and the outgoing air is withdrawn thru registers a yard or two distant from the\npupils. If all drafts have been avoided: in the third place, it remains\nto be determined whether the air is changed every fifteen minutes in\nevery part of the room. It is not certain that this result has ever\nactually been produced ; but the combined system of forced ventilation, if properly applied, will accomplish it, if it ever can be accomplished.\nThus far we have considered this subject mainly respecting a cold\nclimate in winter. In warm climates the combined fan ventilation is\nspecially desirable. Electric power is so common that all cities and most\nvillages can make use of it in schoolhouses. With artificial refrigeration,\nwhich requires little beyond a certain amount of steam or other power,\nthe plenum system might be used to cool the schoolroom in summer as\nwell as to warm it in winter.\nBut at present no schoolroom ventilation known to me is perfect.\nMost of it is sadly deficient, and much of it will continue so for a long\ntime. We must improve it as fast as possible, and in the meantime we\nmust try to develop the \"adjustable boy;\" that is, by recesses, by physical exercises, and by hygienic living, the boy must be made physically so\nstrong that he can breathe the poison of impure air and sit in drafts a\npart of every day, and grow fat !\nI wind up with the following proposition for my brethren to chew and\ndigest :\n1. Most teachers know but little about ventilation, and they are not\nalone in this.\n2. Red, white, and blue ribbons for ventilating vanes should hang and\nfloat above every schoolroom air-hole.\n3. Aerology should be a study in the course of every normal school.\n\n"}
{"page": 387, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nVENTILATION\n\nOF SCHOOLROOMS\n\n377\n\n4. Natural ventilation is defective ; but it must be used in a majority\nof schools, and it should be the best of its kind.\n5. The exhaust system of fan ventilation should never be used alone.\n6. The combined system ot mechanical ventilation is the best now\nknown.\n7. As to a few details :\n(i) In cold climates all schoolroom windows should be double.\n(2) The ingress of fresh air should be at least eight feet from the\nfloor ; and, so far as possible, the current should be thrown against the\nceiling and distributed.\n(3) The exhaust should always be near the floor, if possible only six\ninches above.\n(4) All registers should be upright — never in the floor.\n(5) A current of air thru a register at a velocity of one hundred or\ntwo hundred feet a minute will feel cold to the hand, tho at a temperature of 90 degrees Fahrenheit.\nHence —\n(6) No child should sit within a yard of a ventilating register.\n\nDISCUSSION\nState Superintendent S. M. Inglis, Springfield, 111. — Could I rehearse to you\nwhat has come under my personal observation, as superintendent of public instruction,\nwhile traveling thru the state of Illinois (and this would possibly be but a sample of\nwhat is seen in almost every state in the union), it would lead us to more fully appreciate\nthe truth that this is, indeed, a serious question, and would give us a more decided conviction ofour duties which lie in this direction. But, like other duties often repeated, we\ngrow careless and viciously neglectful.\nWe well know some of the conditions necessary to secure proper sanitary conditions\nin the location of the school building : (i) elevation in position ; (2) proper construction ;\n(3) position in relation to other things ; (4) general environments.\nAll these things are recognized in the expression of our opinions, but do we follow\nout these suggestions when we project our final actions ? Are we not tempted too often\nto cater to the wishes of neighbor Jones, who insists that the site is loo valuable to be\ngiven for a mere school building — it cuts into a valuable piece of corn land ? Another\nselection is made, and a corner hazel-brush patch is set off ; true, it is down by the side of\na stream that runs part of the year ; while the ducks and geese do not forget to bask in\nclose proximity to the \" Brush College,\" as the rustics are wont to style it, and, that it\nmay have some style about it, the vigorous rooter cannot forget his wont.\nThe schoolrooms are often not large enough to accomijnodate the school children\nwho attend in the district. No proper means of ventilation is arranged, for the quantity\nof air seems to have been a matter of minor or limited consideration ; and very soon it\nbecomes exceedingly impure. The process of poisoning now begins. Every hour of\nconfinement of these children in such a room is poisoning the air, and lessening the\ncapacity of the child to do its work, stupefying its brain power. A broken pane of glass,\nor a weatherboard torn from the building, is a godsend to the poor inmate.\n\n"}
{"page": 388, "printed_page": null, "text": "378\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chattanooga\n\nMany teachers do not know, or forget if they ever did know, of simple contrivances\nor devices for ventilating their schoolrooms, and the poisoning process continues. And\nyet the preservation of health should be of prime importance when the erectipn of a\nschoolhouse is under contemplation. Everything else — cost, comfort, conveniences —\nshould be subordinated to this. Unless the children can be educated in a way compatible\nwith their health, it were better far to tear down our schoolhouses at once and abolish our\nwhole school system.\nA schoolroom twenty by thirty feet in size, ten feet high, would contain 6,ooo\ncubic feet of air. Forty pupils would consume this, and render it unfit for sustaining the bodily functions, in just thirty minutes. Vet a larger number of pupils is often\nconfined in a smaller room without the possibility of any change of air. Disease is\nengendered, delicate organs of the body are impaired, virulent poison sows the insipient\nseeds of death. Thus, permit me to say that in every schoolhouse without proper means\nof ventilation there is a slow and subtle poison which enters the blood and brain of the\npupils, and saps the very foundation of life. There can be no escape from its deleterious\ninfluence. Responsibility goes with duty, and there is no discharge until the duty is done,\nand duty is done only when perfectly done.\nWe need to go back to the primitive days and to begin anew. Open up our houses ;\nthrow open our windows and our doors when necessary; let in the sunlight. Let the members of. every household rejoice that a new schoolhouse is talked about. Build none\nother than a first-class modem house. Let it be commodious, with plenty of light and\nheat. Do not be parsimonious. Construct it a little larger than your needs require. Do\nnot forget to plant graceful shade trees in the generous grounds which, of course, you\nhave provided. Spread cheer about the school children, and you add joy to every household. By proper conditions of health, we add a world of wealth not measured by silver\nor gold, but rather by years of a good long life.\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\nFellow-schoolmen, we owe it to ourselves, to our fellow-men, but more especially do\nwe owe it to our children and to our neighbors' children, to train them, not only morally\nand mentally, but physically ; to see that they make the world morally better by having\ncome in contact with it. Do you believe that the school is the prime factor in this future\nupbuilding ? Do you realize that education forms the common mind ; that the common\nschool is the palladium of our safety, the polar star that guides the ship of state into\nthe harbor of safety ? Then give the children these proper and pleasant environments,\nand create a homelike attachment to the shoolroom — a real love for the next dearest\nplace to the real home.\nJ. L. HoLLOWAY, superintendent of schools. Fort Smith, Ark. — Someone has\nvery pertinently said that every schoolhouse should be constructed with reference (i)to its\nlighting, heating, and ventilation ; (2) to the convenience of its arrangement, and (3) to its\narchitectural adornment. That this order, in a majority of instances in cities, was\nexactly reversed ten years ago is true beyond question. Indeed, it might be said with\nequal truth, as it is sometimes said of certain people, that the country schoolhouse has\nbeen built without regard to God or man, and wholly in the interest of his Satanic\nmajesty. It is conceded, with some humiliation to our national pride, that the great\nauthorities on this subject, with few exceptions, are found beyond the Atlantic. It may\nbe that our over-enthusiasm for big farms, big factories, big cities, and big buildings has\nbeen so engrossing that we have not felt the necessity of giving attention to matters of\nsmall detail. The outcopie is that we have failed to make provision for the economic\nproductions of farm and factory ; we have been more greatly concerned in platting new\nadditions to our cities than we have in suppressing the ward heeler and political corruptionist ; we have been content to multiply schoolhouses for the universal education of the\nmasses, giving small heed to the necessary conditions of physical comfort and mental\nstimulus of the boys and girls who occupy them. The death rate among children from\nfive to fifteen — the healthiest decade of life — in all our large cities is greater than that\n\n"}
{"page": 389, "printed_page": null, "text": "SuperlniendenceJ\n\nVENTILATION\n\nOF SCHOOLROOMS\n\n379\n\nin Kurojjean cities. Wliether the neglected sanitary condition of our schoolhouses has\nanything to do with this cannot be fully demonstrated, but the impression prevails\namong medical experts that it does.\nBefore a line is drawn, a blue-print made, or a brick laid, it is necessary to know\n(l) the amount of air vitiated by an individual in a given unit of time. By carefully\nrepeated experiments, this has been ascertained to vary with age — a child requiring\n2,000 cubic feet and an adult 3,500 cubic feet per hour. The \"impurity limit\" is\nplaced by English experts at six parts of carbon dioxide to every 10,000 parts of air,\nand by the Germans somewhat higher^ Since fresh air contains, according to Parkes,\nfour parts of carbon dioxide to every 10,000 parts, it is seen that exhalation needs to\ndouble this amount at most to pass the danger line. This fact established affords a basis\nfor determining adequate room dimensions; therefore it is necessary to take into consideration (2) the space limit which must be accorded to each child. This likewise varies with\nage, the usual allowance being 200 cubic feet for a child and 300 cubic feet for an\nadult; or, reckoned in floor area (the ceiling being 13 to 14 feet high), each individual\nshould have from 12 to 20 square feet. Suppose that we wish to provide a room\nfor fifty pupils. If each is allowed 15 square feet of floor area, the room will be\n25X30 feet. If the ceiling is 14 feet, each child is provided with 210 cubic feet of\nspace. This amount of air is vitiated to the \"safety limit\" every six minutes. Hence,\nsatisfactory ventilation requires that the air of the room be completely changed as often\nas once in every six minutes, or about ten times per hour. Such being the case, (3) a\nknowledge of the laws of air currents is absolutely necessary, for upon this will depend the\nlength, position, number, and areas of cross sections of the inlets and outlets. It is\nimmaterial what system of heating and ventilation is used : a full knowledge of the\nprinciples just stated are indispensable. It is due to the ignorance of these things\nthat we have churches, schools, theaters, and hospitals containing from twenty to seventyfive, and even 100, parts of carbon dioxide to the 10,000 parts of air. Were it not for\nthe infrequency, or short periods, of use, they would be a constant menace to the health\nand life of their occupants.\nHeating and ventilation, tho antagonistic, cannot be considered apart, since\nweather conditions of all sections of the country necessitate fire during a part of the\nschool year.\nOf course, natural ventilation is the ideal system, but the foregoing facts indicate\nthat this is out of the question for the schools during two-thirds or three-fourths of the\nscholastic year. The whole problem, therefore, resolves itself into two factors, viz.:\n1. Provision for supplying and distributing the requisite amount of fresh air, and\n2. Provision for discharging unwholesome air.\nThe practical question is, How may we produce a breathing schoolroom ? Heat\nis the constant in the problem. It may be applied directly to the fresh air by means of\nstoves or furnaces, or the air may be warmed by steam-heated or water-heated surfaces.\nSince 80 per cent, of our school population is rural, I think it quite safe to say that at\nleast 90 per cent, of the schoolrooms of this country rely upon stoves or hot-air furnaces\nfor heat and ventilation. This estimate is based on the fact that practically all rural\nschools, and a very large percentage of village and town school buildings, are heated by\nthis method. In view of the fact that heating by hot air seems to be the only feasible\nplan for the single room, the simplest, most economical, and best system which the\ninventive genius of experts can devise should be made known. Even then I have serious\ndoubts that the grave evils now existing can be overcome, unless legislation puts tjie\nforce of compulsion behind the movement to secure scientific heating and ventilation. I\ndare say that less than 5 per cent, of the 200,000 rural schoolhouses of the country\ntoday use anything other than window and door ventilation. One of the best plans yet\nsuggested for the single room, in my judgment, is that described by Dr. Marble in his\nreport to the Department of Education in 1891 under the caption \"Sanitary Conditions\n\n"}
{"page": 390, "printed_page": null, "text": "38o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chattanooga\n\nfor Schoolhouses.\" In this plan fresh air enters the room thru ducts which converge under a jacketed stove. The air thus heated is thrown into the room about eight\nfeet from the floor, thus avoiding direct drafts upon the pupils. After circulating, the\nvitiated air is drawn off thru the cloakrooms into a ventiduct warmed partly by the\nadjoining flue, and partly by a sheet-iron diaphragm, upon which the hot air impinges\nas it rises around the stove. To my mind, the most objectionable feature about this is\nthat, in the attempt to make the foul air do service in drying the wraps, there is a strong\nprobability that they will become impregnated with the organic impurities thrown off\nby pupils.\nIt is generally agreed that the most economical, and in many respects the most\nsatisfactory, method for larger buildings is by the direct-indirect system of steam heating.\nIn this, the fresh-air inlets should come from all sides of the building, and be furnished\nwith valves, so that the fresh-air supply may not be disturbed by heavy wind currents.\nThe ducts should open into a common space, from which the air has free access to all\nthe batteries of steam coils, whether they be distributed, or whether they be concentrated\ninto one coil room. The sanitary conditions of the surroundings should determine\nwhetherthese ducts open on the ground level, or at higher points in order to insure wholesome air. In these coil rooms each fresh-air flue should have its own set of coils,\nseparated entirely from other coils by means of sheet-iron partition. This is necessary\nto prevent the long flues (which have the strongest drafts) from robbing the supply\nbelonging to the shorter flues. The amount of heated surface in each section of the coil\nrooms is regulated by valves, which enable the engineer to turn on or cut off a part or\nall of the steam. In the event the construction of flues calls for horizontal sections, it is\nwise to put an extra coil in them to increase their aspirating power. A close-fitting\nvalve, which may be raised or lowered by means of a chain passing into the room, should\nbe a part of the attachment of each coil box. This valve is used to regulate the amount of\ncold and warm air, respectively, drawn into the fresh-air flue. With the proper construction\nof the fresh-air chamber and flues, and with the provision suggested to regulate the warmair supply, it is a rare case for a building of ordinary size not to receive a sufficient amount\nof wholesome air. If the supply should prove inadequate, nothing less than the plenum\nsystem of propulsion will meet the demands of the case. It is thought by many experts that\nenough direct radiating surface should be placed in the rooms near the windows to\ncounteract the leakage around the doors, windows, and other sources of cold air from the\noutside, and thus prevent a downward sweep of cold currents formed b)^ the exposed wall\nof the room.\nThe discharge of the vitiated air is effected by means of a foul-air shaft opening\nnear the floor on the same side of, but at the opposite corner from, the fresh-air inlet, and\nanother, of a smaller aperture, near the ceiling. The former outlet should be a little\nlarger than the inlet, to prevent perceptible drafts over the floor, and should be\nprovided with a steam coil or loops of pipe, or a small stove placed near the bottom, to\ncreate suction sufficient to empty the room as often as eight or ten times per hour. As a\nrule, it is better to have the heating apparatus of these foul-air shafts independent of the\nheating system, so that an aspirating effect may always be produced regardless of weather\nconditions. Otherwise reverse currents may sweep the vitiated air down into the coil\nrooms, from which it may be drawn into other rooms, thus doubling the amount of impure\nair of particular rooms.\nThe vacuum system is likewise employed to discharge buildings of foul air, but its chief\ndis^idvantage is that it increases the leakage of rooms from the outside, thus requiring an\nextra amount of heated surface to make up the difference. The additional cost of the\nplenum and vacuum system, which may be employed with any method of heating, has\nprevented very general adoption, tho Professor Woodbridge has computed that the\nadditional cost per pupil in the Lynn High School is only two and a half cents a day.\n\n"}
{"page": 391, "printed_page": null, "text": "SuperintcndenceJ\n\nCONTAGIOUS\n\nCONTAGIOUS\nBY\n\nT.\n\nA.\n\nMOTT,\n\nDISEASES\n\nDISEASES\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nIN SCHOOL\n\n381\n\nIN SCHOOL\nSCHOOLS,\n\nRICHMOND,\n\nIND.\n\nHerbert Spencer has said that \"the first requisite of success in life is to\nbe a good animal, and\" that \" to be a nation of good animals is the first\ncondition of national prosperity.\" As the nation is an aggregate of\nindividuals, the history of a nation is, in a certain sense, a history of its\nindividual units. If it is our duty to educate the minds of the children,\nit is equally a duty to care for, protect, and train their bodies.\nOur people believe that the open schoolhouse, free to all and attended\nby all, is the gateway to progress and national prosperity, and the best\nsecurity for the liberties and independence of the individual citizen as\nwell as of the state. All will admit that it is the sovereign duty of the\nstate in this republic to provide the best educational facilities which the\nworld's experience has devised for every child, not as a \"benefaction, but\nin satisfaction of the natural and inherent rights of American citizenship.\" It is clearly fundamental that the state is bound to see that a\nsuitable school is maintained within the reach of every child, and that\nthe house and its management in their hygienic relations are above\nreproach. The duty of the state does not stop with the furnishing of a\nteacher and a room, but the children are entitled to a reasonable protection from disease, and to a physical training and development. For one\nto make a feast and invite his friends in large numbers to attend, and\nthen carelessly permit poison to enter the food that is placed before his\nguests, producing sickness or death, would be condemned by all as\ncriminal carelessness. Equally as gross a crime is it if the state, thru\nits officers, opens a school and invites, yea goes into the highways and\ncompels, the children to come in, and then, thru criminal indifference,\npermits the poison of disease to strike down the members of the\nschool.\nSimultaneously with the annual opening of schools, diphtheria, measles, mumps, scarlet fever, and many other communicable diseases usually\nincrease. This is caused partly by the neglect of school officers to carry\nout known hygienic laws in schoolhouses and about the school grounds.\nThe congregation of large numbers of children into houses whose rooms\nand furniture are unclean, ventilation bad, and drainage inadequate, will\nalways tend to spread poisonous germs of disease. Some pupils in the\nschool may have just recovered from some communicable disease, or\nothers may be from families that have been smitten, and, being infected,\nthey transmit the germs to those around them who are susceptible.\nThe most common communicable diseases are cholera, yellow fever,\n\n"}
{"page": 392, "printed_page": null, "text": "382\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chattanooga\n\nsmall-pox, scarlet fever, diphtheria, tuberculosis, typhoid fever, measles,\nmumps, itch, and certain diseases of the eyes and scalp.\nThe leading scientists of the country agree to the following statements\nas to the manner of infection :\nCholera and yellow fever are contracted in infectious districts rather\nthan by contact with the sick. They are rarely communicated by a sick\nperson to his attendants. In infected places the poison seems to be\ngiven off by the soil or from collections of decomposing organic material. In case of cholera, discharges from the sick are in a high degree\npoisonous to water and food.\nIn case of small-pox the disease is contracted by exposure to the\nemanations from the person of the sick, or from clothing that has been\nin use by the sick, or has been in their vicinity. This disease has, however, to a great degree lost its danger where the rules with regard to\nvaccination are observed.\nIn scarlet fever the poison is given off from the bodies of the sick as\nin small-pox. But there is no vaccination that will be of any aid in\nthis disease. The patient may communicate it during the whole period\nof sickness or of convalescence. Clothing that has been used by the sick,\nor has been near them, is apt to contain the poisonous germs. These\ngerms will retain their dangerous character for months after they have\nleft the patient. Clothing that has been packed away for months or years\nmay communicate the disease.\nIn diphtheria or membraneous croup the poisonous germs are given\noff from the affected surfaces, which are usually in the throat or nasal\npassages. The discharges from these surfaces are especially dangerous. The germs may be carried a short distance by the breath of the\npatient. All pet animals and clothing that have been about the sick are\nextremely dangerous. The poisonous character of the germs will last for\nyears in clothing or in buildings that are not properly disinfected. It\nseems extremely probable that the diphtheritic germ or poison is capable\nof increase, independently of the sick patient, in the mouths of persons\nnot susceptible to the disease ; in damp places, such as sewers, cellars, and\nespecially under old houses if the floor comes near the ground, leaving a\ndamp, poorly ventilated space; and in accumulations of filth about the\nhouse. At all events, the disease often clings to such buildings regardless\nof all attempts to disinfect the premises. There can be no doubt as to\nthe influence of bad hygienic conditions in maintaining the infection\nwhen once the disease has been started, and it is possible that they may\nat times originate it under certain conditions.\nIn the case of typhoid fever, as in the case of cholera, the poisonous\ngerms are contained in the excretions of the body, especially the alvine\ndischarges. From these sources the water is liable to be contaminated,\nand from the water the milk and food.\nBesides, contaminated water,\n\n"}
{"page": 393, "printed_page": null, "text": "SupcrintendenceJ\n\nCONTAGIOUS\n\nDISEASES\n\nIN SCHOOL\n\n383\n\nimpure air, and gases are a great factor in extending this disease. It is\nknown that this poison is in a sense volatile and is carried by the air, and\nis often known to be in foul gases arising from sewers, privies, and so\nforth, and that breathing these poison-laden gases will often produce the\ndisease in those who are susceptible.\nTubercular consumption is acknowledged by most scientists to be a\ncommunicable disease. The sputum arising from infected lungs is surely\npoisonous to susceptible persons. This sputum dries and, becoming part\nof the dust of the room, is inhaled by all. Or the poison may be transferred bymeans of drinking cups and pencils to the mouths of others.\nThis is not usually named in the list of communicable diseases that\nshould exclude persons from the schoolroom. But it is now believed\nby the best physicians of the age that pupils and teachers having this\ndisease should be excluded from all schools. It has been said that more\npersons die from tuberculosis than from all other diseases usually named\nas contagious. In cities where all afflicted with tuberculosis have been\nexcluded from school the number of cases among children has greatly\ndecreased.\nThe poisonous germ from measles arises from the skin, and is also\nthrown out by the breath. In the case of mumps it is always carried by\nthe breath. In cases of itch and certain diseases of the skin, eyelids,\nand scalp, poisonous emanations fall off the body, become part of the\ndust of the room, and are thus brought within the reach of all.\nIn addition to these facts, it is undoubtedly true that most of these\ndiseases are apt to appear in so mild a form that they cannot be detected\nby the usual observer. Mild forms of typhoid and scarlet fever are of\nfrequent occurrence, in which the germs of diseases are as potent as if the\npatient were dangerously ill. In these cases the germs are spread and\naffect those that are susceptible as seriously as if the original case had\nbeen more malignant. Many cases of diphtheria are unknown to teacher\nor parents, and do not cause the child to be sick enough to complain.\nIn these cases the sputum of the child, filled with germs of disease, is\nspread by the breath, by the drinking cup and bucket, and by pencils\nand slates. More than that, it has been clearly demonstrated that the\ndiphtheritic germ will live and increase in the mouths and throats of\npersons who are not susceptible. The secretary of the state board of\nhealth of Indiana, Dr. J. N. Hurty, instances such a case in a school\nwhere a child having diphtheria was removed, and the building thoroly\ndisinfected. After a week's time school was opened, and another case\nappeared within a few days. This child was removed, and the school\nagain closed and the building disinfected in every way known to science.\nAgain, soon after school opened, another child took diphtheria. Dr.\nHurty then called the school together, and prepared cultures from the\nspittle of all the children and the teacher.\nThe disease germs were found\n\n"}
{"page": 394, "printed_page": null, "text": "384\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[ChattauooBa\n\nto be in the teacher's throat. Yet she had not had the disease, nor did\nshe have it. The drinking cups, the water bucket, the pencils, slate, or\nother medium had probably carried the germs from the mouth of the\nteacher to the children.\nOnly a month ago, in our city, a girl attending school, who was seated\nin a room where ninety pupils had their desks and spent more than half\ntheir time during the school day, had a malignant case of diphtheria\nthree or four days before the child, the parents, or the teacher knew of\nit. When the doctor was called, the case had assumed the most dangerous form ; yet no other children took the disease. In this school the\nventilation is nearly perfect; the building and surroundings are clean\nand in as perfect hygienic condition as could be desired. The drinking\ncups and the closets are in every way ideal. No slates are used ; no pencils\nare exchanged.\nIt is clear to all that, no matter how rigid teachers and school officers\nmay be in excluding from the schools all cases of communicable disease,\nyet many forms of these diseases will appear in the school unnoticed.\nThe pbisonous germs are ever present in the crowded school. All these\ndiseases are simply the result of concerted attacks of developed germ\nlife upon the lives of susceptible persons.\nIn the light of these facts stands the paramount duty of all school\nofficers and teachers to surround the schools with those conditions that\nwill in the highest degree reduce the danger of contagion.\nThe first of these conditions is proper ventilation. The poisonous\ngerms of disease are always present, and the highest protection lies in\ntheir dilution and dispersion. The steady current of air passing thru\nthe room in a proper manner, diluting the poison and carrying it from\nthe room, is the absolute condition of safety. Next to ventilation is\ncleanliness of the school premises and schoolrooms. In the filth that\naccumulates on the walls, floors, desks, in the cellars or basements, on the\nschool grounds, many disease germs find a resting place and an opportunity to develop. Floors should be scrubbed; desks, wainscoting, and\nbanisters should be washed and disinfected frequently. This is necessary, because disease germs may be planted upon the desktops and woodwork of the room by infected persons, and, being transferred by the hands\nof pupils to their mouths, result in disease.\nThe open water bucket should be condemned, together with the large\ndrinking cups. The dipping into water of cups used by many is liable\nto introduce spittle into the water supply, and therewith the germs of\ndangerous diseases. Children should drink from small cups with rounded\nbottoms, holding about two gills, and the water be drawn from a running\nstream or from faucets. The stream of water from a large faucet or from\na pump will generally fill the small cup and wash the saliva from its\nedge.\nIn the schools of Richmond we have from twelve to twenty\n\n"}
{"page": 395, "printed_page": null, "text": "SuperintendenceJ\n\nCONTAGIOUS\n\nDISEASES\n\nIN SCHOOL\n\n3^5\n\nfaucets or running streams of water in each building of eight rooms, and\nuse the small cups, believing that we thus avoid the danger of contagion\nin connection with the drinking.\nSlates should be banished from the school on account of their\nuncleanliness. As the slate is frequently cleaned with the spittle, and as\nthe damp slate readily collects the dust of the room, the danger of transmitting disease in this way is very great.\nPencils should never be collected and redistributed promiscuously,\nwithout first being sterilized by boiling or heating, or by a bath in formaldahide gas.\nThe cellars or basements of school buildings should be dry and the\nbottoms have cemented floors.\nThe closets or privies should be clean, and all discharges carried\nfrom the premises to the sewer by running water, or should be evaporated\nand burned in the dry closets. Vaults retaining the discharges are often\ndangerous.\nEvery building should have pleasant, clean lavatories, where soap and\nwater are accessible to the children.\nThe drainage of the grounds and the building should be ample.\nThe water supply should be pure and wholesome.\nAll children should be vaccinated.\nFilthy and unclean children and children from unclean homes should\nnot be admitted to school.\nSchool authorities should refuse admittance to schools of any person\nfrom any household where a contagious disease exists, or of any person who\nis affected with any evident or apparent communicable disease, or of any\nperson who may recently have been affected with such a disease, until he\npresents a certificate, signed by a reputable physician, stating that the\ndanger of infection is over, and the certificate is approved and indorsed\nby the health officer.\nIn times of dangerous epidemic all schools should \"be closed.\nThe above rules are taken, in the main, from those issued by the state\nboard of health of Indiana, and are similar to those issued by boards of\nhealth in other states.\nIn the discussion of the prevention of disease in the schoolroom one\ncan never omit the consideration of the general health and the nourishment of the children. The healthy, vigorous person with natural\nvitality is rarely susceptible to any contagious disease. Those most\nsusceptible are the weak whose vital resisting powers are reduced by any\ncause. Among the predisposing causes to disease among children of\nwhich the school should take account may be mentioned insufficient\nclothing and exposure to the cold resulting from poverty in the home,\ninsufficient or improper food, physical exhaustion from over-fatigue, loss\nof sleep, disorders arising from bad habits in breathing and eating.\n\n"}
{"page": 396, "printed_page": null, "text": "386\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chattanooga\n\nLittle has yet been done by the school authorities of America ih regard\nto the questions here considered. Yet in many cities they are being\nscientifically studied, and many experiments are being tried. Physical\nexercises in schools and gymnasiums are doing much to better the\nphysical condition of children and improve their habits of breathing.\nWhat can or should be. done in regard to the food of children is a problem for each locality. In hundreds of mothers' clubs thruout the\ncountry the subject has been carefully considered. In a few cities the\nchildren in the poorer districts have been furnished a healthy lunch\nbefore each session of the school. The results of these efforts are in a\nmeasure still problematical.\nIn Richmond, as in other cities, we are insisting that the children be\nwarmly clothed, and, when necessary, using the public funds to bring\nthis about.\nIn all cities there should be a regularly appointed school physician,\npaid by the school board, whose duty should be occasionally to inspect\nthe schools, and to examine teachers and pupils in suspected cases of\ndisease. In this way only will it be possible to exclude from school\nmany of the milder forms of contagion. His aid will be absolutely\nnecessary if the attempt is made to exclude from the school cases of\ntuberculosis. He will be able in many cases to prevent the starting of\nepidemics.\nState boards of health should be given large legislative and executive\npowers. Their local officers in cities and counties should be given power\nto enforce their rules in every particular. School ofificers should be subject to their direction. A board of health with only advisory powers will\nbe of little value to any community. Human nature is everywhere akin.\n\"The child is father to the man.\" There are few boys who do not resist\nat home and at school the exactions of authority. They insist on the\nright to exercise what seems to them to be their personal freedom in all\ncases where they cannot see that danger is ahead. \"The man is but the\nwhiskered boy.\" He resists the exactions of the law as curtailing his\nendowed rights. The laws providing for the quarantining of homes or\ndistricts where contagion exists, compelling the cleaning of homes of\nfilth, requiring vaccination of children, prohibiting the use of vaults and\ncesspools, and other similar laws, are always resisted and disobeyed by\nlarge numbers of people, unless enforced by ofificers of the law.\nFifteen million children are in the schools of the United States. The\nfirst, if not the highest, duty which confronts the school ofificers and\nsuperintendents is the health of these pupils. The school management,\nwhich fails to provide for the physical well-being of the children, at least\nto protect them from the poisons of contagious disease, must be branded\nas criminal.\n\n"}
{"page": 397, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nCONTAGIOUS\n\nDISEASES\n\nIN SCHOOL\n\n387\n\nDISCUSSION\n\nSuperintendent J. H. Snyder, Tiffin, O. — The purpose of this discussion is not\nto inquire which are the contagious diseases, or to investigate the nature or character\nof such diseases. Only competent physicians can do justice to such inquiry. While\neminent physicians hold such different opinions in reference to these questions, professional modesty forbids that superintendents of schools, which are carefully guarded\nagainst contagious or infectious diseases by legally established boards of health, should\nengage in the controversy.\nIt is rather to consider them in relation to the schools ; to determine what is the\nduty of the school officials in reference to their suppression and exclusion. In states\nwhere stringent laws exist, and efficient health officers enforce the laws, the duty of the\nschool officer is plain and, in most cases, easily performed. In Ohio the laws require\nphysicians in their practice to report to the health officer every case of a disease of a\ncontagious character. It is the duty of this officer to instruct the principal or teacher of\nthe proper school to exclude therefrom all children coming from the home of the patient\nreported, and to readmit them on the presentation of a certificate from the same officer.\nThus little remains for the school to do more than to look carefully after the sanitarycondition of the schoolrooms. By careful enforcement of these regulations, the suppression of most contagious diseases is usually fairly well accomplished. Most difficulty\nusually arises in their enforcement in cases of the more trifling diseases so common to\nchildren. But as serious sequelae may follow almost all such diseases, a strict enforcement of the quarantine laws should always be required. In case of doubt as to the\ncharacter of a disease, it is surely best to err on the side of safety. I have intimated\nthat there are times when the duty of the superintendent is not so easy. I had in mind\nthat disease, the announcement of the presence of which, even tho that presence be\nin an adjoining state, leads to an edict that every child in the schools must be vaccinated.\nIt may be easy for the superintendent to shift the responsibility to the health\nauthorities, but it may not be so easy to convince those of little faith in the virtue of\nvaccination that the shifting has taken place. They may incidentally present authentic\nrecords to show that in pre-vaccination times the death rate from the dread disease was\n18.8 per cent., while at the present time, in the vaccinated and the un vaccinated together,\nit remains 18.5 percent. Theymay refer to the fact that a few of the European states that\nhave had the most stringent laws requiring vaccination and revaccination by overwhelming majorities have repealed them. The enemies of vaccination may ask the\nsuperintendent who refuses to admit to the schools their children who have not been\nvaccinated, to explain the death of almost 2,000 vaccinated children in Montreal at the\ntime of the epidemic there in 1885. They may even question the constitutionality of\nthe law requiring vaccination. But in the end the law-abiding school officer must\nrefer the matter to the health board.\nNo matter what the decision is in reference to the contagious character of consumption, every superintendent knows that teachers thus afflicted should be excluded from the\nschools. Nervous conditions which render such teachers unfit for the duties of the schoolroom are too frequently manifested by them in peculiar moods, floods of tears, or flashes\nof temper. It is claimed by able physicians that the germs of disease exhaled by a\nconsumptive are heavy enough to fall to the floor, without floating about in the atmosphere of the room. If this be true of all such bacterise, we may be able to find that the\nvery common practice of oiling the floors of schoolrooms will change from a conimf>n\nfad to a valuable custom. Experience, too short, perhaps, to give much value U) the\nstatistics gathered from the records of the schools in our city, has led me to believe that\n\n"}
{"page": 398, "printed_page": null, "text": "388\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chattanooga\n\noiled floors have had a perceptible influence in decreasing the amount of absence because\nof sickness among both teachers and pupils. It seems to me, in view of all the health\nboards are doing in our cities, that the most important work for school officials is to see to\nit that abundance of sunlight, properly admitted, be allowed to do its work in cleansing the\nrooms and in destroying the germs of disease ; that rapid change of the air in the room\nmay carry away the impurities resulting from this destructive work of the sun ; and, as so\nmany of the contagious diseases originate in conditions of filth, that most stringent\nregulations, based on the principle that \" cleanliness is next to godliness,\" be enforced in\nthe admission of pupils to the schools.\nB. C. Gregory, superintendent of schools, Trenton, N. J.— It occurred to me,\nimmediately after my invitation to discuss the paper on contagious diseases, that there\nwas really little to add to the main presentation, and certainly nothing to which exception\ncould be taken. There is a collateral phase of the subject, however, on which statistics\nin my possession throw a little light, which may deserve a passing notice and engage a\nfeeble interest.\nI do not take issue in the slightest degree with the demand for greater sanitary\nprecautions against the spread of disease. And I concur with especial heartiness in the\nincreasing demand for medical inspection. Nevertheless, a plea may be made in favor\nof present conditions, not to prove that they are good enough, but to show that they are\nnot so bad as supposed. If any apology were needed for essaying such. a purpose, it\nmight be found in this possibility : that the constant raising of the danger cry may alarm\nthe public to such an extent as to lead to the withdrawal of children from schools. It is\nnecessary, of course, to know how bad affairs are, but it can serve no good purpose to\nview them as worse than they are.\nFor a number of years I have collated the absence of teachers and pupils from sickness, and have obtained some statistics of death. Some data which would have been\nvaluable in this discussion I have been unable to put in shape for want of time. I\nsubmit, however, certain figures which seem interesting, and offer a few— perhaps crude —\ninferences.\nIn the year 1895-96 we had in the city of Trenton a very serious epidemic of diphtheria and measles. On a total enrollment of 8,083 we had thirty deaths, fourteen of\nwhich were from diphtheria, four from measles, and two from typhoid fever.\nLast year, and also during the year 1894-95, we were free from epidemics. I am\nthus able to compare an epidemic year with the preceding and the following years.\nThe numbers of days' absence of pupils from sickness during the three years under\nconsideration were, respectively, 60,009, 92,437, and 58,145. That is to say, the absence\nduring the sickly year was 154 per cent, of the absence of the year preceding, and 160\nper cent, of that of the year following. This means an enormous increase of absence,\nand a great waste of school expenditure. Stating the facts otherwise : In the epidemic\nyear 463 pupils, or over nine classes, were absent the entire year. During each of the\ntwo healthy years there were six classes of pupils absent the whole year.\nThere is a rhythm in the absence of pupils from sickness. January has always been\nhigh-water mark, except last year, when the maximum absence occurred in February.\nThe regularity of this rule is rather interesting. If we compare September with January\nduring the three years under consideration, the effect of the epidemic becomes very\napparent. To make the comparison we must reduce the totals of absence in each\nmonth to a uniform basis of twenty days. Having done this, we find that during the\nepidemic year the absence in January was 670 per cent, that of September, against 300\nand 425 per cent, in the two other years.\nComparing the three Januaries, I find the absence that month during the epidemic\nyear to have been 243 per cent, of that during the same month of the preceding year and\n228 per cent, of the following year.\n\n"}
{"page": 399, "printed_page": null, "text": "S„,,rrin.enclen..|\n\nCONTAGIOUS\n\nDISEASES\n\nIN\n\nSCHOOL\n\n389\n\nI have gone with perhaps tedious detail into this statistical inquiry, because I want\nto compare the figures with some others of a different character.\nThe inferences which seem to lie on the surface of the foregoing data are that\ncontagious diseases impair the health of the school children to an alarming extent, and\nthat the schools communicate contagion with fearful rapidity. These are the inferences\nusually made, and in my opinion they are utterly at variance with the truth.\nFor the statistics show that the absence of teachers during the epidemic year was\nalso very great, and that it bore the same relation to the previous year and the following\nyear as was the case with the children ; in some cases the state of things was worse.\nBut no teacher died of the contagious disease, and, to my knowledge, not a teacher was\nsick from diphtheria. In fact, as you well know, that disease does not often affect adults.\nNow, if the same abnormal degree of absence is perceptible in the epidemic year in the\ncase both of pupils and teachers^ it is not logical to assign a reason that does not account\nequally for both, and the contagion theory meets only one class of cases.\nThe following, briefly, are the facts : Absence of teachers from sickness during the epidemic year, 194 per cent, and 172 per cent, of the other two years respectively. The figures\nin the case of pupils were 154 and 160. Relation of month of highest sickness record to\nSeptember, 1,811 per cent, in the epidemic year, against 336 and 304 in the two other\nyears. Figures in the case of pupils, 670, 300, and 425. Relation of month of greatest\nabsence in epidemic year to same in other years, 184 and 222. Corresponding figures in\nthe case of pupils, 243 and 228.\nIf the absence of the pupils had been heavy and that of the teachers light, I should\nhave been sure that the contagion had been spread in the schoolrooms, but the teachers'\nabsence was also heavy, and this absence was not due to contagious disease. What\ncause can be assigned for the abnormal absence of both classes during this year ?\nOne more consideration throws a little light on the subject. I have called attention\nto the rhythm of absence among the pupils. The rhythm is as evident in the rebound of\nthe pupils' health after January as in the retrogression before January. They recover as\nquickly as they lose ground, and this is as true in contagious years as in healthy years.\nThe absence in April and May corresponds very closely to that in October and November.\nThat is to say, the closing months of the year are about as healthy as the beginning\nmonths ; not infrequently they are a little better. I may say, by way of parenthesis, that\nthis fact gives little ground for the supposed exhaustion that pupils suffer during the year.\nWhen you turn to the record of teachers' absences, the figures tell a different story.\nIt is less easy to discover a rhythm in this absence. There is a maximum of absence, however. Itoccurs, on the average, in March. In 1894-95 it was in April, in 1895-96 in March,\nin 1896-97 in February. Furthermore, there is little or no rebound. I could give figures,\nbut they would weary you. Suffice it to say that in the epidemic year the absence of\nteachers in April and May was equal to the total absence in October, November,\nDecember, and June. The teachers do not recover their health. There are some serious\ndeductions to be made from the data relating to teachers' absences, but they would not be\ngermane to the present discussion.\nThe quick rebound in the health of the pupils, contrasted with the failure of teachers\nto recover, indicates that the cause of absence of both classes should be sought, to a\nconsiderable extent, outside of school sanitation. The pupils' record follows the weather,\nfollows the season's changes, and must be due to colds and other complaints consequent\non exposure, changes of temperature, insufficient clothing and food, wet feet, and unsanitary homes. The teachers suffer to some extent, but less, from these causes, and also\nfrom the steady lowering of vitality that goes on thru the school year; but the data\nin no way indicate that the school building is a serious factor. It does not follow, of\ncourse, that the adoption of additional sanitary precautions would not reduce the sickness\nrecord. Of course it would, just as improvement in home sanitation, better clothing, etc.,\nwould reduce the record.\nMy contention is that the school is not responsible for the\n\n"}
{"page": 400, "printed_page": null, "text": "390\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chattanooga\n\ngreat sins laid to its charge. My opinion is that for many of the children the school is\nthe healthiest place they find during the day.\nThe absence during the contagion year was very great, but the curve of absence\nfollows the curves of absence of other years. It rises higher, however, from the base\nline. To account for this we have, in my judgment, to consider only three causes : (l)\nour sanitary precautions keep out a great many children who live in infected houses, and\nare not sick at all; (2) parents in epidemic years hasten to withdraw their children on\nthe occurrence of slight colds or other disturbances, which ordinarily would receive\nscanty consideration ; (3) the scare more than anything else depopulates our schools'. It\nis against that scare, and not against proper precautions, that this paper is aimed.\nI sincerely believe that our modern schools have very little to do with spreading contagion. We ought not to destroy our school attendance by unnecessary alarms. We\ndivert the attention of the public from other possible channels for conveying contagion,\nwhich should be equally considered if the school is to receive so much inspection. I\nrefer to Sunday schools and children's parties, in which sanitation is never thought of.\nDuring the epidemic in Trenton the health board concentrated its attention on the\nschools, but never in a single instance considered the Sunday schools. Children came\nfreely from infected houses to Sunday school, and parents who kept their children from\nschool for fear of diphtheria sent their children to these same Sunday schools to sit by\nthese same children.\nI had desired to indicate the bearing of the data on systems of artificial ventilation\nand dry closets, but time does not permit.\n\nTHE\n\nBY\n\nINFLUENCE\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nOF MUSIC AND\nCHARACTER\n\nA. J. GANTVOORT,\n\nCOLLEGE\n\nMUSIC\n\nOF\n\nSTUDY\n\nUPON\n\nMUSIC, CINCINNATI,\n\nO.\n\nEvery great reform in education has been inaugurated by the recognition of some new ideal, which had been more or less clearly conceived.\nA new curriculum in which some studies received more and others\nless attention, in accordance with the importance of their supposed bearing upon the attainment of the desired ideal, has always been the natural\nconsequence.\nConfucius, Plato, Aristotle, Loyola, Rousseau, Kant, Hegel, Herbart,\nand many others, including the members of our own now famous Committees of Ten, Twelve, and Fifteen, all have had (and the living ones of\ncourse still have) some ideal which they have deemed the most desirable\nstate for man to attain.\nAll these ideals have had one common tenet — the establishment of\nthe true relationship which should exist between man and the universe.\nThey have all differed only in their conception of that relationship. This\nrelationship between man and the universe around him depends upon the\nplace which he himself occupies in the moral order of things, and is\nshown by his habitual, everyday conduct toward all things animate and\n\n"}
{"page": 401, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nMUSIC\n\nAND\n\nMUSIC\n\nSTUDY\n\n391\n\ninanimate. This conduct, being the expression of the estimate which he\nplaces upon himself and all things in the moral or divine order of\neconomy, is the expression of what we term his character, the expression\nof what man is at heart. We judge a man's character by his conduct,\nbut we also judge what a man's conduct will be under given circumstances byour estimate of his character.\nThat character is always growing is shown by the gradual alteration\nin the conduct of children during the process of genuine soul and heart\neducation. Childhood is the most favorable time for character formation,\nbecause at that time the character consists only of a number of tendencies or emotions.\nThese emotions are the springs which move the child to actions.\nThese actions, oft-repeated, form habits. The habits of action acquired\nduring childhood grow into everyday conduct, and this conduct results\nfinally in character for the man that is to be.\nThe direction which this growth of character will take is dependent\nupon the indulgence on one side, and the restraint on the other side,\nwhich the emotions receive in this formative state. The rapidity of the\ngrowth will depend upon the environment, that is, the sunshine of\napproval, the shadows of disapproval, and the food which the emotions\nreceive. The emotions which form the character of the child may be\ndivided into two large classes, according to their natural order of development. The first of these classes consists of the egoistic emotions, in\nwhich the importance of self predominates ; the second, the altruistic\nemotions, in which the soul strives to burst the imprisoning bars of selfexaltation, m order that it may expand and be free.\nThe egoistic emotions — fear, hatred, sullenness, cruelty, despair,\nantipathy, stubbornness, etc. — are the opposites, the enemies, of the altruistic emotions — courage, love, cheerfulness, kindness, hope, sympathy,\ndocility, etc.\nThe archenemy of soul expansion, above all these, is fear. When\nfear is driven out, the soul expands into courage, which is a sense of the\nsoul's triumph over its escape from the prison of self, in which it had\nlain captive. What is fear but the preponderance of self ? What is courage but forgetfulness of self ? What is anger or. violent temper but the\nfeeling that the self has not been accorded the place which it feels it\ndeserves ? What are sullenness, stubbornness, despair, antipathy, and all\nthe egoistic emotions, but assertions of the self ? Can music dispel these,\ncan it cast them out, and thus help the soul in escaping from the narrow\nprison of self ? Can music lift the soul out of and above the confines\nand limitations of self, into a realm of soul expansion and soul activity,\nwhere it will have the benefit of the sunshine and air and room necessary\nto its fullest growth ? If so, surely it deserves a place on the annual\nprograms of this and every other body of educators.\nIf so, surely it\n\n"}
{"page": 402, "printed_page": null, "text": "392\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chattanooga\n\ndeserves a permanent and more prominent place in the school curriculum.\nIf, then, I can show you that music produces such a soul expansion\nthat the base emotions are driven out and supplanted by beautiful, noble\nemotions, may I not hope that it will receive hereafter greater attention\nfrom this association as a body and from its members individually ?\nMay I not hope that the future committees of ten or twelve or fifteen will give much more attention to the subject of music ?\nThere is hardly one in this audience who will deny to music the simple power of recreation. But what is true recreation ? Is it not the\nliving of the soul during a short period in a more ideal world, where it\nis freed from all the material cloggings and hindrances and debasing\ncauses which affect it in everyday life ? Anyone who has ever observed\nthe effect of a song, the effect of music, on a child who is temporarily\ngoverned by one of those egoistic emotions, must have noticed that when\nthe child took part in the song, or even listened to it actively, those baser\nfeelings, those assertions of the ego, were driven out, and that at the close\nof the song he had lost his hatred, his sullenness, or whatever egoistic\nemotion was dominant in him before, and that in its place the opposite\nemotion had taken possession. He had been lifted out of himself, his\nsoul had temporarily lived in an atmosphere whose air and sunshine were\nthe result of nobler, better emotions ; and in breathing that air, in being\ngladdened and warmed by that sunshine, he had been recreated.\nTo restrain these egoistic emotions by preventing their outbreaks\nbecause of fear of punishment is not sufficient ; to cast them out is not\nsufficient. They must be supplanted by nobler, better emotions ; for do\nwe not remember that, when a devil was cast out from a certain man, he\nwas straightway possessed by seven other devils ? The restraints placed\nupon emotions do not destroy the emotions themselves, but only temporarily cover up their manifestations. The emotions are still there.\nThe soul itself must act and throw out the baser emotions, and by its own\nexpansion fill the void just created with a nobler emotion.\nThe archenemy of soul activity is fear. If music can dissipate fear,\nit is a strong agent for soul activity. When fear is driven out, the soul\nexpands in courage, whrch is a sense of the soul's triumph that the prison\nbars of self which had inclosed it had been burst asunder and the soul\nhad become free. Who has not noticed the boy who, when crossing a\ndark street or passing a cemetery at night, whistled with all his might ?\nWhy does he do this ? Who has not noticed the girl who, when she was\ncompelled to go down the dark stairs or into a dark room, quieted her\nfears by singing, humming, and sometimes even whistling some melody ?\nWhy this almost, if not wholly, unconscious musical utterance ? Because\nhe or she was alone and felt the need of company, of society, to drive\nback the assertion, the preponderance of self. They had somehow or\n\n"}
{"page": 403, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence)\n\nMUSIC\n\nAND\n\nMUSIC\n\nSTUDY\n\n393\n\nOther learned, consciously or unconsciously, that musical sound would\nrepress that self assertion, would open the prison bars which self had\nplaced around the soul, and would give the feeling of company, the\nwhistle or the voice being company. Who has not noticed or read of\ntimes of panic in theater or public hall, when some dire accident was\nthreatening, when people were becoming blind with fear, when self and\nthe preservation of that self ruled, when men were likely to trample over\nwomen and children, how a strain of music has quieted their fears, or at\nleast helped them in self-restraint, so that order was restored and a panic\navoided ? We can all recall such occurrences. Is it not strange that at\nsuch times the ear is not closed, but is ready to receive definite impressions ?\nWho does not remember the occasion of the Samoan disaster, when\nthe captain of one of the ill-fated vessels caused his band to play during the storm, and thus quieted in a measure the fears of passengers and\ncrew ?\nWhat is the purpose of the band in time of war ? Who does not\nremember occasions in history where the drummer boy or the fifer rallied\nthe panic-stricken soldiers into a re-formation of the ranks, which ofttimes resulted in a victory ? The word of command at such time was\nabsolutely useless, but the music went straight to the soul and cast out\nfear. Who does not remember the army of Gustavus Adolphus, in the\nwar for religious liberty ? How the soldiers always knelt upon the battlefield for prayer, and then, starting into the conflict, yea, in the very\nheat of it, sang that glorious battle-hymn of the Reformation, \" Ein'\nfeste Burg ist unser Gott \" ? Who does not remember the stories of the\nmartyrs who died at the stake, and how in song they lost all sense of fear\nand were endowed with a courage which was almost divine ? The song\nwith them led to a soul expansion such as could not be equaled by anything except religious faith. Numerous other cases might be adduced\nto show that music can supplant all the egoistic emotions, but in proving that it can overcome the most potent of them, fear, it seems hardly\nnecessary to give instances beyond those already given.\nSound is the social agent, and musical sound the soul agent par\nexcellence. Pain or sorrow or pleasure, expressed in music, moves us far\nmore than the same emotions expressed in gestures or by the face.\nSomehow or other we recognize by the tone of voice the genuineness of\nthe emotion far better than by words or by any other expression than\nthat of sound. It is especially so with instrumental music, which does\nnot contain words, but which has absorbed very largely the emotional,\nthe expressive, elements of language. Go and hear the finale of Beethoven's \"Eroica Symphony,\" and listen to the torrent of tumultuous joy\nwhich it expresses. Listen, also, to the immortal funeral march from the\nsame symphony, and you will hear such an expression of grief, and\n\n"}
{"page": 404, "printed_page": null, "text": "394\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chattanooga\n\nChristian grief at that, as will move any soul into sympathy with that\ngrief.\nMusic addresses itself directly to the emotions in a language understood only by the emotions. The modern development of music is a\nresponse to the need of humanity for an expression of these emotions,\nthose soul feelings, which cannot find utterance in words, and for a\nmedium which will calm those emotions or exalt them far beyond the\npower of words. Man was endowed with the power to sing, and surely\nthat power was given him so that the squI might expand and lift itself\nfar beyond the confines of the natural world which surrounds it.\nHoly Writ contains many examples of how music exalts the soul and\nlifts it above all earthly surroundings into a purer, more ethereal atmosphere. Iwill cite but one case: In 2 Kings, chap. 3, we read the account\nof Elisha's being asked to prophesy. He declines at first, but, when\nfinally prevailed upon, notice what he asks: \"Bring me a minstrel, a\nsinger.\" And the fact is related that during the singing of the minstrel\nthe spirit of God came upon him, so that he was enabled to prophesy.\nDoes that mean nothing to you ? Is not that an evidence of God's use\nof the power of music — to prepare man for the reception of whatsoever is\ndivine, and also of the preparation given by music for the performance\nof the most supreme acts? Is it not an evidence that thru music's power\nElisha was transported far above his surroundings, nearer to heaven and\nto God ? And if it is, dare you as educators in a Christian land, whose\neducation is based upon the precepts of Holy Writ, neglect or omit it in\nyour systems of education, and give the very last and least consideration\nto an art which bears the very stamp of God's approval ? Can you\nexpect to see the children in your charge attain to the ideal which you\nhave, when you neglect or allow to be abused such a power for soul\nexpansion as the art of music?\nMusic is the most popular of all arts. It can reach and move the\nunified impersonal soul of a crowd, and move it to noble deeds, and\ncalm even the violent emotions of fear in a crowd. It cannot move to\nignoble deeds. Music cannot express ignoble emotions. It can only\nexpress those which mankind should treasure. The love of labor, the\nreverence for duty and analogous emotions, the love of country, the love\nof nature — all these can be expressed in song. We, therefore, have songs\nof labor, of plowing, of spin-ning, of sowing and reaping. Those are\nemotions which should receive culture, which mankind needs. Songs of\nthat kind exalt labor, exalt duty, exalt patriotism. That is one of the\npowers which music possesses — that power of exaltation of even the\neveryday common things of life, which in themselves contain the seeds\nof desirable emotions. IgnQble emotions cannot be expressed in songs.\nWho ever heard of a song about making money? Who ever heard of a\nsong in praise of foreclosing mortgages, a song praising theft, or robbery,\n\n"}
{"page": 405, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nMUSIC\n\nAND\n\nMUSIC\n\nSTUDY\n\n395\n\nor cruelty? Those emotions cannot be expressed in song. The joy of\nmaking money is a joy which is the result of an egoistic emotion, which\nglorifies self alone ; and so it is with the others. It is the idealizing\npower of music, the opportunity for soul expansion thru the right kind of\nemotions, that makes music possess such a beneficent influence upon\ncharacter formation. Take, for example, the national songs of different\ncountries. Take even our own national song, \"America.\" You may\nrecite it, you may hear it recited, and it will have some influence upon you ;\nbut if you hear it sung, every word, every thought becomes intensified,\nand moves you to action ; but if you sing it yourself, when your owti soul\nexpresses those thoughts, then you begin to realize the full meaning of\nthe words: \"My country, 'tis of thee; Sweet land of liberty. Of thee\nI sing.\" So much, then, for the effects of music upon the growth of\ncharacter.\nNow, as to the influence of music study. Music study, when rightly\nconducted in the schools, should have a very strong and favorable influence upon the formation of the right kind of character, but it can only\ndo so when it is based upon the thought that music should enrich the\ncapacity for enjoyment, for soul expansion, which man naturally possesses. Itcan only do so when the singing of beautiful songs, and the\nstudy of the contents of such songs, are the end and aim of music study.\nBut alas, such is not the case in very many instances. The aim of many\nof those in charge of the musical instruction of the children seems to be\nthe acquirement of a knowledge and understanding of all the different\nsigns in music, rather than the contents of music itself. A great deal of\nthe music instruction tends to the principle of public exhibition of how\nmuch the children know about the signs and characters of music, and their\ninterpretation, instead of the enjoyment and the consequent feeling of soul\nexpansion, which is the result of musical instruction if it be well conducted. Many of these instructors seem to be possessed by a haunting\nfear that, unless the children learn all the characters in which music is\nexpressed, in the very first years of school life, they have failed in their\nduty. But oh, the mistake of all this ! The earliest instruction should\nawaken a love for music. It should make the child susceptible to the\nsoul expansion which will be so much to him in after-life. He should\nnot be burdened with the numerous signs. These should come slowly,\nas the desire for knowledge, which comes of a love of the art, is awakened. The music study, which in the earliest years of school life forces\nupon the child many of the dry husks of music instead of its soul, cannot\nresult in anything like the soul expansion which should be the possession\nof the child after the first two or three years of school life, and I plead,\ntherefore, for a more rational way of musical instruction, which shall give\nfreer play to the noble emotions which finally should make up the character of the child.\n\n"}
{"page": 406, "printed_page": null, "text": "396\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chattanooga\n\nWhen music study, in our schools, becomes based upon the fact that\nmusic is one of the greatest, if not the greatest, of all powers for soul\nexpansion in the whole curriculum, because it lifts the child out of himself,\nbecause it etherealizes all earthly things, because it makes the noblest\nemotions more intense, and casts out the baser emotions, which cannot\nfind expression in song — then music and music study will have, a most\nbeneficent influence upon the formation of character.\n\nTHE\n\nBY\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nPARED WITH THE\n\nDR.\n\nW.\n\nT.\n\nHARRIS,\n\n'\n\nVALUE\nCOMIC\n\nUNITED\n\nOF THE\nTRAGIC AS COMIN LITERATURE AND ART\n\nSTATES\n\nWASHINGTON,\n\nIt passes for a commonplace\n\nCOMMISSIONER\nD.\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION,\n\nC.\n\nobservation to say that the proper study\n\nof mankind is man. From the version of the Delphic oracle, \"Know thyself,\" down to the sententious maxim in Pope's essay, the dictum has\npassed with the ready acceptance given to a proverb, or axiom.\nThe poet Tennyson believed that, if we once thoroly knew \" the\nflower in the crannied wall,\" we should know all that is and all that God\nis. If this be so, surely to know all that man is will be to know all that\nnature is. Indeed, man as an immortal being stands on the highest\nround of the ladder of nature and connects nature with the divine spirit.\nHe, therefore, contains in himself the explanation of the purpose of the\nchain of beings rising from the senseless clod thru the plant, and animal,\nas far as the first stage of human history. But this purpose originates in\nthe divine purpose. Hence human nature is a revelation of the will of\nthe Highest, if we take it in the comprehensive sense suggested by Tennyson's poem.\nDoubtless, the knowledge of human nature, once fully reached, will\nexplain the inorganic as well as the organic phases of nature; the external\nprocess of causality as well as the internal process of motives and deeds.\nThen mathematics will be read in the light of psychology; so will\ngeology and botany.\nAt present, however, we lay more stress on the difference between\nhuman nature and material nature than upon their identity. Sometimes,\ntoo, we restrict the use of our term \" human nature \" to the aims and aspirations, the emotions and convictions, of man, and exclude the common,\nrational elements of his mind, such as we find treated in logic and psychology. In this restricted sense we not only separate the humanities\nfrom the nature studies, but we take a special province of the humanities,\n\n"}
{"page": 407, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nVALUE\n\nOF THE\n\nTRAGIC\n\nvs. THE\n\nCOMIC\n\n397\n\nnamely literature and art, and consider only its contents as revealing\nsprings of action.\nIn the course of study we place on one side all the studies that belong\nto mathematics, physics, biology, and astronomy, and we add to these\nthe studies of language and history. We then place on the other side\nthe single branch of study known as literature. We speak of the numerous studies in the first group as relating to nature and mind in general,\nbut we contrast all these with literature, and assert that the branch of\nstudy set by itself over against that group, namely the gems of poetry\nand belles-lettres, is the one that does more to give us a knowledge of\nhuman nature than all the others combined.\nThus, in old age, a man is apt to say of his studies in the elementary\nschool : \" What I learned of arithmetic, geography, grammar, and history has been useful to me, but it has not proved to be so thoroly\npractical as the selections from literature which I read in the school readers. For in them I learned to observe and express the feelings and emotions of the heart. I learned to trace these mere feelings in their growth\ninto convictions and clear ideas. They became principles of policy, and\nfinally inspired and guided the acts and deeds \"of my life. In conning\nour reading lesson we learned how a blind instinct becomes an emotion,\nthen a well-reasoned thought ; later on a conviction, and then an action,\nand last of all a habit. We noted all this in the lives of others, and also\nin ourselves. We came to know human nature in this important respect.\"\nNo matter how well equipped we might be as mathematicians or\nscientific experts of any kind, if we lacked the power of seeing this genesis of actions out of feelings in our fellow-men and in ourselves, our\nlives would become a chaos of misdirected endeavor. We never could\nadjust ourselves to our human environment ; we should take offense where\nnone was intended, and make collisions with our associates. For we\nshould first misunderstand their motives ; next seize on the wrong means\nof persuasion and conciliation ; finally end in misanthropy. With regard\nto ourselves, we should be equally powerless to control our passions and\ndesires, not knowing whither they tended nor where they were to be\nrepressed.\nThe narrow life can be lived thru without much\n\nknowledge of lit-\n\nerature. Intuitive practice in reading the feelings of one's fellows, and\nin noting their effect on their actions which follow, fit the individual for\nhis narrow sphere. But there is as much difference between the knowledge of human nature that rests entirely on individual observation of the\npeople of one's environment and that founded on an acquaintance with\nthe best literature as there is between an Indian doctor's acquaintance\nwith plants and the lore of a skilled botanist.\nLet us make this plain by inquiring into the essential characteristics\nof the literary mode of portraying human nature.\n\n"}
{"page": 408, "printed_page": null, "text": "398\n\n.\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chattanooga\n\nFirst we will note that there are two currents, or courses, of feeling\nand action, that of the particular individual and that of the social whole\nof the community in which he lives. There may be harmony or there\nmay be discord between these ; it depends upon the individual.\nWhen at harmony with the social environment, the individual does\nnot reveal the limits of his individuality nor the all-conquering might of\nthe institutions of society. It is only in the collisions between the individual and the social order in which he exists that the whole of human\nnature is revealed in both its phases, as individual and as social whole.\nThus we have tragedy and comedy as the two educative forms in\nwhich human life is served up for us in literature. For the collision of\nthe individual with the social ideal takes one of two forms.\nComedy shows us the individual arrayed against some settled way of\nacting or thinking, some ideal of society, and the discomfiture of his\nplans thru self-contradiction, but without destruction to the individual\nhimself. The social organism in which man lives is of such a character\nthat it converts his negative deeds into self-refuting or self-annihilating\ndeeds. This occasions amusement to his fellows, when they see that he\nis not seriously injured by his irrational deed. The comic character has\nmistaken the limits of himself. He has not noticed how the institutions\nof the social whole reinfore him and render effective his individual deeds,\nif they are rational ones. To be rational, a man's deeds must not only\ntend to his own interest, but to the interest of the family, the civil community, the nation of which he is a part. His smaller self must reinforce his greater self, or else his greater self will reduce his efforts to zero.\nBut this comic side needs further discrimination from the tragic.\nTragedy arises from a serious attack on the social whole and the\nrecoil of the deed on the doer, so that he perishes thru the return of his\ndeed. This is not all. There must be the justification of the individual's deed by the adoption of a principle from a social order different\nfrom that of the social whole which crushes him. He must act in the\nname of a greater self, or else his action will not be dignified enough to\nbe called a tragedy. The death of the bandit Karl Moor, in Schiller's\nRobbers, is a tragedy because it is not mere personal gain, mere selfish\ninterest, that causes the collision, but a revolt caused by a tyrannous\nsocial whole whose rulers have done real or imagined injustice. We do\nnot respect the mere thief, or the mere highwayman. But we respect\nthe patriotic remnant who struggle against a usurping social whole, even\ntho we may feel satisfaction in their defeat by a more reasonable worldorder. The Children of the Mist are described by Walter Scott, in the\nLegend of Montrose and in the Heart of Mid Lothian, as the remnant\nof a once powerful people among the western highlands of Scotland, never tamed by their many defeats at the hand of the encroaching\nAnglo-Saxons who had obtained\nthe rich and fertile lowlands.\nThey\n\n"}
{"page": 409, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nVALUE\n\nOF THE\n\nTRAGIC\n\nVS. THE\n\nCOMIC\n\n399\n\nfiercely defended themselves to the last, like the famous chieftain\nKocheeis of the Indian tribe (Apaches) in Arizona a few years ago. We\nrespect the Children of the Mist, but we feel the necessity of their\nsubjugation by a more rational\" civilization. But we do not respect the\nburglars that hide in the slums of our great cities. The tragic character\nmakes a collision with his social order in the name of another social\norder, it may be of a less advanced world-order or of a more advanced\none. Antigone defies the [law of the king and offends against the state.\nBut she obeys an older world-order which requires the burial of a dead\nrelative by the living member of the family. This collision is made\nstronger by the art of Sophocles. He interests in the noble unselfishness\nof Antigone, while he casts suspicion of selfish ambition on the character\nof Creon, the king.\nSo, too, we are excited to pity and terror by the events which bring\nCEdipus into dreadful crimes thru ignorance. He, too, attacks the existing world-order by a newer one.\nThere is the tragedy of the life of Socrates, also, who holds up a\nnew world-order to the Athenians, the first teacher in the world of the\nright of private conscience as against the established church of his time.\nBefore Socrates there was no individual moral right — everyone was\nexpected to obey implicitly the social custom without questioning it. This\ntragedy, however, is called by Hegel the tragedy of Athens, rather than\nof Socrates. He drank the hemlock, it is true, but it was a triumphant\ndeath, for his was the entire future of the world history. Since his time\nthere Has been unceasing growth of the right of individual conscience\namong nations.\nThe tragic, we repeat, must have this collision of the individual\nagainst the social whole in which he lives, but he must be backed by the\nprinciple of another social whole, either a perishing world-principle or\none of the future just beginning its career.\nA mere attack against the state from motives purely selfish is criminal,\nbut not tragic.\nThe commission of crimes, and the capture, conviction, and punishment of the criminal, make a story that interests us. But if we do not\ndiscover a moral principle in the mind of the criminal, we are liable to\ninjury in dwelling on the details of the story. The Police Gazette is\njustly excluded from the family, because it educates toward crime rather\nthan away from it. The story of Jack Shepard, as told by Ainsworth,\narid the other stories of like character, idealize the mere selfish revolt\nagainst the civil order. They are written from the standpoint of mere\nselfish individualism. The individualism that Socrates initiated was that\nof a moral individualism. Spend your life in the inquiry for what is\nright, and do not refuse the hemlock if it is your reward for preaching\nthe right.\n\n"}
{"page": 410, "printed_page": null, "text": "400\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chattanooga\n\nThe death of Socrates was the tragedy of Athens. But the death on\nCalvary was the world-tragedy. But the world learned and learns its\ndeepest lesson from that tragedy : not merely the right of individual conscience is taught by that, but the worship of sorrow, the sacrifice of the\nself as mere selfishness for the emancipation of other selves, the principle of divine charity, the missionary spirit.\nTragedy reveals the depths of human nature, while crime does not,\nbecause it shows us the struggle between two social ideals, an older and a\nnewer, an earlier and a later. These are revealed in their fullness in the\nstruggle.\nAs tragedy demands that the tragic character must be the bearer of a\ndiverse principle of social order, so, too, does comedy require something\nmore than mere capricious difference from prevailing custom, and something more than mere self-seeking at the expense of the social whole.\nSpanish Cervantes has depicted for us the attempts of Don Quixote\nat resuscitating knight errantry. Knight errantry had been, a few centuries before, a very serious affair for all Europe. Chivalry was an essential epoch in the history of Europe, and there is no epoch in the evolution\nof modern civilization more important than it. For it was the desertion\nof the classic ideal for the Christian ideal — it was the celebration of this\nabandonment of the old ideal and the adoption of the new. The ideas\nof love, honor, and fidelity were consciously set up as the expression of\nthe new freedom that dawned on the mind of Europe as a result of the\nworld-view of Christianity. Each soul has an infinite destiny beyond\nthe grave. All that is secular is secondary to this religious principle.\nThere were three crusades made as a result of this new consciousness :\nFirst, the conquest of the land containing the holy sepulcher — this was\nthe outward crusade against Islam. Secondly, the inner crusade, the\nrefutation of the Arabian interpretation or Aristotelian philosophy by\nthe great thinkers, marshaled by such scholars as Alexander of Hales,\nAlbertus Magnus, and Thomas of Aquino — this was the scholastic\ncrusade. After these outer and inner crusades came, a little later, the discovery of America, the third crusade ; against the darkness of outlying\nheathenism. Queen Isabella contributed her jewels to fit out the fleet of\nColumbus in the name of the holy church.\nKnight errantry was a passing phase of one of the most serious of\nspiritual movements. And when we laugh at Don Quixote's adventures,\nwe do not laugh at him as a madman or lunatic, but at the ineptness of\nthe old-world form seriously set up in the midst of a comparatively\nmodern world. Its mediations seem absurd when deprived of the principle of chivalry and its social order on which they had been established.\nJust so in Walter Scott's story of Woodstock, and especially in that\nof Old Mortality, the excesses of Protestant individualism, both of Independents and Presbyterians, are found in comic situations, because brought\n\n"}
{"page": 411, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence)\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nVALUE\n\nOF THE\n\nTRAGIC\n\nvs. THE\n\nCOMIC\n\n401\n\nagainst a more advanced or matured theologic view. They furnish comic\nand not tragic situations, because they do not involve the characters portrayed in destruction for their views, but only in futile acts and endeavors,\nendless self-contradictions.\nAristophanes ridicules, not the older world-views striving for re-establishment in his time, so much as the products of the new movements put\nforward by the Sophists and the freethinkers of that time. He took\nSocrates as his type and model of a Sophist. He ridiculed anything and\neverything that was offered as a substitute for the old customs, the Greek\nmorality that had come down from the good old times. Nothing could\nstand up against the inextinguishable laughter kindled in the Clouds, the\nWasps, the Frogs,2iXi^ his other comedies. The bad went down altogether,\nand the good went down temporarily, in the person of Socrates. But Aristophanes did not save Athens from \" the newness,\" after all. Alexander\nthe Great, the pupil of Aristotle, the pupil of Plato, the pupil of Socrates, had to save Athens from the good old times incarnated in Spartan\nconservatism. The great, grand pupil of Socrates in the person of Alexander marshaled Grecian yOuth to war on Persia, and his conquests\nextended to India and Bactria, and Greek kingdoms took the place of\nPersian satrapies. We see how serious were the elements entering the\nmost comic of all comedies, those of Aristophanes. He had serious\nintentions, but he did not show the deeds of the individual returning\nupon him to destroy him. His dramas showed only the futility of plan\nand purpose undermined by inherent self-contradiction.\nWe have in later comic writers, say Swift and Sterne, the production\nof comic situations by means of importing one nation's customs into\nanother nation. Seen thru the eyes of one land or native country,\nthe daily habits of another land or country seem absurd. The French\nword outre expresses it. Swift is an Englishman who goes to Ireland\nand acquires a habit of looking critically on the ordinary manners and\ncustoms about him. He does not ridicule the Irish, however, but his\nown countrymen, the English, and writes the voyages to Lilliput and\nBrobdingnag, everywhere showing up the inconsistencies and absurdities\nin the social and political life of England in the first part of the eighteenth century.\nSterne shows French and Belgian life thru English spectacles.\nOur own Mark Twain shows us borderland life thru the eyes of\nthe urban life of the Atlantic slope ; and in turn he makes his most\ncomic situations by showing us the borderland traveler, with his local\nprejudices and ignorance of the history of culture, making his journey\nthru the museums and art galleries of Europe.\nBut in all these examples we have one serious national order against\nanother, the French against the English, or the American against the\nEuropean, or the earnest pioneer life against the life of culture.\n\n"}
{"page": 412, "printed_page": null, "text": "40 2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n|Chattanooea\n\nA definition of comic and tragic situations may be made as follows,\nusing the distinctions of content and form : content standing first for\nthe temporary, or transient, the local or individual interest, the less substantial side. When it is placed under the form of the permanent, the\nethical or universal or substantial interest, it is seen at once as ridiculous. The form is a world too large for the shrunken importance of the\ncontent to fill. The special interest is given the dignity of the general\ninterest, the local and provincial puts on the airs of the world-culture,\nand we cannot help but laugh at it. We have within us the psychologic\nreaction of making up our minds for a serious and universal interest, and\nthen suddenly encountering the local and insignificant. We collapse\nwith laughter — for laughter is the physical counterpart to the inner collapse of our ideas descending from the great to the small.\nOn the other hand, the content may be a serious matter — a collision\nof world- ideas. The person bearing the new or old ideal, and with all\nseriousness setting it up against the established usage, proposes a new\ncontent for which the existing form has no place. It would shiver that\nold form to admit it. The established form must destroy it and its\nbearer. We may act against the new content and kill the messenger that\nbrings it, but we do it in pity and terror, for it is a tragedy. The new\nsubstance is too ample for the old form. The new idea and its bearer\ncannot yet be tolerated. His time is yet to come. It must be a tragedy\nunder the present circumstances.\nWe take courage, however, in this thought, that new forms are on\ntheir way which will permit, without danger to the social whole, a greater\nfreedom in the adoption and promulgation of new or old ideas. There\nwill come a larger tolerance and fewer tragedies.\nIn concluding our survey of the tragic and comic, we may ask\nourselves whether they belong to the sublime or the beautiful, one or\nboth.\nWe are disposed to call the tragic the sublime and to see in the comic\nits opposite, which is said to be the ridiculous. So the opposite of the\nbeautiful is the ugly. Certainly the comic or ridiculous contains the\nelements of ugliness, but in contrast with what? Certainly not with the\nsublime. It is the irrational overcome by the rational. But the beautiful\nis defined as the spectacle of the rational overcoming the irrational. It\nis a presentation, not to the reason or the intellect primarily, but to the\nsenses. To the senses primarily, and only secondarily to the intellect or\nreason. Nevertheless, both activities, the sense and the reason, must\nparticipate in the perception of the beautiful. To the reason alone the\nbeautiful becomes simply the true. \" The beautiful is the splendor of\nthe truth,\" said Plato — it is the glory of the truth seen by the senses.\nJust so the truth presented to us thru the will is the ethical, or rather\nthe good.\n\n.\\s the reason must be present and co-operate with the senses\n\n"}
{"page": 413, "printed_page": null, "text": "s,.p«:riiitcndenccj\n\nEDUCATIOXAL\n\nVALUE\n\nOF THE\n\nTRAGIC\n\nvs. THE\n\nCOMIC\n\n403\n\nin the perception of the beautiful, so the reason must be present and\nco-operate with the will in the good.\nThe beautiful certainly includes the works of art in which the tragic\nand the comic, one or both, are presented. The sublime, therefore, may\nbe considered as falling under the concept beautiful, if it is to be applied\nto tragedy. But it is better to make the sublime a separate idea co-ordinate with the beautiful, and not containing or contained.\nThe sublime is properly applied to that whose content and form are\nnot commensurate or in harmony with each other. The Old Testament\ndescriptions of God's power often make nature so inadequate that it is\nseen to be no adequate revelation of God's omnipotence. The result is\nan idea of sublimity, but not of beauty. The vast things of the earth, its\nmountains and seas, the sky and the rocky foundations of the earth, these,\ntogether with the sun, moon, and stars, are such inadequate manifestations of Jehovah that we conceive sublimity rather than beauty. The\nbeautiful is an adequate manifestation, something in harmony with that\nwhich is manifested in it. The sublime reveals the spiritual as not revealable — that which is to manifest the spiritual is made very distinctly to\nmanifest its incapacity to manifest — hence, we have an aesthetic contradiction, art refuting itself.\nWe now see, or may see, the educative function of the tragic and\ncomic. For all art must treat as its best subjects the tragic or the comic\nphases of human nature. In each of these it makes us conscious of the\neternal elements of human nature — the divine-human in some contrast\nwith the finite and transitory.\nIn no way can the individual learn to know the practical problems of\nhuman nature so effectually as thru art and literature. He learns to\nsee how the deeds return upon the doer to bless him or to curse him.\nThe individual learns to know his greater self, the social.\nThe world-view of a people gets its utterance in the national poets,\nand hence the great works of art, such as have been furnished by Homer,\n^Eschylus, Sophocles, and Aristophanes for the Greeks ; by Virgil and Dante\nfor Italy, Moli^re and Cervantes for France. and Spain, by Shakespeare\nfor England, and Goethe for Germany, contain a vicarious experience.\nThe types of character presented give the people their apperceptive\nmaterial under which to classify the people they meet with in their lives\nand the deeds which they see performed.\nWe learn best the lesson of the deed which we see others perform.\nWithout making the experience ourselves, we profit by seeing others\nmake it. The experience of the poet thus becomes our own vicariously.\nHuman nature recoils against direct advice and does not like to have\npersonal applications made. But, as Aristotle said, the spectacle of the\ndrama purifies the beholder. The lesson is more impressive and wholesome because it is accepted by us in our freedom and not imposed upon\nus by external authority.\n\n"}
{"page": 414, "printed_page": null, "text": "404\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nVACATION\n\nBY\n\nRICHARD\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chattanooga\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nWATERMAN,\n\nJR., CHICAGO,\n\nILL.\n\nThe vacation school is no longer an experiment. In New York, Boston, Chicago,\nand other large cities, it is recognized as one of the strongest forces for good in the\nsummer life of the crowded districts. What, then, is a vacation school ? The term as\nused in this paper means a free school which children between the ages of four and fourteen may attend during the summer months. Wherever such schools have been established, they have come to be recognized as a valuable ally to the regular public schools,\nand in many cities, notably New York and Chicago, there is a growing public opinion in\nfavor of making them a part of the public-school system. Thus far, however, the vacation schools established have been supported, in nearly every instance, by private contributions. The school authorities have granted the use of the necessary buildings and\nequipment needed for manual training, but the salaries of the teachers and the cost of\nthe materials used have been paid from special funds provided for the purpose.\nThfe one exception to this statement is Newark, N. J., where the board of education\nestablished vacation schools as a part of the school system in 1 886, and since that time\nhas carried on the work each summer.\nIn advocating the establishment of vacation schools, the friends of the movement\nreason in this way : In a great city the children should not be excluded from the schools\nduring one-fourth of the entire year. In Chicago, for example, there are 225,000 children\nin the public schools. Why should all of them be turned out of the school buildings in the\nlatter part of June and kept out until the first week in September ? Some of them can\nleave the city during the summer months, but the greater number must stay at home. In\nthe poor and crowded districts, home is not an attractive place thru July and August.\nTherefore the children swarm into the streets and come into contact with all sorts of\ndemoralizing influences. Is it not poor economy for the city to spend millions of dollars\nof public money in the erection of buildings for the use of the children and then to allow\nthese buildings to remain unused for months, while the children are running the streets,\nforming bad habits, and losing a great part of that which they have gained in the public\nschools during the previous year ? Can cities afford to have their children go backward\nduring the summer months, when they might be going forward ? Is it right that children\nwho must leave school at a very early age should be deprived of an opportunity that\ncould so easily be offered to them ?\nThere are many people who believe that not only the children in crowded city districts, but also children in the wealthier parts of large cities and in small cities, and even\nin country districts, ought to have the opportunity to attend vacation schools, where their\nactivities could find an outlet along healthful, profitable lines. In support of this view\nthey quote the plan followed by the children at Chautauqua, where each day, under intelligent direction, they study nature in the woods and fields and on the shores of the lake,\nunder conditions that make it pleasant as well as profitable. This phase of the summerschool movement is, however, outside of the field of the present discussion. It seems\ndesirable to consider here only those schools which have been conducted in large cities\nfor the benefit of children of elementary-school age who would otherwise be on the streets,\nin the midst of those demoralizing influences which are especially strong during the\nsummer months, or in crowded tenement houses.\nThe pioneer in the vacation-school movement was Newark. In 1886 the work in\nthat city was started on a small scale, and it has grown steadily, until in 1897 there were\n\n"}
{"page": 415, "printed_page": null, "text": "SuperintendenceJ\n\nVACATION\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n405\n\nnine schools, employing seventy-three teachers and having an average daily attendance\nof over two thousand pupils. They are all primary schools, having one session daily for\nsix weeks and basing the work very largely upon nature study.\nBoston soon followed by establishing vacation schools similar to those in Newark,\nbut under private auspices. Since that time philanthropic people in Boston have contributed the funds needed each year to support vacation schools and playgrounds, where\nthe children could find amusement and recreation, as well as helpful teaching in various\nindustrial and artistic branches. The industrial work is not confined to mere technical\ntraining, but includes a careful study of the materials used by the pupils in their sewing,\nbasket-weaving, leather work, cabinet-making, and other occupations.\nIn 1893 the New York Society for Improving the Condition of the Poor conducted\nthree vacation schools in New York city. The board of education provided the buildings and equipment, and the society paid the salaries of the teachers and bought the\nmaterials used. By 1897 the number of schools had increased to ten, and there was an\naverage daily attendance of over six thousand pupils. The subjects taught included\ndrawing and modeling, sewing, woodwork, and printing, nature study and map-drawing,\nmusic, dancing, and military drill, language, commercial bookkeeping, and various plans\nfor self-government and training for citizenship. Nearly all of the teaching was carried\non without the use of books.\nIn 1896 the Civic Federation of Chicago conducted a vacation school in one of the\nmost crowded foreign districts on the west side of that city. The board of education\ngave the use of a fine public-school building, in which there was a very complete equipment for teaching woodwork. The Chicago Record gave the entire school an excursion\nto the country once each week. The work of the school was grouped around this excursion as a center. The subjects taught were nature study, woodwork, sewing, music, gymnastics, drawing, and modeling. Only 300 children could be admitted to the school, and\nnearly four thousand had to be turned away for lack of room.\nIn 1897 a vacation school was conducted in the heart of the Stock Yards district of\nChicago, under the auspices of the University of Chicago Settlement. Here again the\nenrollment was limited to 300, but the number of applications was far in excess of the\naccommodations. The subjects taught were woodwork, sewing, housework, nature study,\ndrawing, music, and physical exercises, and a very practical form of training for citizenship was given thru the penny savings bank and the Clean City League. P'requent\nexcursions to the country were made a prominent feature of the work.\nThese two schools in Chicago have aroused so much interest in the vacation-school\nmovement that a number of public-spirited women have agreed to provide the money\nneeded for the support of several schools during the coming summer. The school authorities take a great interest in the work. At the end of the first summer the president of the\nboard of education recommended in his annual report that vacation schools be made a\npart of the public-school system. This recommendation has not yet been acted upon,\nbecause of certain defects in the Illinois school law, but as soon as these are corrected a\nstrong effort will be made to place these schools under the direction of the board.\nAmong the other places where vacation schools have been established are Cleveland,\nBrooklyn, Indianapolis, and many smaller cities. The plan followed in each of these\ncities was similar to that described above.\nIf we examine carefully the work which has been done in the large cities named,\nwe find that there is a marked difference in the several plans followed. In Newark the\nschools have been carried on only in the primary grades, and the work has been based\nlargely upon nature study. In New York the subjects taught have included a considerable number of industrial occupations, and the chief aims have been, first to interest the\nchildren to attend such a school, and then to develop some technical skill which would\ngive their work an industrial value. Children of both primary and grammar-school age\nhave been admitted.\nIn Boston the motive has been largely philanthropic, and tliere has\n\n"}
{"page": 416, "printed_page": null, "text": "4o6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chattanooga\n\nbeen no concerted effort to make the schools a part of the city system. The main object\nseems to have been to keep a few children off the streets during the summer and to keep\nthem interested.\nIn Chicago the chief aim has been neither industrial nor philanthropic, but educational. The teachers have tried to gather in as many children as possible, between the\nages of four and fourteen, and, while using the freest methods, to make a systematic\neffort to develop them on all sides. They have made a careful study of the children\nenrolled, and have tried to help them at the point where help was really needed. Many\nof the pupils did not know the common animals by sight, had never seen Lake Michigan,\nand had never picked a flower in a field. They were taken to the lakeshore or to the\ncountry every week, were encouraged to observe and ask questions, and were allowed to\ngather materials that could be studied afterward in the schoolroom.\nMany of them were foreigners and knew almost nothing about the city and the country\nin which they lived. So they were given instruction in civics and were encouraged to\nperform some of the duties that devolve upon every good citizen. The boys were eager\nto \"make things.\" They were taken into the shop and taught how to use the woodworking tools, how to read a drawing, and how to use their hands.\nMany of the girls came from homes which were not comfortable and were not\nattractive. Every day they were taken into a class-room divided by screens into several\nsmaller rooms, each of which was furnished with the things needed for teaching the care\nof some room in the home — the bed room, the dining room, the living room, or the\nkitchen. They were taught how to care for the home and how to make it attractive, and\nsome of them learned for the first time in their lives that in housekeeping there is something besides mere drudgery.\nSome of the children had a passion for color, but had never before had an opportunity to use chalks or water colors. In the vacation school they found this opportunity,\nand they made the most of it. Their teachers were delighted with the results, and many\nchildren, supposed to be almost hopeless in the regular schools, produced really strong\ndrawings in the vacation school.\nNearly all of the children showed an interest in music, and, after spending an hour\nevery day for six weeks in the singing classes, the school, as a whole, was able to do good\nchorus work.\nIn planning the work done along each of these lines, the interests of the children '\nwere studied very carefully, and each day the methods used, as well as the materials presented, were chosen in direct reference to the interests and the needs of the pupils.\nIf the vacation-school movement can be developed along educational lines rather\nthan along those which are industrial or philanthropic, it will come to be recognized as an\neffort to do something more important than increasing the industrial skill of a few communities, or attempting to help a few poor children here and there to have a good time in\nthe summer. It will be recognized as a movement intended to develop in our cities a\nsocial institution that has become a necessity. In the early -part of this century only 8\nper cent, of the population of this country lived in cities. Today nearly 35 per cent, live\nin cities. At that time foreign immigration did not threaten to fill our country with people\nwhose education was defective, whose traditions were different from our own, who had\nvery little in common with American citizens. Today immigration brings thousands of\nsuch people to our shores, and a large proportion of them settle in cities. They form\ncommunities in which one could walk for blocks without hearing a single word of English.\nCan we afford to neglect any opportunity for bringing these people into touch with all\nthat is strong in American civilization ?\nIn seeking for an answer to this question, the vacation schools which have been conducted in Chicago have had some very definite results: (i) they have exerted a marked\ninfluence on the social conditions in the communities where they were established ; (2)\nthey have had ;i hel])ful influence on the work of the Chicago public schools ; (3) they\n\n"}
{"page": 417, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nVACATION\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n4° 7\n\nhave helped to create a strong public opinion in favor of some of the newer ideas in\neducation.\nSince the results achieved in the two Chicago schools were very similar, strong illustrations might be taken from the report of either of the schools. For the sake ot unity,\nhowever, the illustrations given here will be drawn entirely from the report of the Seward\nVacation School, conducted in the Stock Yards district during the summer of 1897.\nFirst, the influence on social conditions in the neighborhood of the school. The\nSeward school building is located in a neighborhood where, altho Germans and Poles,\nJews and Bohemians, Italians, Scandinavians, and Irish live side by side, they are not\nalways on the best terms with one another. When the teachers in the vacation school\ntried to find a starting point for their effort to train the children to be good citizens, they\ndiscovered that there was no feeling of brotherhood between the several races. In many\ncases the relation between families, or between the various groups of families, was, at best,\nan armed neutrality. So the teachers said : \" Let us first prepare a statement of what we\nbelieve is the true idea of the duty of every citizen, and let us form some organization\nthat will realize this idea among the children, if possible.\" The idea was expressed by\nMiss McDowell in what she called a \" civic creed.\" Every morning all of the teachers and\nthe pupils gathered in the school hall for opening exercises. They sang a patriotic hymn,\nsaluted the American flag, and then repeated the civic creed, as follows :\n\" God hath made of one blood all nations of men, and we are his children, brothers\nand sisters all. We are citizens of these United States, and we believe our flag stands for\nself-sacrifice for the good of all the people. We want, therefore, to be true citizens of our\ngreat city, and we will show our love for her by our works.\n\" Chicago does not ask us to die for her welfare ; she asks us to live for her, and so to\nlive and so to act that her government may be pure, her officers honest, and every corner\nof her territory a place fit to grow the best men and women who shall rule over her.\"\nThe children learned to feel that the sentiment expressed in the patriotic hymn, and\nin the creed, should find some practical realization, and that no citizen is really loyal who\ndoes not \" show his love by his works.\"\nSo they organized a \" clean city league.\" All of the older children, both boys and\ngirls, belonged to the league, and all pledged themselves to do their part in trying to\nkeep the school premises and the neighborhood clean and free from litter of all kinds,\n(l) by not throwing down papers and refuse that would make it dirty, and (2) by\nhelping the city to see that it was systematically cleaned.\nOne teacher gave her entire time to the work of the Clean City League. On the first\nday she talked with the children about the condition of the neighborhood, and asked\nthem if they were satisfied with the appearance of the streets and alleys, and yards and\ngarbage boxes. At first they seemed to be perfectly satisfied, but soon they learned to\nobserve more carefully, and they reported a great many things that were not as they\nshould be — sidewalks broken, ^treets dirty, alleys filled with refuse, etc. The teacher\ngave them systematic instruction, based on the city ordinances providing that the city\nshall be cleaned by contractors who are employed by the city authorities and paid with\nmoney contributed by the taxpayers. She also explained that, if a contractor fails to do\nhis work, it is the duty of every good citizen to report the failure to the city authorities ;\nthat, if a contractor accepts the money and neglects the work, he is cheating the taxpayers. As soon as the boys in the neighborhood were convinced that the people were\nreally being cheated, they became very eager to stop the cheating at once. Some of them\nmade twenty-five or thirty complaints a day of violations of the ordinances. They\nwatched the work of the contractor in that ward so closely, and made such prompt reports\nof his shortcomings, that he could not shirk, and before the end of the summer there was\na great change in the appearance of the neighborhood. Streets were swept, alleys cleaned,\ngarbage boxes emptied, and sidewalks mended, where all had been neglected for months\nat a time before the league began its work.\nThe children and their parents realized for\n\n"}
{"page": 418, "printed_page": null, "text": "4o8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chattanooga\n\nthe first time that they had a right to go directly to the city hall and demand that their\nneighborhood be cleaned. They learned that every citizen has rights that must be\nrespected by the city authorities, if the citizen demands it.\nThe children also learned that there is a close relation between the cleanliness of the\ncity and the health of its citizens. In the league they dealt with some of the conditions\nwhich affect public health, and in the housework department with some of the home\nconditions which affect the health of individuals and families. Every child was taught\nthe value of personal cleanliness, and the school maintained three showers and a tub all\nsummer, and found good use for them.\n.\nThe penny savings bank was also an influence for good in the community. The\nchildren were helped to form habits of thrift and economy, and encouraged to save their\npennies instead of spending them for immediate personal indulgences. Since the vacation school closed, the bank has been maintained by the settlement, and each week many\nof the children who were in school go to the settlement and make their small deposits.\nThe school also exerted an important influence on the home life of the community\nthru the teaching of housework. The girls practiced in their homes what they learned\nin the school. It was very encouraging to the teachers to feel that they were influencing\nthe life of the neighborhood in the very place where their influence would be the most\nhelpful — i. e., in the home.\nSo much for the results in the community. '\nThe second definite result mentioned above was the influence on the regular work of\nthe public schools.\nThis was exerted in a number of different ways :\n(i) The public-school teachers who visited the vacation school were helped to gain a\nclear idea of what may be accomplished by the study of nature in a school where it is\ntaught with illustrative material instead of thru the medium of books.\n(2) They were able to observe the effects of school excursions in which the pupils\ngained new experiences, gathered fresh materials to be studied in the class-room, drew\ndirectly from nature, and learned to observe carefully and to record the results of their\nobservations.\n(3) They were given a practical illustration of the educational value of bench work in\nwood in every school year from the kindergarten to the high school. In the Chicago\npublic schools manual training has not yet been made an organic part of the curriculum.\nIt is true that seven thousand boys in the sixth, seventh, and eighth grades of the public\nschools spend an hour and a half each week working with tools, but the manual training\nhas not been developed on the basis of a sound psychology, nor has it been brought into\nclose relations with the other subjects in the curriculum, and it has been confined entirely\nto the upper grades.\nThe vacation school gave a practical demonstration of some of the educational\naspects of manual training : its value in teaching number to the first-grade children ;\nits value in the study of fonn and developing a sense of proportion and skill in\nmeasurement ; its value in forming good habits of thought and of action. Many teachers\nrealized for the first time that manual training really means mental and moral development, and that, instead of being an isolated special subject, it is a method that may be\napplied in every grade of school work.\nThe work done with boys who were not interested in study had some very marked\nresults. The regular teachers in the Seward school say that some of the boys who had\nbeen especially troublesome during the previous year are now showing a real desire to do\ngood work. This seems to indicate that the vacation school, by developing the children\non all sides, aroused in them a keener interest in their regular school duties and an ability\nto perform these duties better than would otherwise have been possible.\nIt is, therefore, safe to say that the vacation schools have exerted a very helpful\ninfluence on the regular public-school work. They have helped pupils who were hard to\nreach by the usual methods ; they have helped teachers who wish to come into touch with\n\n"}
{"page": 419, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nVACATION\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n409\n\nnew ideas in education ; they have helped school authorities who were glad to see an educational experiment station testing some of the newer plans for school work.\nThe third definite result mentioned above was that they helped to create a strong\npublic sentiment in favor of some of the newer ideas in education.\nThis result was largely due to the way in which the daily papers supported the movement and described in their columns the work that was being done. It was also due, in\npart, to the favorable impression made on people who visited the school. Nearly every\nvisitor felt that, when the pupils in a school are so deeply interested in what they are\ndoing that they pay no attention to the people who are coming and going all the time,\nand when the teachers in that school can give their time entirely to teaching, instead of\nlargely to discipline, there is something in the work of this school that is worthy of careful\nstudy with a view to more general adoption.\nThe following are a few of the conclusions reached after making such a study.\nThey merely serve to emphasize the fact that the organizers of a vacation school, however\nfree in defining their methods and in outlining their curriculum, must recognize the same\nprinciples of psychology and the same laws of individual and social growth that should\nbe recognized in planning the work of every school :\n1. That interest is at the foundation of good discipline and good work in school.\n2. That in dealing with troublesome boys manual training may be made %^ very\nimportant factor.\n3. That the success of any school depends less on the use of books and a fine\nbuilding and a complete and expensive equipment than on the skill and interest and\nenthusiasm of a strong teacher.\n4. That housework may be so taught in a school as to be truly educational, and at\nthe same time to exert a very helpful influence on the home life and social conditions in\nthe neighborhood.\n5. That the study of the laws of public health and of private hygiene, and the direct\napplication of this study in the affairs of everyday life, can and should be made a part of\nthe education of every child.\n6. That in the study of the world in which we live (usually grouped under the heads,\n\"geography\" and \"nature study\") far more can be accomplished by intelligent observation of nature herself than by trying to study her thru printed descriptions.\n7. That the work in civics and the training for citizenship may be so planned as to\nbe a living force in a school, and not merely an iivtellectual exercise in the principles of\npopular government.\n8. That music is one of the most essential elements in the course of study — not the\nmusic which confines children to the reading of notes and the singing of exercises and\nscales ; but the music that gives them an opportunity for the free expression in song of the\nfeelings, desires, and aspirations which represent the highest and truest part of their\nnatures.\n9. That manual training, carefully planned, may be made the strongest educational\nfactor in the work of a school, i. e., the element in the school curriculum which is most\nimportant in training the minds of both boys and girls and in developing their characters. The manual training that appears to be most successful with boys of the elementaryschool age is bench work in wood. The manual training that has produced the best\nresults with the girls (especially those of grammar-school age) is housework and cooking.\nBoth forms may very profitably be made a part of the work done in a vacation school, if\nthe equipment can be obtained.\nIn outlining the plans for a system of vacation schools, the next question to be\nanswered is : Should they have a well-defined curriculum, and, if so, what should this\ncurriculum include ? It may be well to mention first some of the elements the curriculum\nshould not include. It should not cover the same ground as the regular course of study\nin the public schools, since it is not the function of the vacation school to educate the\n\n"}
{"page": 420, "printed_page": null, "text": "4^0\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chattanooga\n\nbright child beyond his grade, nor to bring the backward child up to his grade. It should\nnot provide for a purely industrial training, since the vacation school is neither a professional nor a trade school. It should not cater to the whims of the children, since whatever is put into the curriculum will interest them, in any event, if wisely planned, and\nthey are really unable to choose for themselves that which be best for their development.\nIn planning the curriculum the organizers of a vacation school should take into considera\nlion :\n1. The special aim which they desire to accomplish. This will depend in each case\non the character of the community and on a number of purely local conditions.\n2. The possibility of using museums, parks, and excursions to the country as aids in\nthe work of the school ; and\n3. The feasibility of providing equipment enough to give every child some form of\nmanual training every day.\nThe subjects to be taught can then be chosen with reference to these conditions.\nIf possible, every child should have manual training, nature study, drawing, music,\nphysical exercises, and some form of training for citizenship each day, and an excursion\nto the country or to some other place of interest every week.\nThe teachers should be chosen with great care, and paid enough to make it possible\nfor th^m to do this work in place of part of the work of the regular school year. The\nbuildings and equipment should be provided by the board of education, and the schools\nshould be supported by the board.\nThese recommendations are based directly upon the experience already gained in\nseveral of our large cities. In each of them the movement is growing steadily, and in\neach the vacation school, as we find it today, seems destined to become an important part\nof the public-school system in the near future.\n\nCONTINUOUS\n\nBY\n\nIRWIN\n\nSHEPARD,\n\nSESSIONS,\nWITH SPECIAL\nNORMAL SCHOOLS\n\nPRESIDENT*\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nAFFLICA\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nTION\n\nWINONA,\n\nTO\n\nMINN.\n\nThe public-school system of the United States, in its organization,\nsubjects of study, methods of teaching, and discipline, embodies the relics\nof many customs and conditions which have ceased to exist. The extent\nand force of these traditional elements appear in such features as the\ncontinuance of the district as the unit of school organization ; the limitation of the school term to little more than half the year; the general\nclosing of schools for the long summer vacation, and the persistence of\nthe three R's as the essentials of an elementary training.\nThe conservative force in our national system of education is the\nstrength of tradition. This conservatism often binds the teachers more\nstrongly than the people, for it frequently happens that the former have\nprogressed more slowly than the latter, and have yielded tardily to the\nadvanced demands of public opinion.\nThe traditional close classification of the graded schools, with its rigid\nsystem of annual promotions, altho long since condemned by public\n\n"}
{"page": 421, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nCONTINUOUS\n\nSESSIONS\n\nIN NORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n411\n\nsentiment, still quite generally prevails ; or at most has yielded only to\nthe extent of substituting biennial for annual promotions.\nThe method of determining qualification for promotion by written\nexaminations alone was generally retained long after the people distrusted its efficiency and even demanded its discontinuance.\nThe three months' annual vacation season has come to be regarded\nby most teachers as a necessity as well as an inalienable right, and any\ndisposition to lengthen the school year is generally looked upon as an\nunjustifiable encroachment upon this right.\nIt requires some courage to suggest, even in a convention of progressive superintendents, that other seasons than summer time may be equally\nprofitable for vacation purposes, and that the intellectual work of the\nschoolroom may be as well done in summer as the intellectual work of\nother callings.\nThe average school year for the United States is about seven months.\nIn many places, especially cities, it has been extended to ten months in\nanswer to popular demands. It is not entirely clear why the extension\nshould stop here. In fact, very good reasons can be given why the schools\nshould be open as continuously as the factory, the workshop, and the\nstore.\nIf it is replied that pupils and teachers need two or three months\nannually for rest and recuperation from the intense strain and pressure\nof the year's work, it may be questioned if a system which produces strain\nand pressure so near to the point of exhaustion is not unwise and indefensible, and if a distribution of the same work over a longer period\nwould not be wiser, tho it involved longer, or even continuous, sessions.\nIt is certain that the point of efficient work on the part of both teacher\nand pupil is passed long before signs of strain, over-pressure, or exhaustion appear.\nThe annual vacation itself, deemed so essential for rest, contributes\nin no slight degree to the burdens of the already overtaxed year which\nfollows, by the necessity for recovering the loss incident to the breaking\ndown of intellectual habits and the waste of acquired knowledge during\nthe long vacation, even if no more serious results appear.\nThere may be certain valuable compensations for the long school\nvacation, when the pupil can turn to some helpful occupation, as may\nusually be done in rural communities ; but this is seldom the case in\ncities, or even small towns ; therefore the question of continuous sessions\nversus short school years and long vacations belongs rather to the graded\nthan to the rural schools.\nThe profitable employment of the time of children of school age during the long summer vacations is often the most serious and perplexing\nproblem that confronts parents living in cities and towns, even under the\nmost favorable circumstances ; while in the case of children living in\n\n"}
{"page": 422, "printed_page": null, "text": "412\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chattanooga\n\ncrowded districts of large cities, or in the saloon-cursed village, it becomes\na question of vital importance to society as well as to the family.\nIt is not difficult to conceive of such an adjustment of school work,\nrest, and recreative occupations that continuous attendance upon school\nmay not only be free from overwork or strain, but may furnish the most\nhealthful and enjoyable life that a child can live ; especially if vacations\nmay be taken, without prejudice to progress, whenever needed or whenever the time could be otherwise more profitably spent. The ideal school\nlife is that of the most healthful living, and does not admit the necessity\nfor recuperation from overtaxing or unhealthful requirements.\nHowever, the plan of continuous sessions does not necessarily involve\ncontinuous attendance on the part of the pupils or continuous service by\nthe teachers. It means, rather, continuous opportunities to the pupil for\nattendance on regular school sessions, and relief to the teachers from\nenforced vacations, always annual and always at the same season.\nIn view of the growing demands for vacation schools, especially in\nlarge cities, it is important to determine whether these schools shall be\npreventive and sporadic, without organic connection with the school\nsystem; or shall be constructive, progressive, and so adjusted as to contribute to advancement in the regular courses of the schools or proportionate relief from the daily requirements of the following year. A\ndivision of the present school year into three quarters of twelve weeks\neach, with quarterly promotions, would be the first and most important\nstep toward the organic connection of vacation schools, as a regular part\nof the school year, with the work accredited as such.\nThe question may be asked if as much work can be accomplished in\nthe twelve weeks of a vacation quarter as in any other quarter of the year.\nWe have come to understand that the ability of anyone (children especially) to do intellectual work is dependent upon individual vitality\nrather than atmospheric temperature. We know that the vitality is lowest\nin winter and early spring, and at its maximum in late spring and summer. The general experience of summer-vacation schools confirms the\nbelief that as much and as effective work can be accomplished in summer\ntime as in any other part of the year if the early morning hours are substituted for the afternoon session; while the opportunities to pursue the\nvarious forms of nature study excel those of any other season.\nIf, however, continuous attendance is not desired, continuous sessions,\nwith the quarter of twelve weeks as the promotion unit, would make possible the distribution of vacations thruout the year and the relief of crowded\nrooms to a corresponding extent ; or, in other words, would increase the\nschool accommodations by 33^ per cent.\nIs it a wise policy for a city whose enrollment exceeds its seating\naccommodations to close its buildings for three months of the year, if by\nany plan of administration these buildings may be made available to\n\n"}
{"page": 423, "printed_page": null, "text": "}\n\nSuperintcndcnceJ\n\nCONTINUOUS\n\nSESSIONS\n\nIN NORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n413\n\nrelieve the excessive demands of the other nine months ? Under the\npressing necessity everywhere for greater school accommodations, is it\njustifiable that the common-school property of the nation, valued at\n$500,000,000, should be permitted to lie idle from three to five months\nannually ? Compulsory school attendance and compulsory exclusion\nfrom school during the long vacation are antagonistic policies.\nThe general tendency of the educational world to \" hibernate \" in\nsummer time is contrary to all of the analogies of nature as well as of\nlife in other callings.\nThe great increase in the number, importance, and attendance of\nsummer schools is not more significant than the fact that this attendance\nis largely made up of teachers in regular service, who are pleased to\ndevote no small share of a meager salary and of the annual vacation to\nprofessional advancement.\nThe reports of the United States Commissioner of Education show\nthat 75 per cent, of the teachers of the country enter upon their work\nwithout any special training whatever, while the training of a large share\nof the others is much less satisfactory than is required in any other\nprofession. Few who continue in teaching resign to make further preparation. Therefore the training of the teacher while in service is a problem of the utmost importance.\nThis problem would seem to be not difficult of solution when we\nreflect that the school year for the entire country averages but seven\nmonths and rarely exceeds forty weeks. No other calling affords such\ngenerous vacation leisure for self-improvement.\nThe difficulties of the problem lie in the fact that the three to five\nmonths of enforced vacation include or coincide with the annual long\nvacation of the normal schools and all higher educational institutions.\nTeachers' institutes and the summer schools are designed to supply\nthe demands for vacation opportunities for professional improvement not\noffered by the normal schools and colleges ; either because their doors\nare closed, or because their courses of study and term arrangements do\nnot enable a teacher to use with profit the long vacation periods.\nWhile summer schools and institutes have accomplished much, they\ndo not by any means solve the problem of the efficient training of the\nteacher in service.\nThe state of Minnesota has led all other states in the establishment of\nvacation training schools for teachers. From forty to fifty of these\nschools are in session every summer, for four weeks each, with a total\nattendance which usually equals or exceeds the entire teaching force of the\nstate; while, until last summer, all of the four normal schools of the state,\nequipped at an expense of more than, a million dollars, were closed, their\nlaboratories and libraries deserted,'and their faculties scattered, supposedly taking much-needed vacations, but many of them in reality teaching\n\n"}
{"page": 424, "printed_page": null, "text": "414\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chattanooga\n\nin these same summer schools, often under most adverse conditions as\nto surroundings and appliances.\nIn September, 1895, when the faculty of the State Normal School at\nWinona reassembled after the annual vacation, during which half of the\nmembers had been teaching in the summer schools, a series of special\nmeetings were held to consider the relation of the normal schools to these\nsummer schools.\nA few conclusions were soon reached :\n1. That the phenomenal growth of summer training schools for\nteachers indicated a demand which the normal schools had not met.\n2. That these summer schools were creating new demands which only\nnormal schools could efificiently meet.\n3. That, under the existing conditions for admission to teaching service, itis quite as much the proper function of the normal schools to provide for training teachers in service as to furnish a preparation for entering such service.\n4. That the rural-school teachers, with an average vacation of five\nmonths each year, furnished at the same time the most needy and the\nmost available constituency for such training.\n5. That it is an indefensible policy to close the normal schools during\nthat period of the year when teachers are most at leisure to attend school.\n6. That the terms of normal schools should be so adjusted in time\nthat the usual long vacations of teachers could be utilized for further\npreparation, and that the courses so provided should not be special, but\nregular and progressive, and should constitute organic parts of the full\ncourses offered.\nIt was decided to recommend, and if possible secure, the adoption of\nthe following general plan :\n1. The school year should be divided into four quarters of twelve\nweeks each, commencing respectively January i, April i, July i, and\nOctober i.\n2. The courses of study should be organized by quarters — the work\nof each quarter constituting a full unit on which credit should be given\nwhenever completed.\n3. Classes should be graduated at the close of each quarter and new\nclasses organized at the opening of each quarter, if necessary.\n4. Special classes should be organized for graded-school teachers for\nthe first six weeks of the summer quarter (July i to August 15), and\nthis work should apply upon regular courses with provisions for^i^ompleting the quarter's work by non-resident study during the ensuing school\nyear by correspondence.\n5. Since the chief aim of this plan was to bring the normal schools\ninto more helpful relations to the rural schools whose interests thev were\nprimarily created to serve, the quarters should be so arranged that a ruralschool teacher could teach the usual winter term of four or five months —\n\n"}
{"page": 425, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nCONTINUOUS\n\nSESSIONS\n\nIN NORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n4'5\n\nwhich would always come within the autumn and winter quarters (October\nto April) — and attend a normal school pne or both of the remaining quarters, with a reasonable vacation ; or he could teach the entire school year\n(October to July) and attend one full quarter each year (July to October).\nIn this way progressive courses of normal-school work could be completed without withdrawing from rural -school service. This alone would\nbe a distinct gain to the teaching supply of the rural schools.\nIncidentally this plan would prove a boon to hundreds of self-supporting young men and women, from whom the best teachers of the state\nare drawn, who would be enabled to work their way thru the normalschool courses, with little difficulty and with little, or no, loss of time\nfrom teaching service.\nIt was believed that the advantages of training received while alternately teaching and attending school would also commend the plan.\nThe plan was subsequently approved by the presidents and faculties\nof the other normal schools of the state and presented to the state normal\nboard for adoption. After full consideration for a year, it was unanimously\nadopted and steps taken to secure the needed appropriation for putting\nthe plan into operation in all of the normal schools of the state. It was\nestimated that an increase of 25 per cent, in revenue would cover the\nexpense of the proposed increase in the length of the school year by 33^\nper cent.\nThe teachers generally thruout the state approved the plan and gave\nit active support. Sixty-two out of eighty of the county superintendents,\nand almost an equal proportion of city superintendents, joined personally in urging upon individual members of the legislature the advantages\nof the plan. No more popular educational measure ever came before\nthe legislature of the state. The year 1897 was not a favorable one in\nwhich to secure appropriations for new or untried measures. The\navowed policy of the legislature was to grant sparingly appropriations for\nthe actual necessities only of the state institutions, but nothing for\nenlargements. Yet, so great was the confidence in the plan, and so earnest was the general demand for it, that the full appropriation asked for\nthe two older schools — at Winona and Mankato — was granted, a larger\nincrease than had ever been granted for extension of normal-school revenues in any one year in the history of the state.\nOn July I, 1897, these two schools entered upon the new plan.\nDuplication of the work of the summer schools was avoided. Students\nwere not admitted for less than a full term or quarter. Those only were\nadmitted to the six-weeks' special courses whose schools would begin\nbefore the close of the quarter. Rural-school teachers were not admitted\nfor less than the full quarter of twelve weeks. At Winona the standard\nof admission was radically advanced to the point of admitting only graduates of high schools or teachers actually in service.\n\n"}
{"page": 426, "printed_page": null, "text": "4l6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chattanooga\n\n»\nAltho the announcement of the plan was not made until late in May,\nand forty county summer schools, enrolling 7,000 members, were in session\nthruout the state, the attendance during the summer was all that could\nbe desired in numbers and surprisingly good in quality. Five hundred\nwere enrolled in the two schools. At Winona 15 per cent, of the enrollment were former graduates of the school, all occupying important positions as teachers in the state, who had returned to avail themselves of this\nopportunity to enter upon the work of the recently extended advanced\ncourse; 40 per cent, were graded- and rural-school teachers; 40 per cent,\nwere high-school graduates. Only 5 per cent, did not belong to one of\nthe above-named classes. The average age was twenty-three years and\nthe average teaching service four years, varying from one term to twenty\nyears.\nIt was predicted by some that the model or training schools could\nnot be maintained during the summer months ; but here again the success was marked, notwithstanding the fact that these are tuition schools.\nMany parents have transferred their children permanently to the model\nschools because of the evident advantages of continuous sessions. In the\nmodel schools promotions occur quarterly. Vacations of one quarter\nmay be taken any quarter of the year, either semi-annually, annually, or\nbiennially ; or the pupils may attend continuously, taking full or partial\nwork with corresponding advancement, if such attendance is deemed\nadvisable.\nThe advantages of these various options are quickly seen, and varying\nplans are chosen to suit individual pupils. The work of last summer's\nquarter was not more exhausting to teachers or pupils than that of any\nother quarter, nor has it appeared to be less efficiently done.\nNo year in the history of the schools has shown so large an increase\nin enrollment as the present. While the lengthened year will show a\nproportionate increase in results in graduates and numbers instructed,\nthe most evident advantages appear in the large number of teachers in\nservice who are preparing to take up regular courses while continuing\ntheir work in teaching; while many students who formerly could not see\nthe way to complete more than the short elementary course now choose\nthe full advanced course under the facilities offered for vacation attendance.\nContinuous sessions do not necessarily involve continuous teaching\nservice by the faculty. Vacations are granted as heretofore, with the\ndifference that any quarter may be selected, subject to the approval of\nthe management of the school; or, by continuous service, vacations may\nbe accumulated to enable a teacher to secure a longer leave of absence.\nAdditional teachers will be employed as assistants in the various departments who will be competent to take the classes of the absent teachers.\nA proposed plan, which is favored by many, provides\nthat each\n\n"}
{"page": 427, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence!\n\nCONTINUOUS\n\nSESSIONS\n\nIN NORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n4J 7\n\nteacher may serve four consecutive quarters and take the fifth quarter for\na vacation. This would bring each successive vacation of any teacher at\na different season of the year.\nStudents are not expected to attend continuously, except by permission of the faculty. It is already found that they are not so averse to\nstopping for rest when it is needed, since work may be resumed at the\nopening of the next quarter. Similarly, students are more willing to\nrepeat work that has been imperfectly done than under the usual plan\nof classification, which imposes the penalty of a year's delay if the work of\na single quarter is lost or repeated.\nUnder the usual plan, normal-school graduates are annually thrown\nupon the market in the month of June, just when the graded-school\nauthorities are seeking teachers to fill vacancies for the following year,\nThe natural result is that the supply is exhausted before the rural-school\nauthorities are ready to act on the employment of teachers for the schools\nto begin later, in October or November. Hence, only the undergraduate\nsupply is left for the rural -school service.\nUnder the Minnesota plan the classes graduating in September,\nDecember, and March will be available for rural-school service. Even\ntho this service shall be brief, because of the competition of the graded\nschools offering a longer year, more certain tenure of appointment, and\nhigher wages, it will be a distinct gain to the rural schools, as well as to\nthe teacher, if he is able to say: \"My first teaching service after graduation was in a rural school.\"\nThe plan was presented to the Committee of Twelve on Rural Schools\nat its meeting in Chicago, and received its indorsement and approval in\nboth the report of the general committee and of the Subcommittee on\nSupply of Teachers.\nThe i6o state normal schools of the United States, equipped with\nbuildings and appliances at an expense of over $17,000,000, graduate\nabout eight thousand teachers annually, which is a small proportion\nof the needed supply; and yet all of these buildings are closed during\nthree months of the year. An additional expenditure of only about\nS6oo,ooo would open every one of these 160 state normal schools for\nthe additional three months of each year, and afford fifty thousand teachers annual vacation opportunities for professional study, in addition to\nall of the advantages of continuous sessions.\n\nDISCUSSION\nSuperintendent R. K. Buehrle, Lancaster, Pa. — Swayed chiefly by motives of\neconomy, continuous sessions have been held at the Winona Normal School, and the\n\n"}
{"page": 428, "printed_page": null, "text": "41 8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chattanooga\n\nexperiment is reported a success. The utilization of the plant, the saving in the cost of\nfuel, and in the students' expenses, is very desirable, and, when regarded only from the\nfinancial side, the plan deserves commendation. It is also claimed as an advantage that\ncontinuous sessions would enable professors, if they prefer to do so, after several years'\nservice, to obtain a vacation of an entire year at a time — an advantage over a few weeks, or\neven months, every year — and that three or four graduating classes a year would enable\nthe directors of rural schools to secure graduates as teachers for their schools, which they\ncannot do when there is but one class a year. Finally, it is suggested that, if successful,\nthe holding of continuous sessions might extend itself into the schools generally to great\neconomic advantage.\nIt is natural that this suggestion of change should emanate from the West, which is\nless restrained by precedent, where social custom and tradition are less strong than in\nthe East, and where freedom and audacity consequently flourish. Yet efforts in this\ndirection have been made at Harvard, where Professor Shaler reports that it was found\nnecessary to increase the length and frequency of vacations.\nIt must be confessed at the outset that the simian motive is still too powerful in the\neducational field, and that imitation is never productive of the highest art, and that the\nchallenging of that which is and requiring it to give a reason for its existence is, therefore, ahopeful sign of intellectual and moral life.\nIt is not expected of me that I should point out the advantages to be gained by these\nchanges. That has been sufficiently attended to in the paper just read. It is expected\nof me rather to attempt to peer into the future, and from reason and experience to demonstrate the evils to be apprehended when the change has done its perfect work.\n\"Almost thou persuadest me \" that these changes should be made at once in as many\nof our normal schools and higher institutions of learning as will best accommodate the\nteachers in actual service who desire to attend during their vacation. A short summer\nsession — a special course of study adapted to the wants of practical teachers, both\narranged, as far as possible, in such manner and under such conditions as will justify the\ngraduation in due time of such vacation students — would seem to have much in their favor.\nSuch changes would fulfill all economic requirements as regards utilizing the plant, without depriving the regular professors and students of their much-needfed rest and recreation.\nIt would not disturb the regular normal-school work, brought to its present state of excellence by long years of study and experiment.\nBut even thus the change is not wholly desirable, for it will most likely 6ause teachers\nto enter their profession with less preparation,, in the hope and expectation of gradually\nadding to their literary qualifications in those summer schools, and it would seem that\nnormal schools especially ought to regard it as incumbent on them to do all in their power\nto render this less possible. It also suggests too much mental application while teaching.\nThere is a limit to mental exertion which should be borne in mind by none more than by\nthe teacher, whose energies are severely taxed by his daily, mentally exhausting labors,\nand who, when true to his calling, gives away his life to perform his task ; for all sympathetic action demands liberal expenditure of energy. From his inmost heart rises his\nGod-given force, the sacred celestial life-essence, breathed into him by Almighty God ;\nhence it is inevitable that exhausted nature will find relief in routine, and that the\nelement of lively sympathy, on which the real value of the service depends, will be\nlost ; and lassitude will be visible on the teacher's platform — all the greater because of\nthe increasing preponderance of women in the profession, whose application to books,\nwhose sympathy, is greater and more readily responsive, but whose energy is less, and less\npersistent. It is no reply to tell us that this has thus far not been experienced, for the\nexperiment has not been in operation sufficiently long to manifest these effects. There is\nalways a reserve force to meet special needs, but by and by this will also be expended,\nand then these effects will be very sure to make their appearance.\nEven where summer schools have been most successful, as judged by the time of their\n\n"}
{"page": 429, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nCONTINUOUS\n\nSESSIONS\n\nIN NORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n419\n\ncontinuance, as at Harvard and at Lake Chautauqua, they have provided largely for social\nintercourse, for open-air and experimental and lecture courses, and only sparingly for\nstudy from books ; and the studies which made the greatest demand on the reason, as,\nfor instance, mathematics, were pursued by small classes, if at all. The fact is that too\nmuch importance has come to be attached to schools and books as creators of character.\n\"Among the Greeks, to whom we are yet going to school in philosophy, in literature, and\nin art, the number of readers, even in the educated classes, was not large.\" \" Men\nremembered and thought about what they heard.\" \" Education is not the imparting of\nknowledge, but the teaching to think.\" It should be constantly remembered that one's\ncalling is to serve him, and not he the calling ; that work is a means, whose great end\nis the creation of character. Hence the man or the woman must not be lost sight of in\nthe teacher. To him or to her, above many others, is the need of association with men\nconversant with the great affairs of the world imperative. Accustomed to command, to\nlook down upon inferiors at least in intellect, the coming in contact with superior minds\nacts like a tonic. \" The heroes of mankind are the mountains, the highlands of the moral\nworld.\" \"Surely if the worst of men were snatched into paradise for only half an hour,\nhe would come back the better for it.\"\nThe sin of our age is haste ; we live too fast — indeed, we pride ourselves most on our\nspeed ; no cathedrals consuming centuries in their completion for us. The study of\nmind which Socrates began with men, children finish with us ; but behold the difference\nin the character of the work. Lack of moderation is characteristic of youth and the\ncurse of America. Hence the department store, overwork, overtime, Sunday work, the\nstrike, and the tramp culminating in the commonwealer. Not more work, but more workers, is the need of the hour.\nContinuous sessions would make it very difiBcult to maintain our large, interesting,\nand inspiring educational meetings of teachers, now so generally held during the long\nsummer vacations, and whose success is to a great extent due to the presence and active\nparticipation of normal-school principals and teachers.\nPerhaps the chief consideration that still demands attention is the climate. Suppose,\nfor the sake of the argument, that continuous sessions are a success in the serene atmosphere of the height of land, that would not prove that the same, or any, measure of success would crown a similar course in other parts of the country under less favorable\nclimatic conditions. All over the world physical circumstances control the human race.\nIsothermal lines modify the thinker and the thought. Our union is almost the size of\nEurope, where school laws and regulations recognize difference of climate in fixing the\ntime of vacations.\nMust we not do the same here?\nMoreover, with us this difference is intensified by the various components which enter\ninto our population. We are all Americans, but we have not been able to lay aside the\nconstitution derived from the fatherland with our allegiance to it. Hence, what may be\nsalutary to the citizen of Minnesota, compounded of Scandinavian, German, and Englishman, will not be adapted to the citizen of Louisiana, boasting of French and Creole blood.\nThe time of our vacations might, no doubt, profitably receive our serious consideration.\nIs the cold of winter the best time to keep our schools open? Should the older and the\nyounger pupils attend during the same time of the year? Should the vacation occur at the\nsame time of the year in the city and in the country? Should common schools be opened\nfor men and women at certain seasons of the year, when little or no work is to be had,\nnot only in the city, but also in the rural districts? Is there to be much of mediaevalism\nsurviving even as regards our vacations? Has the time as well as the duration been fixed\nby monks best acquainted with the sunny lands of Europe, and hence best adapted to\nthat climate?\nFinally, is a rearrangement of the course, so as to graduate four classes a year,\neconomy? Will not the evils resulting from the disturbances and excitements of four\ncommencements instead of one — -small classes, lack of interest and regularity in entering\n\n"}
{"page": 430, "printed_page": null, "text": "42 o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chattanooga\n\nand departing from the school — more than counterbalance the advantages promised\nfrom the work of the few additional weeks of the previous vacations, even the mental\nenergy and vivacity remained unimpaired? Nor are continuous sessions at all necessary\nin order to supply graduates for the rural schools. There is another way of accomplishing this, namely : let the directors of these schools engage their teachers while yet in class,\nconditionally on their graduation. But I imagine — and the reader of the paper grants\nthis — that the supply is not equal to the demand, and so the rural districts, less attractive\nfinancially and socially, cannot secure them. Now, increasing the number of classes will\nnot necessarily increase the number of graduates. This will be done only when more persons enter and remain in the classes until they graduate, and they will do this when\ngreater inducements are offered in the profession.\nD. L. Ellis, supervisor of public schools, Asheville, N. C. — There seems to be\nsome confusion as to what is meant by \" vacation schools,\" judging from the papers\nread by the distinguished gentlemen who preceded me. It is my purpose to discuss the\ntopic as I understood it, i. e., the vacation school for teachers, and not for pupils of the\npublic charge.\nHere, in these states of the South, our needs are peculiar and urgent for some sort of\ntraining or culture schools for the better education of those who assume the great and\nmomentous task of instructing our youth. This need will be apparent to you when I say\nthat 90 per cent, of our teachers are scholastically, not to say pedagogically, ignorant.\nTo determine accurately the facts among my own teachers, numbering 150, I sent\nout recently an \" information blank,\" and the result showed about ten of that number\nhad received some sort of college or normal training ; the others only the culture of the\n\" old field schools.\" We ought not to wonder at this, in view of the fact that the statistics show that our average school year is only sixty-three days, and the average salary\nof teachers is only $23 per school month. What is true of this one county in North\nCarolina is approximately true of the whole rural system of all our southern states.\nNow, the remedy for this woeful condition must be found in some sort of training\nschools, so located as to be accessible to the majority of those who teach, and of such\nlength of term as shall make it possible for a regular course of study, in which these\npupil-teachers shall do the work themselves, under expert supervision and direction. We\nhave for a score of years wasted precious time and treasure on the so-called weekly\ncounty institutes, at which \" windy \" theories and impossible conditions were talked at the\nhungry victims of this stupidity, and the poor teachers went home either vague in their\nconceptions of the teacher's work, or else totally discouraged.\nThe \"state normals\" could not reach the teachers, for the expense of attending\nthese widely separated schools precluded the possibility of many of the teachers attending them. Hence, I am frank to urge that the only solution of the question is to bring\nthese schools to the teachers in the counties themselves. At least two of these schools,\nof two months' session, should be located in every county in the state, officered by the\nvery best and most skillful women teachers to be had. I say women teachers, Mr. President, advisedly. Ninety-nine per cent, of the work of our rural schools is of the lowest\nprimary sort ; hence, logically, the training must lie along those subjects of primary\nschools, and only women are competent to do this work in its truest and best aspect.\nThese schools must be located in the country, and not in the towns, where a low rate of\nboard, not exceeding $5 per school month, can be secured. Let us remember that these\nteachers are miserably poor, and not able to pay for anything ; yet there is no other equal\nnumber of men and women more courageous and heroic than these ; they are worthy\nour best efforts to help them to a higher power, and, helping them, we shall raise all our\nchildren to that noble state of life which is the birthright of an intelligent citizenship.\nBishop Goodsell, of the Methodist Episcopal church. — Tho I entered the\nassembly without the slightest thought of making an address, I should have a colder\nheart than I have if I were not moved by this opportunity, and a duller mind\n\n"}
{"page": 431, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nCONTINUOUS\n\nSESSIONS\n\nJN NORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n421\n\nihan I have if I were not stirred by what I heard here this morning. You will\npermit me, as a resident of Chattanooga, to add to the welcome you have already had, and\nto express my great pleasure that our city is honored by such a distinguished body of\ninstructors. It has been a joy to me to meet among you some loving and loved friends\nand to renew acquaintance with some \"whom I knew in former days, but of whom my\nknowledge has, of late, been, as scientific men say, in a condition of \" arrested development.\"\nReferring to the subject under dliscussion, I wish to express my warm sympathy with\nthose who have here advocated periods of rest for teachers and taught.\n,\n\n'\" Hewho worketh always,\nWorking without rest,\nNever thinks his greatest.\nNever does his best.\"\n\nThe Master whom I serve found it needful to go into a desert place to rest awhile.\nHis human nature was refreshed by communing with that other nature which as a God he\nhad created. We, his children, have greater need of the same refreshing influence. The\nman who scaled \" the iced mountain top, where birds dare not build nor insects' wing\nflit o'er the deathless granite,\" is a mightier and broader man for his climb. We must\nnot forget that the greatest seers and the greatest poets have been men who chiefly\nbreathed the country air. A city street is a limitation. From its pavement one sees but\na narrow lane of God's stars ; but a ribbon-width of heaven's blue. The city poet is apt\nto sing pleasant ditties to \" My Lady's Eyebrows.\" But the poet of the country, or at\nleast he who refreshes himself with nature, sings of God's greatest forces and of his\ngreatest works. He who cannot sing can yet feel ; and he who feels little can yet absorb\nsomewhat. It has been my lot to work in every state in this union, in every country in\nEurope, in Japan, China, Corea ; but in no country have I found myself beyond the law of\nrest for inspiration. The emptied pond must have time to gather power for the wheel,\nelse speech issues into vacuity and labor into senility.\nEspecially do these vacation periods stand related helpfully to you in your great\nservice in assimilating our diverse peoples into one potent nationality. I salute you for\nthe great part you have in this mighty, this difficult, but as yet successful task. More\nthan forty years ago the poet Saxe perceived its weight where he catalogued the strains\nof blood which are woven into our national life :\nEnglish and Irish, French and Spanish,\nGerman, Italian, Dutch and Danish,\nCrossing their veins until they vanish\nIn one conglomeration !\nSo subtile a tangle of blood, indeed,\nNo heraldry -Harvey will ever succeed\nIn finding the circulation !\n\nBut all teachers. Christian and secular, are finding that circulation. The churches,\nthe schools, all the appliances of our civilization, are doing great things in this great\nwork. The proof is at hand ; it is passing beyond prophecy into fact that a new\npeople of special genius is now to be formed. You are helping form it. Under your\nileft fingers comes the plastic matter of young life. From this young life is to come\nthe larger life under richer conditions of the republic. Our genius is not to be the genius\nof any.one nation, like that of the Greeks for art, but a summary of the special genius of\nall the nations which contribute to our life — that genius you are to tutor. May you be\nenriched for your work.\n\n"}
{"page": 432, "printed_page": null, "text": "42 2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nGRADING\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chattanooea\n\nAND PROMOTION WITH REFERENCE\nINDIVIDUAL NEEDS OF PUPILS\n\nTO THE\n\n[remarks\n\nBY\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nintroductory\n\nEDWARD\nNEW\n\nR.\nYORK\n\nto following\n\nSHAW,\nSCHOOL\nUNIVERSITY\n\nPAPERSI\n\nOF\n\nPEDAGOGY,\n\nThe subject before us for discussion this afternoon is not only an\nimportant one, but it is also a timely one, inasmuch as various attempts\nare being made in different parts of this country to advance pupils as\nfast as possible, instead of holding them for regular yearly and semiyearly promotions.\nThis is not the first time that this problem has been before the Department of Superintendence. At its Boston meeting, in 1893, Superintendent Cogswell presented a most suggestive and commendable plan for\nthe completion of the grammar-school course in three different periods\nof time and in four ways. At the meeting of the department at Cleveland, in 1895, another plan was presented. The presentation of plans\nhere today will be much larger than the department has heretofore had\nthe pleasure of listening to.\nIn all attempts at grading and promotion with reference to the\nindividual needs of pupils there are certain conditions which must be\nreckoned with and which must, on no account, be lost sight of.\nThe problem must be considered from two points of view — the needs\nof pupils, on the one hand, and, on the other, the demands imposed by\nthe course of study and the school system itself.\nWith reference to the needs of pupils, the superintendent must first\ntake into consideration the different degrees of natural ability on the\npart of the pupils who compose the school. Secondly, he must consider\nthe rapid and slow stages of mental growth that occur in nearly every\npupil. The third factor in the problem, from the standpoint of the pupil,\nis the matter of the absence of pupils from school and some means of\nmaking up the time lost by such absence ; this absence arising either from\nsickness, or from an embargo laid by the board of health upon homes\nand localities where infectious diseases have been prevalent.\nWith reference to the second point of view, the problem must be considered with reference to the demands of a proper course of study. The\nnewer conception of what should constitute a course of study must not be\nsacrificed or violated in any scheme for the irregular promotion of pupils.\nIt is not a difficult matter to move pupils on thru the grades at\nirregular intervals when the acquirement of so much book knowledge in\na formal way is all that is required.\nThe problem becomes a much more\n\n"}
{"page": 433, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nGRADING\n\nAND\n\nPROMOTION\n\n423\n\nserious and difficult one when constant provision is made for the thought\nside of education as above the formal side. The real test, then, of any\nplan of promotion with reference to the individual needs of pupils must\nlie in its power to satisfy our newer conception of the course of study and\nour newer ideas of teaching.\nConsidered with reference to the school system, the value of any such\nplan of grading and promotion depends upon whether that plan can be\ntransmitted and carried out by a superintendent's successor. Unless this\nis possible, the plan will not satisfy. A system or plan of promotion that\nis a paternal one — in other words, one that has to be cared for from week\nto week according as exigencies may arise — is not a plan that will commend itself to the minds of progressive and yet conservative schoolmen.\nThe problem, then, of grading and promotion to meet the individual\nneeds of pupils is a large problem, and one that must be considered carefully and conservatively.\n\nSOME NEW-ENGLAND\nPLANS AND\nFROM A STUDY OF GRADLNG\n\nBY\n\nDR.\n\nJOHN\n\nT.\n\nPRINCE,\n\nAGENT\n\nCONCLUSIONS DRAWN\nAND\nPROMOTION\n\nMASSACHUSETTS\n\nBOARD\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION\n\nThere is no question of school organization at present more important\nthan that of a proper adjustment of conditions to the needs of individual\npupils. The assumption upon which most courses of study seem to be\nbased, that just so much ground must be gone over with equal thoroness by all pupils in the same time, is the greatest bane of our publicschool system. The courses in use are probably intended to meet the\nneeds and capacity of pupils of average ability. Such is the difference\nof ability, however, between the brightest third and the dullest third of\nalmost every class of pupils that the work thus required is enfeebling to\none part, while it is discouraging or unduly excessive to the other. To\nneither group is there the stimulus of success with effort. To one group\nthere is success without effort ; to the other there is effort without success.\nThe difficulty, it is feared, is enhanced by the want of ability or inclination\non the part of many teachers to adapt each lesson's requirements to the\ncapacity of individual members of the class.\nThere are some signs of reaction against a system which encourages\nor permits a dead uniformity of ability and effort. The only fear is that\nthe opposite extreme of individualism will be sought as a remedy. As\nbetween the practice by which forty or fifty pupils of all degrees of ability\nare required to do the same work with nearly equal efficiency, and a return\nto individual teaching such as was carried on in ungraded schools forty\n\n"}
{"page": 434, "printed_page": null, "text": "424\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chattanooea\n\nyears ago, there is but little choice, altho the ill effects of the two\npractices must be felt in widely different ways. But a choice between\nthese extremes of practice ought not to be necessary. No more useful\nservice can be rendered the public schools than that of devising ways by\nwhich the benefits of a class system of teaching will be secured, and at the\nsame time such an adjustment of work be made as will permit pupils of\nvaried abilities to do the most for themselves. To this task many educators have given much time and effort of late. Out of all the plans that\nhave been devised there should be found some which can be readily\nadapted to any conditions that are likely to exist. It is evident that no\none scheme will do for all. A classification which can be made in large\nschools should not be made in small ones, and a system of promotions\nthat is feasible in small ungraded schools would be wholly inoperative\nin large graded ones.\nIn response to letters of inquiry to prominent school superintendents\nthruout the country, concerning plans of classification and promotion,\nover eighty replies have been received, from which the following facts\nand conclusions are gathered.\nIt is pleasant also to record the fact that in only four cities is the\ndetermining element for admission to the high school the superintendent's\nexamination alone. The teachers' judgment alone generally determines\nthe class in which the pupils of the primary schools are placed. Promotions from grade to grade in the grammar schools of about two-thirds of\nthe places reported are based upon the combined judgment of the class\nteacher and that of the superintendent, or principal. In a few instances\nthe examination by the superintendent, or principal, is made the determining element in all doubtful cases only, or cases in which the teacher is\nnot able to decide.\nThe intervals between classes or grades, in about two-thirds of the\ncities and towns reporting, are one year. In the other third the intervals\nare one half year or less. In the report of the Commissioner of Education for 1890-91 returns from 465 cities and towns of over 4,000 inhabitants show the proportion of short intervals to be much greater than this.\nSeveral places report shorter intervals for the primary schools than for\nthe grammar schools.\nThe methods of promotion will first be considered of those places in\nwhich the intervals between the classes are one year.\nIn about one-half of the cities and towns reporting, special provision\nis made for individual promotions or promotions out of course. Where\nno such provision is made, there are reported either few individual promotions or none at all. Quite a number of superintendents report that\nthe matter is left with teachers, with the request that pupils be promoted\nwhenever they are qualified ; but in such cases there is either no report\nof the number of individual promotions, or else the number of such pro-\n\n"}
{"page": 435, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence!\n\nGRADING\n\nAND\n\nPROMOTION\n\n425\n\nmotions is so small that they may be said to be rare exceptions. A few\nsuperintendents seem opposed to double promotions, on the ground that\nsome portion of the course is either done slightingly or else entirely\nomitted, or, as one superintendent says, \"good pupils are spoiled by being\nadvanced beyond their depth, merely because they are bright.\"\nWhere special provision is made for advancing pupils out of course,\nthe widest difference of practice and of results is reported. In some cases\nthe teachers are asked to report all pupils who by superior scholarship or\nby maturity are deserving of promotion out of course. A list of such\npupils is kept by the principal or superintendent, and special facilities are\nafforded those who desire to be advanced. A few superintendents cause\neach grade to be divided into two sections, according to scholarship,\nthus enabling pupils to pass more easily from one grade to another during the year. In the primary schools the pupils of a single class or grade\nare sometimes divided into three sections or groups in the same way.\nIn one city where the latter plan is followed a modified form of the monitorial system is followed, in which pupils from the highest grades often\nhear pupils of the lower grades in reading, either individually or in groups\nof two or three.\nSeveral cities and a few towns report the opening of an ungraded\nschool in each of the large graded-school buildings. In this school are\nplaced backward pupils or pupils who cannot be readily classified in existing classes. Here, too, are pupils who are trying to get into a higher\ngrade. The superintendents in their letters and reports speak in unqualified terms of the great good accomplished by the establishment of these\nungraded schools. In some places the same end is reached by one or\nmore assistants going from school to school in a building to assist backward pupils or pupils who are trying to get into an advanced division.\nA number of superintendents whose schools haVe the one-year interval between the classes report a plan of dividing the classes into small\nsections in two or three essential subjects, and of permitting pupils who\ndo especially well in those subjects to be pushed forward. Elizabeth,\nN. J., is a conspicuous example of this kind of classification.\nOf other plans followed in schools having one-year intervals between\nthe classes, a few will be given somewhat in detail.\nThe plan pursued in Cambridge, Mass., deals only with the grammarschool course, which is supposed to cover six years' time of pupils of\naverage ability. A few weeks after the pupils enter the grammar school\nin September, they are separated into two divisions according to ability,\none division called Grade A and the other division called fourth grade.\nThe pupils of Grade A move forward with the aim of completing the\nprescribed grammar-school course in four years, succeeding grades being\ncalled B, C, and D. The pupils of the fourth grade go forward more\nslowly, aiming to do each year only one-sixth of the work prescribed for\n\n"}
{"page": 436, "printed_page": null, "text": "426\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nLChattanooga\n\nthe grammar school. The grades of these pupils in succeeding years are\nknown as fifth, sixth, seventh, eighth, and ninth. At the beginning of\nthe second year the pupils of what was Grade A, now called Grade B, go\ninto a room with pupils of the sixth grade. During the first part of the\nyear the pupils of the sixth grade are in advance of the pupils of Grade B,\nbut, owing to the superior ability of the latter division, they all come\ntogether during the latter part of the year. At the beginning of the\nthird year precisely the same conditions exist as existed at the beginning\nof the first year. The pupils of Grade C recite with the pupils of the\nseventh grade for a few weeks, when a readjustment is made, the abler\npupils moving on at a pace sufficiently rapid to finish the course in two\nyears, leaving the others to finish it in three years.\nThe fifth-grade pupils are alone in a room under one teacher, during\nan entire year. The same is true of the eighth-grade pupils. In all other\nrooms there are two grades or divisions, one belonging to the four-years'\ncourse and the other to the six-years' course.\nA pupil who begins with the fourth grade and remains in the slower\ndivision to the end of the course will graduate in six years, unless he has\nto repeat. A pupil who begins with Grade A and remains in the more\nrapid division to the end of the course will graduate in four years. A\npupil at the end of the sixth grade or of Grade B may go on with the\nslower or more rapid division and complete the course in five years.\nThus it will be seen that the entire course of study may be finished in\nfour, five, or six years, depending upon the strength or ability of the\npupils, and all without the omission or repetition of any part of the\ncourse.\nAll promotions, both from the grammar to the high school and from\ngrade to grade, are made by the class teachers, under the direction of the\nprincipal and superintendent. No preannounced examinations are given,\nbut there are frequent written reviews given by the teacher, the results of\nwhich help to determine the fitness of the pupils to go forward. One\nfeature of the plan which has helped it to succeed is that of the employment of a special teacher in each building whose business it is to assist\npupils who are behind in their classes in any studies, or who are trying\nto get in an advanced class. This assistance, however, is no essential\npart of the plan. It may be used with advantage in carrying out any\nplan.\nOf the 467 grammar-school graduates in the year 1896, 8 per cent,\ncompleted the course in four years, 33 per cent, in five years, 49 per cent,\nin six years, and 10 per cent, in seven or more years.\nOne good evidence of the benefits gained by the plan is the kind of\nwork which is done by the pupils after leaving the grammar school. The\nrecord of pupils in all grades and courses of the high schools during the\npast three years shows that those who finished the grammar-school course\n\n"}
{"page": 437, "printed_page": null, "text": "SuperimendcnceJ\n\nGRADING\n\nAND\n\nPROMOTION\n\n427\n\nin four and five years had a higher standing than those who took six or\nmore years in finishing the course.\nTo the criticism that this plan of classification can be used only in\nlarge systems of schools, or in large buildings, it may be said that in one\nof the Cambridge schools, where the plan is in full and successful operation, there are only 330 pupils, distributed in six rooms, one room having\neighty pupils, with two teachers. Of the present graduating class, numbering fifty pupils, four will probably have completed the nine-years'\ncourse in six years at the time of graduation, twelve in seven years, sixteen in eight years, fifteen in nine years, and three in ten years.\nAdded testimony to the adaptation of this plan to a small system of\nschools is found in Middleboro, Mass., whose enrollment of pupils is\nabout 1,100, the enrollment in the three buildings where the plan is in\noperation being 474, with eleven teachers. Of the present graduating\nclass, numbering fifty, about fifteen will complete the course in one year\nless than the prescribed time.\nIn Woburn, Mass., a plan of \"double promotions\" has been in operation for some years, and has been attended with good results. In the\nprimary schools the interval between classes is made short by dividing\nthe pupils into small sections. As there are three or more sections in\neach room, the class intervals are so short as to permit frequent changes, the\nsection rather than the grade being the unit of promotion. The nominal\n-time for the completion of the primary-school course is three years, but\nmany complete it in much less time. In each of the grammar grades the\nessential features of the entire work prescribed for the year are taken during the first half year, and those pupils who have successfully performed\nthe work, especially in language and arithmetic, at the end of the half\nyear, are promoted to the next higher grade. During the second half\nyear a more minute study of the topics in language and arithmetic already\npursued is made, by which an opportunity is afforded for new pupils to\ndo the work of the grade, and for those who have done it imperfectly, to\nreview it. By this plan bright pupils are given the opportunity of passing thru two grades in one year. The number of pupils who won\nmid-year promotions last year in the grammar grades was 129, of whom\n104 received a second promotion at the end of the year. The number\nof mid-year promotions in 1895 in the same grades was 315. Of this\nnumber all but seventy-eight were again promoted at the end of the\nyear. The present total enrollment in the ninth grade is 145 ; of\nthese three have completed the nine-years' course in six years, ten in\nseven years, thirty-three in eight years, and ninety-nine in nine or ten\nyears.\nIn Keene, N. H., a plan has been in operation for three years which\nembodies some features of plans already described. Its resemblance to\nthe Cambridge plan consists in the division of two grades into A and B\n\n"}
{"page": 438, "printed_page": null, "text": "42 8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chattanooga\n\nsections, one of which goes forward at a more rapid pace than the other,\nwith opportunity for pupils to cover a six-years' course in four or five\nyears. Its plan of reviews at stated times for the convenience of those\nwho omit some portions of the work, as well as for those who need more\ndrill in the subjects reviewed, resembles in some respects one of the\nessential features of the Woburn plan. In the Keene plan, the A or\nadvancing divisions do not work ahead in all subjects, but only in those\nsubjects in which consecutive work is necessary, as grammar and arithmetic\n— thereby resembling in one important respect the plans followed in\nElizabeth and Woburn. There are other features of the Keene plan which\nare unique and show the value of skillful planning and careful oversight.\nThere are ten grades below the high school. Of 1,056 pupils belonging\nlast year, forty-eight special promotions were made during the year. In\nthe present graduating class of sixty four in the grammar school, fourteen\nwill have completed the course in nine years, four in eight years, and one\nin seven years.\nThe reports of plans of promotions in schools having short intervals\nbetween the classes are almost as varied as those already referred to. In\nnearly all of these schools the reported number of double promotions\nduring the past year far exceeds the number reported from schools where\nclass intervals are one year in length. The percentage of such promotions, based upon the number of pupils enrolled, ranges from 3 to\n30 per cent. In a majority of this class of schools there are twentyweek intervals between the classes, regular promotions being made twice\na year. When two sections twenty weeks apart recite in one room to the\nsame teacher, transfers from the lower to the higher division are said to\nbe comparatively easy to make. Sometimes the classes, especially when\nthey are large, are separated into two or more divisions, making the intervals\nbetween the divisions only ten or twelve weeks. This arrangement is not\nunlike that which is made in several cities and towns, by which all the pupils\nare divided into small sections according to attainments, with provision for\npromotions at the end of eight, ten, or; twelve weeks. There are some\ndifferences in the details of plans followed, but, in general, the principle\nrecognized is the same, which is to make as short intervals between the\nclasses as possible, with frequent promotions. This principle was applied\nin the classification of the elementary schools of St. Louis, twenty-five years\nago, .under the direction of Dr. Harris, now Commissioner of Education.'\nOf the cities in this country which have adopted this plan, in whole or\nin part, Dayton, O., may be mentioned as a conspicuous example. Of\nthe plan in Dayton, Superintendent White writes :\nThe aim is to have from thirty to thirty-five pupils in each room. The work is\nassigned for the year by grades. The pupils of each grade are assigned to rooms, as\nbefore stated, commencing with the one having the highest standing, and so on down to\n'See report of the St. Louis school board for 1871-72.\n\n"}
{"page": 439, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence!\n\nGRADING\n\nAND\n\nPROMOTION\n\n429\n\nthe end. In districts where there are several rooms of the same grade it makes classification very close and enables the teacher to present the work to each class in such a manner as to be within the comprehension of each individual child. Each of these rooms is\nagain divided into two classes, according to standing, and the work is presented to the\ntwo groups separately. When the work \"for the ensuing year is completed, the pupils of\nany group, or any particular pupil in the group, may be advanced to the next higher grade\nat any time within the year.\n\nIt is asserted by some that this plan is only adapted to the schools of\nlarge cities, or to schools of large size. Two cities of small size report\nthat they are following the plan essentially with success — Le Mars, la.,\nand Centralia, 111. Of the work in Le Mars, Superintendent Coleman\nwrites :\nOur class intervals are short. In the primaries they are from six to eight weeks, in\nthe grammar grades from eight to twelve. At intervals varying somewhat, each class is\nreviewed back to the next lower class ; but all pupils very strong in the work, as indicated\nby the recommendation of the teacher, are excused from said review, and are promoted\nto the class that reviews to meet them. Our rate of progress between these reviews is\ndetermined largely by the ability of the stronger members of the class, as we expect the\nothers to review soon. This is our sixth year on this plan, and we find an increasingly\nlarge number of pupils ready for the promotions.\nWe have admitted three classes into our high school this year — one in September,\none the first of November, and one in December. There are forty-nine pupils in these\nthree cla.sses ; five of them took ten years to complete their preparation for the high\nschool ; five took nine years ; eight took eight years ; thirteen took seven years ; fifteen\ntook six years ; two took five years ; and one took four years.\n\nIn the Centralia schools, 425 pupils of 1,374 — the whole number\nbelonging — were promoted out of course last year, or over 30 per cent.\nOf the plan pursued Superintendent Mather says :\nOur system of promotion has to do largely with the individual pupil. Each grade\nis divided into A and B sections. No grade in the system is more than six weeks, or\nseven, beyond the next lower. When a pupil, in the judgment of the teachers, is able to do\nthe work of the grade beyond, he is promoted to it. With my strong teachers — those of\ngood judgment— I permit the recommendation to take the place of an examinatioii. Every\nmonth and many times every week pupils are promoted. By keeping the grades thus far\napart, the school is not disorganized, and sufficient encouragement is given to all pupils.\n\nThus far I have given, somewhat in detail, the plans of grading and\npromotion culled from letters and reports which are in actual operation\nin this country. They express in forcible terms the feeling of opposition\nquite generally felt in progressive centers to the lockstep marching by\nplatoons from grade to grade, which still characterizes the practice of\ngrading and promotions in many schools of both hemispheres.\nIn all the examples given there is doubtless much that is good. It is\nevident, owing to varied circumstances, that no one plan is suited to all\nplaces; and yet it is possible to select certain common elements of excellence and from them derive some principles of value to all who are seeking to solve the difficult problem of making such grading and promotions\nas will give individual pupils the largest measure of opportunity.\nTo\n\n"}
{"page": 440, "printed_page": null, "text": "430\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[ChattanooBa\n\nthese principles I will add some conclusions of my own, based upon\nexperience and observation, and upon opinions from trustworthy sources.\n1. As to length of intervals between the classes, it is significant\nthat, altho in my recent inquiry only about one-third of the places\nreported shorter intervals than one year, and in the investigation made\nby Commissioner Harris in 1893 the proportion of places having short\nintervals was but a little greater, the opinions of superintendents, as shown\nin the latter investigation, very generally favored the shorter interval ;\nonly sixty-five out of 425 reporting as being in favor of the one-year\ninterval. I place, therefore, first among the principles of grading the\nmaking of as short intervals between the classes as circumstances will\npermit. In a collection of children numbering one hundred or more the\ngradation should be of such a kind as to permit intervals of one-half year\nor less in at least two branches of study, and where the number of children ismore than two hundred, such intervals may profitably exist in nearly\nall the required studies. Where the numbers warrant it, as in buildings\nhaving four hundred or more pupils, the intervals should be nine or ten\nweeks in all subjects, and may be less than that in some subjects. Where\nthe number of pupils covering the entire course must be placed under the\ncharge of two teachers, their distribution will depend upon circumstances,\nsuch as the relative number of advanced pupils, number of beginners, etc.\nBut generally it may be said that a little more than half of the work usually assigned to the course should be given to the primary teacher and\nthe rest to the grammar-school teacher. An arrangement of classes in\nboth rooms should be made by which the intervals are less than one year\nbetween classes in sequential subjects, like reading and number in the\nlower grades, and arithmetic and grammar in the upper grades. With\nsuch classification pupils should be permitted to recite in advanced division in any one or two subjects, whenever they show ability to do the\nwork of that division, with a view of working up into a higher grade in all\nsubjects.\n2. Where the work of one teacher must cover the entire course, close\ngradation in all subjects should be avoided. The pupils may be heard\ntogether, or in two or three divisions, in all subjects whose parts are not\nclosely dependent, like language, nature study, geography, history, and\nliterature. In other subjects, as arithmetic and grammar, and some parts\nof reading, the school should be divided into four or more divisions.\nPupils should be permitted to recite in any division or in any subject in\nwhich they can do the most for themselves, and be permitted to pass\nfrom one division to another whenever they show that it is for their advantage to do so. The more advanced divisions in some subjects may be\nheard two or three times a week, with correspondingly long lessons assigned\nif they are full-time subjects. The number of daily recitations in rural\nschools will depend upon circumstances, but should not exceed twenty.\n\n"}
{"page": 441, "printed_page": null, "text": "SuperintcndenceJ\n\nGRADING\n\nAND\n\nPROMOTION\n\n43 >\n\n3. The course of studies as far as possible should be made so as to\nassist the teacher in adapting the work assigned and called for to the abilities of all pupils in every class. This can be done by designating important or principal features which must be taken by all for a proper understanding ofthe subjects, and by suggesting supplementary work that may\nbe done profitably by pupils after they have acquired the necessary portions, and while they are waiting for others who have not acquired them.\n4. Regular times of grade or class promotions are desirable, with\nspecial arrangements for the promotion of individual pupils, or of sections of pupils, whenever they show_ their ability to perform the work of a\nsubsequent grade. A specific plan for irregular as well as for regular promotions should be made and carried out by the principal or superintendent.\nAs a rule, merely general directions or a reliance upon the judgment of\nthe teacher to promote pupils out of course is not sufficient to meet the\nrequirements of all cases.\n5. \" Double promotions,\" where the intervals between the classes are\none year or more, and where there is no arrangement by which the work\nin sequential subjects of all grades is covered, may be a benefit to some\npupils in the saving of time, but are likely to be attended with dangers\nthat do not offset the benefit gained. If the course of studies is what it\nshould be, there is in \"skipping \" a portion of the work a loss which cannot be easily made up.\n6. Pupils should not be heard in recitation together in all subjects,\nbut should be separated into two or more divisions, one division of pupils\nbeing given an opportunity for study while others are reciting. In some\nexercises, all the pupils of a grade may recite together, as in penmanship,\nand some kinds of language and nature study, in the lower grades, and in\nsome forms of written and oral reviews in the upper grades. In some\nsubjects, like arithmetic and grammar, at least three divisions of a class\nmay with profit be made. In large buildings the divisions may be distributed in the rooms on the basis of those subjects in which the shorter\ninterval is made; that is, two or three divisions in arithmetic, constituting\none class or grade, may be placed together in one room.\n7. Promotions from grade to grade should not depend upon examinations made by a person other than a class teacher. In general, the class\nteacher should determine the promotion or non-promotion of all pupils\nwhose ability or non-ability to perform the work of the subsequent grade\nis unquestioned by her. The place of all other pupils should be determined\nby the principal or superintendent, by means of exanfinations and such\nother evidence of their ability as is attainable.\n8. Provision should be made in the course of studies for reviews at such\ntimes and in such subjects as will permit rapidly advancing pupils to lose\nno part of the work outlined in the course.\n9. Whenever it can be done, the help of one or more assistant teachers\n\n"}
{"page": 442, "printed_page": null, "text": "432\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chattanooga\n\nshould be secured, whose special work will be to give assistance to backward pupils, or to pupils who are endeavoring to work up into a higher\ndivision or grade.\n10. For the purpose of knowing the characteristics and needs of\nindividual pupils, a teacher should be in charge of the same class of pupils\nfor at least one year. In some cases where pupils are promoted out of\ncourse from one room to another, the time of such pupils with one teacher\nmight be less than a year.\n11. Altho the number of pupils to a teacher has not been a special\nobject of inquiry in this investigation, it has been brought out incidentally that attention to the needs of individual pupils demands that in no\ncase should there be more than forty pupils to a teacher, and that, where\nthe ages and attainments of pupils are widely different, as in so-called\nungraded schools, no teacher should have more than twenty-five pupils.\n\nDISCUSSION\nW. S. Sutton, professor of pedagogy, University of Texas. — In the problems relating\nto the grading and the promotion of pupils the whole field of education is involved. In\nthis discussion will be given only a brief statement concerning each of the conclusions\nreached by Dr. Prince.\nConcerning his first conclusion, that the intervals between classes should be shortened, there can be no disagreement. Where the interval is one year, there is little opportunity for the bright pupils to exercise their ability to make greater progress than that\nwhich is made by those of only ordinary capacity. It is next to impossible for a pupil,\nwithout injury to himself, to skip a whole year's work, or in hours outside of school and\nduring vacation to do the work of a whole year as it should be done. The undertaking is\none of such magnitude that but few have the courage to make the attempt. The consequence isthat in any system of schools where regular promotions are made but once a\nyear the pupils that complete the course of study in less than the time regularly prescribed\nis very small indeed.\nOne must commend Dr. Prince's suggestions, that, when the pupils in all the grades\nor classes must be placed under the charge of two teachers, little more than half of the\ngrades should be given to the primary teacher ; that the arrangement of classes taught by\nboth teachers should be so made that the intervals between classes in sequential subjects\nlike reading, arithmetic, and grammar shall be less than one year ; and that pupils be\npermitted to recite in higher divisions than those to which they regularly belong, in case\nthey show ability to do the work of the higher divisions. I see no objection to the use of\nthis same principle in city schools, for that matter. According to the Cambridge plan, this\npolicy is used with exgellent effect so far as the pupils of the sixth and seventh grades are\nconcerned. This plan, if good for the pupils of the sixth grade, should be extended to\npupils of other grades.\nDr. Prince's suggestion in regard to grading and promotion in the rural schools is in\nharmony with the report of the Committee of Twelve, in that he says : \" In the rural school\nhaving only one teacher, close gradation is to be avoided.\" Whenever the circumstances\nin a rural school are not favorable for grading it, to grade that school is to commit a most\ngrievous fault.\n\n"}
{"page": 443, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendenccl\n\nGRADING\n\nAND\n\nPROMOTION\n\n433\n\nSecond : \" The course of study,\" says Dr. Prince, \" should be made to assist the teacher\nin adapting the work assigned and called for to the abilities of all pupils in every class.\"\nHe says that this can be done by designating important features of the work, and by\nsuggesting supplementary work for the brighter pupils. In my opinion, a course of study\nshould not be arranged for bright pupils or for dull pupils, but it should be arranged for all\npupils. It is not advisable that, in a single class, only the mediocre pupils or the dullards,\nor pupils of exceptional capacity, be found. Ideal conditions obtain when pupils of var)'ing degrees of intellectual quickness are classified together. The dull pupil is inspired\nmore certainly and more effectually by the effort of his more favored fellow-pupil than he\nis by the encouragement or compulsion of his teacher. He sees his classonate performing\neasily and beautifully the work assigned, and he himself determines that what his classmate does he himself ought to do, and he can do, and he will do. But the bright boy\ncan be of great service to others and at the same time serve himself. In his daily\nwork he can be brought to teach his slower companions ; and he who teaches a fact, or\ntruth, or subject, reaches a better understanding of it. The bright pupil, by observing the\nstruggle of a duller mind to reach the truth, gains an insight into human nature. He\nlearns by practical experience how difficult it is for man to apprehend and comprehend\nthe truth. He learns that one of the great functions of the intellectually strong is to\nteach the intellectually weak, and to be patient during the process.\nThird : I commend especially ther suggestion that, in addition to regular promotions,\nthere be a specified plan for making promotions at any time. I suggest that test questions, questions which deal with the application of general truths, questions that call for\nindependent and, to some extent, original thought, be occasionally given to the teacher\nby the superintendent or the principal, with the instruction that especial attention be given\nto those pupils whose answers may be satisfactory.\nFourth : I agree with Dr. Prince in the statement that \" Double promotions are likely to\nbe attended with dangers that do not offset the benefits gained,\" and that,\" If the course of\nstudy is what it should be, skipping a portion of the work is done at a loss.\" If a course\nof study is really well planned, if a close sequence of topics in the several subjects and a\nclose sequence of subjects obtain from beginning to end, skippers are not to be encouraged.\nThe schools of America in a determined manner should set their influence against haste\nin education.\nFifth : The separation of pupils into two or more divisions I have already anticipated.\nSixth: \"The promotions from grade to grade should not depend upon one or more\nexaminations by a person other than the class teacher,\" says Dr. Prince. I should be\nglad to see him go a step farther, and say that promotions should not depend upon one\nor more formal examinations held by anybody. If the teacher is not able at the end of a\nyear of hand-to-hand struggle, as it were, to make an intelligent decision as to the intellectual strength of her pupils, it is extremely doubtful if she herself, or a superintendent, or\na principal, can decide the matter by the single round of a written examination.\nDr. Prince's seventh conclusion is that provision should be made in the course of\nstudy for reviews, at such times and such places as will permit rapidly advancing pupils\nto lose no part of the work outlined in the course. I take it that he intends that these\nreviews shall be of an educative character ; that they shall not be mere repetition for the\nsake of repetition.\nReviews should, at times at least, be written. It is astonishing how fluently the\nmajority of people can talk about all subjects, and yet how little they can write well upon\nany subject. It is almost alarming to discover how little one knows about pedagogy\nwhen he attempts to put it down in cold black-and-white. Writing not only makes one\nstate his thoughts exactly, but it also breeds conciseness of style — a virtue too little\nknown in conversation or in the oral recitation. I believe there should be a period every\nday when a written lesson should be given.\nDuring this period neither teacher nor pupil\n\n"}
{"page": 444, "printed_page": null, "text": "434\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chattanooga\n\nshould utter a single sentence. Silence, the soil out of which thought grows, has an educative value the modern schoolmaster too frequently neglects.\nDr. Prince's eighth conclusion is that, wherever it can be done, the help of one or\nmore assistant teachers shall be secured. It occurs to me that these assistant teachers,\nwhile in many instances they would be of great service, are not really necessary when the\nregular teacher has not more than forty pupils under his instruction, and when the intervals\nbetween the grades are not longer than three or four months.\nDr. Prince's ninth conclusion is one to which I heartily subscribe. Every teacher\nshould have under his control a class of pupils for at least one year. If boys and girls\nwere to change mothers as often as they change teachers, I am persuaded that, while it\nwould often result in much relief to the several mothers, the children themselves would\nevidence lamentable results from the rapid rotation of the maternal office.\nThe last conclusion stated by Dr. Prince, that a teacher should not have more than\nforty pupils, all schoolmasters approve. Yet this fact should be continually presented to\nschool boards, and the question should continue to be agitated until it is settled properly.\nIn closing this discussion, I wish to state three cautions which have already been\nincidentally mentioned.\n1. In any plan seeking to provide for the rapid promotion of bright pupils, great care\nshould be exercised to prevent them from galloping thru the grades.\n2. In encouraging rapid and irregular promotions of the bright pupils there is danger\nthat the\" instruction of the teacher will hit the course of study in the high places only.\n3. It is well not to sacrifice the individual in order to serve the general good ; but it\nis better not to sacrifice the general good for the sake of the individual. The ideal school\nis one in which the good of the great majority and the good of the individual are both\nsubserved.\n\nGRADING\n\nAND\nPROMOTION WITH REFERENCE\nINDIVID UAI NEEDS OF PUPILS\nPLAN\n\nOF THE\n\nNORTH-SIDE\n\nBY\n\nH. VAN\n\nJAMES\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nSICKLE,\n\nDENVER,\n\nTO THE\n\nOF DENVER\n\nCOLO.\n\nLocal conditions cannot be ignored in a scheme of promotion.\nConditions affecting the problem in my.district are as follows : Large,\ncentrally located buildings, enrolling eight grades; buildings of four\nto six rooms tributary to the large buildings for the convenience of small\nchildren for whom the long walk would be a hardship.\nThe Chicago plan (each building a law unto itself in the matter of promotions)\ncould not be applied where such an interdependence exists all along from third to sixth\ngrade. The Cambridge double track, or long-and-short-course plan, would unduly complicate the machinery. The separation of a class into small, independent groups with\nseparate lessons involves a loss in the scattering of the teacher's effort for which the rapid\nmovement of the strongest group is no adequate compensation.\n\nOur circumstances permit promotion in lower primary grades without\nregard to fixed dates, but about the third grade we find it best to work\ntoward fixed dates,\n\nThe half-year interval between classes has proved most\n\n"}
{"page": 445, "printed_page": null, "text": "SuperintendenceJ\n\nTHE\n\nDENVER\n\nPLAN\n\nOP GRADING\n\nserviceable after the fourth grade. We\n\nAND\n\nPROMOTION\n\n435\n\nadmit two classes to the high\n\nschool each year. As far as possible, adjustments needed between September and June are made within the room, so that a change of teacher\nmay not be necessitated. The classes or divisions in a room vary in\nnumber and relative size. They change in both these respects from time\nto time according to circumstances.\nIt will be seen that this plan, so far, is practically the plan recommended in Circular of Information No. 7, published by the Bureau of\nEducation in 1891.\nAfter an exhaustive discussion of the class intervals used in seventy cities, we find\non p. 20 of this circular this statement: \"Of the three class intervals above considered\n(the year, the half year, and the term or quarter), the half year seems to possess the most\nadvantages and the fewest objections, and this is specially true in grades below the high\nschool, possibly excepting the first and second grades, where a shorter Interval may be\ndesirable. This interval is sufficiently short to permit needed promotions of individual\npupils, and it is sufficiently long to prevent a too frequent readjustment of classes and\nclass work.\"\n\nThis plan is easily understood and easily administered, and therefore\nlikely to be handled by the average school principal with greater effectiveness than a more complicated one. A class interval so long as to\nprevent frequent reclassifications and irregular promotions and brief\nreviews is not now generally defended.\nMy contention is that the short and varying interval in the primary\ngrades, with the half-year interval in the grades above, is a sufficient\ndevelopment of the mechanism of gradation to safeguard individual\ninterests, so far as any mechanism can safeguard them ; that, instead of\nintroducing further complications into the machinery of school organization, we shall find ^ more hopeful field for effort in devising plans for\ngreater flexibility in class management, especially in the grammar grades.\nEven if the members of a class could have at a given time equal\nknowledge, which is impossible, they would still differ greatly in quickness of comprehension and in working power. This would be equally\ntrue of a class of fifteen and of a class of fifty. These differences would\nmanifest themselves in varying degrees according to the changing order\nof studies during the day. The child who is strong in arithmetic may\nshow less strength in language, while\" another good in both may need\nmore time in geography or history, and so on in infinite variety; while\nthe average strength of the individuals composing the class may not\nvary greatly. No matter how carefully we grade, we find these differences.\n. A recitation, as ordinarily conducted, attempts to secure the attention\nof all individuals in the reciting class during the entire twenty or thirty\nor forty minutes assigned to it on the program. All members of the\nclass attend to the same thing at the same time ; tho often badly\nmated in point of speed, they must move at the same pace ; the quick\n\n"}
{"page": 446, "printed_page": null, "text": "436\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n|Chattanooga\n\nwait patiently for the slow ; if the pace is rapid enough to keep up the\nkeen edge of interest in the quick, the slow are fairly dragged over the\nground ; so a compromise is arranged which fits neither. At the first\nsubtle signs of lessening interest the teacher redoubles her exertions in\norder to chain the wandering eye and check the budding yawn. If she is\na teacher of ability, she generally succeeds in this, but at too great a cost\nin vital force, for the energy put forth by the teacher is out of all proportion to that put forth by the pupils. The pupils are kept in motion too\nmuch by the will-power of the teacher ; the force is external and temporary, rather than internal and permanent ; it tends to produce fitful and\nspasmodic effort. The pupils attend out of respect for the teacher, and\nfrom a desire to conform rather than from any feeling of need. Those\nnaturally quick easily become satisfied with an effort far less than their\nbest. Their time might be employed to better advantage than in listening to repetitions of what they already understand, or in spending thirty\nminutes on what they might do in twenty. Such management makes\ndawdlers.\nThe\" individual plan does not offer an altogether satisfactory remedy,\neven in schools with a smaller assignment of pupils to a teacher than is\npossible with us. Is it not possible to retain the manifest advantages of\nthe class recitation so often set forth by Dr. Harris, and yet, as the recitation progresses, allow individuals to drop out and do other work more\nprofitable than simply maintaining the semblance of attention ?\nFeeling that we ought not to put a premium upon the mere act of\nsitting thru a recitation, I have watched with some care for the past\nthree years an experiment in this direction tried in two of our larger\nbuildings. It is an effort to do in a systematic w^y what a few good\nteachers here and there have done occasionally. It is, therefore, not an\ninvention, but an adaptation. Some of the purposes kept clearly in view\nare these : to secure better use of time ; to fit each pupil to rely upon\nhis own judgment by often allowing him to share with the teacher the\nresponsibility of deciding what he had better do at a given time ; to\nsecure, by means of this individual responsibility, willing effort even on\nthe less agreeable studies, thus keeping the pupil fairly even in his work ;\nto secure more study time in school, where conditions favor concentration,\nand thus to do away with the necessity of \"keeping after school\" (staying\nafter school is quite a different matter); to enable a pupil to demonstrate\nhis fitness for special promotion ; to secure conditions favorable to\nenthusiasm in the pursuit of efficiency and knowledge by emphasizing\nthese as ends, instead of placing emphasis upon marks, special seats, or\nrewards of any kind.\nThe central thought is individual responsibility .\nWhile no two teachers work in exactly the same manner, the plan followed may be stated in a general way as follows : All pupils are held\nfor\" definite\n\nminimum\n\nrequirements.\n\n(In order to afford facilities for\n\n"}
{"page": 447, "printed_page": null, "text": "SupcrintendenceJ\n\nTHE\n\nDENVER\n\nPLAN\n\nOF GRADING\n\nAND\n\nPROMOTION\n\n437\n\ngreater attainment, each room is provided with its sets of supplementary\nbooks and a carefully selected reference library of from fifty to seventyfive volumes.) While those pupils for whom the minimum requirement\nin a given subject is sufficient are mastering a given assignment in that\nsubject, others capable of doing more, tho not yet strong enough in\nall studies to be able to skip a half year, are, by a process of natural\nselection, detaching themselves temporarily from the class in order to\nwork on some study in which they are weak, or for broader or deeper\nstudy of the topic by means of the reference books, gathering illustrative\nmaterial, or following out some line of interest approved by the teacher.\nThose excused may at any time be required to rejoin the recitation to\ngive needed help to others. They are thus continually held responsible\nfor the work in hand. Failure to respond satisfactorily at any time, either\nin advance or review, is understood to be evidence that the pupil in question had not attained .that degree of proficiency which would warrant\ndiverting his attention from the minimum requirement from which he\nhad been temporarily released, and his release is canceled. A few\nexperiences of this kind improve his judgment and make him cautious.\nHe strives to make his acquisitions permanent, not merely for the day.\nHe had better make mistakes early in his estimate of himself, and correct\nthem, than to be acting so wholly under prescription that there is no\nchance for a mistake in this respect. Without this opportunity for selfmeasurement there is danger that some will develop vanity and conceit, and\nothers excessive timidity, rather than self-respect and confidence. The\npupil is in the truest sense educated thru occasions for choice.\nA pupil may at a given time find the work in arithmetic and geography\nall that he can do, while at the same time he is making fuller study, than\nsome of the rest, of a period in history. This he considers a privilege\nwhich he works energetically to secure. Another, not so able in history,\nmay get this liberty in some other subject. There will come a time when\nhe may give to the class the benefit of his skill or of his research ; thus\nhe has an immediate motive, partly selfish, but not wholly so. He is giving to others. His success awakens a desire in others to be able to make\ncreditable contributions of the same kind ; thus all are stimulated to do\nindependent work in spare moments and to find spare moments for independent work. They learn how to find things in books. This is perhaps\nthe most useful single accomplishment that we can cultivate in a child.\nBooks must always be his chief reliance after leaving school.\nIn a class fairly well graded each pupil will have some study from\nwhich it will be safe to release him partially now and then. Thus all get\nsome encouragement from the plan. It secures energetic work without\nstimulating a hothouse growth. The motive it holds out is a permanent\nmotive and a worthy one.\nIt is not a plan for hurrying pupils thru the grades.\nThis class\n\n"}
{"page": 448, "printed_page": null, "text": "438\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nLChattanooga\n\npresents an even front when entering upon a new division or lesson unit\nof any study. The development work is done with the whole class. One\ngoes no faster than another, but he gets more. One describes a larger\ncircle than another, or, to use an agricultural expression, cuts a wider\nswath. It is not so much to the pupil's advantage to go thru the grades\nrapidly as to get all that he is capable of getting while he is going thru.\nThe plan tends to even up the pupil in the various studies, since\nmaking pleasant excursions in favorite studies is conditioned upon fair\nattainment in all studies.\nIt secures for the pupil so much additional study time in school that\nmuch less work needs to be carried home, and thus it helps to do away\nwith the idea, prevalent in many homes, that the parents are expected to\ndo the teaching, and that the only duty assumed by the teacher is to check\nup the work and pass judgment upon its quality.\nIt allows the teacher to devote time to the less able pupils without\nrobbing the others. The less the brighter pupils depend upon the teacher,\nthe better. The aim should be, as rapidly as possible, to make all pupils\nself-reliant.\nIt affords opportunity for the development of latent strength, and\ngives the teacher a safe basis for determining the fitness of individuals\nfor working with the division a half year in advance. We find that the\n■child irregularly promoted invariably makes an enviable record in the\nhigher class. One hundred and forty-two such promotions have been\nmade in our schools since September last, or 4^ per cent, of all promotions. Five and three-tenths per cent, of all pupils now in the grammar\ngrades are where they are by special promotion.\nIn the eighth-grade class this year, four have finished, or will have\nfinished, the eight-year course in less than six years, seven in six and\none-half years, twenty-one in seven years, and twenty-four in seven and\none-half years. Able pupils are not kept marking time, but are advanced\nwhenever they show the requisite strength. The half-year interval does\nnot prevent this. The year interval would add materially to the difficulty.\nIn the two buildings in which this plan of class management has been\nsystematically tried there has been apparently greater attention to individual needs than in the other buildings. One hundred and sixty-one\npupils finish the work of the eighth grade this year in three buildings.\nIn one building, 57^ per cent, finish in eight years or less; in another,\n62^ per cent.; and in the third, the one pursuing the ordinary plan, only\nZIVt, per cent.\nI do not mention any of these figures as showing progress at all\nremarkable, for, by force of circumstances, in all three of these buildings\nthe school day is cut short for all first-year pupils, each child attending\nbut one-half day.\nThus a reasonable allowance would be eight and one-\n\n"}
{"page": 449, "printed_page": null, "text": "SuperiniendenceJ\n\nTHE\n\nDENVER\n\nPLAN\n\nOF GRADING\n\nAND\n\nPROMOTION\n\n439\n\nhalf years to complete the course. The figures seem to indicate, however, that in two buildings the plans are more favorable to individual\nadvancement than those used in the third, since I know of no other conditions affecting one school more favorably than another, such as strength\nof teaching force, nature of the population, etc.\nIt is not denied that this plan requires more thought and broader\npreparation on the part of the teacher than the ordinary class plan. But\na teacher whose attention is thus directed constantly toward individual\nneeds inevitably gains so much in skill that after a time, all things considered, the work seems easier than before. There is ample compensation\nfor the energy spent in planning work for those temporarily excused from\nrecitation. These are the active spirits who ordinarily find means to\ndivert themselves at the expense of the good order of the room. Kept\nfully occupied with self-imposed tasks, they cease to be a disturbing factor. The spirit of the room soon comes to be one of self-control and\nindustry. Repression is no longer needed — only direction. A difficult\npupil, new to the plan, soon learns that he cannot afford to go counter to\npublic opinion. It is not the teacher, but the spirit of the room, that\ncauses him to settle down to earnest work.\nTeachers are hampered by their own training. They have not been\naccustomed as pupils to any freedom in these directions ; hence it does\nnot occur to them that it is possible to give their pupils any freedom.\nThey have little faith in the ability of the pupil to use wisely any freedom.\nIf, as we glance into a schoolroom, it seems to be in perfect order,\nevery child looking at his book, no one whispering, faces all to the front,\nteacher's desk and pupils' desks models of neatness, we are pleasantly\nimpressed, and we are inclined to say to ourselves: \"That is a good\nschool.\" Whether it is a good school or not depends upon how these\nappearances are secured. If every choice of occupation and every movement are dictated by the teacher, the school is a very poor school. The\npupils must necessarily grow less and less self-reliant.\nUnfortunately, we superintendents, by commending these surface indications, and pronouncing those schools good which have them and little\nelse, have encouraged a vast amount of formalism that absolutely prevents freedom to do the best thing possible for the individual. We thus\noblige teachers to cultivate that whole brood of artificial incentives so\ncommon everywhere, instead of natural and worthy ones.\nIn the evolution of our schools, those teachers who most carefully\nobserved these outwards forms were counted most successful ; they were,\ntherefore, most in demand, and hence the type has persisted. Most of\nus, and most of the teachers associated with us, have been brought up\nunder\" the system ; hence it is hard to break away from it. It is so easy\nto measure a teacher by this standard, so hard to take less tangible things\ninto account.\n\n"}
{"page": 450, "printed_page": null, "text": "446\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chattanooga\n\nI regard it important that the class interval used in the grammar\ngrades shall be used at least in the earlier years of the high-school course.\nIf the grammar-grade interval is one-half year, and yet pupils are admitted to the high school only in September, a large number must be held\nback at a time when it is very important that they should move forward.\nA larger number of those promoted in January enter the high school\nthan of those promoted in June. They leave the eighth grade on Friday, and begin the work of the ninth on the following Monday. No\nlong vacation, with its many opportunities for a change of purpose, intervenes. Ninety-five per cent, of those promoted last month at once took\nup the high-school work. Only 80 per cent, of those promoted last\nJune registered in the high school in September. We find the plan no\nmore expensive than the plan of annual admission, since the classes are\nso large as to require division. Fewer pupils drop out thru discouragement, since failure in any study means only a reasonable review of\nthat one study.\nBesides carrying the half-year interval thru the twelve grades, we\nattempt to care for the interests of the individual in the high school by\nmaking a large number of studies optional. Any pupil not a candidate\nfor graduation may study any subject which the daily program will permit. All pupils, to quite an extent, make their own courses. Certain\nstudies are required of all pupils alike if they wish the diploma of the\nschool. Aside from this list, which is relatively small, pupils may choose,\nwith the advice of parents and teachers, those studies which appear best\nsuited to their several needs.\nFixed courses, in which all must do the same amount of work in the\nsame time, do not take account of differences in mental and physical\nstrength. Those who can carry all of the work stay in school : others,\nbecoming discouraged, drop out. We aim to provide for all: \" the mentally strong and the mentally weak, the physically strong and the physically weak, the permanent and the transient.\" Those who cannot carry\nfour studies may take three ; those who cannot carry three may, without\nthe slightest loss of self-respect, limit themselves to two.\nThe official course of study is an inventory of the studies authorized\nto be taught, with a statement of the aims of the school, suggestions as\nto the amount of work a pupil should undertake, the subjects characteristic of certain courses, the proper grouping of studies, etc.\nAt the close of each half year each pupil receives a certificate showing\nthe studies successfully pursued and the number of periods per week\ndevoted to each. When he gets enough of these certificates to show\nthat the official requirements have been met, he receives the diploma of\nthe school, which bears on its face a record of the subjects pursued and\nthe time devoted to each.\nEach pupil may work according to his strength by choosing just the\n\n"}
{"page": 451, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nELIZABETH\n\nPLAN\n\nOF\n\nGRADING\n\n44 J\n\nnumber of studies that his physical and mental ability permits. He may\ntake as long a time to earn his diploma as he needs — five years if necessary ;or, if possessed of sufficient physical and mental vigor, he may eanh\nit in three and one-half or three \"years.\nThe aim of the pupil's effort is the mastery of distinct subjects of\nstudy rather than the maintenance of a general average. The pupil does\nhis work more enthusiastically since the studies are largely of his own\nchoosing. His course may not differ materially from one that would be\nchosen for him by his teachers, but it makes a vital difference in the\nspirit with which he undertakes it whether he loads himself with work or\nis loaded by another.\nThe plan has been in operation in our school for three years. We\nhave noted that the pupils do more work and better work than formerly.\nMore pupils remain in school to complete a course. The development\nof natural talent is encouraged. Of 102 graduates (three classes) no two\nhave pursued exactly identical courses.\nRECAPITULATION\n\nA class interval less than a half year is' desirable in the lower\ngrades.\nThe class interval may be longer as the pupils become older and able\nto work more independently.\nIn the grammar grades and in the high school the half-year interval\nis satisfactory.\nAs the mechanism grows more rigid, owing to the necessity of consolidating classes at fixed dates, freedom to make class management flexible steps in to the rescue of the individual.\nThe pupil is educated by a gradual increase of responsibility, and the\naccompanying necessity of choice, till finally a most important choice\nthat of his high-school course, is intrusted to him in part.\n\nTHE ELIZABETH\nBY WILLIAM\n\nJ. SHEARER,\n\nPLAN\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOE GRADING\nOF .SCHOOLS,\n\nELIZABETH,\n\nN. J.\n\nOf the many difficult problems which confront those who are responsible for the organization and administration of the schools, no other one\nis more perplexing than this one of grading. No other one affects more\nvitally the present and future welfare of the pupils in the schools. No\nother one is of such interest to the parents who are solicitous for the progress of their children. No other one is of more immediate interest to\nthe principals and teachers who have been compelled to work under the\n\n"}
{"page": 452, "printed_page": null, "text": "442\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Chattanooga\n\npresent mediseval plan, which has long since outlived its usefulness. No\nother one is such a source of worriment to conscientious superintendents\nwho realize that the system of grading, which was intended faithfully to\nserve the children, has become their tyrannical master.\nAll must admit that teachers vary greatly in knowledge, power, skill,\nand many other ways affecting their efficiency. None dare deny that the\nchildren of every grade differ widely in age, in acquirements, in aptitude,\nin physical endurance, in power of attention, in their rate of mental\ndevelopment, in the time of entering school, in the regularity of attendance, and in many other ways influencing their progress ; yet, because of\nthe manner of grading and promoting, the graded school tends to keep\nall of the same grade in intellectual lock-step, not only month after month,\nbut year after year for their whole school lives. Children are not alike in\nability or in any other way, and God never intended that we should be held\nresponsible for making them alike. Why, then, should we put them in\nso-called \"educational mills\" and attempt to grind them outalike, crushing out that individuality which he meant should be a guide to their education and usefulness, and not a hindrance thereto ? Is there any reason\nwhy we should labor to produce uniformity of tastes, of character, of aspirations, ofability ? Is not individuality of more importance than evenness of grading ? Is it not the divinity of the child ? Should it not\nbe watched for and discovered, that it may be carefully studied and\nlovingly guarded ? Does not biography teach us that those only have\nbecome distinguished who have developed a love for work along certain lines ? Is it not time we stop finding fault with teachers because,\nin spite of all these mentioned differences and many more unmentioned,\nbut not undiscovered ones, they cannot produce \"symmetrical nonentities\" ? Should the teachei, limited in power and by conditions, be\ncriticised because she cannot overcome the differences predetermined by\nthe Almighty ?\nSurely it is time that the friends of our grand public schools, which\nare growing in efficiency at an ever- in creasing rate, should speak plainly\nof the defects of the present system and earnestly work for its improvement.\nThe Elizabeth plan is not an individual plan, but is the result of an\nattempt to work out a system which will so combine the advantages of\nclass, group, and individual teaching as to make it possible to suit the\ninstruction to the needs of the individuals and enable each to go just as\nfast as the work can be done well, and no faster. It is no mere theory,\nbut is a plan which has stood the test of a ten-years' trial, and the claims\nfor which are based on the good results which have followed its adoption\nin several cities, under varying and unfavorable conditions. The plan\ndescribed is in use in every class in the city of Elizabeth, as well as other\ncities.\n\n"}
{"page": 453, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nELIZABETH\nCHARACTERISTIC\n\nPLAN\n\nOF\n\nGRADING\n\n443\n\nFEATURES\n\nIn place of basing the promotion of pupils, in whole or in part, upon\na promotion examination, it is determined by the teachers' careful estimate of the pupils' ability to do advanced work. A premium is put upon\nthe character of the work done day by day, rather than upon the amount\nof \"stuffing\" which can be done in preparation for the examination.\nThus the pupils are furnished a moderate and continuous stimulus instead\nof an excessive and spasmodic one. The teaching test is a necessary part\nof all true teaching, but the promotion examination prevents broad and\nintelligent teaching, makes out of the teacher a grind, and turns out\nmachine pupils. It is not a good test either of the ability of pupils or of\nteachers. It is a great temptation to deceit and causes many mental\nwrecks.\nPupils are promoted to advanced work whenever ready for it, instead\nof being promoted at a time arbitrarily determined. Surely, there is no\ngood reason why the time of year should determine a pupil's promotion\nto advanced work. All must agree that it should be determined by\nacquired ability, rather than by lapse of time. That, under this plan, it\nis entirely feasible for pupils to go forward at any time is shown by the\nfact that, during the past year, 60 per cent, of the pupils did so. But\nfor this plan, all these would have had to mark time until the rest were\nready to go forward.\nInstead of having pupils roughly sorted into large, loosely graded\nclasses, in which the classification must grow more and more unsatisfactory as time passes, those of very nearly equal ability are placed together\nin a room. In the essential branches the classes are still more accurately\ngraded, according to ability, into small divisions. Extra divisions are\nmade when necessary, and are not continued longer than they are needed\nproperly to provide for the important differences in the pupils. This is\ndone in such a way as not to greatly increase the work of the teachers.\nThe number of divisions in a grade varies with the number of rooms of\nthe same grade in the building, with the importance of the subject, with\nthe efficiency of the teacher, and with other limiting conditions.\nThe number of divisions in each subject, as well as the places for individual instruction, is also determined by these conditions, after a careful\nconsideration of the subjects in each grade, and the records of several\nthousand pupils in the different grades. The number of pupils in each\ndivision also varies with the conditions. The larger the number of pupils\nto select from, the larger the number that can go together for a time\nwithout injury. The aim is to have pupils with others of about equal\nability, for the nearer the pupils of a class are in ability and attainments, the better can the instruction be suited to their needs, the greater\nis the power of emulation, the larger the number that can successfully be\ntaught together, the eaiser it is to hold the attention and fix it upon the\n\n"}
{"page": 454, "printed_page": null, "text": "44-1\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chattanooga\n\nsubject to be presented, and the better the mental training that can be\ngiven. While the usual plan provides for but eight divisions below the\nhigh school, this method has from thirty to sixty. In his paper read at\nthe last meeting of the National Educational Association, Dr. Harris, our\neducational philosopher, who stands without a peer, said : \"Thirty classes\nbetween the first and the eighth years are possible in large schools in\ncities. That all cities do not avail themselves of this possibility is one\nof the most serious defects in American supervision.\"\nUnder the usual plan; the distances of the classes from each other, and\nother unfavorable conditions, make it almost impossible for pupils to pass\nto higher classes, save at the regular moving times. Yet authorities agree\nthat reclassification is the only way of saving the pupils from the evils of\nthe graded schools. Statistics prove that, sooner or later, nearly all of\nthe pupils suffer because of this inability of the teachers to reclassify\nthem. Under this plan, pupils can easily pass from one division to\nanother at any time, when they are found to be either ahead or behind\ntheir companions. The need of reclassification, as well as its feasibility\nunder this plan, is shown by the fact that, during the past year, almost\n70 per cent, of the pjipils were moved to other divisions between the\nregular times for promotion. This year an epidemic of measles, etc., has\ncaused not less than 30 per cent, of the pupils to lose time. Under the\nusual plan all these would have to dangle at the foot of the class and lose\na year. Under this plan they return and take up the work where they\nleft it, and up to February 16, 1898, 54 per cent, had been reclassified, tho\nbut a small proportion (about 10 per cent.) of these had changed teachers.\nThis was done in such a way as not to hinder, but greatly facilitate, the\nwork of the teachers.\nInstead of compelling teachers to take all pupils over a given amount\nof the course by a given time, this plan allows teachers to advance just as far\nand as fast as the ability of the pupils will enable them to do the work well,\nand no faster. Not only do teachers vary greatly in efficiency, but pupils\nand classes differ in many ways, as before stated : therefore it is an outrage to require the same amount of work of all, regardless of the different\nconditions. Surely this making of the time limit the same for all is the\ngreatest mistake of our schools, both public and private. Why should\nany teacher be criticised because she cannot furnish the brain cells, health,\nor conditions which some need to keep up with their more gifted companions ?\nIn place of almost entirely losing sight of the individual, this plan\ndemands attention to the peculiar needs of each. Under the usual plan,\nas the pupils are crowded into large classes, and all are expected to cover\nthe same amount of the course in a given time, the poor teacher is forced\nto forget that the class is composed of fifty individuals, and to think only\nof the fact that all must be at a certain place by the time fixed for all to\n\n"}
{"page": 455, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nELIZABETH\n\nPLAN\n\nOF\n\nGRADING\n\n445\n\nmove; therefore she dare not think of the needs of the individual pupils.\nUnder fear of criticism, she tries to stuff all with the same amount of indigestible matter, in the hope that they will appear big enough to pass the\nuseless examination for promotion. Fortunately, the Almighty has provided the children with good forgetters, and that which would be a\nmental burden and would result in great injury is soon forgotten. Under\nthis plan attention to the individual is not only encouraged, but required.\nIn the essential branches pupils work in small classes, and also work as\nindividuals at those points where experience has shown there is greatest\nneed of individual work. Thus the teacher comes into close contact with\neach pupil, than which nothing is more important. For proper mental\ndevelopment, there must be this contact of the mind of the teacher with\nthe mind of the pupil ; the separate study of its needs and the separate\nministering to the needs which are peculiar to it. Only thus can the strong\nmind of the true teacher come into life-giving contact with the weaker\nmind of the pupil for the purpose of restraint, guidance, and development.\nBut while the effort is made to secure all the advantages of attention to\nthe individual, care is taken to retain the many advantages of class and\ngroup instruction.\nPupils are generally moved forward by companies, and no record of\ntheir ability, acquirements, or mental, oral, or physical peculiarities is sent\nwith them. Before the new teacher learns these, many of the pupils\nbecome discouraged because they are not understood, and, for this or\nother reasons, quit school or get but little benefit therefrom\nUnder\nthis plan, such a record is sent with the pupil that, after a short study, the\nnew teacher has the benefit of all that the previous teachers have been able\nto learn of the pupil. The record shows, not only what the pupils are\nworth in each branch, but also any defect of vision or hearing, and any\nother fact which may have a bearing on the character of the work which\nmay reasonably be expected of each. Difficult cases receive special attention, and suggestions as to their management are given for the assistance\nof their future teachers.\nI have mentioned, but briefly, ten characteristics of the plan in use in\nthe city of Elizabeth. Time does not permit even a brief consideration\nof the individual records of pupils, the extra promotion blanks, the\npupils' reports, the record of work done, the report of principals,\nmanagement of periods for individual instruction, arrangement of programs, certificate of time gained, means of making sure of thoro work,\nand many other devices, which ten years' experience with this plan\nhas proven to be most valuable aids in securing results without asking\ntoo much of teachers and without unnecessary risk to the superintendent.\nThe proper consideration of any one of a score of points mentioned\nwould have required at least as much time as is devoted to this paper.\nHaving spoken brieflv.\n\nI have necessarily spoken subject to misunder-\n\n"}
{"page": 456, "printed_page": null, "text": "446\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chattanooga\n\nStanding, misrepresentation, and criticism. However, at this time I can\ndo no more than mention some of the beneficial results which have followed the adoption of this plan, since its introduction into this particular city a little over two years ago.\nA\n\nFEW\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nBENEFICIAL\n\nRESULTS\n\nThe instruction is accurately suited to the needs of the pupils of each\ndivision. That the instruction should be suited, both in matter and\nmethod, to the ability and attainment of those to be taught is a fundamental pedagogical axiom, upon which all others depend, and with which\nall others should be in harmony ; yet, all know that it is violated in each\nrecitation of nearly every school of our land, for the extremes of the\nclasses cannot be benefited by the same instruction. Accurate adjustment of the instruction is possible under this plan, for the reason that\npupils of nearly equal ability are always together.\nThe most careless observer of children knows that they love to do\nwhat requires a reasonable amount of effort. In idleness only is there\nmisery for pupils and teacher. When the pupils were so closely graded\nthat work suitable to all could be assigned, the tendency to idleness\nalmost vanished, and the need of punishment was greatly diminished in\nall classes, and entirely disappeared from many. Under the usual plan,\nall know that the brighter children are not kept busy ; therefore they get\ninto mischief; for the idle brain is still the devil's workshop.\nUnder the usual plan, pupils are not thoro in the work passed over,\ntho they spend far more time than should be required to do more work\nwell. That they should be thoro in the essential work none dare deny.\nThat many are not thoro most teachers of experience are not slow to\nadmit. Under this plan, all other things are secondary to thoroness in\nthe essentials. This is easily secured, for teachers are not expected to\ntake pupils faster than they can do thoro work. It is no longer wondered why pupils went to school so long and knew so little when they\nstopped.\nAll know that, under the usual plan, the bright are injured mentally\nand morally by being held down to the pace of the slowest ; the plodders\nare likewise injured by being continually driven over the work faster than\nthey should go. By this plan the brighter pupils are allowed to move\nforward as fast as they can do the work thoroly. The slower ones go no\nfaster than they have the mental ability to do the work well. The mental and moral benefit resulting from this can scarcely be overestimated,\nand it is, perhaps, the most valuable result of this plan.\nStatistics prove that a much larger proportion of the pupils remains in\nschool until the higher grades are reached. In every grammar school in\nthe city there has been an increase in the proportion of pupils in the\nhigher grades, the average\npercentage\nof increase for the different\n\n"}
{"page": 457, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nELIZABETH\n\nPLAN\n\nOF\n\nGRADING\n\n447\n\ndistricts being about lo. Surely this is an important matter, for in some\ncities 90 per cent, of the pupils do not reach the grammar grades,\nand the reports show that 81 per cent, of all the pupils in the graded\nschools of this country are in the four lowest years of a twelve-years'\ncourse.\nOn all sides much regret is expressed that so few pupils reach the\nhigh school. Less than 2 per cent, get to the highest grammar grade.\nSince this plan of grading was introduced, two years ago, the number\nattending the high school has more than doubled, the the course of\nstudy has been strengthened.\nAll deprecate the fact that pupils entering the high school are from\none to five years older than they should be. During the past two years\nthe average age of those entering the Elizabeth High School has\ndecreased more than one year, while the classes about to enter will still\nfurther reduce this average.\nAs the schools are generally managed, if any but the very brightest\nfall but a short distance behind the class, they must stumble along at the\nfoot of the class and lose a year, when but a month or two behind.\nBecause of sickness, or some of a hundred other reasons, nearly all of the\npupils do lose time, and therefore fail to keep up with their companions.\nStatistics gathered in different cities show that 80 per cent, of the pupils\nlose from one to four years ; and for every one hundred pupils in the\nschools examined, there had been from one hundred to three hundred\nyears lost. Under this plan, if pupils fall behind their class, they\ndrop into a class but a short . distance behind the one left. As promotion may come at any time, this lost ground is easily recovered. The\nrecords in Elizabeth show that, except for absence, very few lose any\ntime.\nAs under the usual plan it is very hard for pupils to go to advanced\n• work at any other than the time for regular promotions, it is readily\nunderstood why but few pupils gain time. Most of those who seem to do\nso really lose the time later, because they have omitted much essential\nwork. Under this plan, 90 per cent, of those who go thru the primary\ngrades, or farther, will gain from one to four years. The teachers' records of several thousand pupils show that, during the past year, over 80\nper cent, of the pupils in Elizabeth gained from one to seven months'\ntime; while the average gain was over three months. This they did\nwithout any urging and almost without their knowing it.\nIn most schools pupils recite nearly all of the time, and there is but\nlittle time left for the preparation of lessons in school, where most of the\nlessons should be prepared. For this reason, either the lessons are not\nprepared, or they are prepared under the direction of the parents, who\nshould not have to instruct their children, even if they are qualified to do\nso. With this plan the pupils have more than one-half of their time in\n\n"}
{"page": 458, "printed_page": null, "text": "448\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nLChattanooga\n\nschool for the preparation of their lessons. Thus they may be prepared\nunder the direction of the teacher, who is best qualified, both by knowledge and experience, to give the pupils the assistance which they should\nhave, and whose duty it is to relieve the parents of this task. Time is\nprovided, both morning and afternoon, for individual help.\nIntelligent principals and teachers realize the weakness of the usual\nplan. More than 90 per cent, of the principals and teachers who have\nworked under this plan have given, in writing, their reasons for preferring\nit to any other.\nAs published, these opinions show that the benefits to the teachers\nare as many and as marked as those reaped by the pupils. When the\nplan was started, all were opposed to what they thought the plan would be.\nOn all sides interested parents have expressed great satisfaction with the\nresults obtained.\nIf pupils receive the same amount of instruction as they wotild under\nthe usual plan, they would get it in much less time. Pupils now average\na loss of about two years. Under this plan they will average a gain of\nnot less than two years. Thus there would be saved to the district what\nit would cost to instruct a pupil for that time. When this is multiplied\nby the number of pupils, the financial saving becomes apparent. Add to\nthis the amount saved by the lengthening of the pupils' productive lives,\nand the gain is enormous, tho not to be compared with the gain in\nimproved mental habits.\n\nBY HON.\n\nMINIMUM\n\nPREPARATION\n\nPRICE\n\nSTATE\n\nTHOMAS,\n\nFOR\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nNASHVILLE,\n\nTEACHING\n\nOF PUBLIC\n\nINSTRUCTION,\n\nTENN.\n\nIt will be excusable, I hope, if this paper is confined largely to a discussion of this subject from the standpoint of the conditions existing and\nthe changes needed in Tennessee and the South.\nThe preparation of teachers contemplates the existence in each state\nof a system of schools uniting harmoniously all those classes of schools\nwhich have their part in the training of teachers.\nThose should be :\n1. The primary schools, under teachers holding primary certificates,\nwith a uniform course of study, preparing pupils to enter the secondary\nschools.\n2. The secondary schools, under teachers and a principal holding secondary certificates, preparing pupils to enter the state normal college or\nfreshman class of the state university. This school should be centrally\nlocated in the school district, which should, with few exceptions, be\n\n"}
{"page": 459, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nMINIMUM\n\nPREPARATION\n\nFOR\n\nTEACHING\n\n449\n\ncoextensive with the civil district. Its principal may also be the district\nsuperintendent.\n3. The state university and bona-fide colleges of equal grade.\n4. The state normal college ar a department in the state university,\nissuing primary and secondary certificates.\n5. The state teachers' institute, issuing primary and secondary certificates.\nThe minimum requirements for a primary teacher should be equivalent to those necessary to obtain a primary certificate from the state normal college.\nThe requirements for entrance into the state normal college for a\nprimary certificate should be the satisfactory completion of the primary\nand secondary courses of the public schools.\nFor a primary certificate from the state normal college one year's\ncourse of study therein should be requisite ; for a secondary certificate\nthere should be required a diploma from the academic department of the\nstate university, or a college of equal rank, and a two-years' course in the\nstate normal college.\nThe course of study necessary to obtain a certificate from the state\nnormal college should be purely professional.\nIt should consist of :\n1. A course of professional reading, including text-books on methods,\npedagogics, school management, psychology, and history of education,\nand some standard school journal.\n2. Essays on professional subjects and the reproduction by the student of the lectures of the instructors.\n3. Daily observation, with professional explanation of model primary\nteaching.\n4. Practice in teaching primary classes under the direction and criticism of the normal instructor.\nPractice in teaching under the direction and criticism of the college\ninstructor, and the observation of model teaching, are necessary for the\ncorrection of false ideas of instruction which may have been imbibed\nfrom former teachers, and which it requires practice and time to eradicate.\nThese are too apt to be unconsciously adopted by the young teacher,\nwhen thrown upon her own resources in her initial performance in the\nschoolroom, unless that first teaching be under the direction of her tutor.\nBut when correct methods have been observed daily for months, and\npractice has been had in such methods, the teacher will have had them so\nimpressed upon her mind, and will have so \"learned to do by doing,\"\nthat she will be at home with her work on the fatal first day as an independent teacher. The model school is the teacher's laboratory of the\nteacher's training school, where the normal student can see and have\nexplained the method, its reason, object, and result, and where she\ndoes her laboratory work in mind study, child study, and character study.\n\n"}
{"page": 460, "printed_page": null, "text": "45°\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chattanooga\n\nThere are several reasons why the normal-school course should be\npurely professional. There are hundreds of schools in each state where\nsubjects can be learned as well as in the normal college, while few states\nhave more than two or three bona-fide normal colleges. The entrance\nrequirements should be such that the normal colleges should be relieved\nof the work of teaching subjects. Their resources could then be all\nexpended in giving to the teacher the professional training which many\nso much need.\nThe best results are reached by illustrating methods by teaching subjects familiar to the pupil, and subjects which the student will afterward\nteach. The child studies subjects with the view of learning facts — of\nobtaining knowledge, while the true teacher idea is the development of\nthe mind — the growth of the powers of perception, reason, and\nresource. The child must always have learned the elementary subjects in\na more or less superficial way. It is best that the normal student review\nthese subjects from a different standpoint, with the view of teaching\nthem, with the idea of giving reasons, with the purpose of becoming\nmaster of them. The child follows the author of the text and the teacher\nblindly. The teacher in training should study from the standpoint of\nequality with the author — should get at the foundation, and should be\nable to teach without a text-book, if necessary. To \"know how to teach\"\nit is not only necessary to \"know how to study,\" but to know also the\npurpose of study and its results, and to know the subjects from the top\nand from the bottom — from the pupil's standpoint and from the teacher's. It is true, not only that the \"methods of teaching can best be illustrated byteaching,\" but by teaching again to teachers, as teachers, what\nthey have formally learned while children, as children. I conclude,\ntherefore, that normal schools for primary teachers should teach only primary subjects, and these only for purposes of illustration of methods and\nreasoning; and, for the same reasons, primary normal students should\nobserve only primary model teaching and should practice teaching with\nprimary classes only.\nOne of our troubles in Tennessee lies in the fact that \"practice teaching under criticism\" and \"observation of good teaching\" cease with\ngraduation. We need that the county superintendent should continue in\nthe secondary schools, and the district superintendent in the primary\nschools, the work of the model teacher and the critic teacher of the normal school. Our city schools, and a few districts in some of our counties,\nprofit by this critical supervision. In this we have most satisfactory\nresults, while in the country schools generally they are poor. It may be\nargued that the standard for the country teacher should not be as high as\nfor the city teacher. I think it should be. The country school ought to\nbe as well graded, as well taught, and in every other way as good as that\nof the towns and cities.\n\n"}
{"page": 461, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintcndenc?]\n\nRECIPROCAL\n\nRECOGNITION\n\nOF DIPLOMAS\n\n45 1\n\nIt is a calamity that the best people in the country are moving into town\nto educate their children. The country communities suffer from the loss\nof their more intelligent and progressive citizens. The cities and towns are\ncrowded by non-producers, unfit for town life and unhappy in the change,\nwhile their children are surrounded by influences in the towns which are\nnot so wholesome as those of the country life to which they were born.\nBut the state normal school cannot supply our schools with professional teachers. The state and county institutes must make up the deficiency. These institutes should be devoted to purely professional training,\nsuch as has been suggested for the state normal college. The requirements for entrance to these institutes should be the same as those necessary to enter the state normal college, with the addition of the careful\nstudy of the subjects, above mentioned, in pedagogics, psychology, history of education, etc. Primary certificates should be issued by these\ninstitutes only upon satisfactory examination of these subjects, and on the\nsubjects taught in the primary and secondary schools.\nThe object aimed at in fixing the standard for primary teachers should\nbe the improvement of our country schools, especially, and as a prerequisite thereto the creation of a body of professional teachers. This will\nbring about the following results :\nProfessional teachers will do better work and thereby increase the\ninterest in education ; the school fund will cease to be used for pensioning\nincompetent relatives and friends of school directors and politicians, and\nwasted in many other ways ; the proper use of the funds, the increase in\nthe interest and efficiency of the schools, and the growth of the intelligence and morality of communities will be accomplished ; the people will\ndemand that the state and counties provide for the proper education of\nthe people in the country, as well as in the towns and cities ; and the\nteacher, doing the work of a master workman, and not that of an apprentice, will receive a master workman's wages.\n\nRECIPROCAL\nRECOGNITION\nSCHOOL DIPLOMAS\nBY Z. X. SNYDER,\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nSTATE\n\nOF STATE\nAND\nNORMALBY THE STATES\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nCOLORADO\n\nIn opening this discussion, we present some data taken from the\nreport of the committee of the Normal Section of the National Educational Association at Milwaukee.\nThe data are taken from the investigation of Inquiry 9, \" Recognition\nof diplomas of other state normal schools in other than the state in\nwhich they were issued.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 462, "printed_page": null, "text": "452\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chattanooga\n\n1. Are diplomas from normal schools of any other state than your\nown recognized in your own state? Answer : Yes, 15 ; no, 21 ; conditional, yes, 5.\n2. If so, to what extent ? If all states are not recognized, name\nthose that are. Answer : Michigan recognizes Pennsylvania, New\nYork, Indiana, Delaware, and Wisconsin ;. Wisconsin recognizes New\nYork, Illinois, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Kansas, and Michigan; New\nYork recognizes reciprocity.\n3. If none are so recognized, state reasons why. Answer : No law,\n14 ; unequal standard, 6 ; no need, 4; reciprocity, 2.\n4. Do you think it would be well to have comity of states in this\nmatter ? Answer : Yes, 31 ; no, 3 ; no answer, 14.\n5. If such a plan were adopted, would it not be necessary for the\nnormal schools in the several states to have courses of study approximately equivalent ? Yes, 36 ; no, 4 ; no answer, 10.\n6. What plan would you suggest to make normal-school diplomas\nnational in their significance and legality ? Answer: Legislation, 4 ;\ncontrolled by National Educational Association, 2 ; reciprocity, 4 ; not\nanswering, 29.\nThe above data were gotten from the state superintendents of the\nforty-eight states and territories.\n(i) It would seem that there is a majority of the states that do not\nrecognize diplomas from other states. (2) There are states in which the\nlaw forbids recognition, and a number in which the law is silent. (3)\nThere is a general feeling that there should be recognition.\nIt may seem strange that a representative of Colorado should argue\nthe affirmative of the proposition. Colorado is a very exclusive state.\nNo credentials whatever can be recognized under the present law. It\nis because of these conditions that we are led to feel that such a law is in\na large degree absurd.\nIt is not because we are anxious for our diplomas that we urge the\nmatter. It is because of your diplomas. Few of ours leave the state ;\nmany of yours come. It makes no difference what the qualifications of\nan individual may be, were he to come to our state he would have to\nundergo a petty examination.\nIt seems that there are a number of reasons why there should be\nnational recognition of the state diplomas.\nIt would be a great convenience to the individual who held a state\ndiploma to have it recognized in any state. It is a matter of no little\nconcern to an educational man to be subjected to an examination. An\nindividual who has been devoting his best self to his work of teaching\nis very properly disqualified to pass the ordinary technical examination.\nSuch an ordeal chagrins him, makes him hate his business.\nIt has driven good men out of the business.\nIt would be about as\n\n"}
{"page": 463, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nRECIPROCAL\n\nRECOGNITION\n\nOF DIPLOMAS\n\n453\n\nconsistent, in the selection of a college professor, to require him to pass\nagain the entrance examination. Not one in twenty who has been out\nin life twenty years could pass it.. It is to his credit not to be able to\npass it.\nIt is a courtesy that should exist among the states. There seems to\nbe a lack of faith in each other's work. It sometimes seems that it is\nthe teaching fraternity itself that stands most in its own way. The warcry seems to be examination. As Sir Thomas Browne says : \" It is a\npractice that savors much of pedantry.\" Let us believe that other states\ndo good work.\nNational recognition would tend to raise the standard of many\nschools. Especially would this be true were there a minimum requirement. It would inspire schools that now have meager courses to enlarge,\nexpand, and enrich their work, that they might receive national recognition. No school under the control of the state would want to be cast\nout of recognition.\nIt would tend to professionalize teaching. Professional spirit would\nbecome more organic. It would tend to vitalize the great army of\nteachers. This matter of disregarding the work of other educational\nmen, ignoring training that is at par with the best, tends to deprofessionalize. It has been said that educational men are slow to move, and\nthat all great educational movements have been forced by laymen. Be\nthis as it may, the teaching fraternity in this country would be more\nrespected, would be more professionalized, by a national recognition of\npreparation for teaching.\nIt would tend to develop the notion that we have a common country,\ncommon interests, common fortunes. It would tend in general to\nnationalize. There is considerable tendency to provincialize. This\ntendency follows somewhat the geographical political divisions. This\ntendency to localize interests is seen in the bitter sentiments expressed\non various political issues. It seems that everything possible should be\ndone to bring about homogeneity of sentiment among the American\npeople. Out of such only can grow the strongest patriotism. This\nmust come thru education. If it is to come thru education, there\nmust be such sentiment among the educational men of the country.\nThere must be a recognition of the labor, scholarship, and worth of a\nman as determined by his fellows where he has worked, and not by a\npetty examination, which only tends to chagrin and mortify him.\nIt is said that General Grant expressed himself that, if the national\nuniversity had been founded when Washington made his donation,\nthe Civil War could not have occurred. It would have developed such a\nhomogeneity of sentiment for man's freedom that long before the Civil\nWar we would have had a free people.\nIf this country is to work out her mission, it must be done thru her\n\n"}
{"page": 464, "printed_page": null, "text": "454\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chattanooga\n\neducational system. The facilities must be American ; they must be\nnational. While this matter of professional recognition may seem but a\nsmall one, yet it is one of the factors which tend to nationalize our system\nof education.\nSumming up, we would urge that the educational men of the country\nlend their support to bringing about a recognition of state diplomas of\nall the states, by all the states: (i) because of the effect upon the individual (2)\n;\nbecause it is common courtesy ; (3) because it would tend to\nraise the standard of the schools ; (4) because it would professionalize\nteaching ; (5) because of its general effect upon the nation.\nWhile we may all agree to a national recognition of diplomas, it\nmight be difficult to accomplish it.\nSome have suggested equivalent courses, some uniformity of courses,\nin training schools. It would seem that a similarity of training would\nfurnish the best criterion by which to determine the product. As most\nof the state normal schools are at the present time,^ no state would suffer\nmaterially from difference of product. Should a minimum course be\nadopted by the state normal schools and a minimum examination for\nstate diplomas, it would help to solve the difficulty.\nAs to its regulation, it would have to grow out of legislation. The\nstates reserve the right, as they should, to regulate their own school\naffairs ; yet the educational men of the country can do much to bring\nabout such legislation as will further the organic unity of the national\nlife.\n\nMEDICAL\n\nBY W. B, POWELL,\n\nINSPECTION\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF SCHOOLS\n\nOF SCHOOLS,\n\nWASHINGTON,\n\nD. C.\n\nTo make life safe and to secure health and happiness to those who\nare governed are among the most important duties of government.\nLife, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness may not be restricted by government directly without inducing disrespect and even contempt for that\ngovernment. But it is equally important, and is imperative from a moral\npoint of view, for the government to see that rights, privileges, and\nblessings are not curtailed or endangered by carelessness or shortsightedness on its part, or by any lack of effort on its part to prevent curtailment\nand danger. Sickness and disease restrict physical liberty and prevent\nthe pursuit of happiness. It is unwritten law that privileges increase\nresponsibility, and that responsibility is increased by power and authority.\nComplex conditions of human society multiply the duties and responsibilities of government, and, while increasing privileges, they impose\n\n"}
{"page": 465, "printed_page": null, "text": "SuperintendenceJ\n\nMEDICAL\n\nINSPECTION\n\nOF SCHOOLS\n\n455\n\nrestrictions on the individual. Restrictions imposed by government\nincrease the obligations of government to protect the governed from\nthose ills that logically result from such restrictions.\nPrevision and supervision, prevention and formation, are talismanic\nwords in the vocabulary of human interests. The school, the public\nschool especially, by dealing with people in masses, has developed the\nvalue of the activities in human society named by these four significant\nwords. By prevention and formation, which can be secured thru\nbroad, intelligent prevision and supervision, both the mind and body of\nthe child may be symmetrically, if not perfectly, developed, and a healthy\ncondition given to both. Correspondingly is this true of the community\nand the state, which are made of individuals. Not only does a government derive its just power from \" the consent of the governed,\" but it\ngets its character from the same source. There can be no doubt in the\nmind of any well-informed person that a large percentage of the physical ills of a community may be prevented by intelligent prevision and\nappropriate care in formation. The signal service of the government\nsaves to the people by-preventing loss that would equal many times its\ncost. This benefit of the service, however, is insignificant when compared\nwith that of saving life and preventing accident to human beings. By\neffort of government, local and national, in the summer of 1892 cholera\nwas prevented from getting a start on this continent. What dark evils\nwere thus averted may only be guessed ; they can never be known. The\nvalue of quarantine is so well understood and appreciated that argument\nis not needed to cause it to be employed by government in cases of\napparent wide public danger; it rests on the principle of prevention. It\nis customary now in all intelligent communities to quarantine cases of\ncertain kinds of disease, as small-pox and diphtheria. But he who\nknows, as does the superintendent of schools, the conditions existing at\nthe time of quarantine in many cases knows also how much more\neffective and perfect would be such quarantine, and how much of contagion and harm would be prevented, were the prevision earlier, more\naccurate, and more intelligent. Most of the cases of quarantine in our\ncommunities come too late to prevent entirely the spread of the disease\nwhich they are intended to check, thus causing much distress and hardship.\nThe exercise of power in the enforcement of school attendance or of\neffort in securing it is dangerous, and therefore unwise, unless it is\naccompanied by a conscientious appreciation and an adequate exercise\nof the duty of seeing that the assembling of pupils may be had without\nphysical or moral harm. Not only is it the right, but it is the duty, of\nthe community or school authorities to know when pupils assemble that\nthe rooms in which they work shall be, not only well, but properly lighted;\nnot only well, but properly warmed and ventilated ; not only well, but\n\nk\n\n"}
{"page": 466, "printed_page": null, "text": "456\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chattanooga\n\nproperly seated; that contagion is not only not imminent, but that it is\nnot possible. This condition of affairs, however, can be secured only by\nintelligent, expert prevision, which prevision is not possible by the\npresent ordinary means ; that is, thru the school as it now exists.\nThere are not appliances for determining now. There is not expert\nknowledge. Skill to see and wisdom to determine are not possessed.\nWe have not yet acquired these, except in small degree. We know only\npartially of lighting, warming, ventilating, and seating. We know little\nor nothing of the evidences of approaching disease of any kind. There\nis no doubt that in the significant movement now going on, resulting\nalready in making school better and more effective, the larger share of\nsuch benefits or improvements has resulted from increased knowledge on\nthe part of teachers and school officers; but we have not yet knowledge\nenough to do that which advancing society demands of the school. The\nincreased, accurate knowledge that scientific investigation has given us in\nrecent years makes it possible to prevent much of human suffering and\ndanger, and thus is added a corresponding duty to the work of the\nschool. Increased knowledge of the laws of sanitation, sources of physical evil, and causes of contagion makes prevention the most important\nfunction of the health department of government.\nContagious diseases are not the only ills against which to provide.\nThese are not the only diseases to which to apply prevention, guided by\nbroad and intelligent prevision. There are diseases not known as acute,\nsporadic, infectious, or contagious, whose premonitory symptoms, or\nwhose beginnings at least, can and ought to be detected in time to prevent development. The expert physician will not only know these\nbeginnings promptly, but he will know their causes, also. If the causes\nexist in the schoolroom, they can be removed ; if they exist at home,\nsomething, at least, may be done toward removing them. Diseases of\nthe eyes, the ears, and the lungs ; heart troubles and numerous other\nailments, have their beginnings, in many cases, in heredity, but in quite as\nmany instances they result from the conditions of environment, the formative agencies of life after birth. They may be found in the home or in\nthe school. The way pupils are allowed to sing, the way they are allowed\nor forced to write, the way they are allowed or forced to study and recite,\nthe way they are compelled to sit, may be harmful. Conditions may\nexist in the schoolroom or school yard which will lead to the impairment\nof lungs, or will produce rheumatism or other ailments that may develop\nduring the formative period and become chronic, yet the teacher, the\nprincipal, the superintendent, or other school authority, be ignorant of\ntheir existence. Dirt and cleanliness have meanings from the standpoint\nof health differing widely from those commonly given to them from the\nstandpoint of neatness in housekeeping. Dirt from the point of view\nof the bacteriologist has a more significant meaning in relation to human\n\n"}
{"page": 467, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nMEDICAL\n\nINSPECTION\n\nOF SCHOOLS\n\n457\n\ninterests than it has irora the point of view of the most careful janitor or\nthe model housewife. To be clean from a sanitary point of view is to be\nfree from that which will cause disease. This kind of uncleanliness can\nbe detected only by the expert. \"Only he who has learned to do the right\nkind of seeing can do this work right. If the state which locates, lays\nout, and prepares a highway over which people may travel is responsible\nfor accident or harm occasioned by neglect to repair damages or breaks\nin such highways, or breaks in bridges forming parts of such highways,\nit must be that the state which provides places of meeting, or allows\nplaces of meeting to exist, and compels or allows the assembling of\nchildren, yet neglects to provide by intelligent prevention against contagion or any cause of disease whose evidences can be detected by expert\nseeing, will be held responsible for sickness thus induced. It is certainly\nresponsible from a moral, if not from a legal, standpoint, and if it is\nresponsible from a moral standpoint, the state has proved itself fair\nenough thru just interpreters of law to assume the legal responsibility.\nTHERAPEUTIC\n\nASPECT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nQUESTION\n\nI have shown in the foregoing the value of prevention rather than that\nof cure or therapeutic effort. I have pleaded for the \"ounce of prevention.\" The subject under consideration is important enough to deserve\nattention from the standpoint of therapeutic or curative benefits. Many\nchildren are defective other than those who are blind, deaf, or feebleminded. The state takes care of the blind, deaf, and feeble-minded by\nthe most approved methods in costly institutions. Why should it not,\nwith equal justice and propriety, care for those who show beginnings of\nspinal curvatures, symptoms of pulmonary troubles, defective eyes or\nears, symptoms of nervous weakness of various kinds ? A large percentage of these persons showing only the earliest stages of defective conditions when sent to school may be promptly benefited by application of\neasily found remedies, or perhaps chiefly by change of manner of living.\nTo detect these conditions, however, requires the skill of an expert.\nMany children have difficulties with one or both eyes of which the parent\nis entirely ignorant. But these difficulties, being at first very slight, can\nbe cured at small cost. The trouble may be checked by the use of properly adjusted glasses. The therapeutic or curative value of the work of\nwhich I now speak is based on the idea of \" a stitch in time.\" This\n\"stitch in time\" would save many an eye and many a pair of eyes, many\nan ear and many a pair of ears, many a throat and many a pair of lungs.\nSome children ought not to come to school at all until they have had\ndefinite medical treatment, or at least expert technical treatment, for ailments that are rapidly leading them to early graves. These ailments are\nmore than likely to be aggravated by the conditions and restrictions\nimposed by school life. In very many instances these require, to prevent\n\n"}
{"page": 468, "printed_page": null, "text": "458\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chattanooga\n\ntheir further development, only a slight change in the manner of living,\non the part of the afflicted, respecting eating, sleeping, or dressing. It\nwould be a greater blessing to the boy, and if to the boy to the community or state, to have saved for use during a long life of activity two\neyes, than to give him a modicum of school instruction and thereby either\nruin bis eyes for life or so aggravate their condition as to make them an\nannoyance to him while he lives, and prevent him from acquiring knowledge and making himself a useful man by one of the chief instrumentalities of knowledge-getting. It is perhaps fortunate, if our own happiness\nis considered, that we do not know the number of incipient spinal curvatures that are aggravated by. school life and developed into permanent\nand serious deformity. By how slight an effort, from the standpoint of\nexpert knowledge, such serious results may be prevented, every school\nofficer should consider with profound, if not solemn, attention. From\nthe humanitarian standpoint alone the discovering of congenital difficulties and incipient ailments induced by wrong living, pernicious environment, or the wrong use of those things that affect and make life in the\nformative period, and the judicious giving of direction or advice to\nparents or guardians for the application of simple but correct methods\nfor curing or improving conditions which may be easily effected, are primary and emphatic duties of public-school authorities. It is no less the\nduty of the state to care for these incipient cases of disease than it is its\nduty to care for those whose misfortunes are more pronounced. The relation that the public school sustains to government in a democracy makes it\nimperative that the physical care of the future citizen shall not be neglected, because it is certain that it cannot be neglected without menace\nto citizenship, which, to be of highest value, must* be pure and physically sound. By how slight an obstruction at the right place the falling\nrain is directed toward one or the other side of the continent ; by how\nslight a beginning a break in the dam, undiscovered and unchecked, results\nin untold destruction of property and human life ! These but poorly\nillustrate the menace there is to human society in incipient disease among\nthe ignorant. I ask you to recall Johnstown and the Conemaugh dam.\nThe proprietor who fails to discover, or, having discovered, fails to check,\nthe widening breach in the structure which holds a great body of water,\nwith its untold possibilities of damage, is accounted criminal by public\nsentiment. This same sentiment recognizes the responsibility of the state\nto the citizen, who is a part of the state, respecting all matters that may\ninfluence the moral and physical conditions of the individual.\nTHE\n\nECONOMIC\n\nVIEW\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nSUBJECT\n\nFrom a financial or economic point of view, the school can well afford\nthe care that has been suggested from the standpoint of prevention as\nwell as that suggested from the standpoint of therapeutics.\nThe loss of\n\n"}
{"page": 469, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nMEDICAL\n\nINSPECTION\n\nOF SCHOOLS\n\n459\n\ntime occasioned by sickness and disease resulting from school attendance\nthat might be easily prevented is of money value greater than that which\nit takes to support the school as it now exists, if the calculation be not\nrestricted to school life alone, but be made to include the value of time\nlost by parents and nurses, and others involved and affected.\nBut in a more restricted sense there would be economy in first caring\nfor the health of the children, because the teaching could and would be\nmore rapidly and more effectively done. The growing child not in good\nhealth is ill prepared for the psychic building or making which correct\nschool methods are intended to secure. The psychic self is not its true\nself except in perfect health. The teaching, no matter how attempted or\nhow well done, will, by force of circumstances, be ineffectual, and,\nmore than this, it may be pernicious in psychic effect, and, indeed, is\nlikely to be so ; that which is intended to be accomplished may be taken\nwrong by the child, and, if taken wrong, the psychic effect will be the\nopposite to that which it was intended to be. Who, then, is to know\nwhether that which is attempted in the schoolroom may not result in the\nwrong thing, or at least be ineffectual or of little avail ? The teacher\nshould know the child physically better than he does. But this first condition of requirements the teacher does not possess.\nTHE\n\nSUBJECT\n\nVIEWED\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nLIGHT\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOL\n\nGOVERNMENT\n\nFrom the standpoint of school government alone, the police side of\nthe management of schools, it would be profitable and businesslike, and\nin accordance with the way business matters in human society are generally managed, when managed successfully, to see to it that the children\nare in healthy condition, and that they are so situated that health, and\ntherefore physical conditions conducive to physical happiness, are assured.\nTruancy would in a large degree be prevented, because, by teaching\nhealthy children, the teaching exercises of the school would have the\neffect of giving pleasure and gratification, thus insuring against pleasureseeking in truancy, as well as in other misconduct. It were better to\nprevent truancy and dislike for school than to try to cure them by\nreformatory measures. This would be prevention from the standpoint of\ncontrol or government, and because, what the child is in the school he\nis practically when he leaves school ; this alone would compensate the\nstate or the community for all the trouble and expense that medical examination and supervision might cause.\nMEDICAL\n\nINSPECTION\n\nA\n\nVALUABLE\n\nEDUCATIVE\n\nINSTRUMENTALITY\n\nThe most important argument in favor of medical inspection of\nschools and school children is the educational benefit it would be to the\ncommunity at large. Its direct and naturally aggressive tendency would\nbe to make knowledge of the common laws of health universal and to\n\n"}
{"page": 470, "printed_page": null, "text": "46o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chattanooga\n\ncreate an interest in the study of social life. Intelligence respecting the\neffects of modes of living on length of life, on happiness of life, and on\ncost of living, is very meager, especially among the lower classes of\nsociety. The school has reason to know and to understand the disadvantages of this condition economically and morally. Knowledge of\nthese subjects would grow rapidly if the school would take hold of the\nmatter purposively and would cause people to begin knowledge-getting\nin experience. Medical inspection would result in giving knowledge of\nconditions and causes, and would suggest changes in modes of living, with\nreasons for the same. These would cause thought and would give\ninformation to satisfy the same, which, with the purposive effort induced\nin the realization of suggestion, would educate in the most effectual way.\nThis experience would create interest, which, in turn, would insure further knowledge-seeking by means of reading, attending lectures, by\ninquiry, and in many cases by original investigation and experiment. Is\nit not the duty of the school to arouse society to intelligent thought on\nthe importance of better modes of life ? By no other means can this be\ndone so effectively. Is it not the duty of the school to train people to\nlive better ? Is not this the true purpose of the school ? The logical\nplace to begin this is with the physical life of society, the one phase of\nlife that has been most ignored by our educational methods, because\nleast thought about, and until now least understood.\nOne of the most valuable products or important benefits to society\nresulting from public-school effort in education is that which comes from\nindividual contact of pupils having different degrees and various opportunities of experience. The less fortunate element of society gets the\nbenefit of culture and knowledge possessed by that portion which has\nmuch to give, because it possesses much ; it has received much by the circumstances controlling it. It should be the purpose of the school to use\nevery instrumentality of possible possession to broaden the child's view\nof life and of society. The school in many localities has done much for\nsociety, beside instructing the children in attendance, by this unobtrusive\nand generally unobserved influence. It is the crowning value of the\npublic school, and the most assuring reliance of republican government,\nthat its most fortunate children may be educated with those possessing\nthe least desirable advantages in their surroundings, without a social or\nmoral harm. This assuring fact is the patriot benefactor's anchor of faith\nin free and compulsory education.\nThe man who controls public affairs will yet be brought to see that\nthe three R's do not, cannot, educate for intelligent citizenship. He\nwill yet see that they do not make even the beginnings of broad, safe\ncitizenship.\nIn many cities homes have been changed by the instrumentalities of.\nday school.\nThe addition of music to the school work has resulted in\n\n"}
{"page": 471, "printed_page": null, "text": "f\n\\\n\niiupcriniendence]\n\nMEDICAL\n\nWSPECTlON\n\nOt^ SCtlOOLS\n\n4^1\n\ntaking music to the homes of thousands where before it was not heard.\nBeautiful, refined rote songs on subjects that are themselves elevating and\ninspiring have changed the homes for younger children and for parents as\nwell. The introduction of drawing into the schools has been the means\nof carrying art — crude, indeed, in its beginnings, but valuable in its influence— to homes without number which had before felt nothing of such\ninfluence. The effect of song and art on the homes and people who\nespecially need song and art to make beginnings of influences that\nwould result in better and happier lives has compensated the state a\nthousand fold for all the cost of these so-called fads. The subjects to\nwhich art has drawn the attention of pupils, where art has been properly\ntaught, has effected untold benefit to children and parents.\nThe philanthropic worker in the degraded or slum portion of the\nward will tell you that the establishing of the primary school in that\nlocality has changed, not only the conduct of the children, but has changed\nalso the lives of the mothers and fathers, and the character of the homes\nof that locality. The beautiful song is heard in the doorway now, where\nbefore slang, profanity, or sounds of sorrow or anger were heard ; and the\ndrawing of the child or cheap chromo may be seen now on wall^ which\nnever before had known any attempt at ornament of any kind. These\nare evidences of the beneficial results of school effort to him who knows\nhow to see; who knows what influences effect better lives and better living.\nThe introduction of domestic science, into the school of the cities\nespecially, has had its influence, not only on those who are taught, but on\nthousands of mothers and older sisters. Evidence that is unmistakable\nin character, and that is voluminous in amount, assures us that the sewing, and the cooking, and various other economic lessons learned in connection with them, affect thousands of homes, making them better and\nmore comfortable, thus producing wiser, better, and more contented citizens. The dollars that the community spends for cooking schools,\nmanual training schools, sewing schools, are insignificant in value compared with the increased happiness, the broader-minded citizenship, and\nresulting safety secured to society. He who looks on these things and\nsees them in an opposite light looks only from the standpoint of dollars.\nIf he will look and see from the standpoint of humanity or good government, he will never again speak of them as fads, or regret the increased\nexpense of the school, or criticise the multiplicity of kinds of work that\nthe child is caused to do because of them.\nThere is a more important, a farther reaching, and more potent instrumentality yet to be brought to the schools than has yet been introduced,\nexcept in a few places : that of medical inspection. That it is by means\nof which the people may learn how to live better, may learn how to\ndetect imminent evil, and how to prevent it. That it is by means of\nwhich the people will be induced to study their own environment and the\n\n"}
{"page": 472, "printed_page": null, "text": "4^2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chattanboga\n\ninfluences that have made them what they are, and are continuing to affect\nand fix their condition. The school must ally itself more with society,\nand make itself felt more as an instrumentality in society for benefiting the individual and making society better. One of the most fruitful ways of doing this is to interest the intelligent, educated, scientific\nelement of society in its welfare ; to learn from this element, and to\ninvoke its aid in every particular in which it can give benefit. The\nbenefit to be derived from this wise and competent source of information and suggestion is that exact kind of influence that always goes from\nthe school to the home, just as the effect of domestic science goes from\nthe school to the home to change it and make it better, and just as\nthe instrumentalities of kindergarten methods and of the best primaryschool methods have gone from the school to the home, affecting not\nonly younger children at home, but mothers and fathers as well. The\nday will come when the community at large, even the lower element of it,\nknowing something of sanitary law and sanitary appliances, will seek to\nknow-more and to understand better how to live; and the instrumentality\nthru which it shall be brought about is the public schools, allied with the\neducated portion of society.\n\nIDEALIZING\n\nBY SYLVESTER\n\nF. SCOVEL,\n\nOUR\n\nFINAL\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nAIM\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nIN\n\nEDUCATION\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF WOOSTER,\n\nO.\n\n\"Realizing Our Final Aim in Education \" is, of course, logically sequent\non having a final aim. This address should properly be preceded by\nanother on \" Character as Final Aim in Education.\" The discussion of\nour end or object is becoming a very frequent and familiar one, and I\nmust be pardoned a word on that which is fundamental to this.\nWe are fortunate to have really found a final aim, since Aristotle could\nsay as to the confusion then existing the following : \" What, then, is education, and how are we to educate ? For there is yet no agreement on\nthe point. All men are not of the same opinion as to what the young\nshould learn either with a view to perfection or to the best life. Nor is it\nagreed whether education is to aim at the development of the intellect or\nof the moral character. Nay more, from the ordinary standpoint the\nmatter is quite confused, and it is not clear to anybody whether we are\nto train in what leads to virtue, in v/hat is useful for ordinary life, or in\nabsolute science.\nAll these alternatives have their advocates.\"\nAnd so far as I can judge from the able and scholarly paper of Professor Gordy, there yet seems to be uncertainty as to the end of\neducation\namong us.\nThere can be little dissent from his general\n\n"}
{"page": 473, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nREALIZING\n\nOUR\n\nFINAL\n\nAIM\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n463\n\npostulate that the end of education will be determined for each individual\nby his conception of man : that Plato would educate for dialectic, intuitive power ; Aristotle for the intellect's supremacy ; certain religious\nteachers for the capacity to believe certain doctrines ; Dr. Dewey solely\nfor society; Herbartians for such \" interest as would invariably impel the\nindividual to certain kinds of conduct ; \" Davidson for \"rational living\"\nby the four elements of knowledge, discipline, cultivation of the emotions, and will-training.\nWhile we must all heartily agree with the general conclusion of the\nvaluable paper concerning the limits of genetic psychology, I do not\nshare the uncertainty which it seems to convey concerning the final aim\nin education. It is not incomprehensible, because the main elements and\noutlines and meanings of human nature are not incomprehensible. The\ndrift of the world's thought today is in the direction of the value of the\nman's nature as a moral being. And he is, therefore, in himself (and\nnecessarily in his relations), as a moral being, the first end of his\nown education. There is no difficulty in unlocking a door with a masterkey which fits all the wards ; and the supremacy of the moral in man is\nthat which brings all individuals; all society, and all history into harmony\nwith the surrounding universe, and with the God who made it and is now\nimmanent in it.\nI may beg leave to add just here that I know of no religious view of\nman which ever found expression in an education so narrow as to be completed in man's belief of \"certain doctrines.\". On the contrary, the\nworld's education is an ethical progress toward an ethical end, driven by\nthe sanctions of one divinely ordained and authoritative system. Creed\nand deed are never divorced in Christianity. This is abundantly proven\nby the history of civilization, and nowhere better exemplified than in\nAmerica, where our education of every grade has been predominantly and\nalmost universally Christian — and remains so today.\nMoreover, it may be noted that Aristotle is by no means committed\nto the supremacy of the intellect. On the contrary, he holds that the\nmoral conditions the intellect. Hear his words in the Ethics: \"It is by\nthe gradual perfection of the moral nature, and by this method only, that\nwe are brought into that state in which the intellectual principle is able\nto act purely and uninterruptedly. The improvement of our moral and\nintellectual faculties will go on parallel to one another. Every evil habit\nconquered, every good habit formed, will remove an obstacle to the energy\nof the intellect and assist in invigorating its nature.\"\nParallel with this the noble utterance of Erasmus D. MacMaster (once\npresident of Hanover and of Miami University, in Ohio): \"Nothing,\nnothing, but the predominating influence of high moral rectitude as the\ngoverning power in man can give that enlargement and capacity to the\nintellect, that force of thought, that vigorous tone of sentiment, and that\n\n"}
{"page": 474, "printed_page": null, "text": "464\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chattanooga\n\nfirmness and consistency, which are essential to the highest order of mind.\"\n(Hanover, 1844.)\nThere can be no controversy over the assertion that our view of the\nend to be sought in education will be determined by our view of the\nnature to be educated. That is simple common sense, and the foundation of all scientific inquiry into the lesser facts of our mental structure\nand history from childhood up. But the wonder is that there should be\nany controversy as to what the great leading, dominant, distinctive characteristic ofour nature is. That fixed, the end of our education is fixed.\nThere are many indications of this broad and deep view of our nature\nbeing held.\nJohn Stuart Mill says :\nEducation includes whatever we do for ourselves, and whatever is done for us by\nothers, for the express purpose of bringing us nearer to the perfection of our nature.\nIn its largest acceptation it comprehends even the indirect effect produced on character\nand human faculties by things of which the direct purpose is different (e. g., laws, arts,\ngovernment, industry, social life, physical environment).\n\nThe same broad view of man's nature and relations appears in the\ndefinition of education's aim as given in the charter of the Leland P.\nStanford, Jr., University :\nThe object is not only to give the student a technical education, fitting him alone for\na successful business life, but it is to instill into his mind an appreciation of the blessings\nof this government, a reverence for its institutions, and a love of God and humanity, to\nthe end he may go forth and by precept and example spread the great truths, by the\nlight of which his fellow-men will be elevated and taught how to attain happiness in\nthis world and in the life eternal.\n\nThere are implied our whole nature and our sublimest relations and\nthe underlying truth that, character once made the appropriate end, conduct will be sure to follow. So Froebel r \" Education consists in leading\nman as a thinking, intelligent being, growing into self-consciousness, to a\npure and unsullied, conscious and free representation of the inner law of\nDivine Unity, and in teaching him ways and means thereto\nThe\nobject of education is the realization of a faithful, pure, inviolate, and\nhence holy life.\"\nFor us the perplexity is over. Education is itself so great that only\ncharacter is a target large enough for its final aim. But character is\npeerless. It is the sum of our moral attributes. It is greater than circumstance, as the underlying geometrical truth is greater than the chalk\nlines on the blackboard. It is the true measure of our worth, the standard of intrinsic human values, and of that judgment which this world is\nconstantly making up, and which the next world will but complete and\nexhibit. Character is being, and it is nobler to be than either to have or\nto know. Character is the indispensable first need of man for himself,\nand the equally indispensable first requisite for every combination in\nwhich man must live — family, church, or state.\n\n"}
{"page": 475, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nREALIZING\n\nOUR\n\nFINAL\n\nAIM\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n465\n\nEvery view of education which has made anything less than character\nits final aim has proven seriously defective. Materialism has endeavored\nin vain to destroy the connection, between the two by denying our ability\nto form character, and making both mind and morals absolutely dependent on external conditions and antecedents. The unthinking multitude which regards \"a living \" as the end of an education is much more\ninfluential in preventing the accomplishment of the final aim; but civilization knows that merely a living is not all that man needs. And they\nwho think of learning as the end of education are giving way to better\nthings. Men must know how to manage what they learn. And even those\nwho have striven to substitute power for learning, and talked long and\nearnestly about \" leading out \" the powers and faculties, are discovering\nthat everlastingly leading out things is only to dissipate the power you\ncreate. Now the point of rest is sought. The point is demanded where\npower and learning, living and the physical basis of life, shall all be\ntributary to character; and where the man — thus to be formed — shall be\nmade the chief end of all his education. The first defective view regards\nonly the physical conditions of education ; the second looks at the money\nin education ; the third says the knowledge is the education ; the fourth\nthinks of mental skill and discipline. All are seen on the instant of\ncomparison to be far below the true view in dignity, in comprehensiveness, and in practical value. The view which makes character the end of\neducation proposes to stop nowhere short of that which is highest and\nnoblest in man. Education will not linger in the outer courts, it has a\nmessage to the king ! The true view holds it to be well-nigh self-evident\nthat the culture of the living powers is valueless (in the best sense of man's\nvalue), and even dangerous, if it be robbed of that which must go before\nit and come after it — the culture that gives the trained body and disciplined mind to the care and control of an educated conscience, and a\nwide-awake but well-controlled will, and a matured and symmetrical\ncharacter.\nThe world began with its Tubal-Cains and Vulcans and Jubals and\nMercurys to educate its fingers and its senses. But the very process made\nit avaricious, and knowledge systematized and written and transmitted\nbecame the temporary end of education. But the living powers are\nalways more than any of their contents, and to educe them rose in its\nturn to the supreme place. But there was motion, and motion implies\ndirection and end, and now the fair, full ideal begins to gain acceptance\neverywhere. The pendulum swings no more from body to mind, but rests\non soul, into which (as a great center) flow all the forces from either side.\nWith this we are ready to proceed to that most natural of inquiries\nintroduced by the announced theme. The object is a great one, but\nwhat opportunities are there in the ordinary course of school and college\nlife for developing character ? There is a savor of making bricks without\n\n"}
{"page": 476, "printed_page": null, "text": "466\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chattanooga\n\nStraw in this high demand — confessedly the highest possible demand —\nmade upon those the very condition of whose employment would seem\nto constrain them to do something else, and to do that with all their\nmight and main.\nThe teachers say : \" The points to be made in the intellectual plane\nare so definite and so difficult to attain that the moral plane remains\npractically inaccessible. So much time is given to the technique of education that we cannot do much in looking after the spirit of the matter.\nWe are in a measure forced to be martinets in training ; the morale of our\ntroops must come from some other source. Examiners who test our\nwork do not question on morals ; and all work done in that line would\nnot amount to a row of naughts, as to our advancement in the profession.\nEven parents do not send their children to us to be made good, but to\nbe made smart. The first thing they will take care of themselves (tho\nwe notice they fail in it sometimes). You demand the impossible. The\ntheory is fine, but practice evaporates it.\"\nThe scholars and students say: \" You tax us so much intellectually ;\n'give us a rest' on the morals. We have too many knotty problems to\nwrestle with to waste any time in speculating either about what we are\ngoing to be or ought to be; the main thing now for us is to know — and\nto know to the dot — and to know both outlines and details, and to show\nthat we know in quick \"answers. We have too many Latin and square\nroots to grub to be looking away into the stellar spaces for large\ninspirations. We are here to learn arithmetic, and not behavior, and to\nget on in this world, not to get ready for another.\" And so on you shall\nhear in great variety, with many side voices of like tenor, from those who\nare afraid something Christian will be done in the schools, or from directors who are determined on the highest intellectual product at any cost,\nor from the natural restlessness and impatience of our American spirit.\nThe point of unity in all the cries will be this : However desirable\ncharacter-making may be, it is not feasible thru the ordinary processes\nof our educational institutions.\nBut for all this, while acknowledging frankly every difficulty in the\ncase, I hope to show that in and thru our school and college work\nthere lie abundant opportunities to form character of the completest and\nhighest grade. The means, I dare to say, are ample, and the opportunities the very best the world affords. The opportunities are both direct\nand indirect. Along the line of immediate and daily duty lie these\npossibilities, and thick in all the interstices of busy educational intercourse are hidden a thousand more which may be developed by care and\nwatchfulness.\nAnd in this claim I have the gracious sense of defending your work and\nmine from the most damaging accusation ever cast upon our educational\nlife, viz., thai it does not and cannot make a high type of character.\n\n"}
{"page": 477, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence] tiEALlZlMC\n\nOUR\n\nPIMAL\n\nAIM\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n46?\n\nForeigners have openly made the charge, and there are those who urge it\nat home, and there are other thousands who are tremulously fearing that\nthere may be some color for thecharge, and beginning to wonder why we\nhave not better generations as well as more highly educated ones.\nTo all, of all classes, we desire to make answer that teachers, and\nboards, and parents, have no defense to offer of any system of education\nwhich either prevents or fails in making character. For one, so convinced\nam I of the ample opportunities given us, and of the certainty of their\nimprovement, on the one hand, and so profoundly convinced that no\npossible result can atone for the want of character-making power, that I\nam ready to say distinctly: If our system hinders or destroys character, or\nsimply stands in place of another that can make character, then it may,\ncan, should, and must go! You see, then, fellow-teachers and parents\nand patrons, where at least I land myself, if I fail to make it evident that\nthere are very good — I might say sufficient — opportunities (if well\nimproved) for character-making, in our educational processes.\n' I. To begin, then, with the simplest possfcle proposition. The\nformative period of character is the school and college period of life.\nUp to entrance, consciousness is but barely developed, and consecutive\nthought and philosophical memory are nearly unknown, and power to\ncomprehend moral distinctions is exceedingly rudimentary. In such a\nstate of case it cannot but be that the whole series of educational influences— the schoolroom, the recitation room, the examination days, the\npractice hours, and the playground — will be admirably situated to make\ncharacter impressions. What more could be desired as to period ?\nEarlier were of little use, and later of no use. Almost the whole formative period (I embrace, of course, from kindergarten to professional and\ntechnical school) is covered with the network of these influences. More\nwaking time is spent under them by this nascent immortality, this potter's\nclay, this shooting-twig life, than under most other influences combined.\nThe modern school idea, taken by and large, is immensely aggressive, and\nthere are not wanting those who think that it creeps slowly toward Plato's\nIdeal Republic suggestion of stealing the children entirely and giving\nthem over to the school-teachers. (See papers at Basel Evangelical Alliance in 1879.) These ceaseless hammer-strokes fall on metal thin enough\nto be battered into any shape the hammer will give it, and hard enough\nto retain the embossment forever. These influences in such a situation of\nthings must either make character or spoil the material. The opportunities are boundless, and the responsibility is incalculable when you\nremember that, ere that handling ceases, the plasticity has gone forever !\nThe time at which we work — common as the thought is — is the thing that\nunderlies both our opportunity and our responsibility. We are carving\nin stone like that strange western variety which can be wrought with handsaws and chisels when first.quarried, but once built hardens like granite.\n\n"}
{"page": 478, "printed_page": null, "text": "468\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chattanooga\n\nCharacter-making lies pre-eminently in their domain whose work determines the future by oversweeping the present. What ! fellow-teachers !\nNo opportunities to make character between three and twenty-three ?\nThen has spring no power to rule the summer's blossoming or to fructify\nthe autumn.\n2. A step closer, and we discover that the mere submission of this\nmaterial to general methods must exercise an immense influence upon\ncharacter. The school and college are the apostles of the common life.\nThe toning down and subduing effects of the painter's blending brush all\ncome this way. Here false individualism is checked, and the larger life is\ntaught as it cannot be elsewhere. School and college life, as differing\nfrom the narrower life of home, has some lines of character to cultivate\nthat are peculiarly its own, and without which a symmetrical character is\nhardly conceivable. Children and youth are sent to school and college\nfor this very class of effects, just as smaller castings are put into boxes in\nPittsburgh machine-shops and rolled about to knock the rough edges off.\nSchool and college life ^ives the first principles for social life, and furnishes the stepping-stones to much that lies farthest on in perfecting\ncharacter.\nThere is no danger here, either, to a true individuality. The general\nmethods are modified by special traits — as the one rain is absorbed by\neach plant thru the soil and atmosphere — according to its own nature.\nVariety is not destroyed, while a certain healthy uniformity is secured.\nThere is only a just correction of a false individualism. It cannot but\nbe that the submitting of each student to the same general methods\nwill have a powerful effect in establishing general standards of right, in\nremoving effects of injudicious parental partialities, and in enforcing\nrespect for all who live under the same regulations. No longer is John\nmamma's darling, or papa's prospective candidate for president, but simply No. 79 of room No. 8; or A ist, or B ad. Here is the beginning of\nmuch more than is easily seen at first glance. Here is the way to the \" moral\nunity \" which has been such a desideratum in the recent French educational\ndiscussions and changes. Here is that force which makes so decidedly,\nboth in school and army, against junkerdom and aristocracy in Germany.\nEven great traits of national character come hereout. Certainly the\nteacher who sits beside this polishing barrel and by no crank-turning, but\nby faithful administration, and even individual inspection, seeks to make\nthe most of this power committed to him, is in a \"coign of vantage\"\nfor character-making.\nIt would be simple stupidity to deny this.\nWe may well add, then, the effect of general methods to the opportunities given us by the peculiar state of the material presented for\nmanipulation. General methods are not mere economies; they are like\nthe military methods which are essential to the safety and morale of the\narmy and condition the military virtues.\n\n"}
{"page": 479, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence] REALIZING\n\nOUR\n\nFINAL\n\nAIM\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n469\n\n3. And when we look more narrowly into the very subjects of study\nwith which we are disposed to think the time is so exclusively to be spent\nas to preclude the moral work -desired, we shall find that they possess\ncharacter-making power in no inferior degree.\nLet me note again, before entering upon this point, an opinion of one\nwhose opinion I must always respect. Professor Gordy has said that\n\" the Herbartian doctrine that the school course may be made a means of\nrevealing moral ideas, and consequently a means of moral training, is not\nonly false but pernicious.\" Let me put beside this that of a teacher in\nthe Cincinnati Central High School, Professor Bishop, I think : \"The exertion of moral force must find place in every recitation. Characterbuilding\nis the real object\nThe ethical element must not be\nabsent from anything taught. The teachers are ready and willing to\nmake a noble response to this demand that they give greater prominence\nto the ethical element.\"\n(i) First and chief among the subjects of study we must think of the\nphilosophies, mental and moral, coming in their own time and way.\nThat which teaches self-knowledge cannot fail to teach something of selfcontrol. That which tells us what we ought to do must certainly bear\nfirmly upon what ought to be. He is put into the peristyle of character's\ntemple who is taught to reflect perseveringly upon the laws and activities\nof his own being. You have read, perhaps. President Oilman's admirable\nplea for philosophy as a force in this direction.\nSays he :\nIt is by the study of the history of opinions, by the scrutiny of mental phenomena,\nand by the discussion of ethical principles, that religious and moral character is\nto be developed\nThe hours of reflection are redeemed from barrenness when\n• they are pervaded by the perennial currents which flow from the lofty heights of philosophy and religion\nAbove other educational subjects in importance, stands philosophy,\nthe exercise of reason upon those manifest and perplexing problems of existence which\nare as old as humanity and as new as the nineteenth century. For its place in education\nno substitute need apply.\n{North American Review, 1883, pp. 536, 537.)\n\nAnd that which is true of other philosophy must certainly be true a\nfortiori of ethics. Can that be less than a powerful aid to a sincere\nteacher in making impressions for good that shall be as lasting as they\nare profound and accurate ? To have the ground of morality fixed ; to\nhave the history of the world's progress and failures in morals described;\nand to have its relation to God (and God manifest in humanity) settled ;\nto know something of the great executive, the will, and something of the\nphilosophy of motive — all this (and there is more in ethics) must help\nthose whose ambition it is to teach well. And he only teaches well who\ninculcates the right as the choicest of all knowledge, and the doing of it\nas the noblest possibility of our nature.\nAllow me to recall a word from Professor Halleck's valuable paper :\nObservation of children has certainly contributed to the science of education something in regard to the teaching of morality.\nSuch observation has shown that those who\n\n"}
{"page": 480, "printed_page": null, "text": "47°\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chattanooga\n\ntry to teach morality by word of mouth waste their efforts. Morality concerns itself with\naction alone. Where there is no action there can be no morality. Children of ten receive\nmore training in both thought and morals from their own games than from books.\n\nBut I beg leave to observe on this whole doctrine that there is nothing\nin the world which is so naturally and necessarily taught in the form of\nprecept — \"by word of mouth\" — as morality. To this agrees our conscience with its categorical imperative. To this agrees the moral code of\nSinai; and equally well its compression into two great commands to love.\nMoreover, we know that moral nature comes before moral action, and can\nbe cultivated. The illustration only proved that some of the children on\nthe playground had been well taught previously. And let me venture to\nput against this opinion that of Superintendent F. Louis Soldan, whose\nabsence we all regret. As against the idea that training in moral character\nmust be by concrete instances alone, he is reported as •\nopposed to the doctrine that you must not give an order to a little child without a lengthy\nexplanation ; simply doing makes morality a part of the child's being tending to habit.\nSilence, punctuality, regularity in attendance, have not much force, but they are forcible\nwhen they lead to purpose. Every school should be a source of purposes, the final end\nof which is morality as found in the institutions of man. Ethical lessons are given once\na week in our schools, in place of the language lessons in the lower eight grades. These\nare told or given in adapted literature. They cover two points : rights of other children ;\nduty to home and parents. The teachers have primary texts on ethics, to be-able to present\nthe work in an orderly way.\n\n(2) And what of the classics ? Were they not of old time called the\n\"humanities,\" because they civilized people ? And at this point of their\ninfluence they scarcely exceed the similar power of modern languages.\nWhat a broadening of consciousness as a whole race — experience flows\ninto the mind and acquires a new language ! How can we avoid the\nculture of our characters when we come by patient labor and minute\nstudy (the very nature of the process heightening the result) into sympathy with the classics in which the writers have expressed and enshrined\ntheir own characters? Learning thought we learn to think; studying\nmodels in literature we are drawn to imitation in inner and outer life.\n(3) Then there is the history. Magnificent field for character-making,\nbecause the largest field of display for character already made ! What is\nhistory but the play of individual, and occasionally of national, character ? Without this element it is a dumb pageant, as gaudy and as\nempty as a Punch and Judy show — and much less amusing. How can\nhistory be taught without the sharpest analysis of motive and keenest\nscrutiny of conduct ? How can the \"world history\" be the \"world judgment\" (according to Schiller's fine saying), unless taught as a tournament of character ? And how can you teach it so and not make\ncharacter ?\n(4) Then comes politics, or civics. It is erected upon history, but\ndeals with history in the civic and national plane.\nNecessarily dignified\n\n"}
{"page": 481, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nREALIZING\n\nOUR\n\nFINAL\n\nAIM\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n' 47 »\n\nis it by the numbers in view, the permanency of its- results, the width of\nits areas, and the sweep of its inductions. Lofty is the true political effect in character. Zr<?/-<f is. the birthplace of that intelligent patriotism we are all so anxious to create. Nothing can lie so near the\ninterest of the state as the study of civics, because here all the fundamental traits of character are shown to be the very foundation stones of\nthe state. The universal inquiry, \" What makes the state? \"can meet\nonly one universal reply: \"Men of opinion and a will ; men whom\nthe spoils of office cannot buy.\" Who can teach the constitution of the\nUnited States, with its proper historical setting, and not teach that? The\nteaching of political science (civics in all stages) must be followed by a\nconviction of the citizen's responsibility, a fine sense of social honor, and\na strong sentiment in behalf of political purity, or it has been badly\ndone. A product of this kind is the imperative demand of our times.\n\" If the colleges and schools and public lectures and the press do not\nbring to the front a superior class of young men, having a superior\nstandard of honor, they do not deserve to be praised for aught that they\ndo for the body politic. Unless there is a more exalted code and creed\nof political ethics, practically and potentially introduced, there will be\ngreat disasters come upon the republic ere many years roll around. Our\nseverest trials are yet to come.\" (From a metropolitan journal.) Can\nany teacher doubt whether character is the demand of the country ?\nHear Cowper's lamentation just after his eulogy of English freedom :\nDo I forebode impossible events ? . . . .\nHeaven grant I may ;\nBut the age of virtuous politics is past, ....\nEar when was public virtue to be found\nWhere private was not ?\n\nIn teaching civics, can any intelligent teacher lose sight of the commanding motive that our whole magnificent system of free education is a\nmoving evidence of the love the state has for its children ? Can he help\ninserting here the noble ideal which is so necessary to elevate, the\nactual ? What a glorious opportunity to teach all who receive this education to cherish the deepest and most affectionate respect for their\ncommonwealth and country, and for the laws and honor and good name\nof all the institutions of both ! What is the best gift the schools can give\nthe country ? Beyond all question it is : a generation of character.\nHear Lowell :\nYou who hold dear this self-conceived ideal,\nWhose faith and works alone can make it real ;\nBring all your fairest gifts to deck her shrine,\nWho lifts our lives away from mine and thine,\nAnd feeds them at the core with manhood more divine.\n.... When all have done their utmost, surely he\nHath given the best who gives a character\n\n"}
{"page": 482, "printed_page": null, "text": "472\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chattanooga\n\nErect and constant, which nor any shock\nOf loosened elements, nor the forceful sea\nOf flowing or of ebbing fates, can stir\nFrom its deep bases in the living rock\nOf ancient Manhood's sweet security.\n\nThere, sirs ! even poetic insight will never go beyond this high conception of our greatest American author; and to realize that character\non the civic side is our duty and privilege while we teach civics.\n(5) Then think of the character-making power of literature. Fiction\nis widest here ; and in how many ways the characters of fiction are carried\ninto our educational life thru allusions, recitations, literary references,\netc.! I believe too much use is made of it; and any use must be powerful,\nconsidering the vivid imagination of youth. Then come the essayists.\nHow many of them deal with character and teach us to be critics of it,\nwhether we will or not — all of them, indeed, that are worth using as educational material. The literature of our \"readers\" in school life sets the\ntone of the moral thinking and feeling of each generation. Let me make\nthe people's readers rather, even, than their songs ! And remember that,\nin the literary exercises we require thruout the whole process of an education, we are forming the power to have '' opinions and a will\" — i. e.,to\nthink sharply and feel deeply about that of which we think, as well as the\npower to express thought and feeling. What an amazing power is this\nthat the pupil is expected to have and express correct moral ideas and to\nadmire and praise only the virtues ! How far-reaching the implication of\nsuch an expectancy ! Even in elocution one must be taught to feel and\nexpress genuine sentiments. \" In a certain sense, training toward naturalness ismoral training of a high order. It is inculcating honesty.\" (Marg.\nT. Sutherland, Ohio Educational Monthly, September, 1888, p. 448.)\n(6) Even those studies which may be classed under the general title\nsesthetics will be found fruitful in character-making power. Can anyone\ndoubt that the training of the more delicate perceptions of the senses,\nand the opening thus of large areas to the otherwise insensitive and\nunperceiving soul, is a great general force in raising those to be educated\nto a plane higher than the coarser instincts ? Could we not reform the\nworld easier if there were no low tastes to be encountered ? Is it not\ncertain that music and art refine and elevate, when not intermingled with\nextraneous and interrupting tendencies ? Who fails to see that art is one\nof the grandest teachers of heroism ? Storied faces awaken the latent high\nambition of generous youth — as the monuments in the Ceramicus would\nnot let Themistocles sleep. Banish all that is merely frivolous in music and\nall that is impure in art, and see how inspiring and ennobling they will\nbecome. Handicapped as they now are, besmeared with the flesh and\nbesmirched with sin as they are, yet how much of every larger and fuller\nlif-e comes in thru these blessed eye and ear gates, and how thrilling\n\n"}
{"page": 483, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence] REALIZING\n\nOUR\n\nFINAL\n\nAIM\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n473\n\nthe contact of absorbing soul and creative genius all along the glowing\nlines ! Oh, for the day when the full educational powers of the aesthetic\n— drawn away from every ridiculous and demeaning association — shall\nbe developed ! And the time will come when the finer and more sensitive lines of character will be as much expected from aesthetic culture as\nthe solid buttresses of conviction and will are now expected from philosophy and ethics.\n(7) And surely there can be no doubt about the sturdy elements of\ncharacter toward which mathematics forces us. If philosophy stimulates\nlonging to be, and classical literature softens by elevated intercourse with\nlofty minds, then mathematics may claim to play spinal column to this\norder of things. See its rare power to concentrate attention and teach\nself-control ; to clear the mental vision and thus prevent confusion of\nmoral distinctions; to train the mind to keen perceptions of the subtle\nlinks of sustained reasoning, and thus prepare it for applying great principles to smaller incidents ; to strengthen the judgment, and thus steady\nthe man's practice whose principles are right. Nothing can give certainty\nand definiteness to all vital operations like mathematics.\n(8) And, of course, in this day we cannot forget natural science. That\nhas a no less honorable place. From the beginning it illuminates man's\ndwelling place, and man can never be the same when he dwells in light.\nHow marvelously science shows us that, below us and above us, within us\nand far beyond us, which makes the world too sacred a place either for\nsin or trifling ! How dares a man be lazy in a world where everything\nfrom a glacier to the wing of a humming-bird is busy ? How can a man be\nselfish where everything, from his own body to the sun, is incessantly\nimparting itself to something else ? I make no doubt that Spencer is right\n(tho by no means original) in the claim {Education, p. 88) that science\n\"cultivates the judgment, and stimulates a just spirit of independence,\nand awakens perseverance, and is a powerful aid to sincerity.\" I am\nready to say with Huxley that it tends to produce \"honest receptivity\nand a willingness to abandon all preconceived notions, if they contradict\nthe truth.\" One of our own college presidents (Finley) has said that\n\" The chief value of science teaching is that it is a training in telling the\ntruth.\" Here is the place to give credit to that best possible definition\nof education (from the side of agnosticism) given by Huxley :'\" What I\nmean by an education is learning the rules of this mighty game (that which\nnature, unseen, but just and patient, wages with us). In other words,\neducation is the instruction of the intellect in the laws of nature and the\nfashioning of the affections and of the will into harmony with those\nlaws.\" But \"fashioning the affections and the will\" is just charactermaking. Indeed, there is a cultivation of all the more delicate and refined\nfeelings inseparable from education in physical science (if there be no\nuntoward or contrary influence from without to mar the impression).\n\n"}
{"page": 484, "printed_page": null, "text": "474\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chattanooga\n\nHumility comes by seeing the greatness and intricacy of nature. Every\nobject becomes so much more to the scientist that his world is not only\nlarger but infinitely fuller than his to whom \" a yellow primrose a primrose is, and nothing more.\" Majesty beams upon him in all the greater\nmovements, and quick interest gleams out for him from every petal of the\nflower and even every scale of the fish. How can a little man help being\nhumble in the big world, as science discloses it ? Reverence for nature,\nfor man as a distinguished fraction of nature, and for God as the author\nof nature, must increase as the knowledge increases (unless again some\nexterior influence or moral disturbance interfere). The higher emotions\nare excited by all the dealing with natural marvels, and wonder leads to\nadoration, and adoration is kin to purity. Does anyone doubt at all that,\nif scientific recreations ever could become universal, they would banish\nthe theater and close the saloon, and they might even civilize football ?\nThe attainment of humility by wrestling with the facts of science and\nthe generalizations of intellectual giants is both possible and valuable.\nNo man ought to come thru a course like that of our high schools without being able to say a hearty and intellectual \"amen\" to the apostolic\ndictum : \" He that thinketh he knoweth anything, knoweth nothing yet\nas he ought to know.\" The student who goes out without having learned\nhumility is sure to expose raw surfaces, and will be punished accordingly.\n(9) And now appear the character-making elements in the new branch\nof the effects of alcohol. We all know that they are not physical only, not\nmental only, but moral. And we shall get the very opportunity to teach\nthe moral lesson against intemperance by beginning with the physical\neffects and showing where these terminate in moral wreck. Admirable\nhere are Miss Willard's words : \" The geography of character is a branch\nsure to be taught some day in the public schools. But character is\nbounded on the north by sobriety, on the east by integrity, on the west\nby industry, and on the south by gentleness.\" And then she triumphantly shows that sobriety is the condition of the other three. Teach\nthat.\n(10) Sociology. And what of sociology — the coming science which\nshall be (when it comes) a scientia scientiarum, and which (while it is coming) is tinging everything and subordinating everything (even to pure\nmathematics)? How can that be taught apart from the noblest life lessons ? Its very texture is moral, because it studies moral beings in their\nmoral relations, and religious beings in their religious relations. Its first\nquestions (and its last ones) are about human duties. That \"no man\nliveth and no man dieth to himself;\" that \"our neighbors\" must be\nloved as we love ourselves ; that we must do good where we would\nreceive good ; that justice is close akin to generosity, and generosity to\nself-sacrifice, and self-sacrifice to piety — are its primal conceptions.\n\nYou\n\n"}
{"page": 485, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence] REALIZING\n\nOVR\n\nFINAL\n\nAIM\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n475\n\ncannot teach it and not form character. One only needs to refer to Professor Mark Baldwin's recent volume on Mental Development in Social and\nEthical Interpretations to see how thoroly interplicated the individual\nand society must be. Whether, therefore, your morality be natural or\nrevealed, you must teach it as the child develops into the man, and as the\nman prepares to take his place among other men. If you can make\ncharacter at all, it is in connection with such considerations. The same\nconclusion is reached by way of Vincent's The Social Mind and Education. \"When the sciences are called upon to give a teleological reason\nfor their existence, they must give a social object as a reason for their\nbeing\nSocial philosophy is to be put at the apex of all science,\nand an ethical value is to be assigned it, rather than a logical value.\"\n(Hyslop's review of Vincent.) It is plain that the putting together of\nThe Social Mind and Education shows a wider solidarity-consciousness\nthan was ever before experienced in the world's history. The social\nside of character and conduct are coming into ever greater and greater\nprominence. \" Actions which once affected no one but the subject of\nthem, or were thought not to do so, are now thought to be necessary\nincidents in the weal and woe of our neighbors, and are catalogued as\nsocial instead of individual\" (Hyslop). What an opportunity, then, as\nwell as a responsibility ! No wonder it is proposed to lay out a curriculum\nmaking the fourth and highest class of subjects to consist of the social\nand ethical sciences. How impossible to teach with this in view all\nalong the course and not make character !\nFor the training to politeness (which is a very positive social virtue,\nand, when genuine, is thoroly altruistic), which is needed by pupils\nof all classes, our schools are full of opportunities. Half their pleasure\nand their order and good-natured atmosphere are dependent on this.\nThe polite person treats others as tho they were \" perfectly ideal persons.\" \"Politeness is only the form of altruism. Morality and religion\nare the substance of it\" (says Harris in comment upon Rosenkranz).\nEvery teaching of politeness is full of social virtue, and builds moral\ncharacter of a high order, and that on a religious basis. In this matter\nof teaching the social virtues the school is supreme. The home is too\nlimited ; the church is also too limited, and besides has special spiritual\nduty; the law comes too late for full effect, tho operative in a sense all\nthe way thru. The school is the center of power for the propagation of\nthe social virtues. Trust can be taught here, largely and constantly,\nand in ever-widening circles. Distrust can be taught, too, as a matter of\ncaution and watchfulness, and is equally necessary — but covers a small\narea. Common methods make common human nature precious in the\nsight of all who pass under them. Democratic regard for all merges\ninto the deeper sentiment of honoring all. The only point where our\nsocial classes can be woven together is in our public-school classes. Here\n\n"}
{"page": 486, "printed_page": null, "text": "47^\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n' [Chattanooga\n\nwe have them as the sailor has the end of the rope he would splice —\nfrayed out in the strands of youth that go to make up the social cords.\nNothing but the schools can give us solidarity.\nThis much, then, for the subjects of study as furnishing opportunities\nto the teacher desirous to form character. Out of each and all of them —\nand out of every particular under the general classification, philosophical,\nclassical, mathematical, scientific, aesthetic, historical, sociological — spring\nnumberless appeals to judgment and provocatives of feeling ; and in all\nof them principles are to be assumed and appealed to, or elaborated and\nestablished, which guide in opinion and conduct. Can it be that from\nthird year to twenty-third pupils can be kept in living and real contact\nwith such subjects without in all probability having all great points in\nlife and belief and character brought before them, and without, in the\nprocess as a whole, receiving very decided and ineradicable impressions?\n4. It is now but a half step onward to call up those modifications\nof character which pupils must experience by intercourse with each\nother. .The special directions of this discipline of interaction immediately reveal themselves. No child remains the same after the first week\nof school, and no graduate leaves the professional school without feeling\nthe touch of those he has been nearest to. The good will acquire\npatience, will learn to exercise consideration, will grow in respect for\ntalent, will increase in sympathy, and will be sensible of a rising desire to\nexcel. The bad, as everywhere else, will either approximate the good, or\ngo the other way and finally go out. One or the other result, and in\nvarious degrees, is sure to be discovered. Sometimes we fear measles and\nother things ; but moral contacts in school life are a deal more important because continuous and often without visible external symptoms.\nThere are numberless ways for the good influences to become operative. The playground and the gymnasium show finely how the physical\nand the moral edges intersect. Here and in the military drill and organization there is a school of character. It is here that pupils learn to despise\nindolence. Here they discover that enthusiasm is indispensable, but must\nbe restrained and tempered by judgment and aided by patiently acquired\nskill. Here the boys learn to take hold and do things. Here, too, one\nmust be scrupulously fair to every fellow-contestant or be black-balled in\nthe severe but honest public sentiment of the little community. Honest\nsweat is seen to be a condition of high health, and that again is conditioned upon a total relinquishment of self-dandling. Here, too, is\nlearned that sovereign lesson that healthy bodies are most likely to be\nholy ones, and that vice weakens and withers wherever it touches. How\nwell Tom Brown at Rugby and Oxford depicts the moral education of\nthe school and college sports !\nThen' in the mental gymnastics of the literary societies the same\nforces are exerted from a different angle.\nSelf-possession, so near of\n\n"}
{"page": 487, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence] REALIZING\n\nOUR\n\nFINAL\n\nAIM\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n477\n\nkin to self-control, must be learned. Honest exercise of critical power,\n\"nothing extenuating nor setting down aught in malice,\" is an admirable\nway to be forced into seeing our own faults — a very first step to symmetrical character. Here faithfulness to official and representative trusts is\ninculcated. Justice in weighing opinions and facts must be acquired ;\nand fair means of dealing with opponents must be learned.\nNor is there wanting discipline of character in school and college\nfun ; of which I have only to speak lovingly. I do not mean thieving\n(which is the right name for depredations on chicken fixings and melon\npatches), nor mischief that means misery to man or beast, nor hazing\nabove all (that abomination of the eastern colleges which I frankly\nbelieve the western college boy wouldn't endure for a moment). No !\nNot these things, which are low and cowardly ; but I mean the witty\nrepartee, the shrewd criticism (the \" anonymous box,\" as we used to call it,\nwhose revelations were as free and pointed as the original \"pasquinades\"\nof Rome), and all such sore chastisements of the immature and vealy and\npretentious and lackadaisical and over-sentimental. It is somewhere in\nmost of us, and likely to be sprouting luxuriously between the last years\nof high school and the sophomore year of college. Of all that discipline\nof interaction I have only to speak lovingly. May its \"tribe increase\"!\nMay the shadow never grow less of that wholesome horror of the goodnatured and well-deserved ridicule of our school- and college-mates ! It\nis the world's way of correcting faults without the sting of the world's\nbitterness, and applied just at the right time. He that heeds this\nprophylactic will escape much severer medicine by and by. And how\nmany a man I have seen ripen under it visibly day by day^ — ripening as\nan apple does, with many blushes, and yet the fairer for it after all !\nWho can tell how much of our own lives has been lived thru\nforces set in motion by our schoolmates ? Rank is to be found among\nour schoolmates by our character. Rank is to be maintained by our\ncharacter. Pretension is soon shorn of its locks, and vanity fares ill,\nand money goes for nothing in the sharp, quick perceptions, and plump\nand prompt criticisms, of school life. Many — the most — are very much\nimproved by it. And with all this — the spirit and temper and public\nopinion of the school — the teacher has very much to do. If teachers\nare quick, clear, and pronounced about moral distinctions, sensitive to\nmeanness, and generous in approving nobleness, that public opinion\nwill be high. If they are careless and slovenly and vacillating in these\nthings, the tone will set itself on some lower key ; and if they themselves be\nmean, unreliable, selfish, and bad, the tone will go lower still. Here is\nopportunity of the grandest description. The possibility of determining\nthe result of the influences which the scholars exert upon each other\npresents an object of most eager ambition, and of most holy desire, to\nevery real teacher.\n\n"}
{"page": 488, "printed_page": null, "text": "478\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chattanooga\n\n5. Pass now to the actual intellectual exertions of the scholar as a\nschool of character. Nothing can be clearer. Not only does character\nappear in the intellectual palaestra, but it is made there. Within the\ncircle of these strivings the pupil must acquire (as conditions of the\nslightest success) something of four great virtues : self-control, determined\npurpose, patience, and perseverance. The very brightest faculties cannot\ndispense with these without ending where young Sir Tristam Fickle did\nin the rebuke of the older Fickle : \" Don't talk to me of versatility ; let\nme see a little steadiness.\" This discipline of exertion is toward mental\nintegrity (that superb grace of \" truth in work\" about which Ruskin so\njustly raves). It is toward nervous vigor and solid backbone and\nthoro manliness in attacking difficult things. It is directly in the\nline of loyal obedience to an ideal of perfection. This highest of forces\nin character-making must be cultivated daily and hourly in every school\nwhere there is a teacher that is anything better than a stick. Morning,\nnoon, and afternoon, ceaselessly as the falling of the light upon the page\nof the' text-book, there fall upon the forming character the motives and\nappeals (higher and lower) which would move him in the direction of\nthese four capital traits: self-control, determined purpose, patience, and\nperseverance. These are moral traits. They are signally important\nvirtues. They are the determining virtues, because they guard against\ntemptations on the one side, and take hold upon the activities of life on\nthe other. They have the grip of a clinched nail. You cannot break a\nman's hold on a worthy thing, who has been trained in the schoolroom\nto these grand characteristics. And these are virtues which can only\ncome in and by work, and may come, certainly, as well by the work of\nthe school as by any other work. Nay ! That is only half the truth.\nThe teacher's business is to see that they do come in and by the school\nwork, so that the workers shall not only be able to handle arithmetic\nwell, but shall be trained to such habits and by such motives of faithful\nwork that they can no more fail so to work as men and women than they\ncould fail in simple multiplication. Why not ? Do we all ridicule the\nidea of calling that education which leaves the nerveless youth at the\nend of it with only the knowledge of his books, and no mental power\nto work independently on new materials ? Then let us also ridicule that\nstyle of education which has kept a child at work from three to twentythree without even inducting him into the great working virtues, and\nsupplying him with an unfailing certain reserve of workful character.\nAnd as the pupils work, the teacher's great opportunity evolves. Now\nis the time to teach why work is to be done at all ; now is the time to\ninculcate an honest shame'at any kind of shambling and shamming ; now\nis the time to make apparent the nobler motives to study which shall\nbecome in the end regnant motives to the noblest living ; now is the\ntime to increase ardor while steadying it, and to help the scholar taste\n\n"}
{"page": 489, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence] REALIZING\n\nOUR\n\nFINAL\n\nAIM\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n479\n\nthe just rewards of diligence without being intoxicated by them. There is,\nin fact, scarcely a limit to the teacher's influence at this point. To what\ncheerful resoluteness, to what indomitable pluck, to what persistency of\npurpose, to what repeated triumphs of patience, may not a patient and\nsensitive teacher help a struggling student ! And what so valuable a lifepossession as these virtues ! Even should the lacunae left in his information be many, and the mists enveloping the calculus thick, and his\nconstruing power for Greek be feeble — the youth that goes out to life\narmed with these virtues will as surely succeed as the sun will rise.\nEffort, well-directed and sustained effort, is almost the sole condition of\nsuccess. What can, by any possibility, be of more importance than the\ntraining of a generation to the working virtues ? Cannot a teacher teach\nthat every day and between the lines of every lesson? How can an\nearnest teacher help teaching it ? Next to energy, persistence is a life\nforce, and stick-to-itiveness is the cardinal virtue of the schoolroom ;\ncontinued even occasionally over recess hours toward the setting sun,\nwhen the weary teacher would rather stick to something else. The life\nof thousands fails for want of persistence. What joy of exertion and\nhabits of industry may not be taught ! Intellectual indolence provides a\n\"primrose path to stagnant pools, to an Arcadia of thistles, and a\nparadise of mud.\" But the faithful, stimulative teacher keeps the boys\nand girls out of the mud. What absolute self-control may be developed\nby study — especially in that valuable power, concentration ! The temptations to superficiality and discursiveness and general molluscousness\nare thrown around every student. There are so many ways of getting\non in things without getting to the bottom of anything. And there are\nso many things, and a general acquaintance with the merest surface of a\nmultitude is so much esteemed among men, that it becomes one of the\nnoblest offices of the teacher to counteract the temptation and the\ntendency, and to teach self-control, selection, and concentration. How\neasily a boy can be made a botanist who sees amid a millionfold forest\nonly the species he is studying ! Impulse is made less and less the\nmaster, and selection becomes more and more easy.\n\" Mark,\" says Spencer, \"the importance of the moral culture which\nthis constant self-control involves. Courage in attacking difficulties,\npatient concentration of the attention, perseverance through failures —\nthese are the characteristics which after-life especially requires, and these\nare characteristics which this system of making the mind work for its\nfood specially produces.\"\nSee, then, the glory of the teacher's opportunities in this direction.\nIncidental to, but inseparable from, every task of the schoolroom there\nis the possible culture of those very traits which are most desirable in the\nfuture citizen, the educated artisan, the professional man, or even in the\npolitician, or that somewhat as yet undefined, but certainly glorious\n\n"}
{"page": 490, "printed_page": null, "text": "480\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chattanooga\n\ncreature, the \" coming woman.\" We must all agree that it is not the\nknowledge of the three R's that comforts the world with the hope of\nideal inhabitants, but the certainty that the generations can be educated\ninto doing the work appointed them in a truthful, vigorous, thoughtful,\npatient, and persistent way. Not for one class, but for all classes, the\nworld is a work-a-day world, and they only Reserve its sabbaths who do\ntheir tasks well and to the end with all the power there is in them.\nTherefore the guide and director and stimulator of the intellectual\nexertions, by which alone the working virtues can be learned, stands\nvery, very close to the best of the world. Can such opportunities be\noverlooked or forgotten ? The very comfort of the teacher urges to this\neducation in the working virtues. And they who come later in the\ncourse are intensely obliged to those who hand along the line from the\nearlier school life a generation highly developed in these virtues. And\nthe world, to prepare for which is our duty and privilege, will be the more\nobliged to us all for every additional increment of character of this kind\nwhich we impart to those we pass under our care. And, most of all, those\nwhom we train to right methods and motives of exertion and to character\nthat cannot but work well and easily, will rise up and call us blessed.\n6. The discipline of school life no one will be disposed to deny a\nplace in character-making thru various methods. It has a flavor of\nauthority, but relies largely upon conscience and honor, and this brings\nat once to the front the real protectors of character for the lifetime.\nIt sets the currents of self-inspection and self-judging flowing from\nthe soul into action constantly, and thus, when the standard is pure,\nsecures the moral health. In school discipline how great the teacher's\nencouragement becomes !\n\" Friend call me good : paint the fair picture still,\nI shall grow like it: with an earnest will\nI'll copy the fair draught in every line\nFrom your dear hand, till I have made it mine.\"\n\nThe end and aim of discipline is not repressive, but educative.\nStudying from real motives and acting right from conscience are the\nideals, and these cannot but end in a wise and cautious, but determined\nindependence. This cautious independence will certainly be the fruit of\nfaithful study under the direction of superior minds ; for the fresh\ncontact of real, good, sound heads and hearts with the old, old subjects\nis always striking out new sparks (as any honest teacher will tell you),\nand the individuality of each class is marked ; while, on the other hand,\nthe prompt and frequent corrections of false conclusions and of hasty\ngeneralizations and rash judgments teach to make haste slowly. There\nare no better opportunities in life for such attainments.\nThe school discipline teaches respect for others, promotes habits of\nself-restraint and order, demands self-recollection and thoughtfulness,\n\n"}
{"page": 491, "printed_page": null, "text": "SuperintendenceJ\n\nREALIZING\n\nOUR\n\nFINAL\n\nAIM\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n48 1\n\nnotes and forgives, and then notes and punishes a wrong ; and thus\nbecomes an admirable force to character.\nThe discipline of college authorities is, of course, graver, but no\nless effective in its place. It represents to nascent character the far-away\ndread which the little-used rod had in the well-ordered family, and the\npublic laws and prisons are to have in after-life. But there it stands,\nand now and then (sad-faced and slow-paced, reluctant, but firm) it steps\nout of concealment, and a blow falls upon the guilty; the hush when the\nexcitement is over that follows genuine and wise discipline is proof of\nits permanent power. And with the really wayward how healthful and\nstrong is that mingling of parental care in the faculty, leaning back upon\nparental confidence in the family, and calling for the exercise in both of\nall that is deepest and truest in the best hearts when they deal with\nerring tendencies in the young !\nI do not believe in the average evil tendencies of school and college\nlife ; but up to and beyond the average, when there is true-hearted and wise\ndiscipline, the school and the college make their men as well as teach\nthem. Discipline in the school helps to fit future parents for their disciplinary functions in the nursery and home. How easy to learn the\nlessons now of self-control, of correcting in love, of generous approval ;\nof judicious over-looking; of thoro impartiality and skillful adjustment of penalty to the offense, so as to make the offense (and not the\nauthority) the creator of the sufferings; of wise variation of general rules\nfor special temptations, etc.! It is not too much to say at this point that\na race of perfect teachers would soon make a race of parents far better\nable to deal with the complicated task of parental government. To test\nthe substantial unity between the two departments of life, ask yourselves\nwhen, if ever, you saw a mother who had been a school-teacher fail of\nbeing a good one. And let any parents here recall how often in the discipline of home the looks and tones and regrets and loving firmness of\nthe best teachers of your own youth came back for guidance and imitation. The discipline of the schoolroom, as it is, mightily helps to save\nthe nation from anarchy!\n7. Scarcely do we need to claim character-making power for the daily\nintercourse of pupils and teachers in the class-room. Here we have the\nvery thing — we have character making character. The opportunities are\nnumberless, if they are but fairly recognized, to freight each day's intercourse with this deeper interest, and make them all subservient to moral\ndevelopment. Character in the teacher must be tied upon the need of it\nin the pupil. Difficult! Certainly; but so is everything good in this wicked\nworld. And the difficulty can be overcome. The knot intertwining two\ncharacters must be done by shreds, as the sailors splice. Thus —\n(i) By an occasional and dextrous questioning.\n(2) By avoiding the appearance of considering it a task.\n\n"}
{"page": 492, "printed_page": null, "text": "482\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chattanooga\n\n(3) By finding ways out of incidents into principles, and from principles into Scripture, and up to God.\n(4) By gentle but constant stimulus to higher views and efforts at\ngrander attainments.\nPush them up in the ascent. ''En avant. Messieurs! \"\n(5) By intimate sympathy with the good and true in history. The\nteacher's love for the noble must be such as to show that character is\nmore than station or wealth. Toadyism or tuft-hunting is fearful in a\nteacher.\n\nHe must be a living example of how false Pope's lines are :\n'Tis from high life, high character is drawn,\nA saint in crape is twice a saint in lawn.\n\nHow easily he can show, on the other hand, that many men are geodes —\nrough outside, sparkling crystal within! How easily a teacher's love of\nliberty becomes evident, and his love of purity, and of the heroic, etc.!\nHis own character will tell as he selects and emphasizes particular traits,\nfrom every example given, and especially as he praises or blames.\n(6) The teacher is likely to give the ideal conception of character to\nthe pupil in traits and in symmetry, in part and whole. And this cannot\nbut be of the first importance. A judgment in thesi carries often the\ngreatest weight when the actual case occurs beyond the teacher's vision.\n(7) The teacher's own character must show enthusiasm for character.\nThus it shall win to the true view of life as against mammonism. \" Every\nman is willing,\" says Ruskin, \" to be a bedizened corpse (after the Scythian custom) who desires to advance in life without knowing what life\nis ; who means that he is to get only more horses and more footmen,\nand more fortune and more public honor, and not more personal soul !\nHe only is advancing in life whose heart is getting softer, whose blood\nwarmer, whose brain quicker, whose spirit is entering into living peace.\n.... And the men who have this life in them are the true lords and\nkings of the earth — they and they only.\"\n(8) The education of conscience in the intercourse of teacher and\npupil is unavoidable, and is a most important element. This is to be\ndone both by conduct and by instruction. Much of the. success of the\nbest teachers depends upon their skill in educating the conscience. For\nthus they secure the greatest amount of work, with the least friction, and\nthe most love ! The atmosphere of truth and sincerity in a school, coming\nfrom the teacher and visible in all the arrangements, is the very matrix\nof everything good in character.\nPerhaps, then, the greatest power of all is found in the insensible but\nconstant, the unmentioned but powerful, force of the teacher's own character in forming the pupil. The self-control, the patience, the entire sincerity and truthfulness, the noble aspirations, the strict justice, the proved\nimpartiality to poor and rich, smart and dull, as they are visible in the\nteacher's conduct, make the deepest impression of all. There is no\nsphere that calls for more of character than the schoolroom.\nEverything\n\n"}
{"page": 493, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nREALIZING\n\nOUR\n\nFINAL\n\nAIM\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n483\n\ncombines to make the teacher's character impressive. He comes to a\nmind in its best frame. His (or her) mental power seems that of a mental giant to the tyro at picking out crabbed sentences, and crocheting the\nthread of argument into a demonstration, or picking up by bits the\nbroken sentences and sums. The teacher is next the parent, and sometimes higher, in the child's reverence, because we all (and always) respect\npower. Many a child's character is corrected at school, which would\nhave been ruined at home, by meeting a richer and fuller and nobler\ncharacter in the teacher. Think of the city schools and the city shoals\nof children, with what all know of the home life of thousands of them.\nPupils' models, teachers ought to be, and such they always are, more or less,\nin proportion to individual magnetism. Dean Stanley said that \"the\ngreatest of all educational difficulties, and also the solution of all educacational difficulties, was to be found in connection with the characters\nand capacities of those who were sent out as teachers. The deepest\nimpressions carried from childhood into manhood were impressions not\nonly of what had been taught, but of the manner in which the instruction\nhad been given.\"\nThe teacher's example goes a long way down. Truth is honored.\nPatience is emulated. Love is returned. Reverence for God and the\ngood is instilled. Self-control is mastered. Perseverance is taken on.\nThe soul of a pupil expands beside a thoroly trusted and admired\nteacher, as sympathetic ink comes out before the fire. Examples abound.\nSocrates' impression was that of an \"archetypal personality.\" The narrative of Xenophon is \"nothing but an abstract of his inward character.\"\n\" His philosophy is his mode of action as an individual ; his life and\ndoctrines cannot be separated.\" (Schwegler's History of Philosophy, pp.\n62, 63.)\nThe whole modern world knows of Arnold. All the world honors\nPestalozzi. New England can never forget Samuel Taylor. Ohio will\nalways cherish McGuffey's memory and MacMaster's. Every school and\ncollege has its traditions of great teachers, impressive by character.\nThis it is that tells everywhere. Men find it easy to disbelieve what\nany man utters when they do not believe in the man. It is significant\nthat Benjamin Franklin says of himself: \"It was because of my wellknown integrity of character that I had so much weight with my fellowcitizens. I was but a bad speaker, never eloquent, subject to much hesitation in ray choice of words, hardly correct often in my language, and\nyet I generally carried my point.\"\nThe teacher represents the community as he represents the parent.\nHe must fit the child for a place in the community; must do it by \"all\nresources of knowledge,\" and \"by a type of character which represents\nas closely as possible the highest moral progress yet attained by man.\"\n(Sulley, Teacher's Handbook of Psychology, p. 63.)\nIn the transmission of\n\n"}
{"page": 494, "printed_page": null, "text": "484\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chattanooga\n\ncharacter from generation to generation, where is there a more visible\ninstrumentality than the influence exercised by the teachers of the young?\nYankee character and Yankee schoolmasters left their impress all along\nour chain of great lakes. The Yankee schoolmistress was feared at the\nSouth so long as they feared the truth. Character is sure to evoke character. So Lowell has it :\nBe noble, and the nobleness that lies\nIn other men, sleeping, but never dead,\nWill rise in majesty to meet thine own.\n\n{Sonnet 4.)\n\n8. And to all these opportunities there must be added this — that\nthruout the school life character-making may be furthered by the use\nof that great store of commands and precepts and standard illustrations\nof character which are furnished in the Sacred Scriptures. These may\nnot only be read daily, but remembered in allusions and explanations\nconstantly. The definitions of right and wrong thence derived come to\nthe awakening conscience with authority. The Scriptures can never be\ndisplaced as the aptest and clearest and most varied and most attractive\nmagazine of materials ready for use in forming character. They are ethical to the core, and filled with everything we wish to realize in the youth\nunder our care. For this reason Huxley would not tolerate their exclusion from the schools of England, tho he would not admit their\ninspiration. Having the Bible at hand adds incalculably to the charactermaking power of any school.\n9. And theUj to close all, there must be noticed the extra-class hours\nof confidence and advice which the teacher's relation to the pupil niakes\nso appropriate and so useful. Many a time a word spoken in this \" coign\nof vantage \" has saved eyes from tears and feet from falling. There\ncan be no limit given here, and scarcely a hint needs to be, given to earnest teachers, who hate mere perfunctory work.- The impossible need not\nbe expected in order to be assured that to the teacher who has understood the need of individual influence as the proper complement to common methods there will come endless opportunities, which may be used\nto most important results, in this out-of-school intercourse. Thus he\nbecomes \" the guide, counselor, and confidential friend \" of many a one\nat the period of \" unstable equilibrium,\" when such a friend cannot elsewhere be found.\nConclusion. — Ample, then, in every sense are the opportunities for\nthe formation of character in and by the course of education. They are\nsufficient to supplement all other good and gracious influences, and deserve\nthe rank which the saintly George Herbert gives them :\nLord, with what care hast Thou begirt us round :\nParents first season us ; then school-masters\nDeliver us to law ; then send us bound\nTo rules of reason, holy messengers,\nPulpits and Sundays.\n\n"}
{"page": 495, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nREALIZING\n\nOUR\n\nFINAL\n\nAIM\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n4^5\n\nA moment's recapitulation must certify this amplitude. We have the\nbest time and the power of general methods with which to begin. Every\nsubject of study has its own molding power ready to be used. The interaction of pupils is an unceasing influence which may be largely directed\nfor the highest good. The scholar's own mental exertions give us the\nopportunity to instill the great working virtues, and inner, vital action is\nbegun. The discipline of school life aids, by outer action, its own pressure. Then follows the daily superaction of the teacher's character. This\ncan be made more effective by appeal to the authority and love of God as\nshown in his word. And all may be aided by an out-of-school intercourse of special value.\nHere are opportunities enough to mellow and mold and save where\nother good influences have been deficient. Enough to send out purest\nstreams with every class that shall everywhere make glad the moral wastes\nof our day. Much is done, and more may be done. It is impossible for\nme to think of any really desirable trait of which the attainment may not\nbe begun, and to which there is lacking some incitement, within the circle\nof school and college life. What a list of them !\nCourage,\nHeroism,\nSelf-respect, Ambition, Hopefulness,\nSympathy, Honor,\nHumility,\nConscientiousness, Truthfulness.\nLove, Reverence, Decision,\nSelf-reliance,\nAnd as long a list of faults of character may be corrected :\nVanity,\nFickleness,\nIncompleteness,\nDishonesty,\nLaziness, Superficiality, Low ideals. Feebleness of purpose, etc.\nSo sacred and high are the' possibilities when you consider things in\ntheir essence and reality, and not in their forms, that I can scarcely draw\nthe line between the day school and the Sunday school in the mission of\nmaking character ; and the teacher becomes at least an associate pastor.\n(Such sympathetic relations are, in truth, found in Protestant Germany\nas well as in Catholic France.) Who has a broader field, or rarer seed, or\nlarger opportunities to sow? And how much of the harvest that is sometimes counted (in the short-sightedness that sees only the last instrumentality) to the Sunday-school teacher or the pastor is set down above\n(where the end and the beginning are never separated) to the care and\ndrill and conscience and character of the faithful day-school teacher?\nBut with such opportunities, what foes we have to encounter ! Every\nbad social influence somewhere shows in the schoolroom. A teacher can\ntell whether a circus has been in town. When, the skating-rink craze\nwent over the land, some teachers said : \" The rinks must close, or we\nmust.\" Saloons, in their steady demoralization, pursue our youth.\nTobacco and tobacco pictures are desolating. The secret diffusion of\ncorrupt literature it is almost impossible to check. Some forms of dancing and the theater are known to demoralize. And all go straight to the\nyouth.\nAll expect their victims there, and, alas ! find them there.\nNo\n\n"}
{"page": 496, "printed_page": null, "text": "486\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chattanooga\n\nsuperintendent can look thru the ranks without seeing the touch of\nall these things, sometimes complicated by heredity and often so reinforced bycircumstances that escape seems next to impossible.\nWith the opportunity there comes this appeal to help against the\nfoes. Many voices — and tender and powerful ones — are pleading. This\nyoung, innocent, fair life, so wonderful in its present, so inconceivably\nimportant in its future, utters its own plea. It says with tones that need\nno articulation — as the silent respirations of the babe you watch in the\ncradle do — \" Care for me ! Keep the wolves away.\"\nMothers and fathers come seeking your aid, with tenderest solicitude.\nPastors and Sunday-school teachers come, hoping that what is done on\nthe Sabbath will not be hindered, but helped, during the week. The\nstate stands waiting to know the character of the generation into the\nhands of which all the common interests are so soon to pass. What\nteacher can fail to feel the tremendous responsibility which lies upon the\nschools? We must meet it, as it only can be met, by making the most,\nthru -utmost effort and attention, of the magnificent opportunities for\ncharacter-building furnished in school life. Open eyes to see ; intelligent effort to use ; unremitting patience to wait ; firm handling and firm\ntrust in God — all will be needed, and all are demands of the situation.\nThe duty of the state to protect the children of the public school is perfectly clear. The children are invited and compelled to come in. To allow\npoisoned air to come in with them, or germs of communicable disease, is\ncriminal negligence of the 15,000,000 in our schools. Children from\nunclean homes should be excluded. True. And truer still for moral\npollution, and true from the compassion side as well as from the prophylactic side, or the general welfare side of government. See, then, fellowteachers, the great compact between the state and the schools. The\nexcluding power of the school is a method of realizing our final aim.\nThis excluding power by state law must be met within by elimination of\nevil and the formation of character. And certainly it is to be remembered that character is not formed nor faults corrected in a day. Stone\nupon stone, and, before that, blow upon blow to fit each stone for its\nplace ; one impression on another at the same place ; line upon line,\nand precept upon precept — thus is character made.\nthing.\n\nEvery day some-\n\nNor is your character-building in school done alone by direct and\nintended efforts. Impressions are sometimes deepest when least observed.\nThe unconscious deeds impress others. Omissions as well as commissions\ncount in this reckoning. The power of a teacher lies much in the very\nfact that culture in character lies alongside his work rather than in it.\nSide-lights sometimes are best lights. Things injected penetrate deeper.\nIndirections are often more powerful than right lines. The bow drawn at\na venture pierces between\n\nthe joints of the harness.\n\nA truth- just seen\n\n"}
{"page": 497, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n_\n\nREALIZING\n\nOUR\n\nFINAL\n\nAIM\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n487\n\nemerging from the facts of a lesson will take both pupil and teacher by\nsurprise, and will therefore adhere.\nWere I permitted to give counsels, they would be such as these : Invent\"\nmethods to make the most of these opportunities (as you invent methods\nof teaching geography). Write text-books of instruction to refer to from\ntime to time (not to absorb the spirit of the work). Write professional\nbooks on the subject. Study this matter in the institutes. Read biographies of the great educators with this in view. Guard against the American spirit of haste and over-nervousness in education, because these are\ndestructive to character. Guard against the miserable bread-and-butter\nspirit which makes livelihood more than life, and the secularizing spirit\nwhich strips away the foundation of and motives to character. Labor to\nput this first where it really belongs. Do all you can energetically as\nsupplying the great need of our time and country for education of the conscience. Make better men and nobler women the vividly conceived and ever\nmore diligently pursued ideal of your whole endeavor. Breathe this purpose into the soul of each teacher, and that will find or make its own method.\nWe need to think much upon the nobility of the ideal we cherish when\nwe educate to form character. It is to transmute fleeting impressions into\npermanent results and to make the perception of a moment the ideal of a\nlife. It is to exalt being over seeming (the thing the world's greatest minds,\nfrom Plato to Carlyle, have striven to do). It is to construct in character an eternal reflector for the grandest truths comprehensible to man.\nIt is to educate for God, and country, and eternity. It is to adopt\nWhittier's wish for his namesake, and realize it for the millions :\nNo dreamer thou, but real all,\nStrong manhood crowning vigorous youth,\nLife made by duty epical\nAnd rh)rthmic with the truth.\n\nHow infinite the importance of everything connected with the moral\noutcome of our modern education ! Its vastness and the rapidity with\nwhich it is growing vaster ; its firm grasp upon all life forces and the\nrapidity with which its grasp is growing firmer ; its extension over the\ntime of man's brief life, and its intension as it deepens its penetration to\nan all-embracing command of body, mind, and soul — make the question\nof moral outcome supreme and even thrilling in its importance.\nAnd the outcome will infallibly be controlled by the aim and final\nend proposed — so long as education is (or in proportion as it becomes)\na rational process.\nWe need, therefore, to keep on studying our final aim in education and\nhow we may realize it. And the greatest interest in this question does not\nbelong to the higher education, but to the secondary and the primary.\nAnd in greater proportion it belongs to the former of these two rather\nthan to the latter. Just here I should say in this body in which concenters\n\n"}
{"page": 498, "printed_page": null, "text": "488\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chattanooga\n\nrepresentatively the general conduct of the secondary education — just\nhere where I suppose controlling opinions to be formed by interchange\nand comparison of conviction and experience, concenters the responsibility\nfor the moral outcome of our public-school system. It is something to give\none pause, and an interval of far-sighted vision while he pauses, and an\naccess of real awe, as he thinks of the sacredness of the teacher's trust.\nJefferson said (Jefferson who would have \" Founder of the University \"inscribed upon his tomb): \" Were it necessary to give up either the\nprimaries or the university, I would rather abandon the last, for it is safer\nto have a whole people reasonably enlightened than a few in a high state\nof science and the many in ignorance.\"\nIt is almost too early in the primary schools to make sure of the\nproduct, and in the colleges it is almost too late to do much more than\nsystematize and polish the product. But here, in the great middle section of our country's training, is the place of greatest power, and therefore of greatest responsibility.\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 499, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nCOUNCIL OF EDUCATION\nCONSTITUTION\nPREAMBLE\n\nThe National Council of Education shall have for its object the consideration and\ndiscussion of educational questions of general interest and public importance, and the\npresentation, thru printed reports, of the substance of the discussions, and the conclusions formulated. It shall be its object to reach and disseminate correct thinking on\neducational questions ; and, for this purpose, it shall be the aim of the Council, in conducting its discussions, to define and state with accuracy the different views and theories\non the subject under consideration, and, secondly, to discover and represent fairly the\ngrounds and reasons for each theory or view, so far as to show, as completely as possible,\nthe genesis of opinion on the subject. It shall be the duty of the Council, in pursuance\nof this object, to encourage from all its members the most careful statement of differences in opinion, together with the completest statement of grounds for the same. It\nshall further require the careful preservation and presentation of the individual differences\nof opinion, whenever grounds have been furnished for the same by members of the Council. It shall invite the freest discussion and embody the new suggestions developed by\nsuch discussions. Any member making such suggestion or objection may put in writing his\nview, and the grounds therefor, and furnish the same to the secretary for the records of\nthe Council. It shall prepare, thru its president, an annual report to the National\nEducational Association, setting forth the questions considered by the Council during\nthe previous year, and placing before the association, in succinct form, the work accomplished. Itshall embody in this report a survey of those educational topics which seem\nto call for any action on the part of the association. The Council shall appoint, out\nof its own number, committees representing the several departments of education, and\nthereby facilitate the exchange of opinion among its members on such special topics as\ndemand the attention of the profession or of the public.\nARTICLE\n\nI — MEMBERSHIP\n\n1. The National Council of Education shall consist of sixty members, selected from\nthe membership of the National Educational Association. Any member of the association identified with educational work is eligible to membership in the Council, and\nafter the first election such membership shall continue for six years, except as hereinafter\nprovided.\n2. In the year 1885 the Board of Directors shall elect eight members — four members\nfor six years, two for four years, and two for two years ; and the Council shall elect eight\nmembers — five members for six years, two for four years, and one for two years ; and\nannually thereafter the Board of Directors shall elect five members and the Council five\nmembers, each member, with the exception hereinafter provided for (section 5), to serve\nsix years, or until his successor is elected.\n3. The annual election of members of the Council shall be held in connection with\nthe annual ipeetings of the association. If the Board of Directors shall fail, for any reason,\nto fill its quota of members annually, the vacancy or vacancies shall be filled by the\nCouncil.\n489\n\n"}
{"page": 500, "printed_page": null, "text": "49°\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Nationa\n\n4. The term of service of the several members of the Council chosen at the first election shall be arranged by the Executive Committee of the Council.\n5. The absence of a member from two consecutive annual meetings of the Council\nshall be considered equivalent to resignation of membership, and the Council shall fill\nvacancies caused by absence from the Council as herein defined, as well as vacancies\ncaused by death or resignation, for the unexpired term. All persons who have belonged\nto the Council shall, on the expiration of their membership, become honorary members,\nwith the privilege of attending its regular sessions, and participating in its discussions.\nNo state shall be represented in the Council by more than eight members.\nARTICLE\n\nII — QUALIFICATION\n\nFOR\n\nMEMBERSHIP\n\nAll members of the Council shall be either life or active members of the National\nEducational Association.\nARTICLE\n\nIII — MEETINGS\n\nThere shall be a regular annual meeting of the Council held at the same place as the\nmeeting of the National Educational Association, and at least two days previous to\nthis meeting. There may be special meetings of the Council, subject to the call of the\nExecutive Committee, but the attendance at those meetings shall be entirely voluntary.\nA majority of the Council shall constitute a quorum for the transaction of business at\nany meeting, whether regular or called ; but any less number, exceeding eight members,\nmay constitute a quorum for the transaction of business at the regular annual meeting, as\ndefined in this article.\nARTICLE\n\nIV— THE\n\nWORK\n\nOF THE\n\nCOUNCIL\n\nThe Council shall, from time to time, undertake to initiate, conduct, and guide the\nthoro investigation of important educational questions originating in the Council ; also to\nconduct like investigations, originating in the National Educational Association, or any\nof its departments, and requiring the expenditure of funds.\nARTICLE\n\nV— THE\n\nAPPOINTMENT OF\nEXPERTS\n\nSPECIAL\n\nCOMMITTEES\n\nAND\n\nIn the appointment of special committees and in the selection of writers and speakers,\nit shall be the privilege of the Council to appoint such experts, whether members of the\nCouncil or not, as are deemed best qualified to conduct investigations.\nARTICLE\n\nVI — PREPARATION\n\nOF INDIVIDUAL\n\nPAPERS\n\n1. The president of the Council shall send out, at least six months before each session of the Council, a circular inviting the submission of volunteer papers by members,\nrequesting them to suggest names of other persons, not members of the Council, whom\nthey believe willing and able to present valuable contributions to educational literature.\n2. The Executive Committee shall determine what papers so offered shall be pre\"\nsented at the meeting of the Council.\nThe reports and papers to be presented to the Council shall be printed and placed\nin the hands of the members at least four weeks before the session. The papers so\nprinted shall be discussed, but not read in full, at the meeting.\n3. Whenever the printing of a paper is not feasible, an abstract or brief of such\npaper, if possible in the form of theses, shall be sent to the members of the Council at\nleast a month before the meeting.\n\n"}
{"page": 501, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\nARTICLE\n\nCONSTITUTION\nVII— STANDING\n\n49 ^\n\nCOMMITTEES\n\n1. There shall be three standing committees: an Executive Committee, a Committee\non Membership, and a Committee on Educational Progress.\n2. The Executive Committee shall Be composed of the president of the Council and\nof three other members, whose terms of office shall be so arranged that one new member\nmay be chosen each year, beginning with the year 1899.\n3. It shall be the duty of the Executive Committee to provide an annual program by\nselecting, whenever feasible, subjects for investigation, and appointing committees to\nconduct such investigations. It shall be the duty of the Executive Committee to carry\nout the provisions contained in this constitution referring to volunteer and invited papers.\nIt shall be the duty of the Executive Committee to provide a place on the program for\nthe report on any investigation which may be ordered by the National Educational Association or its departments.\n4. The Committee on Membership shall be composed of the president of the\nCouncil and six other members, whose terms of office shall be so arranged that two\nvacancies may be filled every year, beginning with 1899.\n5. There shall be appointed annually a committee of one to submit, at the next\nmeeting, a report on \" Educational Progress during the Past Year,\" in which a survey of\nthe important movements and events in education during the preceding year is given.\nThis committee need not be selected from the members of the Council.\nARTICLE\n\nVIII — THE\n\nDUTIES\n\nOF THE\n\nCOUNCIL\n\n1. It shall be the duty of the Council to further the objects of the National Educational Association, and to use its best efforts to promote the cause of education in general.\n2. The meetings of the Council shall be, for the most part, of a \" round table \"\ncharacter.\nARTICLE\n\nIX— AMENDMENTS\n\nThis constitution may be altered or amended, at a regular meeting of the Council,\nby a two-thirds vote of the members present, and any provision may be waived at any\nregular meeting by unanimous consent.\nBy-laws not in violation of this constitution may be adopted by a two-thirds vote of\nthe Council.\nThe undersigned, Committee on Revision, have carefully collated the amendments to the constitution\nof the Coilncil of Education, made at the Washington meeting, with the original document, and respectfully\ncertify to the Secretary of the National Educational Association the above as the revised constitution of the\nCouncil subject only to the approval of \\h^ form by the Council, to be had at the meeting to be held in 1899.\nB. A. Hinsdale,\nWilliam E. Sheldon,\nCommittee on Revision,\n\n"}
{"page": 502, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n492\n\n[National\n\nOFFICERS, MEMBERS,\n\nSTANDING\n\nOFFICERS\nCHARLES De GARMO\nWILLIAM F. KING\nBETTIE A. BUTTON\n\nFOR\n\nCOMMITTEES\n\n1897-98\n\nSwanhmore, Pa\nMt. Vernon, la\nCleveland, O\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nExecutive Committee — The president,\nvice-president,\nsecretary; B. A. Hinsdale,\nAnn Arbor,\nMich. ; J. H. Phillips, Birmingham, Ala. ; C. H. Keyes, Holyoke, Mass. ; Walter L. Hervey, New York, N. Y,\n\nOFFICERS\n\nFOR\n\n1898-99\n\nA.R.TAYLOR\n\nEmporia, Kan\n\nPresident\n\nJAMES H. VAN SICKLE\nBETTIE A. BUTTON\n\nDenver, Colo\nCleveland, O\n\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nExecutive Committee — The president; John Dewey, Chicago, 111.; Nicholas Murray Butler, New\nYork, N. Y. ; L. H. Jones, Cleveland, O.\n\nMEMBERS\n899\n899\nthat the member is of the class elected by the assoNote : The letter \"A\" following a name denotes\n899\nciation; the letter \"C,\" by the Council.\nTerm exp res\nTerm expires\nW. H. Bartholomew, Louisville, Ky\n♦Frank A. Fitzpatrick, Boston, Mass\nHenry Sabin, Bes Moines, la\n\nA\nA\nA\n\n*E. Oram Lyte, Millersville, Pa\n*J. M. Greenwood, Kansas City, Mo\n*Paul H. Hanus, Cambridge, Mass\nJohn Dewey, Chicago, 111\n*Nathan C. Schaeffer, Harrisburg, Pa\nDavid L. Kiehle, St. Paul, Minn\nMary E. Nicholson, Indianapolis, Ind\n\nA\nA\nC\nC\nC\nC\nC\n\nC. C. Rounds, New York, N. Y\n\nA\n\n*J. H. Phillips, Birmingham, Ala\nE. E. White, Columbus, O\n\nA\nA\n\n•James H. Baker, Boulder, Colo\n*Oscar H. Cooper, Galveston, Tex\nAaron Gove, Denver, Colo\n•William E. Sheldon, Boston, Mass\n♦Irwin Shepard, Winona, Minn\n•Lucia Stickney, Cincinnati, O\n*H. H. Seerley, Cedar Falls, la\n\nA\nA\nC\nC\nC\nC\nC\n\n•James M. Green, Trenton, N. J\n•Augustus S. Downing, New York, N. Y..\n*A. R. Taylor, Emporia, Kan\n•Ellen C. Sabin, Milwaukee, Wis\nJ. R. Preston, Jackson, Miss\nGeorge P. Brown, Bloomington, 111\n•Bettie A. Dutton, Cleveland, O\n•Charles H. Keyes, Holyoke, Mass\n•Lightner Witmer, Philadelphia, Pa\n•William F. King, Mt. Vernon, la\n\nA\nA\nA\nA\nA\nC\nC\nC\nC\nC\n\n899\n\n900\n900\n900\n900\n900\n900\n900\n900\n900\n900\n901\n901\n901\n901\n901\n\nEdwin C. Hewett, Normal, 111\n•Albert G. Lane, Chicago, 111\nEdwin A. Alderman, Chapel Hill, N. C...\nCharles A. McMurry, Normal, 111\n\nA\nA\nA\nA\n\n1902\n1902\n1902\n1902\n\n•J. F. Millspaugh, Salt Lake City, Utah...\nCharles M. Jordan, Minneapolis, Minn. ..\nE. W. Coy, Cincinnati, O\nHorace S. Tarbell, Providence, R. I\n•Edward R. Shaw, New York, N. Y\n•John W. Cook, Normal, 111\n\nA\nC\nC\nC\nC\nC\n\n1902\n1902\n1902\n1902\n1902\n1902\n\n•W. T. Harris, Washington, D. C\n•C. B. Gilbert, Newark, N.J\n•William R. Harper, Chicago, 111\n•George T. Fairchild, Berea, Ky\n•Charles R. Skinner, Albany, N. Y\n•Charles De Garmo, Swarthmore, Pa\n*L. H. Jones, Cleveland, O\n•Elmer E. Brown, Berkeley, Cal\nS. C. Williams, Ithaca, N. Y\n\nA\nA\nA\nA\nA\nC\nC\nC\nC\n\n1903\n1903\n1903\n1903\n1903\n1903\n1903\n1903\n1903\n\n•Nicholas Murray Butler, New York, N. Y.\n•Richard G. Boone, Ypsilanti, Mich\n•F. Louis Souldan, St. Louis, Mo\n•L. D. Harvey, Milwaukee, Wis\n•Frank Rigler, Portland, Ore\nJames H. Canfield, Columbus, O\n•Andrew S. Draper, Champaign, 111\n•William H. Maxwell, New York, N. Y. ..\n901\n•James H. Van Sickle, Denver, Colo\n*B. A. Hinsdale, Ann Arbor, Mich\n•N. C. Dougherty, Peoria, 111\n\n* Present at the meeting of the Council in Washington,\n1898.\n901\nTotal number present at the Washington sessions,\n42.\n901\nTotal number honorary members present at the Washington sessions, 8.\n901\nLargest attendance at any one session, 30.\n901\n\nC 1903\nA\nA\nA\nA\nA\nC\nC\nC\nC\nC\n\n1904\n1904\n1904\n1904\n1904\n1904\n1904\n1904\n1904\n1904\n\n"}
{"page": 503, "printed_page": null, "text": "493\nMEMBERS\n\nCouncil]\n\nHONORARY\nJoseph Baldwin, Huntsville, Tex.\nHenry Barnard, Hartford, Conn.\nEarl Barnes, Stanford University, Cal.\nWilliam N. Barringer, Newark, N. J.\nNewton Bateman, Galesburg, 111.\nD. Bcmiss, Spokane, Wash.\nThomas W. Bicknell, Providence, R. I.\nAlbert C. Boyden, Bridgewater, Mass.\nAnna C. Brackett, New York, N. Y.\nJohn E. Bradley, Jacksonville, 111.\nEdward Brooks, Philadelphia, Pa.\nWilliam L. Bryan, Bloomington, Ind.\n\nMEMBERS\nHenry N. James, Tacoma, Wash.\nH. S. Jones, Lincoln, Neb.\nE. S. Joynes, Knoxville, Tenn.\nThomas Kirkland, Toronto, Canada.\nHenry M. Leipziger, New York, N. Y.\nJames MacAIister, Philadelphia, Pa.\n•Albert P. Marble, New York, N. Y.\nFrancis A. March, Easton, Pa.\nLillie J. Martin, San Francisco, Cal.\nThomas J. Morgan, Washington, D. C,\nLemuel Moss, Minneapolis, Minn.\nWilliam A. Mowry, Hyde Park, Mass.\nJohn M. Ordway, New Orleans, La.\nFrancis W. Parker, Chicago, III.\nWarren D. Parker, River Falls. Wis.\nS. S. Parr, St. Cloud, Minn.\nW. H. Payne, Nashville, Tenn.\nSelim H. Peabody, Chicago, 111.\nJohn B. Peaslee, Cincinnati, O.\nWilliam F. Phelps, St. Paul, Minn.\nJosiah L. Pickard, Iowa City, la.\n\n♦John T. Buchanan, New York, N. Y.\nMatthew H. Buckham, Burlington, Vt.\nDavid N, Camp, New Britain, Conn.\nAaron L. Chapin, Beloit, Wis.\nClara Conway, Memphis, Tenn.\nMatilda S. Cooper, Nyack. N. Y.\nWilliam J. Corthell, Gorham, Me.\nJ. L. M. Curry, Richmond, Va.\nV. C. Dibble, Charleston, S. C.\nJohn W. Dickinson, Boston, Mass.\nLarkin Dunton, Boston, Mass.\n\n♦John T. Prince, Boston, Mass.\n♦Zalmoh Richards, Washington, D. C.\nWilliam H. Ruffner, Lexington, Va.\n\n*John Eaton, Washington, D. C.\nCharles W. Eliot, Cambridge, Mass.\nWilliam W. Folwell, Minneapolis, Minn.\nW. R. Garrett, Nashville, Tenn.\nDaniel C. Gilman, Baltimore, Md.\nJames C. Greenough, Westfield, Mass.\nJohn M. Gregory, Washington, D. C.\n\nJ. G. Schurman, Ithaca, N. Y.\nH. E. Shepard, Charleston, S. C.\nE^gar A. Singer, Philadelphia, Pa.\nJames A. Smart, Lafayette, Ind.\nEuler B. Smith, Athens, Ga.\nHomer B. Sprague\nCal.\nJ. W. Stearns, Madison, Wis.\nThomas B. Stockwell, Providence, R. I.\nGrace Bibb Sudborough, Omaha, Neb.\n\n*W. N. Hailmann, Dayton, O.\nG. Stanley Hall, Worcester, Mass.\nWalter L. Hervey, New York, N. Y.\nJ. George Hodgins, Toronto, Canada.\nIra G. Hoitt, Sacramento, Cal.\nJames H. Hoose, Pasadena, Cal.\nGeorge W. Howison, San Francisco. Cal.\nJames L. Hughes, Toronto, Canada.\nThomas Hunter, New York, N. Y.\nEllen Hyde, Framingham, Mass.\nJohn S. Irwin, Lafayette, Ind.\n£. J. James, Chicago, 111.\n\nJohn Swett, San Francisco, Cal.\nW. R. Thigpen, Savannah, Ga.\nH. S. Thompson, Columbia, S. C.\n*L. S. ITiompson, New Wilmington, Pa.\nJulia S. Tutwiler, Livingstone, Ala.\nDelia L. Williams, Delaware, O.\n*J. Ormond Wilson, Washington, D. C.\nH. K. Wolfe, Lincoln, Neb.\nC. M. Woodward, St. Louis, Mo.\n\n* Present at the meeting of the Council at Washington, i8\n\nDECEASED\n\nMEMBERS\n\nRobert Allyn\nIsrael W. Andrews\n\n1894\n1888\n\nJames McCosh\nM. A. Newell\n\n1894\n1893\n\nNorman A. Calkins\nN. R. H. Dawson\nSamuel S. Greene\nDaniel B. Hagcr\nJohn Hancock\nWilliam D. Henkle\nElnathan E. Higbce\nGeorge Howland\nMerrick Lyon\n\n1895\n1895\n1883\n1896\n1891\n1882\n1889\n1892\n1888\n\nBirdseye G. Northrop\nEdward Onley\nGustavus J. Orr\nJohn D. Philbrick\nR. W. Stevenson\n\n1898\n1886\n1888\n>88s\n1893\n\nEli T. Tappan\nCharles O. Thompson\nJames P. Wickersham\n\n1888\ni88s\n1891\n\n"}
{"page": 504, "printed_page": null, "text": "494\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nMINUTES\n\nFIRST DAY\nMORNING\n\nSESSION.— Wednesday, July 6, 1898\n\nThe Council was called to order in the auditorium of Columbian University at 9 : 30\nA. M. by the president, Charles De Garmo. After a welcome by Principal Charles S.\nClark, chairman of the local committee of the Council, and response by the president,\nthe program of the morning was introduced by an address by Dr. Edward M. Hartwell,\nof Massachusetts, on \" School Hygiene — What It Is and Why We Need It.\"\n\"Literature — Bibliography,\" by Professor William H. Burnham, Clark University,\nwas presented by Elmer E. Brown, of California, and ordered printed in the report of\nthe proceedings.\n\"School Architecture — Heating, Ventilation, Lighting, and Sanitary Arrangements \"was presented by F. Louis Soldan, of St. Louis, and Dr. D. H. -Bergey, University of Pennsylvania.\n\" School Furniture — Seats, Baths, Blackboards, Maps, etc.,\" was presented by\nSuperintendent Charles B. Gilbert, of New Jersey. Questions were asked and suggestions made in discussion of the subject by John W. Cook, J. M. Green, F. Louis Soldan,\nProfessor G. W. Fitz, Harvard University ; Edward R. Shaw, Professor Delos Fall, of\nMichigan ; W. E. Sheldon, and J. H. Van Sickle.\nDr. Hartwell closed the discussion.\nAFTERNOON\n\nSESSION\n\nPresident De Garmo called the Council to order at 2 : 30 and named the following\ncommittees :\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON NOMINATIONS\n\nJohn W, Cook.\nF. Louis Soldan.\nCOMMITTEE\n\nEdward R, Shaw.\n\nON MEMBERSHIP\n\nNicholas Murray Butler.\nJames M. Green.\n\nJames H. Baker.\n\nThe subject of \"School Diseases and Medical Inspection \" was presented in a paper\nby Professor Delos Fall, of Albion College, Michigan, and \" Medical Inspection of School\nChildren,\" by Dr. Severance Burrage, Purdue University, Indiana.\nThe papers were briefly discussed by B. A. Hinsdale, John W. Cook, and others.\nThe next topics were \"The Hygiene of Instruction,\" including reading, writing,\narithmetic, etc., and \" Studies of Fatigue,\" presented in papers by Professor G. W. Fitz, of\nHarvard University, and Edward R. Shaw, of New York.\nA general discussion followed.\nAdjourned at 4 : 30 p. M. to meet at 8 P. M.\nEVENING\n\nSESSION\n\nThe Council convened at 8 o'clock.\nThe subject for the evening was \"The Relation of Psychology in Its Various Aspects\nto Education,\" by Professor Josiah Royce, of Harvard University.\n\n"}
{"page": 505, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\n495\n\nThe second paper was presented by Dr. William T. Harris, United States Commissioner of Education, Washington, D. C, on \" Rational Psychology for Teachers.\"\nThe last paper of the evening was presented by Lightner Witmer, of the University\nof Pennsylvania, and was entitled \" Experimental and Physiological Psychology.\"\nAt 10 p. M. the Council adjourned.\n\nSECOND\nMORNING\n\nDAY\n\nSESSION— July 7\n\nThe Council assembled at 9 : 30 o'clock.\nThe session was devoted to a discussion of the report of the Committee of Twelve on\n.Rural Schools, which was taken up under the following topics :\n\"School Maintenance,\" by Andrew S. Draper.\n\"School Supervision,\" by Newton C. Dougherty and N. C. Schaeffer.\n\"Supply of Teachers,\" by John W. Cook and C. B. Gilbert.\nAFTERNOON\n\nSESSION\n\nThe discussion of the report on rural schools was continued by R. G. Boone, in a\npaper on \" Instruction and Discipline in Rural Schools,\" under the following theses :\n1. The advantages arising from grading small country schools are more than counterbalanced by the\ndisadvantages of teaching together pupils widely separated in ability and requirements.\n2. Whenever practicable, the pupils of small outlying districts should be transported, at public expense,\nto the town center; this plan may embrace all the pupils of the school, or only the older and more advanced.\n3. With the limitations suggested in the report, the monitorial system can be employed to advantage in\nrural schools.\n4. Where rural schools are maintained, written examinations for the older pupils should be held at stated\ntimes in town centers by the county superintendent or other competent officer, adequate records of the results\nof the examination being preserved for future reference.\n5. For those who have left school, \" school extension,\" in the form of recommended home, reading, under\nthe care of the teacher of the district, should be organized and directed by the town or county superintendent.\n\nA general discussion followed.\nAt 4 : 30 the Council went into executive session.\nEXECUTIVE\n\nSESSION\n\nThirty members present.\nPresident De Garmo called for the report of the Committee on Reorganfzation.\nREPORT\n\nOF THE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nREORGANIZATION\nEDUCATION\n\nOF THE\n\nNATIONAL\n\nCOUNCIL\n\nOF\n\nYour committee, appointed to suggest plans for changing or modifying the present organization of the\nCouncil, begs leave to submit the following report:\nI.\n\nDEFINITION\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nWORK\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOUNCIL\n\n1. It is recommended that the Council, from to time time, shall undertake to initiate, conduct, and guide\nthe thoro investigation of important educational questions, such as the National Educational Association has\nundertaken in the past, or may hereafter desire to undertake.\n2. It is suggested to recommend to the Board of Directors of the National Educational Association that\nit recognize the Council as the body thru which all such investigations ordered by the National Educational\nAssociation should be carried on.\n3. The work of the Council shall also include the consideration and discussion, of Individual papers, as\nset forth in another part of this report.\n11.\n\nCOMMITTEES\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOUNCIL\n\n1. It is suggested that the plan in use at present, of conducting investigations and discussions thru the\nreports of a fixed number of permanent standing committees, be abandoned.\n2. As a new plan of work, it is recommended to the Council that it shall, from time to time, designate\ncertain subjects for investigation by committees appointed for this special purpose.\n\n"}
{"page": 506, "printed_page": null, "text": "496\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n3. In the appointment of these special committees, and in the selection of writers and speakers, it shall\nbe the privilege of the Council to appoint such experts, whether members of the Council or not, as it deems\nbest qualified to conduct such investigation.\nIII.\n\nPREPARATION\n\nOF\n\nINDIVIDUAL\n\nPAPERS\n\n1. It is recommended that, at least six months before each session, the president of the Council send out\na circular inviting the submission of volunteer papers by members, and requesting them to suggest names of\nother persons, not members of the Council, whom they believe willing and able to present valuable contributions to educational literature.\n2. It is further recommended that ihe Executive Committee shall have power to determine what papers\nso offered shall be read at the meeting of the Council.\nThe rejxjrts and papers to be presented to the Council shall be printed and placed in the hands of the\nmembers at least four weeks before the session. The papers so printed shall be discussed, but not read in full,\nat the meeting.\nWhenever the printing of the paper is not feasible, an abstract or brief of each paper, if possible in the\nform of theses, shall'be sent to the members of the Council at least a month before the meeting.\nIV.\n\nSTANDING\n\nCOMMITTEES\n\nI. There shall be three standing committees, an executive committee, a committee on membership, and\na committee on educational progress.\nEXECUTIVE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\n2. The Executive Committee shall be composed of the president of the Council, and of three other members, whose term of office shall be so arranged that one new member may be chosen each year.\n3. It shall be the duty of the Executive Committee to provide an annual program by selecting, whenever\nfeasible, subjects for investigation, and appointing committees to conduct such investigations. It shall be the\nduty of the Executive Committee to carry out the provisions contained in this report referring to volunteer\nand invited papers.\nIt shall be the duty of the Executive Committee to provide a place on the program for the report on any\ninvestigation which may be ordered or referred by the National Educational Association.\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nMEMBERSHIP\n\n4. The Committee on Membership shall be composed of the president of the Council and six other members, whose terms of office shall be so arranged that two vacancies may be filled every year.\n5. It shall be the duty of this committee to secure the best possible nominations for the vacancies to\nbe filled by the Council.\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPROGRESS\n\n6. There shall be appointed annually a committee of one to submit, at the next meeting, a report on\n\"Educational Progress during the Past Year,\" in which a survey of the important movements and ev.ents in\neducation during the preceding year is given. This committee need not be chosen from the members of the\nCouncil.\n«\n\nV.\n\nROOMS\n\nFOR\n\nMEETINGS\n\nThe meetings of the Council should, for the most part, be of a \" round table \" character.\nThe objects to be attained by the meetings of the Council are promoted, not so much by discussions\nappealing to large audiences, as by a quiet exchange of opinion among the members of the Council. Largely\nattended meetings are not conducive to this purpose.\nIt is, therefore, recommended that the Council instruct the officers and committees in charge of the pro\nviding of rooms for the meetings to be guided by these principles.\nVI.\nIt is recommended that a committee of three be appointed to revise the constitution of the Council, and\nto embody such provisions of this report as may be approved at this meeting.\nF. Louis Soldan, Chairman,\nNicholas Murray Butler.\nCharles B. Gilbert.\nJames H. Baker.\nJames M. Greenwood,\n\nThe report was read by F. Louis Soldan, and was discussed — article by article —\nby Messrs. Draper, Cook, King, Hinsdale, Maxwell, Baker, Seerley, Sheldon, Green,\nBrown, Millspaugh, and Marble.\nW. F. King moved the adoption of the entire report, which motion was carried, and\na committee of three, to be named later, appointed to do the work recommended in\nsec. vi.\n\n"}
{"page": 507, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nSECKE\n\nTARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\n497\n\nMr. Dougherty moved that the chair appoint a committee of fifteen, the majority of\nwhom shall be members of the Council, who shall investigate the entire subject of the\nestablishment of a national university, and report to the Council. Carried.\nThe following committee was subsequently announced by President De Garmo, viz.:\nPresident William R. Harper of the University of Chicago, chairman.\nPresident Edwin A. Alderman of the University of North Carolina.\nPresident James B. Angell of the University of Michigan.\nProfessor Nicholas Murray Butler, of Columbia University.\nPresident James H. Canfield of Ohio State University.\nDr. J. L, M. Curry of Washington, D. C, agent of the Peabody and Slater Funds.\nSuperintendent Newton C. Dougherty, Peoria, HI.\nPresident Andrew S. Draper of the University of Illinois.\nPresident Charles W. Eliot of Harvard University.\nProfessor Edmund J. James, of the University of Chicago.\nSuperintendent William H. Maxwell, New York, N. Y.\nProfessor Bernard J. Moses, of the University of California.\nPresident J. G. Schurman, of Cornell University.\nSuperintendent F. Louis Soldan, St. Louis, Mo.\nPresident William L. Wilson of Washington and Lee University.\n\nThe Committee on Membership reported as follows :\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nMEMBERSHIP\n\nTo the National Council of Education:\nThe undersigned members of the committee appointed to\nnominate members to fill vacancies occurring in the Council at the present time, thru expiration of term of\nservice, and because of absence from two consecutive meetings of the Council, report the following names :\nAndrew S. Draper, of Illinois ;\nWilliam H. Maxwell, of New York ;\nJames H. Van Sickle, of Colorado;\n,\nB. A. Hinsdale, of Michigan ;\nNewton C. Dougherty, of Illinois;\nall to succeed themselves, their term to expire in 1904.\nTo succeed William A. Mowry, of Massachusetts, Paul H. Hanus, of Massachusetts, term to expire in\n1899.\nTo succeed W. L. Bryan, of Indiana, Lightner Witmer,of Pennsylvania, term to expire in 1901.\nTo succeed Euler B. Smith, of Georgia, Edwin A. Alderman, of North Carolina, term to expire in 1902.\nTo succeed Earl Barnes, of California, George T. Fairchild, of Kentucky, term to expire in 1903.\nRespectfully submitted,\nNicholas Murray Butler,\nJames H. Baker,\nJames M. Green,\nCommittee.\n\nThe report was adopted, and the persons named were declared duly elected to membership.\nThe Committee on Nominations reported the following nominations for officers of\nthe Council for the ensuing year :\nYor President — A. R. Taylor, Emporia, Kan.\nFor yice- President — James H. Van Sickle, Denver, Colo.\nFor Secretary — Miss Bettie A. Dutton, Cleveland, O.\n\nThe report of the committee was adopted, and the above-named nominees were\ndeclared duly elected as officers of the Council for the ensuing year.\nThe Council adjourned at 6 o'clock p. m. to meet Monday, July 11, at 9 o'clock A. M.\nEXECUTIVE\n\nSESSION\n\n— r(?«A««^</.— Monday, July ii, 9 a. m.\n\nWilliam E. Sheldon, of the Committee on Revision of the Constitution, read a report\nsuggesting certain verbal changes in the form of the constitution, to bring it into harmony\nwith the report of the Committee on Reorganization, which had already been adopted.\nC. B. Gilbert moved the adoption of the report and the appointment of a committee of\n\n"}
{"page": 508, "printed_page": null, "text": "498\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nthree, to make the necessary revision of the constitution and to furnish a copy of such\nrevision to the Secretary of the National Educational Association for publication as the\n\"Constitution of the Council.\" The committee so authorized consisted of C. B. Gilbert,\nWilliam E. Sheldon, and B. A. Hinsdale.\nAn executive committee for one year was appointed as follows :\nJohn Dewey, Chicago, 111.\nNicholas Murray Butler, New York, N, Y. '\nL. H. Jones, Cleveland, O.\n\nIt was moved and carried that a committee of five be appointed by the incoming\npresident to report on the feasibility of the proposed report on libraries.\nE. E. Brown, of California, referred to the absence, owing to ill health, of Dr. A. J,\nRickoff, and to his active interest in the work of the Council. Messrs. Harris, Soldan,\nand Sheldon were appointed a committee to express to Dr. Rickoff the best greetings of\nthe Council, with regret at his enforced absence from its sessions.\nCommunications were received from James H. Canfield, C. C. Rounds, Henry Sabin\nand W. H. Bartholomew, giving reasons for their absence and expressing sincere regret\nOn motion, these gentlemen were excused, and the secretary was directed to record the\nsame in the annual report of proceedings.\nB. A. Hinsdale expressed, on behalf of the Council, thanks to the officers for their\nefficient service. After introductory remarks by A. R. Taylor, the president-elect, the\nCouncil, at II A. M., adjourned.\nBettie A. DuTTON,\nSecretary.\n\nPAPERS\nSCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nHYGIENE— WHAT\nBY\n\nDR.\n\nEDWARD\n\nM.\n\nDISCUSSIONS\nIT IS AND\n\nHARTWELL,\n\nWHY\n\nWE\n\nBOSTON,\n\nMASS.\n\nNEED\n\nIT\n\nHealth — how to find and how to keep it^— is a matter of such\ngeneral and continual interest that discussion regarding it seems to be\nalways in order. Still, the conclusion of the whole matter is never\nreached ; perhaps it never can be reached till a generation shall arise\nwhich is willing to profit fully by the experience of its forerunners, and\nable to command\ncessor.\n\nimplicitly the confidence of at least its immediate suc-\n\nLaudation of a sound mind in a sound body dates from classic times,\nand the literature of education, from Plato's time to our own, abounds in\nrhapsodies and disquisitions on health and the art of securing it ; but the\nhistory of education affords comparatively few instances of successful\nattempts, on a large scale, by educational authorities to frame their codes\nand order their practices in accordance with the teachings of the best\nmedical science of their times.\nSir Thomas\n\nElyot was an English scholar, diplomat, and jurist in\n\nthe time of Henry VIII. Elyot's The Governour is probably the\nfirst treatise on education written in English.\nIt is interesting to note\n\n"}
{"page": 509, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nSCHOOL\n\nHYGIENE\n\n499\n\nthat Elyot also wrote a book called The Castell of Helth, in which he laid\nemphasis on the value of preventive medicine, or hygiene, as we should\ncall it. \"And why, I pr^y,\" say^ Elyot, \"should men have in disdain or\nsmall reputation the science of physic ? Which being well understood,\ntruly experienced and discreetly ordered doth conserve health, without\nwhich all pleasures be painful, riches unprofitable, company annoyance, strength turned to feebleness, beauty to loathesomeness, senses are\ndispersed, eloquence interrupted, remembrance confounded.\"\nBoth education and physic have been transformed since Elyot's day ;\nbut it is the latter which has made the greater advance, owing to the\nkeener appreciation and quicker responsiveness of its devotees to the\nmodern scientific spirit.\nIn a sense, hygiene is the most highly developed and important\ndepartment of medical science. For the purposes of our discussion, the\nonly hygiene worth considering is modern hygiene, or the art and\nscience of health as based upon the teachings of the modern doctrine\nof the human body. That doctrine is one of the most notable and\nsignificant achievements of the modern spirit. It has been wrought\nout and developed during the past 250 years thru the improvement and\nconsolidation of the physical sciences, particularly of those known as the\nbiological sciences. Thru the advance made in these sciences, which are\nthe offspring of medicine, man's knowledge of himself has been\nimmensely increased and clarified, and his conception of nature, and of\nhis place in nature, radically changed.\nIn general terms, the modern doctrine of the human body is based\nupon two leading ideas, namely, (i) that the organism is a living machine\nby means of which energy is transformed and utilized ; (2) the adult\nbody is the product of organic evolution, to the outworking of whose\nlaws it owes its rank among organisms, and its efficiency as an individual\norganism.\nThe body as a whole is a communal structure, a sort of federal union\nof organs and tissues, in which the working unit is the individual cell.\nAmong machines the body resembles an army or a city, rather than such\na mechanism as a clock or a windmill. \"Of this army,\" says Huxley,\n\" each cell is a soldier, an organ a brigade, the central nervous system\nheadquarters and field telegraph, the alimentary and circulatory system\nthe commissariat.\"\nThe body is a complicated machine, made up of component mechanisms which are divisible into somatic, or leading, and minor, or subordinate, according as they subserve general or restricted functions. Again,\nthe somatic systems of organs constitute a hierarchy, at whose head are\nthe master tissues and organs which rule the executive machinery of the\nbody, .i. e., the skeleton and the skeletal muscles. The nervous and\nmuscular tissues are the master tissues ; the nervous tissues being the\n\n"}
{"page": 510, "printed_page": null, "text": "500\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nmasterful tissues par excellence. The muscles are the executive end\norgans of the central nerve cells, and have so little power of initiative\nthat they may be termed the slaves of the latter. Omitting the indifferent and reproductive tissues, all the other somatic tissues serve the master\ntissues either as \"purveyors\" or as \"scavengers,\" since their office is\neither to aid in preparing and distributing energy-yielding material,\nthe arterial blood for the use of the neuro-muscular system, or in clearing\naway waste matters which arise in the master tissues. The tissues and\ntissue elements, notwithstanding their diversity and multiplicity, are\nintegrated and the body made one by (i) the system of tubes which contain the blood, which is the main source of potential energy, and (2) the\nsystem of gray nerve threads, emanating from the brain and spinal cord,\nwhereby the expenditure of active energy in the working tissues is regulated.\nThe work of the body, stated in terms of physics, consists in metamorphosing material capable of yielding potential energy, in the transformation of potential energy thus derived into forms of active energy,\nand in expending such form of energy on the chemical, thermal, and\nmechanical work of the body. It is pre-eminently the function of the\nmaster tissues to turn the net income of the body to the fullest and best\naccount as active energy; which net income is what remains from the\ngross income, derived from food stuffs, after the fixed charges requisite\nfor the construction, maintenance, and repair of the tissues have been met.\nTo secure the economical and advantageous expenditure of the net\nincome of the body, it is essential that the neuro-muscular system\nshould be healthy, i. e., capable of working smoothly in all its structural parts, and habituated to purposive, co-ordinated, and balanced\nactions.\nHealth of the body has been defined as the greatest energy of each\npart compatible with the greatest energy of the whole, and, again, as the\nsmooth working of the bodily machine. The smooth working of the\nseveral component mechanisms is requisite for the smooth working of\nthe whole, and vice versa. The health of the master tissues is of paramount importance in the bodily economy. The head of the dynasty of\nmaster tissues is the brain (using the term to include the whole central\nnervous system). Healthful brain action is conditioned upon normal\nmuscular responses to nerve stimuli, as well as upon prompt and adequate\naction of the blood-making, blood-distributing, blood-ventilating, and\nblood-purifying mechanisms, all of which organs, being under the control of the central nervous system, must, in order to work smoothly, be\nsubject to the regulative action of a healthy brain. If once we clearly\napprehend the variety and significance of the bodily functions exercised\nby the brain, in addition to its so-called mental functions, we shall be\nready to admit the importance of striving to shape education so that\n\n"}
{"page": 511, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nSCHOOL\n\nHYGIENE\n\n501\n\nschool life shall exert a positively hygienic and beneficial influence upon\nthe bodily growth and development of the school child.\nIf the individual human being acquired an adult body at birth, the\nproblems of hygiene in general, and of school hygiene in particular,\nwould be much simpler than they are. As it is, we have to take account\nof the fact that the school population embraces a very considerable assortment of individuals, differing widely from one another as regards their\npowers of thinking, doing, and enduring. These differences result from\nthe difference in size, complexity, and capability of the brains and bodies\nbelonging to the different classes of the school population, which includes\ninfants, children, and youth. The human individual in his passage from\n^gg to ashes undergoes a series of transformations so radical and profound\nthat he might almost be said to possess or occupy a series of bodies. The\ncapital fact as to school children is that they are the immature young of\nthe human species, and as such are subject to the laws of growth and\ndevelopment — to the laws of organic evolution, in other words.\nThe human body passes thru a series of progressive developmental\nstages. It begins as a simple unicellular organism. In its embryonic and\nfoetal stages it undergoes enormous growth, and recapitulates in a condensed and schematic way the evolution of its ancestors in the zoological\nseries. At birth the<human being ceases to be an attached parasite and\nbecomes a detached, air-breathing parasite. Not till established adolescence isit fit to begin to fend for itself. The body of the human infant\nis a vastly more complicated and capable mechanism than is that of the\nhuman embryo, but in comparison with the adult body, or even that of the\nbudding adolescent, it is a relatively undeveloped and incapable mechanism. The matter of mere growth is of importance, since at birth the body\nof the infant has attained to scarcely more than one-third of the stature\nand one-twentieth of the weight found in the adult body, on the average.\nThe infant lacks teeth and finished bones ; his muscles are relatively\nsmall and weak, and his cerebral powers are of little worth. But the law\nof growth applies to the cells, tissues, and organs of the infant's body;\nand, given favorable circumstances, its most highly complicated and specialized organs will attain completeness, and its relatively simple structures will attain their limits of complication. Among organisms the\nsimpler and more generalized forms appear first, and the more complicated and specialized are evolved from them. The order and rate of\ngrowth, i. e., quantitative change, and of development, i. e., qualitative\nimprovement, of the several organic systems of the body differ widely in a\ngiven developmental stage (and in different stages as regards a given system\nof organs). Thus at birth the muscles constitute but 23.4 per cent, of the\ntotal weight of the body, whereas in the adult 43. i per cent, of it is made up\nof the weight of the muscles. The brain of the babe equals 14.34 per cent,\nof its total weight, while the brain weight of the adult amounts to only 2.37\n\n"}
{"page": 512, "printed_page": null, "text": "5° 2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nper cent, of his body weight. The brain's growth rate during childhood\nis more rapid than that of the muscles. The brain's growth, in substance,\nculminates at about the time of the second dentition, so that it reaches\nits full weight, within a few ounces, in the seventh or eighth year ; but the\ndevelopment of the brain proceeds far into adult life. Dr. Clouston\ndeclares that the brain of a child of eight, as regards what it can do and\nwithstand, differs so much from that of the adult that it might properly\nbe considered as belonging to the member of a different animal species.\nThe growth of the muscles does not culminate till after puberty is established. Full neuro-muscular development must wait for full growth of\nbrain and muscles.\nSimilarly the law of growth is exemplified in the brain and nerves.\nThe sensory areas in the brain are, relatively to the motor areas, more\nfully grown and developed at birth. Certain neuro-muscular mechanisms, which are termed fundamental, e. g., those concerned in breathing\nmovements, are fully formed at birth; while certain other neuro-muscular mechanisms, belonging to the class called accessory, e. g., those concerned in speech and manipulation, are structurally and functionally\nundeveloped in infancy and early childhood. It has also been shown\nthat certain motor nerves do not acquire structural completeness till long\nafter birth.\nThe law of the evolution of the nervous system is that the older, more\nfundamental parts, which subserve the more general functions, are first\ndeveloped; and that the last acquired, most accessory and specialized,\ndevelop latest. This law seems to me to constitute a sure and serviceable\ncriterion of the worth and propriety of educational procedures of every\nkind, since it affords a means of comparing our conventional methods of\neducating the individual with nature's method of educating the race.\nThis law should also be accepted as a guiding principle by the school\nhygienist.\nMy main contention is that the problems of education are mainly\nproblems in development, and that in our attempts to solve them we\nshould seek to conform, as intelligently and fully as the state of our\nknowledge will permit, with the laws of evolution, in accordance with\nwhich man has been endowed with the most serviceable body, the most\nhighly developed brain and mind, in the realm of animate nature. There are\ncertain general conditions requisite for the healthful activity of animal tissues, organs, or organisms. They are a sufficient and regular supply of\nprepared energy-yielding material and of oxygen, the removal of waste\nsubstances, and alternating periods of activity and quiescence ; in other\nwords, animal mechanisms, singly and in the mass, to work smoothly\nrequire food and ventilation, drainage, exercise and rest. The aim of\nthe hygienists is to secure these conditions of health for the class of persons with whose interests they are concerned.\nThe public hygienist\n\n"}
{"page": 513, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nSCHOOL\n\nHYGIENE\n\n503\n\nworks thru schemes of sanitary engineering, medical inspection, and\nbuilding laws. The personal hygienist attempts the practice of proper\nhabits as to cleanliness, mental and bodily exercise, recreation, and diet\non the part of the individual.\nTo secure health in the mass of the school population is far from a\nsimple problem. It is a problem whose solution demands the co-operation of several classes of experts, among whom may be mentioned publichealth officers, sanitary engineers, intelligent architects and builders, educational authorities and teachers, and school hygienists as such. The\nnecessity for the co-operation of such a variety of persons arises from the\npeculiar constitution of the school population, and from the artificial and\nuntoward conditions under which it is frequently housed and required to\nwork.\nGoing to school is a sedentary occupation.\nThe school population,\nembracing, as it does, nearly a quarter of the total population, constitutes\nthe largest contingent of sedentary workers, devoted to a single pursuit, in\nthe country.\nUpward of 90 per cent, of the school population is found\nin the elementary schools, and is composed chiefly of children between the\nages of five and fifteen years. The inevitable disadvantages of sedentary\nconditions are enhanced to a considerable degree by the undue crowding,\nwhich increases year by year in the growing cities of the country.\nTo\ncounteract urban tendencies apd influences demands a larger expenditure\nof wisdom and of funds than most school boards can command.\nIf in\ncongested districts the schools are placed on contracted sites, cut off from\nfree light and air, and overfilled with pupils, the school population contributes unduly to the spread of infectious diseases.\nLest the schools\nshould thus become a xnenace to the public health, it is desirable that\nthey should be subject to periodical medical inspection by representatives\nof the board of health.\nIt is significant that New York and Chicago\nhave already followed the example of Berlin and established a tentative\nsystem of medical inspection of their public schools.\nBut such a system\nof inspection, necessary tho it be, is not school hygiene or an adequate substitute for school hygiene.\nI hold that the guardians of the\npublic health should be consulted in regard to the selection of school\nsites and the acceptance of plans for the erection and sanitation of school\nbuildings.\nAt present it is too frequently the case that public-health\nofficers and sanitary experts are not consulted by school authorities until\nthe presence of a nuisance is suspected.\nIt is folly to erect buildings for\nhundreds, and even thousands, of children without taking expert advice\nas to the proper measures for securing adequate drainage, ventilation,\nlight, and heat. These are matters of sanitary engineering upon which\nthe opinions of the average physician and of the average school superintendent are of little value.\n\nBut suppose that thru the conjoined\n\naction\n\nof health and school\n\n"}
{"page": 514, "printed_page": null, "text": "504\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nofficers and sanitary experts a school building is well located, properly\nplanned, and well equipped as to means for heating and ventilation, there\nis still room for further co-operation between the health and school\nauthorities in ordaining an intelligible and workable code of instruction\nto be followed by janitors and teachers in the daily routine of school life.\nAt this point the need of regular sanitary inspection of school yards and\nschool buildings. (quite apart from the medical inspection of the pupils\nand teachers) suggests itself.\nSchool hygiene includes not only effectual care of the school population as such, hygiene of the school site, and hygiene of the school building, but also hygiene of the schoolroom, hygiene of the school child, and\nthe hygiene of instruction. Hygiene of the schoolroom has regard to the\nappropriateness of the furniture, fittings, and educational appliances\nplaced at the disposal of pupils and teachers. Hygiene of the school\nchild includes all measures necessary to secure the smooth working, day\nby day, of the somatic and secondary mechanisms of the childish body.\nAs in the evolution of the child the processes of growth and development may be said to converge in the development of the brain, so every\nbranch of school hygiene has a more or less influential bearing on the\nhygiene of the brain of the school child. The essential aim of all educational measures, machinery, and appliances is the development of sane\nminds, animated by reasonable motives and ruled by righteous and\nenlightened wills. The hygiene of the brain, in the larger and inclusive\nsense of the term, is the quintessence not only of somatic hygiene, but of\nall school hygiene. In a restricted sense it pays special regard to the\nwelfare of the organs of sensation. It should pay no less special regard\nto the motor organs, both fundamental and accessory. To the neglect of\nthis inost important branch of school hygiene is largely due the prevalence\nof \"school diseases,\" such as impaired vision, stuttering, and scoliosis.\nOne need not be either an ophthalmologist, or an elocutionist, or an\northopaedic surgeon, or a teacher of gymnastics, to be a school hygienist\nin the proper sense of the term ; but we must know something of the aims\nand methods of such specialists, and be grounded in the principles of\nmedicine to begin with. No mere graduate of a medical school — much\nless a mere normal-school graduate or a school functionary — is competent to perform the duties of a school hygienist. He should be trained\nin his specialty like other specialists. School hygienists of the kind\nrequired exist in small numbers in some parts of Europe. In this country they are non-existent. There is no supply of them, and almost no\ndemand for them. To create a demand for school hygienists that the\nuniversities and technical schools cannot afford to ignore or deny seems\nto me the plain and present duty of the schoolmen and the medical profession of the United States.\nThe attempts thus far made to determine the hygienic conditions\n\n"}
{"page": 515, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nBIBLIOGRAPHY\n\nOF SCHOOL\n\nHYGIENE\n\n505\n\nsurrounding the school population have been few and feeble. Our need\nof a rational and effectual system of school hygiene is masked, to a certain\nextent, owing to the unusual power of children between ten and fifteen\nyears of age — which period includes the period of most rapid growth\nand development, and also the period when death rates reach their minimum— to resist disease and death; but I hold that our need of such a\nsystem is none the less real.\nI have ^ad occasion to study the death rates of Boston children of\nthe age period of five to fifteen years; and the fact that they were,\nfor the period 1885-90, on the average 2.7 for the thousand living\ngreater than for the same class of population in London, and 1.8 per\nthousand greater than for Berlin children of the same age, leads me,\ntho I am no alarmist, to think that there is an excessive loss of lives\namong Boston school children, which might be diminished if municipal\nand school hygiene were as well ordered and administered in Boston as\nin London and Berlin.\nWe need a better system of hygiene than we now have, because the\nbest that we have does not compare favorably with the best that exists. The\nrapid growth of city slums, and wider knowledge of what school hygiene\ncan effect and has effected, are likely before long to bring us to a realizing sense of our needs. It is to be hoped that our needs will be realized\nby our school authorities as a'result of their own interest and study of the\nwhole question.\n\" Lord God I\" exclaimed Sir Thomas Elyot in The Governour, \" how\nmany good and clean wits of children be perished through the ignorance\nof schoolmasters.\" It behooves us to present the just utterance of such a\nreproach against the teachers of this country !\n\nBIBLIOGRAPHY\nBY WILLIAM\n\nH. BURNHAM,\n\nOF SCHOOL\nCLARK\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nHYGIENE\nWORCESTER,\n\nMASS.\n\nDuring the last twenty-five years a rich literature in the field of\nschool hygiene has been produced, but a large part of this is scattered\nthruout the archives, journals, and general literature of other subjects, so\nthat it is very difficult in limited space to make a satisfactory bibliography. In a brief catalog completeness is impossible. In the following pages the attempt is made to give a representative list of the most\nimportant literature.\nIn periodicals only the more important and representative articles\nare mentioned, and frequently, in case of several contributions by the\nsame writer, only one or two are cited.\nThe lack of attention to some\n\n"}
{"page": 516, "printed_page": null, "text": "5o6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nparts of this subject in England and America, and the richness of the\ncontributions in continental countries, have made it necessary to include a\nlarge proportion of foreign, especially German, literature. In this\ncountry the more important papers on school hygiene have usually\nappeared in reports of boards of health and other medical literature, in\nthe proceedings of various societies, in special reports by school officials,\nor the like. No attempt has been made to rriention this literature in\ndetail, but a special list is made of some of the more important journals,\nand reports containing such contributions.\nFor supplementary bibliographies one should consult the various\nhandbooks — for the older literature, the handbooks by Roth and\nBaginsky ; for the more recent literature, Burgerstein and Netolitzky,\nEulenburg and Bach, Kotelmann, and the Zeitschrift fur Schulgesundheitspflege; for the literature of general hygiene, Weyl's handbook, and\nthe annual bibliography in the Deutsche Vierteljahrsschrift fur offentliche\nGesundheiispflege ; and in related subjects, the Bibliography of Child-Study\nby Louis N. Wilson, Bibliographies of Gymnastics by John M. Pierce, the\nCatalogice of the Surgeon GeneraVs Library, the L^annee psychologique, and\nthe Index Medicus. Special attention should be called to the important\narticles on school hygiene in the reports and papers of the American\nPublic Health Association, and in the reports of state boards of health,\nto which only a blanket reference is made.\n•\nWhile only a small part of the literature on some special subjects is\nmentioned, what has been chosen will usually serve as an introduction and\nguide to the subject; for example, Schubert, in his article on vertical\nscript, gives a bibliography of some 150 titles on that subject; and xMr,\nBurk, in his article on growth, has appended a descriptive bibliography. The aim has been to give representative literature covering the\nwhole field of school hygiene, even at the expense of neglecting important titles in some of the more familiar parts of the field. It is hoped\nthat the bibliography may be judged by what is presented rather than by\nwhat is omitted.\nI.\n\nBOOKS\n\nAND\n\nARTICLES\n\n1. Abel : School Hygiene.\nLondon, 1890.\nPp. 53.\n2. Allport : The Eye and Its Care.\nNew York, 1894.\n3.\n\n\"Defective Eyesight in American Children,\" j^^z/iVw of Reviews, June, 1897.\n\npp. 696-9.\n4.\n\"Tests for Defective Vision in School Children,\" Educational Review, New\nYork, Sept., 1897, pp. 150-59.\n5. Amberg : \" Ueber den Einfluss von Arbeitspausen auf die geistige Leistungsfahigkeit,\"\nPsychologische Arbeiten, I. Band, pp. 300-377.\n6. Bach : Wanderungen, Turnfahrten und Schiilerreisen.\n2. Auflage.\nLeipzig, 1885.\nPp. 200.\n7. Baginsky: Handbuch der Schulhygiene.\n2. Auflage.\nBerlin, 1883.\nPp.619.\nThe standard German handbook of school hygiene in its day. Contains a large amount of important\nmatter scientifically arranged. A third, greatly enlarged edition is soon to appear.\n\n"}
{"page": 517, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nBIBLIOGRAPHY\n\n8. Baldwin : Steam Heating Data.\n\nOF SCHOOL\n\nNew York, 1897.\n\nHYGIENE\n\n507\n\nPp. 365.\n\nA standard authority upon the subject.\n\n9. Barnard : School Architecture.\n\nSixth edition.\n\nNew York, i860.\n\nVery interesting and important historically\".\n\n10. Barnett : Teaching and Organization with Special Reference to Secondary Schools.\nLondon, 1897.\nPp. 419.\nContains important chapters on school hygiene and related subjects.\n\n11. Bayr : Steile Lateinschrift.\n3. Auflage.\nWien, 1892.\nPp.177.\n.12. Behnke etal.: Entwerfen, Anlage und Einrichtung der Gebaude.\nDes Handbuches\nder Architektur vierter Theil.\n6. Halb-Band : Gebaude fiir Erziehung, Wissenschaft\nund Kunst.\nI. Heft: Niedere und hohere Schulen.\nDarmstadt, 1889.\nPp.311;\n350 cuts and 2 tables.\nAn encyclopaedia on the subject of school architecture.\n\n13. Behnke and Brown: The Child's Voice: Its Treatment with Regard to After\nDevelopment.\nChicago, A. N. Marquis & Co., 1885.\nPp. 109.\n14. Bendziula : Zur Schulbankfrage ; ein amtliches Gutachten auf Veranlassung der\nStadtschule-Deputation zu Stettin.\nBerlin, 1893.\nPp. 31.\n15. Bennstein : Die heutige Schulbankfrage. Eine iibersichtliche Zusammenstellung der\nbisher bekannten Schulbanksysteme nebst Gedanken iiber die Beurteilung des Wertes\nderselben.\nBerlin, 1897.\nPp. 52.\n16. Bergey : Methods for the Determination of Organic Matter in Air. Washington,\n1896.\nPp. 28.\nSee also Billings.\n\n17. Berillon : L'hypnotisme et I'orthop^die mental'e.\nParis, 1898.\nPp. 48.\n18. Berlin und Rembold : Untersuchung iiber den Einfluss des Schreibens auf Auge und\nKorperhaltung des Schulkindes.\n2. Auflage.\nStuttgart, 1883.\n19. Bettmann : Die Beeinflussung einfacher psychischer Vorgange durch korperliche und\ngeistige Arbeit.\nLeipzig, 1894.\nl^P- 63.\n20. Beyer : \" Observations on Normal Growth and Development under Systematized\nExercise,\" Report of the Chief of the Bureau of Medicine and Surgery to the Secretary of the Navy, Washington, 1893, PP- 141-60.\n21.\n\"The Influence of Exercise on Growth,\" American Physical Education Review,\nSept., Dec, 1896, pp. 76-87.\n22. Bezold : Schuluntersuchungen iiber das kindliche Gehororgan. Wiesbaden, 1885.\nPp. 94.\n23. Billings : Ventilation and Heating.\nNew York, 1893.\nA standard handbook.\n\nContains a chapter on the ventilation of schools.\n\n24. Billings, Mitchell, and Bergey : Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge.\nThe\nComposition of Expired Air and Its Effects upon Animal Life.\nWashington, 1895.\nPp. 81.\nGivesthe results of very important investigations, which make it doubtful whether there is any volatile\norganic matter in expired air in sufficient quantities to be injurious to health.\n\n25. Binet et Henri : La fatigue intellectuelle.\n\nParis, 1898.\n\nPp. 338.\n\nGives the results of extended investigations of the physical concomitants of mental activity.\nvolume of an important series to be devoted to pedagogy and psychology.\n\nThe first\n\n26. Binet and Vaschide : \" The Influence of Intellectual Work on the Blood-Pressure in\nMan,\" Psychological Review, Jan., 1897.\n27. Bitter : \" Uber Methoden zur Bestimmung des Kohlensauregehaltes der Luft,\"\nZeitschrift fiir Hygiene, 1890, IX, pp. 1-40.\nA comparative study of the different methods of determining COg in the air.\n\n28. Blaikie : How to Get Strong and How to Stay So.\n\nNew York, 1883.\n\nPp. 296.\n\n29. Boas : \" Anthropological Investigations in Schools,\" Pedagogical Seminary, Vol. I,\npp. 225-8.\n30.\n\"The Growth of Children,\" Science, Vol. XIX, pp. 256, 281-2 ; Vol. XX, pp.\n351-2, and passim.\n\n"}
{"page": 518, "printed_page": null, "text": "5o8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\n31. Boas: \"The Theory of Anthropometrical Statistics,\" Quarterly Publications of the\nAmerican Statistical Association, Boston, Dec, 1893, pp. 569-75.\nThe papers of Dr. Boas are of special importance.\n\nThe foregoing are samples of a large number.\n\n32. Bobrick : Hygienic Requirements of School Furniture.\nNew York, 1892.\nPp. 51.\n33. Bocci : Igiene degli occhi dal lato scolastico.\nRoma, 1897.\n34. Bode : Zum Schutz unserer Kinder vor Wein, Bier und Branntwein. Hildesheim,\n1894.\nPp. 47.\n35. Bowditch : \" The Growth of Children,\" Report of Board of Health of Massachusetts,\nBoston, 1877, Vol. VIII.\nThe first report of the classic studies of growth by this investigator.\n\n36.\n\n37-\n\nSpecially important.\n\n\"The Growth of Children : a Supplementary Investigation, with Suggestions in\nRegard to Methods of Research,\" Report of Board of Health of Massachusetts,\nBoston, 1879, Vol. X, pp. 33-62.\n\"The Growth of Children.\nStudied byGalton's Method of Percentile Grades,\"\nReport of Board of Health of Massachusetts,\n1889-90, Boston, 1891, Vol. XXII,\n\npp. 470-522.\nRelation between Growth and Disease. Transactions of the American Medical\nAssociation, Vol. XXXII, 1881.\nPp. 376.\n39. Bresgen : Uber die Bedeutung behinderter Nasenatmung, vorziiglich bei Schulkindern.\nHamburg und Leipzig, 1890.\nPp. 34.\n40.\nDer Kopfschmerz bei Schulkindern.\n2. unveranderte Auflage.\nLeipzig, 1894.\nPp. 7, 60.\n41. Briggs: Hygienic Construction of the Bridgeport High School Building. Third\nAnnual Report of the Connecticut State Board of Health.\nHartford, Conn., 1 88 1.\n38.\n\n42. Brunner, Lowman, et al.: \"Hygienic and Sanitary Safeguards of the School House,\nwith Discussion of the Same,\" Pennsylvania School Journal, March, 1898, pp.\n391-9.\n43. Bryan : \" On the Development of Voluntary Motor Ability,\" American Journal of\nPsychology, Nov., 1892, Vol. V, pp. 125-204.\n44. Buck : A Treatise on Hygiene and Public Health. Two volumes. New York, 1879.\nEspecially the article on \" School Hygiene \" by Dr. D. F. Lincoln, Vol. II, pp.\n597-629.\n45. Burgerstein : Die Gesundheitspflege in der Mittelschule.\nWien, 1887.\nPp.140.\n46.\n\nAxel Key's schulhygienische Untersuchungen.\n\nHamburg, 1889.\n\nPp. 346.\n\nA full German resume of Key's important investigations of the physical conditions of Swedish school\nchildren.\n\n47.\n\n\" Die Arbeitscurve einer Schulstunde,\" Zeitschrift fUr Schulgesundheitspflege,\n1 89 1, Nos. 9 and 10.\n48. Burgerstein und Netolitzky : Handbuch der Schulhygiene. Jena, 1895. Pp. 429;\nmit 154 Abbildungen.\n\nPart I, Vol. VII, of Weyl's Handbuch der Hygiene.\n\nShares with Eulenberg and Bach the distinction of being the most important handbook on the subject of\nschool hygiene.\nCovers a wide field and gives extended bibliographies.\n\n49. Burk : \" Growth of Children in Yieighis.nAW&'ighi,'\" American Journal of Psychology,\nWorcester, Mass., Vol. IX, No. 3, April, 1898, pp. 253-326.\nThe most important account of the various studies of growth of children that has yet been given.\n\n50. Burnham : \"Outlines of School Hygiene\" Pedagogical Seminary, \\o\\,\\\\,'i'io. i, pp.\n9-71.\nA brief outline of important chapters in schooljhygiene, with a.bibliography.\n\n51.\n\n\"Impurities in the Air of Schoolrooms,\" North Western Monthly, July, 1897, pp.\n75-80.\n52. Calhoun: Effects of Student Life upon the Eyesight.\nWashington, 1881.\nPp. 29.\n53. Carpenter, A.: The Principles and Practice of School Hygiene. London, 1887.\nPp. 368.\n54. Carpenter: Heating and Ventilating Buildings.\nNew York, 1896.\nA standard handbook giving scientific principles and data.\n\n"}
{"page": 519, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nBIBLIOGRAPHY\n\nOF SCHOOL\n\nHYGIENE\n\n509\n\n55. Carter : Report on the Vision of Children Attending Elementary Schools in London.\nLondon, 1896.\nPp. 16.\n56. Cattell : \" Tests of the Senses and Faculties,\" Educational Review, New York,\nMarch, 1893, Vol. V, pp. 257-65.\n57. Cattell and Farrand : \" Physical and Mental Measurements of the Students of\nColumbia University,\" Psychological Review, Nov., 1896, pp. 618-48.\n58. Celli : L'igiene della scuola: Conference agli ispettori scolastici.\nFirenze, 1893.\nPp. 150.\n59. Chandler, Tudor, and Woodbridge : Report of the Expert Committee on the Sanitation of School-Houses.\nCity Document 74, 1896.\nPp. 31.\n60. Channing : \"The Importance of Physical Training in Childhood,\" Educational\nReview, New York, Oct., 1895, Vol X, pp. 262-72.\n61. Chapin : \" Crowded Schools as Promoters of Disease,\" Forum, May, 1895, PP\n296-300.\n62. Chrisman : \"The Hearing of Children,\" Pedagogical Seminary, Vol. W, 1892, pp\n391-441.\n63. Clark, Hannah B.: \"Sanitary Legislation Affecting Schools in the United States,'\nReport of the Commissioner of Education, 1893-94, Vol. H, pp. 1301-49.\n64. Clark, R. A.: \"Physical Defects of Children,\" A'br/,^ Western Monthly, ]u\\y, iSgj\npp. 24-31.\n65. Clark, T. M.: Rural School Architecture.\nBureau of Education, Circulars of Infor\nmalion. No. 4, 1880.\nPp. 106.\n66. Clarke, Dr. E. H.: The Building of a Brain. Fourth edition. Boston, 1874. Pp.153\n67.\nSex in Education ; or, A Fair Chance for Girls.\nSeventeenth edition.\nBoston\nand New York, Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1886.\nPp. 181.\nThese two books are still classics.\n\n68. Clouston : The Growth and Development of a Child in Body and Mind.\nEdinboro'\nHealth Society, Edinburgh, 1884.\n69.\nThe Neuroses of Development.\nLondon, 189 1. Pp. 138.\n70.\n\"Developmental Insanities and Psychoses,\" Tuke's Dictionary of Psychological\nMedicine, Vol. I, pp. 357-71.\n71. Cohn: Lehrbuch der Hygiene des Auges.\nWien und Leipzig, 1892.\nPp. 856.\nAn excellent handbook with special reference to the hygiene of the eye in the school,\n\n72.\n73.\n\nThe Hygiene of the Eye.\n\nLondon, 1886.\n\nA translation of an earlier edition of the preceding.\n\nPp. 236, vii.\n\niJber die Nothwendigkeit der Einfiihrung von Schularzten.\nPp. 54-\n\n74. Collineau : L'hygifene a I'dcole.\nA good French outline of the subject,\n\n*\n\nParis, 1889.\n\nLeipzig,\n\n1886.\n\nPp.314.\n\n75. Combe:\n\"Korperlange\nund Wachstum\nder Volksschulkinder\nZeitschrift fUr Schulgesundheitspflege, 1896, No. II, pp. 569-89.\n76. Comby: Les maladies de croissance.\nParis, 1890.\nPp. 42.\n77. Corfield : The Laws of Health.\nLondon, 1889.\nPp. 153.\n\nin\n\nLausanne,\"\n\n78. Cowles: \"Neurasthenia and Its Mental Symptoms,\" ^«ij/<?« Medical and Surgical\nJournal, 1891.\n79.\nThe Mental Symptoms of Fatigue.\nNew York, 1893.\nPp- 25.\n80. Cozzolino : The Hygiene of the Ear. Translated by James Erskine. London, 1892,\n81. Cure: Contribution i la photometric scolaire.\nParis, 1887,\nPp. 47.\n82. Daffner : Das Wachstum des Menschen.\nLeipzig, 1897.\nPp, 129.\n83. Daiber : Die Schreib- und Korperhaltungsfrage.\nStuttgart, 1889,\nPp, 151.\n84. Davies : A Handbook of Hygiene.\nLondon, 1895,\nPp- 602.\n85. Demeny : R^sumd de cours th^oriques sur I'^ducation physique. . Le Mans, 1886.\nPp. 185.\n\n"}
{"page": 520, "printed_page": null, "text": "5IO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n86. Demoor: La plasticity morphologique des neurones c^r^braux.\n\nTNational\n\nLifege, 1896.\n\nPp.\n\n87. Denhardt:\nDas Stottern.\nEine Psychose.\nLeipzig, 1890.\nPp.298.\n32.\n88. Donaldson : The Growth of the Brain.\nLondon, 1895.\nPp. 374.\nAn excellent handbook.\n\n89. Dornbliith : Gesundheitspflege der Schuljugend.\nStuttgart, 1892.\nPp. 16, 252.\n90.\nHygiene des Turnens.\nBerlin, 1897.\nPp- lOO91. Down: On Some of the Mental Affections of Childhood and Youth.\nLondon,\n1887.\nPp. 307.\n92. Du Bois-Reymond : \" The Physiology of Exercise,\" Popular Science Monthly, Vol.\nXXL\n93. Dubrisay et Yvon : Manuel d'hygifene scolaire.\nParis, 1887.\nPp.236.\n94. Dukes: The Essentials of School Diet.\nLondon, 1891.\nPp. 187.\n95.\nWork and Overwork,\nLondon, 1893.\nPp- 69.\n96.\nHealth at School Considered in Its Mental, Moral, and Physical Aspects.\ndon, 1894.\nPp. xxiv, 498.\n\nLon\n\n97.\n\n\"The Inspection of Schools from the Medical and Sanitary Point of View,\"\nEducational Times, Dec. I, 1894, pp. 505-11.\n98. Edinger : Vorlesungen iiber den Bau der nervosen Centralorgane des Menschen und\nder Thiere.\nLeipzig, 1896.\nPp. 386 ; with 258 figures.\n99. Ellis : Man and Woman : A Study of Human Secondary Sexual Characters. Contemporary Science Series.\nLondon and New York, 1897.\nPp. 398.\n100. Emminghaus : Die psychischen Storungen im Kindesalter. Gerhardt's Handbuch der Kinderkrankheiten, Nachtrag II. Tubingen, 1887.\nPp. 293.\nlOi. Enebuske : Observations on the Results of the Pedagogical Gymnastics of the Ling\nSystem.\nBoston, 1893.\nPp. 20.\n102. Erb : Ueber die wachsende Nervositat unserer Zeit. 3. Auflage. Heidelberg,\n1894.\nPp. 32.\n103. Erismann : Die Hygiene der Schule. Handbuch der Hygiene und der Gewerbekrankheiten.\nLeipzig, 1882.\n104.\n\n\" Die Schulhygiene auf der Jubilaumsausstellung der Gesellschaft fiir Beforderung der Arbeitsamkeit in Moskau,\" Zeitschrift fiir Schulgesundheitspflege, Vol. I,\nPP- 347-73 and 393-419105. Esmarch : \"Erfahrungen iiber Schulbrausebader,\" Z^/^zVwwfy^if ^M«(/.ffy^aM, Berlin\nDec. I, 1896, No. 24, pp. 1201-8.\n106.\nHygienisches Taschenbuch.\nBerlin, 1896.\nPp. 240.\n107. Eulenberg und Bach : Schulgesundheitslehre. Das Schulhaus und das Unterrichtswesen vom hygienischen Standpunkte. Berlin, 1889. Also second edition of the\nsame.\nSix parts of the second greatly enlarged edition have already appeared.\nBurgerstein and Netolitzky as the standard German authority.\n\nThis handbook ranks with\n\n108. Euler : Encyklopadisches Handbuch des gesamten Turnwesens und der verwandten Gebiete.\nBande I-HI.\nWien und Leipzig, 1896.\n109. Fahrner: Das Kind und der Schultisch.\nZiirich, 1865.\nPp. 64.\nAn important classic.\n\n]io.\n\nFall : School Hygiene.\n\nAlbion, Mich., 1890.\n\nReprint.\n\nPp. 32-7.\n\nSee reports of Michigan Board of Health; also articles in No. 403.\n\n[II.\n\nFarquharson : School Hygiene and Diseases Incidental to School\n1885.\nPp.369.\n\nLife.\n\nLondon,\n\n112. Ferdinands: School Teacher's Ophthalmic Guide. Aberdeen, 1892.\nPp. 10.\n113. Fitz : A Study of Measurements of Curvature of the Spine. Reprinted from Trans\nactions of the American Orthopedic Association, 1897.\nPp. 3.\n114.\nPlay as a Factor in Development.\nBoston, 1898.\nPp.7.\nReprinted from\nAmerican Physical Education Review, Dec, 1897.\n\n"}
{"page": 521, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nBIBLIOGRAPHY\n\n115. Flechsig : Gehirn und Seele.\n\nOF SCHOOL\n\nLeipzig, 1896.\n\nHYGIENE\n\n51 1\n\nPp. 112.\n\n116. Fleury, de : \" A Cure for Indolence,\" ^or/«jg'^//j/ Review, M&y, 1898, pp. 762-80.\n117. Fliigge : Grundriss der Hygiene.\n2. Auflage.\nLeipzig, 1891.\n118. Foster: \"Weariness,\" Nineteenth Century, Sept., 1893, pp. 337-52.\n119. Friedrich : \" Untersuchungen iiber die Einfliisse der Arbeitsdauer und der Arbeitspausen auf die geistige Leistungsfahigkeit der Schulkinder,\" Zeitschrift filr Psychologie und Physiologie der Sinnesorgane, Band XIII, Heft I und 2, pp. 1-53.\n120. Fuchs: Die Ursachen und die Verhiitungder Blindheit. Wiesbaden, 1885. Pp.243.\nTranslation of the same.\nLondon, 1885.\n121. Galton : Report of the Anthropometric Committee of the British Association for\n1883.\nSee also Roberts : Anthropometry.\n\n122.\n\n\"Why do We Measure Mankind?\" Lippincotf s Magazine, Feb., 1890, pp.\n236-41.\n123.\n\"Remarks on Replies by Teachers to Questions respecting Mental Fatigue,\"\nJournal of the Anthropological Institute, April, 1888, Vol. XVIII, pp. 157-67.\n124. Garbini : Evoluzione della voce nella infanzia.\nVerona, 1892.\nPp.53.\nThe first of the author's important studies of development.\n\n125. Gartner: Leitfaden der Hygiene.\nBerlin, 1892.\nPp.331.\n126. Geissler und Uhlitzsch : Die Grossenverhaltnisse der Schulkinder im Schulinspektionsbezirk Freiburg. Separatabdruck aus Heft I und 2 vom Jahrgang XXXIV,\nZeitschrift des koniglich sdchsischen statistischen Bureaus. Reviewed in Zeitschrift\nfiir Schulgesundheitspflege, Vol. IV, p. 322.\n127. Gerhardt : Handbuch der Kinderkrankheiten.\nIn sechs Banden.\nTiibingen,\n1877-93A standard collection of papers on the diseases of children.\n\n128. Gilbert: Researches on the Mental and Physical Development of School Children.\nStudies from the Yale Laboratory, 1895.\n129.\n\n\" Researches upon School Children and College Students,\" University of Iowa\nStudies in Psychology, Vol. I, pp. I-39.\n130. Greenwood: \"Heights and Weights of Children,\" Report of Board of Education of Kansas City Schools, 1890-91; American Public Health Asssociation\nReports, Vol. XVII, pp, 199-204.\n131. Griesbach: Energetik und Hygiene des Nerven-Systems in der Schule. Miinchen\nund Leipzig, 1895.\nPp. 97.\n132. Groos : Die Spiele der Thiere.\nJena, 1896.\nPp.359.\nAn important contribution preliminary to a book on the play of children, in press.\nlation, byElizabeth S. Baldwin, has just appeared, New York, 1898.\n\n133. Guaita: La salute del bambino.\n1893.\n\nAn English trans-\n\nScritti varii d'igiene infantile. 4a edizione.\n\nCompendio d'igiene scolastica. 1894.\n134. Guillaume : Hygiene des dcoles, conditions- architecturales et ^conomiques. Paris,\n1874.\n135. Gulick : Manual for Physical Measurements. International Committee of the\nY. M. C. A. New York, 1897.\nPp. 48.\n136. Gutzmann, A.: Das Stottern und seine griindliche Beseitigung.\n3. Auflage. Berlin,\n1890.\n\nPp. 141, 206.\n\n137. Gutzmann, H.: \"Die Hygiene der Sprache und die Schule,\" Zeitschrift fiir\nSchulgesundheitspflege, 1892, No. 5.\n138.\nDes Kindes Sprache und Sprachfehler. Gesundheitslehre der Sprache fiir\nEltern, Erzieher, und Aerzte.\nLeipzig, 1894.\nPp. 264.\n139.\nDie praktische Anwendung der Sprachphysiologie beim ersten Leseunterricht.\nBerlin, 1897.\nPp. 52.\nSee below, No. 400, Part II.\n\n"}
{"page": 522, "printed_page": null, "text": "512\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\n140. Hall: \"Health of School Children as Affected by School Buildings,\" Proceedings\nof the Department of Superintendence, Brooklyn, Feb., 1892, pp. 163-72.\n141. Hancock: \"A Preliminary Study of Motor Ability,\" Pedagogical Seminary, Oct.,\n1894, Vol. in, pp. 9-29.\n142. Hartwell: Physical Training in American Colleges and Universities. Circulars\nof Information of the Bureau of Education.\nWashington, 1886.\nPp. 183.\n143.\nOn the Physiology of Exercise.\nBoston, 1887.\nPp. 32.\n144.\n\"Application of the Laws of Physical Training to the Prevention and Cure of\nStuttering,\" Proceedings of the International Congress of Education, Chicago,\n1893; Proceedings of the National Educational Association, 1893, pp. 738-49.\n145.\n\"Bowditch's Law of Growth and What It Teaches.\"\nReprinted from the\nTenth Annual Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of\nPhysical Education.\nConcord, N. H., 1896.\nPp. 8.\n146.\n\nReports of the Director of Physical Training.\n\nBoston, 1891, '94, '95, '96.\n\nThese reports contain very important contributions on such topics as stuttering, school seating, death\nrates of Boston school children in relation to growth rates, etc.\n\n147.\nPhysical Training, Its Functionand Place in Education.\nBoston, 1897. Pp. 19.\n148. Hartwell et al.: Anthropometry, Papers upon.\nAmerican Statistical Association,\n1894. This pamphlet contains the following articles : (i) \"A Preliminary Report on\nAnthropometry in the United States,\" by Dr. E. M. Hartwell, pp. 1-16 ; review of\nthe several investigations made in the United States, with bibliography. (2) \" Remarks\non the Theory of Anthropometry,\" by Dr. F'ranz Boas, pp. 16-23. (S) \"On the Application to Individual School Children of the Mean Values Derived from Anthropological Measurements, by the Generalizing Method,\" by Dr. W. T. Porter, pp. 2335. (4) \"Anthropometric Statistics of Amherst College,\" by Dr. Edward Hitchcock,\npp. 35-47. (5) \"Anthropometrical Study of the Effects of Gymnastic Training on\nAmerican Women,\" by C. J. Enebuske, Ph.D., pp. 47-58. (6) \" Growth of St. Louis\nChildren,\" by Dr. W. T. Porter, pp. 58-65 ; reviewing his previous study of the same\ntitle. (7) \"Growth of Children,\" by Dr. H. P. Bowditch, pp. 65-116; a reprint of\nhis article in the Eighth Annual Report of the Massachusetts Board of Health.\n149. Herrick : \"School Hygiene,\" Sanitarian, Aug., 1895, PP- 103-8.\n150. Hertel : Over-Pressure in the High Schools of Denmark.\nLondon, 1885.\n151.\n\"Neuere Untersuchungen iiber den allgemeinen Zustand der Schiiler und\nSchiilerinnen,\" ZfjVjtr^r?/? /«i> Schulgesundheitspflege, I, Nos. 6 and 7, pp. 167-83,\n201-15.\n152. Hintrager : Der Bau und die innere Einrichtung von Schulgebauden fiir offentliche Volks- und Burgerschulen.\nWien, 1887.\n153.\nFortschritte aus dem Gebiete der Architektur.\nErganzungshefte zum Handbuch der Architektur. No. 8 : Die Volksschulhauser in verschiedenen Landern.\nI : Volksschulhauser in Schweden, Norwegen, Danemark und Finnland.\nDarmstadt,\n1895. Pp.179; with 270 cuts.\n154. Hippel : Uber den Einfluss hygienischer Massregeln auf die Schulmyopie. Giessen, 1889.\n155. Hitchcock and Seelye : An Anthropometric Manual, Giving the Average and Physical Measurements and Tests of Male College Students and Methods of Securing\nThem.\nAmherst, Mass., 1889.\nPp. 37.\n156. Hittenkofer: Der Schulhausbau in Bezug auf konstructive Gestaltung und praktische Gesundheitspflege.\nLeipzig, 1887.\nPp. 240.\n157. Hochsinger : Gesundheitspflege des Kindes im Elternhause.\nLeipzig und Wien,\n1896. Pp. 228.\n158. Hodge: \"A Microscopical Study of Changes Due to Functional Activity in Nerve\nC&Ws,\" Journal of Morphology, Boston, 1892, Vol. VII, No. 2, pp. 95-168.\nAn epoch-making study.\n\n"}
{"page": 523, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nBIBLIOGRAPHY\n\nOF SCHOOL\n\nHYGIENE\n\n513\n\n159. Hodge : Experiments on the Physiology of Alcohol. Made under the Auspices of the\nCommittee of Fifty.\nReprinted from the Popular Science Monthly, 1897.\nPp. 26.\n160. Hodgins : Hints and Suggestions on School Architecture and Hygiene, with Plans\nand Illustrations. Prepared under the Direction of the Hon. the Minister of Education. Toronto, 1896.\nPp. 135.\n161. Hoffmann: Lehrbuch der Schulgesundheitspflege fiir Lehrer und Seminaristen.\nLangensalza, 1891.\nPp. 118.\n162. Holmes: \"The Fatigue of a School Hour: Studies from the Psychological\nLaboratory of Leland Stanford, Jr., University,\" Pedagogical Seminary, Vol. HI,\nNo. 2, pp. 213-34.\n163. Hoose : \"Report of Committee on Hygiene in Education. Recess or No Recess in\nSchools,\" Proceedings of National Educational Association, 1885. See also Proceedings for 1884.\n164. Howell : American Text Book of Physiology. By Drs. H. P. Bowditch, J. G.\nCurtis, H. H. Donaldson, W. H. Howell, F. S. Lee, W. P. Lombard, G. Lusk, W.\nT. Porter, E. T. Reichert, and H. Sewall. Edited by Wm. H. Howell. Philadelphia, 1896. Pp. 1052.\nThe standard American authority.\n\n165. Hard: \"Some Mental Disorders of Childhood and Youth,\" Boston Medical ana\nSurgical Journal, Sept. 20, 1894, Vol. CXXXI, pp. 281-5.\n166. Ireland : The Mental Affections of Children, Idiocy, Imbecility and Insanity.\nLondon, 1898.\nPp. 442.\n167. Jackson, J.: The Theory and Practice of Handwriting. London, 1893. Pp«\n10, 160.\n\n168. Jackson, John P.: \"School Hygiene, Ventilation, Heating, etc.,\" Pennsylvania\nSchool Journal, April, 1898, pp. 429-34.\n169. Jacob: Ventilation and Warming.\nLondon, 1894.\nPp. 14, 124.\nA very convenient outline.\n\n170. Janke : Grundriss der Schulhygiene.\nHamburg und Leipzig, 1890.\nPp. 96.\n171.\nKorperhaltung und Schriftrichtung.\nLangensalza, 1889.\nPp. 32.\n172.\nDie Hygiene der Knaben-Handarbeit.\nHamburg und Leipzig, 1893.\n8, 105.\n173.\n174.\n\nPp-\n\n\"Wider die Steilschrift,\" Pddagogische Blatter, 1894, No. 6, pp. 561-77.\n\"Ueber Ermudung und Ermiidungsmessungen,\" Pddagogische Zeitung, Nos.\n32, 33. 35, 36, 49. SO, 1897.\n\n175. Januschke : \"Einige Daten zur gesundheitsmassigen Regelung unserer Schulverhaltnisse,\" Zeitschrift fiir das Realschulwesen, XIX. Jahrgang, 11. Heft, pp. 641-666.\n176. Javal : Hygiene des ^coles primaires et des ^coles maternelles. Paris, 1884. Pp. 140.\n177.\n\n\"L'dcriture droite\nXXIII, pp. 497 seq.\n\net I'^criture pench^e,\" Revue pedagogique,\n\n1893, Tome\n\n178.\nPhysiologic de I'^criture.\nParis.\nPp. 31.\n179. Jeffreys: Color-Blindness : Its Dangers and Its Detection. Boston, Houghton,\nOsgood & Co., 1879.\nPp. 312.\n180.\nReport of the Examination of 27,927 School Children for Color-Blindness\nSchool Document No. 13. Boston, Rockwell & Churchill, 1880.\nPp. 9.\n181. Johnson: \"Contributions to the Psychology and Pedagogy of Feeble-minded\nChildren,\" Pedagogical Seminary, Oct., 1895, Vol. Ill, pp. 246-301.\n182.\n\"Education by Plays and Games,\" Pedagogical Seminary, 1894.\n183. Jones: The Health of the Senses.\nLondon, 1884.\n184. Kafemann: Schuluntersuchungen des kindlichen Nasen- und Rachenraumes. Danzig, 1890. Pp. 29.\n185. Keen: Medical Inspection of Schools. Reprint from the Philadelphia Medicos\nJournal, 1898.\nPp. 12.\n\n"}
{"page": 524, "printed_page": null, "text": "5 14\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\n1 86. Keller: \" Padagogische psychometrische Studien,\" Biologisches Centralblalt, Nos. i,\n2, 9, 1894; No. 12, 1897.\n187. Key: \"Die Pubertats-Entwickelung,\" Verhandlungen des internationalen medizinischen Congresses zu Berlin, Band I, 1890, pp. 67 feq.\nSee also No. 46.\n\n188. Kemsies : Arbeitshygiene der Schule auf Grund von Ermiidungsmessungen. Berlin,\n1898.\nPp. 64.\n189. Kimmins : The Chemistry of Life and Health.\nLondon, 1892.\nPp. 167.\n190. Kingsley : Health and Education.\nNew York, 1884.\nPp.411.\n191. Kirk: \"The Rural Schoolhouse,\" North Western Monthly, July, 1897, PP- 68-71.\n192. Klassen : Grundriss-Vorbilder von Schulgebauden. 1884. Pp. 272. Reviewed in\nPedagogical Seminary, Vol. I, p. 427.\n193. Kotelmann : \"Ueber Schulgesundheitspflege.\" Mit zahlreichen Abbildungen. Handbuch der Erziehungs- und Unterrichtslehre fiir hohere Schulen, herausgegeben\nvon Dr. A. Baumeister, 2. Band, 2. Abteilung, pp. 260-397.\nThe best German introduction to the subject of school hygiene for teachers.\n\n194. Kozle : Die padagogische Pathologic.\nGiitersloh, 1894.\nPp. 11,492.\n195. Kraepelin : Ueber die Beeinflussung einfacher psychischer Vorgange durch einige\nArzneimittel.\nJena, 1892.\nPp. 258.\n196.\nUeber geistige Arbeit. Jena, 1894.\nPp- 26.\n.\nZur Hygiene der Arbeit.\nJena, 1896.\nPp. 30.\n197.\nZur Ueberbiirdungsfrage. . Jena, 1897.\nPp. 40.\n198. Krohn : \"Habitual Postures of School Children,\" Child- Study Monthly, Oct., 1895.\n199.\n\"Nervous Diseases of School Children,\" Child-Study Monthly, April, 1896,\nVol. I, pp. 354-68.\n200. Kuborn : Cours d'hygiSne g^nerale et p^dagogique.\n1892.\nPp. iioo.\n201. Kussmaul : Die Storungen der Sprache. Versuch einer Pathologic der Sprache.\nLeipzig, 1877.\nPp. 299.\n202. Labit et Polin : L'hygi^ne scolaire. I: Le milieu scolaire, pp. v, 310; II: Les\nmaladies scolaires, pp. 411.\nParis, 1896.\nOne of the best French handlxioks on the subject of school hygiene.\n\n203. Lancaster : \" The Psychology and Pedagogy of Adolescence,\" Pedagogical Seminary,\nJuly, 1897, Vol. V, pp. 61-128.\n204. Lange : Die normale Korpergrosse des Menschen von der Geburt bis zum 25. Lebensjahre, nebst Erlauterungen Uber Wesen und Zweck der Skala-Messtabelle zum\n, Gebrauche in Familie, Schule und Erziehungs- Anstalten.\nMiinchen, 1896.\nPp.\n205. Legrange : Physiology of Bodily Exercises.\nNew York, 1890.\nPp. 395.\n38.\n206. Lehmann : Die Methoden der praktischen Hygiene.\nWiesbaden, 1890.\nPp. 594.\nMethods of Practical Hygiene.\nTranslation of the above, by W. Crookes.\nTwo volumes.\nLondon, 1893.\n207. Liebreich : A Contribution to School Hygiene.\nLondon, 1873.\n208.\nSchool Life : Its Influence on Sight and Figure.\nSecond edition.\nLondon,\n1878.\n209. Lincoln : Hygiene of Public Schools in Massachusetts. From the Forty-second\nAnnual Report of the Board of Education.\nBoston, 1879.\nPp. 44.\n210.\n\n\"School Hygiene,\" in A. H. Buck's\nVol. II, New York, 1879.\n\nTreatise on Hygiene and Public Health,\n\n211.\n\nSchool and Industrial Hygiene (No. XII of the American Health Primers).\nPhiladelphia, 1880.\n\n212.\n\n\"The Sanitary Conditions and Necessities of Schoolhouses and School Life,\"\nin the Lamb Prize Essays of the American Public Health Association, Concord,\nN. H., 1886, pp. 63-98.\n\n"}
{"page": 525, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council 1\n\n213.\n214.\n\nBIBLIOGRAPHY\n\nOF SCHOOL\n\nAnthropometry Individualized.\n\nAlso in No. 42a.\n\n1896.\n\n\"Essentials of School Hygiene,\"\nChild-Study, Vol. I, No. 3, pp. 53-66.\n\nHYGIENE\n\n515\n\nPp. 8.\nTransactions of the Illinois Society for\n\nAll contributions by this leading American authority should be consulted.\n\n215. Lindley : \"A Preliminary Study of Some of the Motor Phenomena of Mental Effort,\"\nAmerican Journal of Psychology, July, 1896, Vol. VII, pp. 491-517.\n216. Lion: Keimgehalt und die Desinfection benutzter Biicher. Wiirzburg, 1895. Pp217. Loewenthal\n: GrundzUge einer Hygiene des Unterrichts. Wiesbaden, 1887. Pp.\n32.\n152.\n218. Lombard : \"Some of the Influences Which Affect the Power of Voluntary Muscular\nConirsiCiions,''' Journal of Physiology, Vol. XIII, Nos. I and 3, pp. 1-58.\n219. Luckey : \"Comparative Observations on the Indirect Color Range of Children\nAdults, and Adults Trained \\n Color,\" American Journal of Psychology, ]^n., 1 895,\nVol. VI, pp. 489-504.\n220. Luehr : \"Causes and Prevention of Lateral Curvature of the Spine, and Nearsightedness,\" Mind and Body, Sept., 1894.\n221. Lukens : \"Language Defects,\" North Western Monthly, July, 1897, pp. 39-44.\n222. MacDonald : Abnormal Man.\nWashington, D. C, 1893.\nPp- 445Contains an extended bibliography.\n\n223. Mackenzie : The Hygiene of the Vocal Organs.\nLondon, 1886.\nPp. 223.\n224. Malling-Hansen : Perioden im Gewicht der Kinder und in der Sonnenwarme,\nKopenhagen, 1886.\nPp. 268.\n225. Manac^ine, de : Sleep : Its Physiology, Pathology, Hygiene, and Psychology. New\nYork, 1897.\nPp. 341.\nA valuable book.\n\nContains extended bibliographies.\n\n226. Mangenot : L'lnspection hygi^nique et m^dicale des ecoles.\nParis, 1887.\nPp. 64.\n227.\nL'examen individuel et le bulletin sanitaire des ^coliers.\nParis, 1894.\n228. Mantegazza : Die Hygiene der Sinne.\nKonigsberg.\nPp. 123,\n229. Marble : Sanitary Conditions for Schoolhouses. Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C, 1891.\nSpecially valuable in regard to heating and ventilation.\n\n230. Marro : La puberta studiata' nell' uome e nella donna in rapporto all' antropologia,\nalia psichiatria, alia pedagogia ed alia sociologia.\nTorino, 189S.\nPp. 507.\nAn extended study of the psychology and pedagogy of adolescence.\nChamberlain in the Pedagof^cal Seminary, Vol. VI.\n\n231. Mercier: The Nervous System and the Mind.\n\nSee a review of the same by Dr.\n\nLondon, 1888.\n\nPp. 374.\n\n232. Meyer, Adolf : \"On the Observation of Mental Abnormalities in School Children,\"\nChild-Study Monthly, May, 1895, Vol. I, pp. I-I2.\n233. Meyer, Bertha : The Child Physically and Mentally. Advice of a Mother according to the Teaching and Experience of Hygienic Science. Translated by F.\nSalomon.\nNew York, M. L. Holbrook & Co., 1893.\nPp. 153.\n234. Meyer, Hermann : \" Die Mechanik des Sitzens mit Rucksicht auf die Schulbankfrage,\" Virchow's Archiv, Band XXXVIII, Heft I, 1867.\n235. Meyrich : \" Die Staubplage in der Schule und Vorschlage zu ihrer Beseitigung,\"\nZeitschrift fur Schulgesundheitspflege, 1894, Nos. 8 and 9, pp. 452-73.\n236.\nVersuch einer Losung der Uberburdungsfrage durch das physiologische\nExperiment.\nLeipzig, 1897.\n237. Minot : Human Embryology.\nNew York, 1892.\nPp.815.\n238. Mitchell : Wear and Tear ; or. Hints for theJOverworked. Fifth edition. Philadelphia, 1887. Pp. 76.\n239. Moll : Hypnotism. Fourth edition, revised and enlarged. Contemporary Science\nSeries.\nLondon and New York, 1897.\nPp. 448.\n\n"}
{"page": 526, "printed_page": null, "text": "5i6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\n240. Monroe : Bibliography of Education. International Education Series, Vol. XLII,\nNew York, 1897.\nPp. 202.\nContains sections on school hygiene and physical education.\n\n241.\n\nFeeble-minded Children in the Public School.\nAn address read before the\nAssociation of Medical Officers of American Institutions for Idiotic and Feebleminded Persons, at Fort Wayne, Ind., May, 1894, and reprinted from the proceedings of the association.\nWestfield, Mass., 1897.\nPp. 11.\n\n242. Moore : \" Ventilation of School Buildings in Massachusetts,\" Seventh Annual\nConvention of the International Association of Factory Inspectors of North America,\nHeld at Chicago, 1893 ; Cleveland, O., pp. 36-43.\n243.\n\"School\nHouses in Massachusetts,\"\nEleventh Annual\nConvention of the\nInternational Association of Factory Inspectors, Held at Detroit, Mich,, 1897, PP57-62.\n244. Morgenthaler\net al.: Der Schulgarten. Plane mit erlauterndem Text. Preisgekronte Arbeiten herausgegeben vom schweizerischen landwirtschaftlichen Verein.\nZurich,\nPp. 134.\n245. Morris: The Book of Health.\nLondon, Paris, and New York, 1884.\nPp. 11, 1079,\n246. Morrison, Gilbert B,: The Ventilation and Warming of School Buildings, New\nYork, 1887,\n247,\n\n\" Location and Sanitation of School Buildings,\" North Western Monthly, July,\n1897, pp. 71-5248. Morrison, W. D.: Juvenile Offenders.\nNew York, 1897.\nPp- S'?249. Mosher : \" Habitual Postures of School Children,\" Educational Review, New\nYork, Nov., 1892, pp. 339-49.\n250. Mosso : Die Ermiidung.\nLeipzig, 1892.\nPp. 333,\n251. Mulford : \"The Throat of the Child,\" Educational Review, New York, March,\n1897, Vol. XIII, pp. 261-72.\n252. Miiller : Spinal Curvature and Awkward Deportment. Their Causes and Prevention in Children.\nLondon, 1894.\nPp, 8, 88.\n253. Newsholme : School Hygiene : the Laws of Health in Relation to School Life.\nBoston, 1895.\nPp. 150.\n254. Notter and Firth : Theory and Practice of Hygiene. Philadelphia, 1896. Pp.1049.\nA standard handbook,\n\n^\n\n255. Oldright : School Hygiene, Second Annual Report of Ontario Provincial Board\nof Health,\nToronto, 1884.\n256. Oppenheim : The Development of the Child.\nNew York, 1898.\nPp. 296.\n257. O'Shea: \"Physical Training in the Public Schools,\" Atlantic Monthly, Feb., 1895,\nVol. LXXV, pp. 143-6.\n258.\n\"When Character is Formed,\" Popular Science Monthly, Sept., 1897, Vol. LI,\n\npp. 648-62.\n259. Ovio : I libri a stampa rispetto all' igiene dell' occhio.\n1893.\n260. Packard : \" Schoolroom Air ; with Directions for Examining It to Determine the\nDegree of Its Vitiation and the Amount of Ventilation Required,\" Special Report\nof the Bureau of Education, Washington, 1886, Part II, pp. 349-92.\n261. Parkes : Manual of Practical Hygiene. Edited by North. Eighth edition. Philadelphia, 1891. Pp. 769,\n262. Pattin : The Ritual of Health.\nLondon, 1896.\nPp. 125.\n263. Paulsen : \" Die Singstimme der Kinder,\" P/liiger's Archiv, Band LXI, pp. 407-26.\n264. Peckham : \" The Growth of Children,\" Report of Wisconsin Board of Health, 1881 ;\nMadison, 1882, Vol, VI, pp. 28-73,\n265. Penniman : \"The Criminal Crowding of Public Schools,\" /7>r«w, May, 1895, pp,\n289-95.\n266. Perry, G. B,: Report on Schoolhouses,\n\nEssex County Teachers' Association, 1833.\n\n"}
{"page": 527, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nBIBLIOGRAPHY\n\nOF SCHOOL\n\nHYGIENE\n\n517\n\n267. Perry, W. S.: \"The Hygiene of Study,\" Tenth Annual Report of State Board of\nMichigan, Lansing, 1883.\n268. Pfliiger : Sehproben und Sehpriifung.\nOptotypi Pfluger.\nLeipzig, 1896.\n269.\n\nSehproben-Optotypi und ihre Verwendung zur Prufung der Sehscharfe der\nSchiller durch die Lehrerschaft, sowie zur Messung des zum Unterrichte notwendigen Beleuchtungsminimums der Schulzimmer.\nLeipzig, 1896.\nPp.36.\n270. Pierce : A List of the Bibliographies of Gymnastics and Other Topics Related to\nPhysical Education. Boston, 1897. Pp. 7. Reprint from American Physical\nEducation Review, Vol. I.\n271. Pistor : Deutsches Gesundheitswesen. Festschrift zum Zehnten intemationalen\nmedizinischen Kongress. Berlin, 1890.\nBerlin, 1890.\n272. Porter : \" The Physical Basis of Precocity and Dullness,\" Transactions of the\nAcademy of Science of St. Louis, Vol. VI, No. 7, pp. 161-81.\nReprint, 1893.\n273.\n\" The Relation between the Growth of Children and Their Deviation from\nthe Physical Type of Their Sex and Age,\" Transactions of the Academy of Science\nof St. Louis, Nov., 1893, Vol. VI, No. 10, pp. 233-50.\n274.\nOn the Application to Individual School Children of the Means Derived\nfrom Anthropological Measurements by the Generalizing Method.\nQuarterly Publications ofthe American Statistical Association.\nBoston, Dec, 1893.\n275. Prudden : The Story of the Bacteria.\nNew York, 1889.\nPp.143.\nDust and Its Dangers.\nNew York, 1890.\nPp. iii.\n276. Putnam : The Open Fireplace in All Ages.\nBoston, 1881.\n277. Quinby et al.: Ventilation of School Houses in Worcester. Report of School\nCommittee, Nov., 1888 ; Nov., 1889.\nPp. 24.\n278. Raehlmann : \" Physiologisch-psychologische Studien iiber die Entwickelung der\nGesichtswahrnehmungen bei Kindern und bei operierten Blindgeborenen,\" Zeitschriftfiir Psychologieund Physiologie der Sinnesorgane, Vol. II (1891), pp. S3~96'\n279. Randall : The Hygienic and Scientific Value of Examinations of the Eyes and\nEars of School Children.\nChicago, 1895.\nPp- 8.\n280.\nReport of Committee on Examination and Care of Eyes during School Life.\nInstruction of Teachers and School Authorities and Legal Provisions.\nChicago,\n1895.\nPp.7.\n281. Rankin : Hygiene of Childhood.\nNew York, 1890.\nPp. 140.\n282. Reade : Study and Stimulants.\nManchester, England, 1883.\nPp.233.\n283. Rein: Encyklopadisches Handbuch der Padagogik.\nLangensalza, 1895.\nContains articles on school hygiene and related subjects by such men asJZiehen,iTrueper, Janice, and\nothers.\n\n284. Rembold: Schulgesundheitspflege.\n\nTubingen.\n\nPp.191.\n\n285. Repossi : L'igiene scolastica.\n2a edizione.\nMilano, 1889.\nPp. 4, 243.\n286. Riccardi : Anthropologia e pedagogia.\nModena, 1892.\nPp. 172.\n287. Richards and Talbot : Food as a Factor in Student Life. Chicago, 1894. Pp. 26.\n288. Richards: Municipal Responsibility for Healthy School Houses. Concord, 1897.\nPp.7.\n289.\n\n\"Foods — Comparative Value and Diet,\" North Western Afonth/y, July, 1897,\npp. 45-51.\n290. Richardson: Hygeia, a City of Health.\nLondon, 1876.\nPp.47.\nAn interesting study of an ideal.\n\n291.\n292.\n\nThe Common Health.\nLondon, 1887.\nPp. 336.\nNational Health : a Review of the Works of Sir Edwin Chadwick.\n1890.\nPp. 320.\n\nLondon,\n\n293. Richter : \" Unterricht und geistige Ermiidung. Eine schulmannische Wiirdigung\nder Schrift Kraepelins ' Ueber geistige Arbeit,' \" Lehrproben und Lehrgdnge,\nOct., 1895, 45. Heft, pp. 1-37.\n\n"}
{"page": 528, "printed_page": null, "text": "5^8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n294. Rietschel : Luftung und Heizung.\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nBerlin, 1886.\n\n[Nationa\n\nPp. 7.\n\nReports scientific tests of the heating and ventilation in a number of Berlin schoolhouses.\n\n295. Risley : Weak Eyes in the Public Schools of Philadelphia.\n296.\n\nPhiladelphia, 1881.\n\n\" Defective Vision in School Children,\" Educational Review y\"^^^ \\ oxV, h^\\\\\\,\n1892, Vol. Ill, pp. 348-54.\n\n297. Rivers und Kraepelin : \" Ueber Ermiidung und^ Erholung,\" Psychologische\nArbeiten, I. Band, 4. Heft, pp. 627-78.\n298. Roberts: Manual of Anthropometry.\nLondon, 1878.\nPp. 54.\n299.\n\n\"The Medical Inspection of, and Physical Inspection in, Secondary Schools,\"\nRoyal Commission on Secondary Education, Vol. V, 1895, PP- 352-75.\nContains suggestions in regard to the proper amount of study in relation to the development of children in different grades of the school, amount of sleep required at different ages, and the like.\n\n300. Robson : School Architecture. Practical Information on the Planning, Designing.\nBuilding, and Furnishing of School-Houses.\nLondon, 1874.\nA standard English authority.\n\n301. Roth: The Elements of School Hygiene.\n\nLondon, 1886.\n\nContains an excellent bibliography of the older literature.\n\n302. Royce : \" Mental Defect and Disorder from the Teacher's Point of View,\" Educational Review, New York, Oct., Nov., Dec, 1893, Vol. VI, pp. 209-22, 322-31,\n449-63.\n303. Ryerson : \" Defective Vision in the Public Schools,\" Transactions of the Canadian\nInstitute, 1889-90, Toronto, 1891, Vol. I, pp. 26-7.\n304. Sachs : A Treatise on the Nervous Diseases of Children, for Physicians and Students. London, 1895.\nPp- 666.\n305. Sanford : A Course in Experimental Psychology. Boston, D. C. Heath & Co.,\n1897.\nPp. 449Contains detailed description of many tests which are of hygienic as well as psychological significance.\n\n306. Schaefer : Arbeitskraft und Schule.\n\n2. Auflage.\n\nLeipzig.\n\nPp. 56.\n\n307. Schenk : \" Zur Schulbankfrage,\" Zeitschrift fUr Schulgesundheitspflege, No. 10, pp\n529-54308. Schmidt : Die Staubschadigungen beim Hallenturnen und ihre Bekampfung. Leipzig, 1890.\n309. Schmidt-Monnard : \" Die chronische Kranklichkeit in unseren mittleren und\nhoheren Schulen,\" aus Mitteilungen des Zehnten internationalen medizinischen\nKongresses zu Moskau 1897. Also Zeitschrift fUr Schulgesundheitspflege, 1897,\nNos. II and 12, pp. 593-620, 666-85.\nAn important study.\n\n310. Schmidt-Rimpler : Schulkurzsichtigkeit und ihre Bekampfung.\nLeipzig, 1890.\n311. Schreber : Buch der Erziehung. 3. stark vermehrte Auflage. Leipzig, 1882. Pp.\n16, 246.\n312. Schubert : tjber Heftlage und Schriftrichtung. Hamburg und Leipzig, 1 890. Pp.28\n313.\n\n\" Die Steilschrift wahrend der letzten fUnf Jahre,\" Zeitschrift fUr Schulgesundheitspflege, No. 4, pp. 193-215.\n314. Schuschny : Nervositat der Schuljugend.\nJena, 1895.\nPp- 3i'\n\n315. Schuyten : \" Influence des variations de la temperature atmosph^rique sur I'attention\nvolontaire des ^l&ves. Recherches expdrimentales faites dans les ^coles primaires\nd'Anvers, 1895-96,\" Bulletin de I'Acad^mie Royale des Sciences, des Lettres et des\nBeaux-Arts de Belgique, Bruxelles, 1896, 3* sdrie. Vol. XXXII, pp. 315-36, with two\nplates.\n316. Scripture: \"Tests on School Children,\" Educational Review, New York, Jan.,\n1893, Vol. V, pp. 52-61.\n317. Scudder : Seating of Pupils in the Public Schools.\nBoston, 1892.\nPp. 20.\n318. Seaver : Anthropometry and Physical Examination. New Haven, Conn., 1896.\nPp. 200.\n\n"}
{"page": 529, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nBIBLIOGRAPHY\n\nOF SCHOOL\n\nHYGIENE\n\n519\n\n319. Seggel : \" Schreibhaltungsmessung,\" il/««fA^«^r »i^</i2i«wf^tf Wochenschrift, 1892,\nNo. 28.\n320.\n\n\" Zweiter Bericht iiber den Einfluss der Steil- und Schragschrift,\" Miinchener\nmedizinische Wochenschrift, 1893, No. \"15.\n321. Seguin : Idiocy and Its Treatment by the Physiological Method.\nNew York, 1870'\nPp. 457.\nThe classic book on the education of defectives.\n\n322.\n\nArchives of Medicine:\n\"The Psycho-Physiological Training of an Idiotic\nHand,\" Vol. II, pp. 149-56; \"The Psycho-Physiological Training of an Idiotic\nEye,\" Vol. IV, pp. 217-33.\n323. Shaw : \" Vertical Script and Proper Desks as Related to Education,\" Proceedings\nof the American Association for the Advancement of Physical Education, Tenth\n.\\nnual Meeting, April, 1895; Concord, N. H., 1896, pp. 110-23.\n324.\n\" Some Observations upon Teaching Children to Write,\" Child-Study Monthly,\nFeb., 1896, Vol. I, pp. 226-9.\n325.\n\"The Latest Improved Hygienic Desk,\" School Journal, May i, 1897.\n326. Shinn : \" Notes on the Development of a Child,\" University of California Studies,\nPart I, 1893 ; Part II, 1894.\nBerkeley, Cal.\n327. Shuttleworth : Mentally Deficient Children.\nLondon, 1895.\nPp. 140.\nA good inttoduction to the subject.\n\n328. Sidgwick : Health Statistics of Women Students of Cambridge and Oxford and\nof Their Sisters.\nCambridge, 1890.\nPp. 99.\n329. Sikorsky : \"Sur les effets de la lassitude provoqu^e par les travaux chez les enfants\nde I'age scolaire,\" Annales d'hygiine publique, II, 1879, pp. 458-64.\n330. Snell : Eyesight and School Life.\nBristol, 1895.\nPp. viii, 70.\n331. Solbrig: Die hygienischen Anforderungen an landliche Schulen. Frankfurt, 1895.\nPp. 103.\n332. Southard : The Modern Eye ; with an Analysis of 1,300 Errors of Refraction. San\nFrancisco, 1893.\nPp. 32.\n333. Steiger : \" Astigmatismus und Schule. Schulhygienischc Studie,\" Correspondenzblatt fiir Sch^veizer Aerzte, 1897, No. 10, Bern, 1897, pp. 289-98.\n334. Stevenson and Murphy : A Treatise on Hygiene and Public Health. Vol. I, pp. xii,\n1013 ; Vol. II, pp. 847.\nThe articles on \"Warming and Ventilation,\" by W. M. Shaw, and on \"Physical Education,\" by\nFrederick Trever, are worthy of special note.\n\n335. Stewart : A\nPp. 796.\n\nManual\n\nof Physiology,\n\nwith\n\nPractical\n\nExercises.\n\nLondon, 1896.\n\nA standard book.\n\n336. Stilling : Entstehung der Kurzsichtigkeit.\nWiesbaden, 1887.\nPp. 6, 216.\n337. Stocker : Die Augen der Schiiler und Schiilerinnen der Stadtschulen von Luzern.\nSeparatabdruck aus dem Jahresbericht iiber die Primar- und Sekundarschulen der\nStadt Luzern.\nSchuljahr 1895-96.\nPp.84.\n338. Stoneroad : Gymnastic Stories and Plays for Primary Schools. Boston, 1898.\nPp. 86.\n339. Striimpell : Die padagogische Pathologic.\nLeipzig, 1890.\nPp. 225.\n340. Sturtevant : Mechanical Draft.\nBoston, 1898.\nPp. 385.\n341. Sykes : Public Health Problems.\nLondon, 1892.\nPp.370.\n342. Tissi^ : \" La fatigue chez les d^biles nerveux ou fatigues,\" Revue scientifique,\nNov. 21, 28; Dec. 12, 1896.\n343. Tracy: The Psychology of Childhood.\nBoston, 1894.\nPp. 13, 167.\n344. Treitel : Die Hygiene der Sprache.\nBerlin, 1891.\nPp.24.\n345. Tuke : Dictionary of Psychological Medicine, giving the definitiqn, etymology,\nand synonyms of the terms used in medical psychology, with the symptoms, treatment, and pathology of insanity, and the law of lunacy in Great Britain and\n\n"}
{"page": 530, "printed_page": null, "text": "520\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nIreland. Edited by D. Hack Tuke, M.D.\n643-1477-\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nLondon, 1892. Two volumes, pp. 1-642,\n\nContains many articles on the pathological conditions of child life.\n\n346.\n347.\n348.\n349.\n350.\n\nUfer: Nervositat und Madchenerziehung.\nWiesbaden, 1890.\nPp.8, 104.\nUber Geistesstorungen in der Schule.\nWiesbaden, 189 1. Pp.50.\nUffelraann : Handbuch der Hygiene.\nWien und Leipzig, 1890.\nPp. 852.\nHandbuch der privaten und dffentlichen Hygiene des Kindes.\nPp. 221.\nManual of the Domestic Hygiene of the Child. New York, 1891.\nPp. 229.\nA translation by Harriot Ransom Milinowski of the most important part of the above, No. 349.\n\n351. Van Gehuchten : Anatomie du syst^me nerveux de I'homme. Deuxifeme Edition ;\navec 619 figures dans le texte. Louvain, Dieudonne, 1897.\nPp. 941.\n352. .Vannod : La fatigue intellectuelle et son influence sur la sensibility cutan^e\nGeneve, 1896.\nPp. 61.\n353. Vierdordt: \"Physiologic des Kindesalters,\" Gerhardt's Handbuch der Kinderkrankheiten, Bd. I, pp. 228-36.\n354. Wager and Herbert: Bad Air and Bad Health.\nEdinburgh, 1894.\nPp.*98.\n355. Waller: \"The Sense of Effort,\" Brain, 1891, pp. 179 seq.\n356. Warner: The Children; How to Study Them.\nLondon, 1887.\n357.\n\n\"An Inquiry as to the Physical and Mental Condition of School Children.\"\nReprint from the British Medical Journal, M.2iTch 12-19, 1892. British Medical\nAssociation, London, 1892.\nPp. 14.\n\nReport on the Scientific Study of the Mental and Physical Conditions of Childhood. With Particular Reference to Children of Defective Constitution, and with\nRecommendations as to Education and Training. (The report is based upon the\nexamination of 50,000 children seen in 1888-91, and of another 50,000 seen in\n1892-94.)\nLondon, 1895.\nPp- ii7358.\nThe Study of Children and Their School Training. New York, 1897. Pp.264.\nA convenient resume of the author's views.\n\n359. Wehmer : Grundriss der Schulgesundheitspflege.\nBerlin, 1895.\nPp. 8, 159.\n360. Weismann : Essays upon Heredity and Kindred Biological Problems. Oxford,\n1889.\nPp.455361. Wells ^/ a/.: Lectures on School Hygiene.\nBoston, 1886.\nPp.201.\nImportant papers by specialists.\n\n362. West: \"Eye Tests on Children,\" American Journal of Psychology, Aug., 1892,\nVol. IV, pp. 595-6.\n363.\n\" Worcester School Children ; the Growth of Body, Head, and Face,\" Science,\nVol. XXI, Jan. 6, 1893, PP- 2-4.\n364.\n\" The Anthropometry of American School Children,\" Proceedings of the International Congress, Chicago, 1893.\n365.\n\n\"Anthropometrische\nUntersuchungen\niiber die Schulkinder in Worcester,\nMass.,\" Archiv filr Anthropologic, 1894, Vol. XXII, pp. 13-48.\n366.\n\"Observation of the Relation of Physical Development to Intellectual Ability\nMade on the School Children of Toronto, Canada,\" Science, new series, IV,\n1896, pp. 156-9.\n367. Weyl : Handbuch der Hygiene.\nTen volumes.\nVol.1.\nJena, 1893-96.\nThe best treatise on general hygiene, written by different specialists. Burgerstein and Netolitzky's\nHandbook of School Hygiene, mentioned above, forms Part I, Vol. VII.\n\n368. Whitaker : Anatomy of the Brain and Spinal Cord.\n\nEdinburgh, 1892.\n\nPp. 173.\n\n369. White: \"Ventilation,\" Proceedings of the Tenth Annual Cgnvention of the International Association of Factory Inspectors of North America, Toronto, Canada,\n1896.\n370. Whitelegge : Hygiene and Public Health.\nLondon, 1890.\nPp.531.\n371. Wiese : Verordnungen u. Gezetze fUr die hoheren Schulen in Preussen. i.\nAbtheilung.\n3. Ausgabe.\nBerlin, 1886.\nPp. 488.\n\n"}
{"page": 531, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nBIBLIOGRAPHY\n\nOF SCHOOL\n\nHYGIENE\n\n521\n\n372. Willet : Heating and Ventilation of Chicago Residences.\nChicago, 1893.\nPp- 34373. Wilson, Daniel : Left-Handedness.\nNew York, 1891.\nPp.213.\n374. Wilson, Louis N.: Bibliography of Child Study. Worcester, Mass., 1898. Pp. 49.\nG}ntains many titles relating to school hygiene.\n\n375. Wolfe : \" Defects of Sight,\" North Western Monthly, July, 1 897, pp. 35-9.\n376. Wolpert : Eine einfache Luftpriifungs-Methode auf Kohlensaure mit wissenschaftlicher Grundlage.\nLeipzig, 1892.\nPp. 123.\n377. Wood : Brain-Work and Over- Work. (American Health Primers.) Philadelphia,\n1880.\n378. Woodbridge: \"A Method of Heating and Ventilating Small School Houses.\" From\nJournal of the Association of Engineering Societies, Pp. 1 1 .\n379.\n\n\" Plans for Heating and Ventilating School Houses,\"\nSeventh Annual\nReport of the Maine State Board of Health, Augusta, 1892, pp. 315-85.\n380.\n\" Ventilation of School Buildings,\" Heating and Ventilation, Sept. and Oct.,\n1896, p. 12.\n381.\nA Report of the Hygienic Condition of the Public School Buildings of Philadelphia to the Women's Health Protective Association of Philadelphia, Pa. Philadelphia, 1897. Pp. 15.\nThe above are representative of a larger number of important papers by this expert,\n\n382. Worrell : \" Deafness among School Children,\" Tranactions of the Indiana State\nMedical Society, Thirty-third Annual Session, Indianapolis, Ind., 1883, pp. 25-33.\n383. Young : \" School Hygiene and School Houses,\" Seventh Annual Report of the Maine\nState Board of Health, Augusta, 1892, pp. 83-385.\nThe most comprehensive report yet made by any state board of health.\n\n11.\n\nVery valuable.\n\nJOURNALS\n\n384. American Journal of Psychology.\nEdited byG. S. Hall.\nWorcester, Mass.\n385. Lannee psychologique. Publide par M. Alfred Binet avec la collaboration de MM.\nH. Beaunis et Th. Ribot, Paris.\nEach volume contains an excellent bibliography of the psychological publications of the year.\nof these are important contributions to hygiene.\n\nMany\n\n386. American Physical Education Review. Published by the American Association for\nthe Advancement of Physical Education.\nBoston, Mass.\n387. Archiv fiir Hygiene.\nHerausgegeben von H. Buchner f/a/. MUnchen und Leipzig.\n388. Beitrdge zur pddagogischen Pathologic.\nRedigiert von Arno Fuchs. Heft i. Die\nUnruhe, 1897, pp. 75.\n389. Child-Study Monthly.\nEdited by Krohn and Bayliss.\nChicago.\n390. Deutsche Vierteljahrsschrift fiir offentliche Gesundheitspflege. Organ des Deutschen\nVerein fiir offentliche Gesundheitspflege. Redigiert von Dr. A. Spiess und Dr. M.\nPistor.\nBraunschweig.\n391. Educational Review.\nEdited by N. M. Butler.\nNew York.\nContains many papers upon school hygiene.\n\n392. Index Medicus. A monthly classified record of the current medical literature of the\nworld. Edited by Dr. John S. Billings and Dr. Robert Fletcher. Published by the\neditors, Washington, D. C, monthly.\nVol. I issued in 1879.\n393. Kinderfehler.\nHerausgegeben von J. Triiper.\nLangensalza.\nBegun in 1896.\n394. Monatsschrift fiir die gesamte Sprachheilkunde. Herausgegeben von A. und H.\nGutzmann.\nBerlin.\n395. North Western Monthly.\n\nEdited by J. H. Miller.\n\nLincoln, Neb.\n\nEspecially the July number, 1897.\n\n396. Pedagogical Seminary.\nEdited by G. S. Hall.\nWorcester, Mass.\n397. Psychological Review.\nEdited by Baldwin and Cattell.\nNew York.\n398. Psychologische Arbeiten. Redigiert von Dr. Emil Kraepelin. Leipzig. I. Band, 1895.\nContains important papers upon fatigue.\n\n"}
{"page": 532, "printed_page": null, "text": "522\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\n399. Revue scientifique.\nDirecteur, Charles Richet.\nParis.\n400. Sammlung von Abhandlungen aus dem Gebiete der pddagogischen Psychologie und\nPhysiologie.\nHerausgegeben von H. Schiller und Th. Ziehen.\nBerlin.\nContains important papers on fatigue, the period of study, etc.\n\n401. The Sanitary Inspector. The official bulletin of the State Board of Health of\nMaine.\nA. G. Young, M.D., editor.\nAugusta, Me.\n402. Studies from the Yale Psychological Laboratory. Edited^by E. W. Scripture, Yale\nUniversity, New Haven, Conn. Vol. I, 1893, PP- 100.\n403. Teachers' Sanitary Bulletin.\nLansing, Mich.\nVol. I, 1898.\n404. Transactions of the Illinois Society for Child-Study. Edited by C. H. Thurber.\nChicago.\n405. University of lowa^ Studies in Psychology. Edited by G. T. W. Patrick and J.\nAllen Gilbert. Published annually. The University of Iowa, Iowa City, la. Vol. I,\n1897, pp. 92.\n406. Zeitschrift fiir Schulgesundheitspflege. Edited bj Kotelmann from 1888-98 ; since\nthat time by Erismann.\nHamburg.\nThe one periodical devoted especially to school hygiene.\n\nVery valuable.\n\nIn addition to the above, such periodicals as Heating and Ventilation, the\nEngineering Record, the Sanitarian, etc., and the standard medical periodicals, as\nwell as the archives devoted to anthropology, psychology, physiology, and general\nhygiene, should be consulted.\nIII.\n\nREPORTS,\n\nETC.\n\n407. American Institute of Instruction : Lectures, Discussions, etc. Vol. I. Boston,\n1831.\n408. American Public Health Association : Public Health Reports and Papers. Vol. I.\nConcord, N. H., 1875.\n409. The Buffalo School Association : Report on the Sanitary Condition of the Public\nSchools of Buffalo, Made by the Visiting Committee of the Association, March,\n1898. Pp. 72.\n410. Connecticut School Document, No. 12, 1896 : School Buildings and Ventilation.\nPp. 95411. The Heating and Ventilation of the Buildings of the Massachusetts Institute of\nTechnology.\n1891. Pp. 29.\n412. Index Catalogue of the Library of the Surgeon-General's Office, United States Army.\nGovernment Printing Office, Washington, D. C. Vols. I-XVI, 1880-95. New\nseries, Vols. I-II, 1896-97.\n413. International Health Exhibition Literature.\nVol. XIII.\nLondon, 1884.\nContains a number of articles relating to school hygiene by experts.\n\n414. Jahrbuch fiir Jugend und Volksspiele. Redigiert von Schenckendorff und\nSchmidt.\nLeipzig.\nBegun in 1892.\n415. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London.\nLondon.\n416. Physical Training Conference. Boston, Nov., 1889. Papers by Drs. Harris, Hartwell, and others.\nPp. 135.\n417. Proceedings of the National Educational Association, Child-Study Department,\n1894, pp. 995-1023; 1895, pp. 891-943; 1896, pp. 836-92; 1897, pp. 278-97,\n585-603, 825-69.\nAlso special papers on school hygiene.\n418. Public School Buildings in New York City. Their Condition as Shown in Official\nReports.\nPublications of Good Government Club \" E,\" No. 7. Pp. 23.\n419. Reports of the Commissioner of Education. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.\nThe report for the year 1892-93 (Vol. I, pp. 357-91) contains an article on child-study, with a bibliography of 232 titles, many of which should be consulted.\n\n"}
{"page": 533, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nSCHOOL\n\nARCHITECTURE\n\n523\n\n420. \" Report of the Committee on Color Vision,\" Proceedings of the Royal Society of\nLondon, 1892, Vol. LI, pp. 281-396; with two colored plates.\n421. A Report on the Hygienic Condition of 163 Public School Buildings of Philadelphia,\nMade by the School House Committee of the Women's Health Protective Association of Philadelphia, Pa.\n1897.\nPp. 10.\n422. Report of the Tenth Annual Meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Physical Education, Held at Teachers' College, New York, April 25, 26,\nand 27, 1895.\nPp. 4, 228.\n423. Report on the Heating and Ventilation of the Senate Wing of the United States\nCapitol.\nWashington, D. C, 1895.\nPp. 21.\n424. Report on the Mental and Physical Defects of Children. British Association for\nthe Advancement of Science.\nToronto, 1897.\nPp. 13.\n425. Reports of state boards of health. Especially of Massachusetts and Michigan\nBoards of Health, contributions by Bowditch, Lincoln, et al.\n426. Reports of the meetings and discussions of the International Congresses of Hygiene\nand Demography.\nEspecially of the London Congress, Aug. 10-17, 1891.\n427. Sanitation of School-Houses. Report of the Expert Committee. Boston, 1896\nPp. 31.\n428. School Buildings and the Hygiene of Public Schools. Second Annual Report of\nState Board of Health of New York.\nAlbany, 1882.\n429. School Buildings and Ventilation. Connecticut School Document, No. 12, 1896.\nPp. 95.\n430. School-Houses and Public Buildings. Drawings on exhibition at the World's\nColumbian Exposition illustrating and describing methods of heating and\nventilation and protection from fire. As approved and adopted by the State\nDepartment of Factories and Public Buildings of Massachusetts. Rufus H. Wade,\nchief inspector.\nPp. 33.\n431. School Hygiene : What It should Embrace, and What Can be Done. Second\nAnnual Report of the Ontario Provincial Board of Health.\nToronto, 1884.\n432. \" Schools, Sanitary Improvement in,\" Report of Proceedings of the Department of\nHealth of the American Social Science Association, pp. 65-70, in Fourth Annual\nReport of State Board of Health of Michigan.\nLansing, 1876.\n433. Transactions of the Sanitary Institute.\nLondon.\n434. Transactions of the Social Science Association.\nLondon, 1874.\n435. Verhandlungen des Internationalen Kongresses fiir Ferienkolonien und verwandte\nBestrebungen der Kinderhygiene in Zurich am 13. und 14. August 1888. Hamburg\n1889.\nPp. 115.\n436. Warming and Ventilating of the High School Building. Lynn, Mass., 1893.\nPp. 13.\n\nSCHOOL\nARCHITECTURE— HEATING,\nVENTILATION,\nLIGHTING, AND SANITARY ARRANGEMENTS\nBY F. LOUIS SOLDAN, SUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF SCHOOLS, ST. LOUIS, MO.\n\n[abstract]\n\nIt is difficult to speak of the subject of heating in a general way,\nbecause the method of warming a school building must necessarily differ\n\n"}
{"page": 534, "printed_page": null, "text": "524\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nwith its size, its climatic location, and the means at the disposal of the\nboard of education that builds it. The modes of heating — by stoves,\nfurnace, water, or steam — depend on the size and condition of the school.\nA few general principles may be stated, but they are necessarily commonplace. Nevertheless, they deserve reiteration. Leaving heating by\nindirect radiation aside, all heating of schoolrooms is done by the\nmedium of the air, no matter what the heating surface is from which the\nair receives its warmth, whether it is a stove or a steam coil. The first\nrequirement to be made on the heating apparatus is that it shall not emit\nsmoke or gas to contaminate the air.\nAnother demand to be made is that the temperature of the schoolroom shall be fairly even. This cannot be accomplished by a heating\napparatus whose heating surface is so small that it must be overheated in\norder to raise the air of the room to the temperature required. With the\nincrease in the temperature of the heated air increases the thermal difference between the colder stratum of air, in which the feet of the children\nrest, and the warmer stratum of the level of their heads.\nSuperheated surfaces contaminate the air on account of the combustion of particles of organic dust that float in the atmosphere. The products of this combustion are irritating to eyes, palate, and throat, and\nmake the air of the room unwholesome.\n\nSCHOOL ARCHITECTURE-- HEATING,\nVENTILATION,\nLIGHTING, AND SANITARY ARRANGEMENTS\nBY D. H. BERGEY,\n\nM.D., FIRST ASSISTANT, LABORATORY\nUNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA\n\nOF HYGIENE,\n\nSite, or location, with reference to drainage capacity of the soil. — In\nschool architecture a question of primary importance, the consideration of\nwhich is frequently neglected, is that of location with regard to the nature\nof the soil and its drainage capacity. Satisfactory sanitary arrangements\ncan rarely be secured in any building, unless the site of the building is\ncarefully selected with regard to the drainage capacity of the soil. The\nsoil structure as regards the preponderance of definite-sized grains, coarse\nor fine, influences the drainage capacity, and consequently the healthfulness of the site. The amount of slope and the proximity of the streams,\neither surface or underground, also influence the character of the soil.\nFor these reasons it is of primary importance that the site selected for a\nschool building shall be of such a nature as to afford the very best\nfacilities for drainage, not only for refuse and excreta collected in the\nbuilding, but for surface and rain\n\nwater flowing over the soil.\n\nWhen-\n\n"}
{"page": 535, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nSCHOOL\n\nARCHITECTURE\n\n525\n\never the soil of the site is not perfectly dry, it should be first underdrained.\nParkes states that the conditions which insure healthy habitations are :\n1. A site that is dry and not \"malarious, and an aspect which gives\nlight and cheerfulness.\n2. A pure supply and proper removal of water, by means of which\nperfect cleanliness of all parts of the house- can be secured.\n3. A system of immediate and perfect sewage removal, which renders\nit impossible that the air or water shall be contaminated from excreta.\n4. A system of ventilation which carries off all respiratory impurities.\n5. A condition of house construction which insures perfect dryness of\nthe foundation, walls, and roof.\nStructure of walls. — Having selected a proper site for the building,\nthe nature of the building is of considerable importance. The building\nitself should be detached so as to obtain an abundant supply of fresh air\nand the greatest amount of light. The character of the materials composing the walls and the thickness of the walls, the number of layers\ncomposing them, all have an important influence on the character of the\nbuilding.\nCubic space and floor space : (a) Cubic space. — From calculations made\nby Professor Parkes and Dr. de Chaumont, the amount of air required for\neach adult per hour, in order to maintain a certain degree of purity in\nthe atmosphere, is 3,000 cubic feet. The respiratory impurity added to\nthe air will, of course, be less with children than adults ; consequently,\nthe amount of air required to maintain the standard of purity will be less.\nTho children evolve less CO 2 in a given time than adults, yet relatively for their body weight they expire more. In fixing a standard for\nschools, the age of the children ought also to be considered ; the average\namount of air required being about 2,000 cubic feet per hour. Parkes\nsays it is highly desirable that some general agreement should be come\nto as to the amount of air necessary, even if admitted that the desired\namount cannot always be obtained. If we adopt the following amounts\nof CO2 as being evolved during repose, we shall not be far from the\nprobable truth :\nAdult males\n\n(say 160 lbs. weight), 0.72 of a cubic foot\n\nAdult females ( \" 120 \"\n\"\nChildren\n(\"\n86 \"\n\"\nAverage of a mixed community,\n\n), .6\n), .4\n.6\n\n\"\n\"\n\"\n\n\"\n\"\n\"\n\n\"\n\"\n\"\n\nThe amount of fresh air that must be supplied in order to prevent the\nimpurity due to products of respiration, exceeding a particular limit, is\nmeasured by the quantity of CO^ present in excess over that in external\nair, according to either of the standards in use, and may be calculated\nfrom the formula (f/r = ^, where <?= amount of COj expired in cubic\nfeet per head per hour j r = admissible limit of COj due to respiratory\n\n"}
{"page": 536, "printed_page": null, "text": "526\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nimpurity, stated per cubic\ncubic feet.\n\n[Nationa\n\nfoot; ^= delivery of fresh air per head in\n\nUnder these conditions the amount\nhealth during repose ought to be :\nFor adult males,\nFor adult females,\nFor children,\nFor a mixed community,\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nof fresh air to be supplied in\n\n3,6oo cu. ft. per head per hour= 102'^\"\"\n3,000\n\"\n\"\n\"\n\"\n\" = 85 «=™\n2,000\n\"\n\"\n\"\n\"\n\" = 57 =™\n3,000\n\"\n\"\n\"\n\"\n\" = 85\"^\"\n\nThe law of Massachusetts requires that each occupant of the room\nreceive a quota of 30 cubic feet of air per minute. If this is taken as the\nbasis for the minimum amount of air required by each child, and we\nrequire further that the air be changed but three times each hour, then\nthe minimum amount of cubic space allowable for each child is 600 cubic\nfeet. This is slightly lower than the theoretical amount, as shown by the\ncalculations of Parkes, but it is far in excess of the amount of space usually supplied in our common schools.\nWhen the air of a room is changed more frequently than three times\nan hour, there is always more or less draft in some portions of the\nroom ; and for this reason the minimum amount of space allowed should\nbe 600 cubic feet. Even with this amount of cubic space it is impossible\nto keep the air of rooms of the same purity as outside air, owing to the\ngases given off during respiration. For this reason a certain amount of\nrespiratory impurity, as it is called, is permissible in well-ventilated\nrooms. With the outside air containing four parts in 10,000 of carbonic\nacid, the additional amount permissible as coming from respiration is two\nparts in 10,000, making a total amount of carbonic acid in the room air\nof six parts in 10,000. It should be our aim in the ventilation of rooms\nto maintain the respiratory impurity at this low standard, and this it is\npossible to do if the initial cubic space is sufficient — say 600 cubic feet —\nand we have reliable mechanical means for introducing the requisite\namount of fresh air each hour. If the cubic space is less, or the arrangements for the introduction of fresh air are imperfect, it is impossible to\nhave perfect ventilation and pure air. It is, therefore, merely a matter of\nchoice on our part whether we will elect to have efficient ventilation or\nnot. It can be obtained by making the necessary expenditure. Without\nthis it is impossible to obtain it.\n{b) Floor space. — Each child should \"have a floor space of from 46\nto 50 square feet. This amount of floor space, when the height of\nthe room is 12 to 13 feet, will give each child a minimum cubic space of\n600 cubic feet. The amount of floor space is an important factor, inasmuch as it is brought into relation with the height of the room.\nRelation of window space to cubic space. — In fixing the height of\nstories, when not governed by the amount to be expended, the height of\nthe basement should\nbe 9 feet 6 inches to 10 feet. The first story\n\n"}
{"page": 537, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nSCHOOL\n\nARCHITECTURE\n\n527\n\nshould be 13 and the second story 12 feet in height. Light in\nrooms of the second story is always superior to that of the first : consequently, the increased height of the first story. There is also usually an\nincrease of glass surface provided for the first story to equalize the difference in light. The window heads should be finished to the top, so that\nno shadow can be thrown on the ceilings. The sills of windows should\nbe 3 feet 4 inches from the floor. The proportion of light to floor\nof class-rooms should never be less than i square foot of glass surface\nto 6 square feet of floor surface, for rooms 38 feet wide, lighted from one\nside only. Within the limits of a city, where the adjoining buildings\nare about 20 feet from the exterior walls, this proportion should be\nincreased to i to 5.\nLighting. — The lighting of school buildings is a matter of very great\nimportance. The windows should never be in the front of the room :\nonly at the sides and rear. It is preferable to have them on the left side\nof the room, so as to have the light falling over the left shoulder of the\npupil. The windows should be provided with shades or blinds, so that\ndirect sunlight can be excluded as required. The amount of window\nsurface should be about one-fifth of the floor space.\nThe authorities differ regarding the width of class-rooms and the\nquality of light. One says the width of rooms should equal two and a\nhalf times the top of windows from the top of desks. This would give\nabout 26 feet width for a 13-feet story, and 24 feet for a 12-feet story.\nWhen there are no limitations, the nearer this rule is adhered to, the\nbetter the result.\nAs the sense of sight is the chief medium of education, it is hardly\npossible to overestimate the importance and necessity for carefully observing the management of light in schoolrooms. It has been positively\nestablished by careful and extensive statistics that short sight is most frequently, ifnot exclusively, developed during school life. This is due\npartly to the fact that the eye during this period of growth is more liable\nto change in form, and partly to the fact that children have much stronger\npower of accommodation than adults, and therefore hold objects more\nclosely to the eye. The book or paper should never be closer to the eye\nthan ten inches. If there is short sight enough to prevent the letters\nfrom being distinct at this distance, it is better to wear glasses in the\nstudy room. In' erecting public schools it involves a little extra expense\nto provide windows of sufficient size. Architectural beauty ought to be a\nsecondary consideration where such grave practical interests are involved.\nDr. Cohen maintains that a schoolroom cannot have too much light, and\nrecommends the very large proportion of one square foot window glass\nfor every square foot of floor, and that less than about one-half of this\nproportion should never in any case be allowed. The arrangement that\nMr. Eibereich advocates is to have the class-rooms of oblong shape, the\n\n"}
{"page": 538, "printed_page": null, "text": "528\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nwindows being on one of the long sides and the desks arranged parallel\nto the short walls, so that the light falls from the left side.\nThe position of blackboards. — The blackboards should be on the inner\nwall of the room, where the greatest amount of light will fall upon them,\nand they should be of a dull black color. The principal cause of defective eyesight in school children is no doubt traceable to improper lighting of the room, which may be either excessive light or deficient light, or\nlight coming from the wrong direction. The position of the blackboards\nand their frequent use for copying exercises, while the child is at its desk,\nrequire rapid changes in the accommodation, which is also a factor in\nproducing defective eyesight. Another factor, independent of the\narrangement of the schoolroom, is the use of books printed with defective type or with too small a type.\nCorridors, cloakrooms, and wardrobes. — The corridors should be without obstruction, and never less than eight feet, preferably ten feet, wide.\nThe stairways should be six feet wide, and each flight should be broken\nwith a landing. These stairs should be as near to the exit as possible,\nand equally placed at each end of the building. The walls should be of\nbrick, and finished in enameled brick or enameled paint.\nAs contagion is most likely to occur from garments, which, if porous,\nabsorb and transport the gases, bacteria, etc., it is necessary to have two\nwardrobes properly arranged on each floor, one for each sex, if appropriation permits. The latest improved wardrobes, set up in separate\nrooms or in the corridors, either in the basement or on each story, are\nmade with separate stalls of channel iron. At the bottom is a shelf for\nrubbers, two rings and cups for umbrellas, with hangings on each side.\nThe best place for wardrobes is in each corridor, provided it is wide\nenough. Wardrobes seem to be the most difficult of school sanitation,\nthere being many advantages in the open method of placing them in\nwide corridors or in the basement, unless an appropriation be large\nenough for special rooms, with thoro circulation of fresh air to be\nprovided. The advantage of having them in the corridors is that the\nteacher in command of that floor maintains the discipline, and there will\nbe no traveling up and down to the basement.\nVentilation. — The ventilation of buildingsjs accomplished by what is\nknown as natural ventilation, or by artificial ventilation. Natural ventilation isdependent entirely upon the forces operating naturally, such as\nthe influence of differences in temperature between inside and outside\nair, the action of the wind, etc. Artificial ventilation is accomplished by\nwhat is known as the vacuum method, or the plenum method, or it may\nbe a combination of these. With regard to the introduction of fresh air,\nprobably the most satisfactory arrangement for a school building is that\nby means of indirect heating, where the air required for ventilation is\nbrought in at the desired temperature, thus maintaining the temperature\n\n"}
{"page": 539, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nSCHOOL\n\nARCHITECTURE\n\n529\n\nof the room, while the purity of the atmosphere is secured at the same\ntime.\nAs to the best method to introduce the requisite amount of air into\nschool buildings, numerous systems of ventilation and heating are in\nuse, several of which will give satisfactory results, if properly constructed.\nIf the building contains as many as eight or ten rooms, and is two or\nthree stories in height, it is impossible to ventilate it satisfactorily without\nthe introduction of fans to assist in either propelling the incoming air, or\nextracting the foul air of the rooms. It is a common thing to have one\nof these blowers in the shaft thru which fresh air, already heated by\npassing over steam coils, makes its entrance into the room to be warmed\nand ventilated. These shafts are usually supplied with a by-pass valve,\nwhich is under the control of a thermostat, so that the supply Of air is\nkept at a definite temperature automatically. As soon as the temperature\nrises above the desired point, the thermostat cuts off the supply of heated\nair, and allows cold air to enter and mix with the heated air. This not\nonly facilitates the proper ventilation of the rooms, but likewise goes to\neconomize in the amount of fuel used. By means of fans it is possible\nto introduce a definite amount of air in a definite period of time, the\nentire circulation of air being under control.\nIn this method of ventilation and heating it is possible to place the\nintake of fresh air at such a point as to prevent some of the grosser\natmospheric impurities from gaining access into the building. This\npoint of intake may vary according to the location of the building;\nordinarily, it should be at least eight or ten feet above ground. It may\nbe over the roof of the house, if it is found that at that point the air is\npurer than at a lower level. It is also possible by this method of ventilation and heating to filter the air, in order to remove the grosser dtfst\nparticles, by passing it thru a screen over which a constant stream of\nwater is flowing. It is also possible to regulate the humidity of the air,\nto some extent, by this means of ventilation thru this method of filtration,\nthe air taking up some moisture in passing over the screen.\nHeating. — Heating may be accomplished either by what is known as\ndirect radiation, as by means of a stove or open fireplace, or thru steam\nor hot-water radiators in the room. Or it may be by what is known as\nindirect radiation, where the radiating surface is in some other portion\nof the building, and the rooms are heated by bringing in air that is\nwarmed by passing over steam or hot-water coils. Where a system of\ndirect heating is employed, whether by means of steam or hot water, the\ncapacity of the heating plant should be adapted to meet the requirements\nplaced upon it. Mr. William J. Baldwin, in his Steam Heating Data,\nstates that the question of condensation of steam receives the first consideration inmaking calculations for the heating of a building. If asked\nthe question why condensation is considered first, he would reply that\n\n"}
{"page": 540, "printed_page": null, "text": "53°\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\n\" it furnishes us with the first item of data on which to base our calculations. For instance, when we find the amount of cooling or condensation that is to take place within a building in the coldest weather, we\nthen know the amount of water it is necessary to evaporate to do this\nwork. Having the amount of water evaporated, we can then obtain, in\nthe order we please, the size of boiler necessary to evaporate the water,\nthe amount of coal or other fuel that will ev.aporate the same water, the\nsize of the grate on which to burn the coal, the size and height of chimney\nnecessary to supply air for combustion, the size of the radiators necessary\nto condense the steam, the size of pipes necessary to convey steam or hot\nwater to the radiators, and all other attendant data which will develop as\nwe proceed.\"\nWater supply and sewage disposal. — The building should have an\nabundant supply of pure water, so as to insure against the diseases\nordinarily carried by water; also to facilitate the maintaining of strict\ncleanliness among the children in the building. It is also necessary to\ndevise . some means for the disposal of the sewage. This becomes a\ndifferent question in different localities. In some instances, where the\nprice of land will afford, it will probably be safest and cheapest in the\nend to have some form of surface irrigation. Where the price of land\ndoes not permit this method of disposal, it may be necessary to resort to\nproperly constructed cesspools.\nWater-closets and latrines. — Where there are no sewers, we unhesitatingly use the closets, but these should never be supplied with foul air\ndrawn from the class-rooms above. There should be no connection of\nany kind between the class-rooms and the water-closets. In no case\nshould wastes of sinks be discharged into these vaults. The wastes should\nenter a cesspool, preferably a double cesspool — a tight one for solids, a\nleeching one for liquids. The best urinal is of slate, with the dry-air\nsystem. There should be a connecting waste from the trough and a connection with the cesspool drain. Water-closets for the pupils' use, where\nthere is water carriage, should be with automatic seats. Thick porcelain\nslabs, with backs, are the best and cheapest devices for drinking fountains\nin the corridors. The plumbing of the building should be the best obtainable, with tight joints and as few bends in the pipes as possible ; and these\npipes should be properly ventilated by means of an open trap outside\nthe building, between it and the sewer, and by carrying the other end of the\nsoil pipe up over the roof of the building, of the same diameter thruout. All the traps of the water-closets and sinks must be back-aired, in\norder to insure against the production of foul odors in the inclosed\nunventilated ends of the pipe ; and also to prevent the unsealing of these\ntraps.\nEach floor of the school building should be provided with suitable\nwater-closets, with automatic flushing arrangements.\n\nThese toilet rooms\n\n"}
{"page": 541, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nSCHOOL\n\nARCHITECTURE\n\n531\n\nshould also be provided with sinks, so as to facilitate maintaining a\nproper degree of cleanliness of the hands and persons of the pupils.\nThe expense of soap and towels to the community is a small one compared with the detriment occasioned by permitting the children to come\nin contact with each other when some of them are not as cleanly as they\nshould be.\nDefects in our school buildings. — During 1896-97 a committee of the\nWomen's Health Protective Association of Philadelphia, with the assistance of Professor Woodbridge, of the Boston Institute of Technology,\nmade a very thoro examination into the hygienic condition of 160 publicschool buildings of Philadelphia. In summing up the result of their\ninvestigation they say that, next to uncleanliness, the greatest evil related to\nimproper ventilation is due, on account of small yards, to the close proximity of buildings, some of many stories ; the presence of coal gas ; lack\nof sunshine ; in the outside air, close proximity of sanitary buildings\nimproperly constructed or carelessly cleaned and flushed; the keeping of\nwraps in schoolrooms or adjacent unventilated closets, and the almost\ntotal absence of ventilation by transoms, and in many instances the use\nof storm doors, rendering ventilation impossible save at the expense of\nthe children's health. In one building, accommodating 200 little ones,\nthe sun never enters, save in one room at the noon intermission. In\nsome buildings there are as many as nine rooms never cheered by the sun.\nFan or shaft ventilation cannot be introduced without great expense, but\nproperly arranged door and window transoms for ventilation can be\nplaced in every building at little cost, thus admitting fresh air without\noccasioning draft. This committee claims that every building should be\nsupplied with such means of ventilation as will insure free circulation of\nair thruout the building. The prolific cause of the spread of contagious diseases is the keeping of wraps in schoolrooms. The committee\nis horrified to find that at least three-quarters of the older buildings\nhave no cloakrooms, or very inadequate ones. In many cases there are\nno means of ventilating such rooms except thru the schoolrooms. Seventeen cases of scarlet fever occurred in one airy, spacious building in 1895,\nand three additional cases in 1896. This great epidemic was doubtless\ndue to the lack of cloakrooms ; the want still exists, and there are three\nlarge vacant rooms in the building.\nOn January 24, 1898, Dr. J. Howard Taylor, medical inspector of the\nhealth bureau, made his annual report on the sanitary condition of the\npublic-school buildings of the city of Philadelphia. Dr. Taylor mentions\nall the school buildings, telling their good points as well as their bad\nones, and notes the many improvements which, from the complaints of\nformer years, have been made. The most important defects noted in the\ndifferent buildings are; imperfect ventilation, insufficient water supply\nfor the latrines, imperfect lighting, absence of cloakrooms, and unsatisfac-\n\n"}
{"page": 542, "printed_page": null, "text": "532\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\ntory heating of the buildings, giving rise to gas in the schoolroom from\ndefective furnaces. These defects were noted in a very large number of\nthe school buildings.\nIn the face of the revelations made by Professor Woodbridge, on\nbehalf of the Women's Health Protective Association, and by Dr. Taylor,\nmedical inspector of the bureau of health, it should occasion no surprise that, at its last annual meeting in New York, the American Society\nof Ventilating Engineers thought there was a necessity for missionary\nwork in connection with the heating and ventilating of schools, and that\nPhiladelphia was a good place in which to begin the enterprise. It is to\nbe hoped that this missionary work will be undertaken and pushed with\nuntiring zeal, until all the school buildings, not only in Philadelphia, but\nin every large city, are placed in proper sanitary condition.\nI am happy to state that all the new schoolhouses erected in Philadelphia within recent years are model constructions. These have four\nor- five class-rooms on each floor, inclosed brick fire escapes, steel ceilings,\nand automatic-power ventilating and heating plant, calculated to deliver\nthirty cubic feet of fresh air per child per minute in each class-room.\n\nSCHOOL\n\nFURNITURE\n\nBY C. B. GILBERT,\n\n— SEATS,\nBATHS,\nMAPS,\nETC.\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF SCHOOLS,\n\nBLACKBOARDS,\n\nNEWARK,\n\nN. J.\n\n[abstract]\n\nThe topics especially assigned me are seats, baths, blackboards, maps,\netc., the last being delightfully vague and satisfactory. Upon most of\nthe material appliances used in the schoolroom, such as seats, blackboards, and maps, there is such practical unanimity among school people\nthat no discussion is needed. I will simply state the consensus, as I\nunderstand it.\nI.\n\nSCHOOL\n\nThis was thoroly and\n\nDESKS\n\nAND\n\nSEATS\n\nauthoritatively discussed by Dr. Mowry\n\nbefore this Council quite recently. Both desks and seats should be adjustable to the size and shape of individual children. Desks should be provided with book rests parallel with the eye when the body is in an erect\nposition.\nNo entirely satisfactory adjustable desk has yet been invented, the\nelements almost universally lacking being simplicity of construction and\nease of adjustment. The best form that I have ever seen, in these\nrespects, is that of the ordinary piano stool, with clamps to hold the desk\n\n"}
{"page": 543, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nSCHOOL\n\nFURNITURE\n\n533\n\nand seat in place. The desk that I saw, however, was lacking in strength.\nI believe that this is the principle of the coming adjustable desk.\nII.\n\nBLACKBOARDS\n\nAll schoolrooms should be equipped with blackboards covering all the\navailable space. These boards should be of slate, and should be placed\nat suitable heights for the children of the grades that are to occupy the\nrooms.\nIII.\n\nMAPS\n\nNo generalization can be made in regard to maps, except that all\nschools engaged in the study of geography should have an abundance of\nmaps of various sorts, such as the work requires. If but one kind of map\ncan be obtained, it should be a physical map. It is well for maps to hang\nopen before children, even when not in direct use.\nIV.\n\nBATHS\n\nThere is no reason in the nature of things why schools should not furnish baths to those children who are not bathed elsewhere. The cost of\ntwo bathing tanks, one for boys and one for girls, in each large school\nwould be slight. The difficulties of administration are much less than\nthey at first appear. I have no doubt that most of us will live to see the\nschool buildings, erected in crowded and poorer districts of our large\ncities, equipped with bathing facilities.\nv.\n\nETC,\n\nThis title, I suppose, covers matters not included in the program elsewhere. will\nI\nspeak of but two.\nI.\n\nPLAYGROUNDS\n\nIn villages and small cities, with the country all around, the necessity\nof playgrounds is not so apparent, but in large cities they are necessary\nfor physical and moral health. The great obstacle seems to be the cost\nof ground. Except in the very largest cities this should not be allowed\nto interfere. No school superintendent should allow his board of education to rest contented with a new school site that does not include ample\nplaygrounds, for free play is the best exercise.\nIn the very large cities the roof playground^ adopted in New York,\nseems to offer the needed solution of the difficulty; but wherever\nlocated, playgrounds must be furnished.\nIL\n\nDIRECTED\n\nEXERCISES\n\nThis important department of hygienic effort I do not find included\nelsewhere in the program of this meeting, hence conclude that it belongs\nhere.\n\n"}
{"page": 544, "printed_page": null, "text": "534\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Nationa\n\nMost school systems have some sort of physical exercises, mostly a\nvery bad sort, consisting in standing in ungraceful attitudes, pounding\nthe chest, shaking the fist in the air, and performing a few awkward and\nilly designed contortions, whose only value consists in the fact that they\ndo, for a few minutes, stir the blood.\nA carefully designed system of physical culture, progressive, scientific,\nfitted for children of different ages and different physical conditions,\nplanned to develop strength, grace, and health, if it exists at all for a\npublic-school system, is certainly a rara avis. A few such courses are\nfound in special training schools, but they have not filtered down to the\nchildren. If children have a sufficient amount of wise and wholesome\nexercise, they will still grow up straight and healthy, even if they sit on\nbenches without backs while studying. The essentials of a wise system\nof physical culture appear to me to be as follows :\n1. Interest. — So far as possible they should resemble, and should be,\nplay.\n2. Naturalness. — The exercises should be such as children perform\nwhen unembarrassed, unconscious, and unwatched.\n3. Progressiveness. — The work for the kindergarten and the eighth\ngrammar grade should differ more than in the violence with which the\nchest is pounded and the air beaten.\n4. Possibilities of adaptation to individual needs. — Voice, breathing.\n5. Relation. — The exercises should not merely be related one to\nanother, but to the life of the children in such a way that they themselves\nfeel the advantage of them. It is not uncommon for the school exercises\nwhich may most readily arouse the child's interest, such as music, drawing, and physical culture, to be least successful in this respect.\n\nSCHOOL\n\nDISEASES\n\n,BY PROFESSOR\n\nDELOS\n\nAND\n\nMEDICAL\n\nFALL, ALBION\n\nINSPECTION\n\nCOLLEGE,\n\nMICH.\n\nBy the term \"school diseases\" is meant all such as are likely to be\nspread by the gathering of pupils in schools. The list is a very large\none. They are probably all communicable diseases, but not all dangerous\ndiseases. The list, however, would include only a portion of the dangerous communicable diseases to which all mankind is subject.\nThe common and well-received tradition concerning this subject is\nthat, in the nature of the case, school diseases, like all others, are only to\nbe recognized and dealt with by expert medical men, acting in the capacity of medical inspectors, who themselves must initiate and carryforward\nevery movement which shall eventually rid the pupils and the school of\n\n"}
{"page": 545, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nCouncil]\n\nSCHOOL\n\nDISEASES\n\nAND\n\nMEDICAL\n\nINSPECTION\n\n535\n\ndisease and allow them to pursue their work under improved conditions.\nThis method makes the medical inspector the only active agent in working out the problem of restricting and preventing disease. Teachers and\npupils, under this system, place themselves passively in the hands of the\nhealth officer, without themselves having any active relation to the case.\nThis must be the case, if the problem is to be solved at all from the standpoint of curative medicine, for the science of medicine remains today with\na great deal attached to it which is vague and mysterious, that could not\nbe taught in the schools or understood by the pupils ; and all the skill of\nthe trained physician is required to cope with the evil. Under this system it is frequently the case that the schools have to be closed, and serious\ninterruption of their work results.\nBut there is a science of the prevention of disease, a science somewhat\nsimple in its principles, and so clear and manifest in its practical application that all may participate in the work and contribute to the glorious\nend. And this intelligent and mutual co-operation of all classes of\npeople is the one condition by which the great work is to be done. For\nexample, consumption is a communicable disease which destroys 150,000\nof the inhabitants of the United States every year, and yet the means for\nits prevention and final extermination are so well understood and so\nsimple that young children can clearly apprehend and put them into successful operation. Hence it is of much greater importance that the\nproblem, enlarged so as to include all communicable diseases, should be\nstudied and acted upon.\nFrom the standpoint from which this paper is written, it will not do\nsimply to study diseases with reference to their being \" school diseases;\"\nand, again, it would fall far short of the end to be desired, if \" medical\ninspection \" should be the one means employed for the restriction and\nprevention of communicable diseases.\nThe solution of the problem by which public schools may not be\ninterrupted by epidemics of disease, and, at the same time, the health of\nthe pupils and patrons alike be preserved from the scourges of consumption, scarlet fever, diphtheria, and other communicable diseases, will have\nbeen made when there can be secured the intelligent co operation of\npupils and teachers, patrons of the school, and all other citizens, and\nthese aided and directed by an efficient public- health service.\nI desire especially to call attention to what may be called the \" Michigan idea\" concerning the successful solution of this important problem.\nBy a law of the state, enacted some four years ago, it is decreed that\n\" there shall be taught in every year, in every public school in Michigan,\nthe principal modes by which each of the dangerous communicable diseases\nis spread, and the best methods for the restriction and prevention of\neach such disease.\" By the same law the state board of health is required\nannually to send to the public-school superintendents and teachers thruout\n\n"}
{"page": 546, "printed_page": null, "text": "536\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Nationa\n\nthe state printed data and statements which shall enable them to comply\nwith such act. Such data have already been furnished, and other and\nmore complete information will be given to the teachers during the coming school year.\nSome reasons why it is believed that in time many of the important\ncommunicable diseases may be destroyed are :\nFirst, the science of bacteriology has made known the specific cause of\nmany of the dangerous communicable diseases, and this knowledge has\nmade clear the methods by which their spread may be prevented, thus\ncausing the saving of hundreds of lives of those who would otherwise\nfall victims to them.\nSecond, the methods by which this work is to be done are so simple\nthat school children can easily learn them, and thus be led willingly to\nco-operate with their parents and health officials in the great work.\nConsider for a moment what needs to be done in order that the\nschools may go on continuously and yet not be centers of infection from\nwhich dangerous disease shall spread. First of all it is essential that\nthe school and health authorities of the city be alert to the fact that the\nschool, in the very nature of the case, is the most certain center of infection ever established in the. community. Careless and ignorant parents\nallow their children to come to school while they are yet in a condition\nto communicate disease to others. The need of medical inspection of\nschools can be clearly seen by the study of the fact just stated, and that\nfact is the complete justification of municipal or school authorities, when\nmoney is expended for this purpose. When a given case is one which\ninvolves serious danger to the community, steps must be taken to see\nthat in no way does the disease spread.\nTwo important general principles are acted upon. First, we quarantine all sick. We also isolate the well who have, in any way, had contact\nwith the case. In rnany cases this means the closing of the schools ; but,\non the other hand, it can plainly be seen that, had there been a general\neducation of the people concerning the danger of allowing those who\nhave been sick to mingle with others, the pupils would in all cases be\nkept at home and in quarantine, until such time as it would be safe for\nthem once more to attend school. The result would be, there would be\nno further spread of the disease, and the schools would not be interrupted in their work. The result of such a combination of circumstances\nin my own state of Michigan, in any one case of scarlet fever or diphtheria,\nwould mean the saving of more than ten cases of sickness and one or\ntwo deaths, and if this were constantly repeated, it would mea-n that in a\nsingle year some thousands of cases of sickness and scores or hundreds\nof lives would be saved. What I want to make clear is that the farreaching results growing out of thoro isolation of the sick, during the period\nof sickness, are so obvious and so simple that they may be taught to the\n\n"}
{"page": 547, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nSCHOOL\n\nDISEASES\n\nAND\n\nMEDICAL\n\nINSPECTION\n\n537\n\npupils in our schools, and thus they, and thru them their parents, may be\nbrought to a hearty co-operation with all measures looking to the great\nend.\nThe second important general principle by which the spread of disease is prevented is the complete disinfection of all infected material.\nNow, disinfection, in part, is work which should be intrusted to the hands\nof an intelligent and efficient health officer, and hence might be thought\nnot to have any practical relations to the schools. This is all that is usually done. At the same time there are many minor details, in the successful disinfection of all infected material, which must be observed and\ncarried out by the people themselves ; and hence, again, the need of popular education on the subject.\nTake a concrete example and study it somewhat in detail, in order\nbetter to understand the general problem. There is always danger that one\nor the other of the most pronounced school diseases, scarlet fever or\ndiphtheria, exists to a greater or less extent. In this connection I desire\nto call attention to the statistics of sickness from diphtheria in the state\nof Michigan during two periods of years, 1877-81 and 1887-91, indicating what percentage of all reports received stated that the presence of\ndiphtheria was then under the observation of the physicians reporting.\nThey represent an aggregate of seventeen thousand weekly reports of\nsickness received by the state board of health for the first period, and\ntwenty-four thousand for the last period. In order that the facts may be\nquickly and easily comprehended, all these reports have been averaged by\nmonths, and a curve traced showing the relation of sickness from diphtheria month by month. A study of this diagram shows that invariably\nthru all these years the month of August has shown a marked increase of\nsickness from this disease, and during the following month of September\na still greater increase is shown. Now, it is well known by sanitarians\nthat, while this disease is caused by a specific organism, the Klebs-Loeffler\nbacillus, the disease is governed largely by climatic conditions, by the\nthroat irritants in the air — coldness, dryness, wind, and ozone — except\nthat, immediately after school opens in September, the diphtheria is not\nquantitatively related to these throat irritants. Now it must be believed,\nand it is believed, that to the opening of the schools is directly traceable\nthis marked increase in sickness. Scarlet fever, studied in the same way,\nshows the same result. The disease continues to increase until October,\nbut by this time the citizens have occasion to become generally alarmed,\nthe attention of the board of education is called to it, the aid of the\nhealth authorities is called for; it may be the schools are closed and the\nepidemic checked. It is equally significant that the diagram shows that\nthere is the least sickness from diphtheria during the vacation months of\nJune and July.\nThe superintendent and teachers of the public schools ought always\n\n"}
{"page": 548, "printed_page": null, "text": "538\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nto be observant of every indication which points to a possible outbreak\nof these diseases in the schools. Plainly, it would be decidedly advantageous ifthe teachers and the pupils had had some training in the\npremonitory symptoms which precede the outbreak of scarlet fever or\ndiphtheria. If suspicion arises that such disease does exist, if a child is\nnoticed with sore throat, flushed face, suffused eyes, or other symptoms,\nthe safety of the entire school would suggest that such a case should at\nonce be sent home with a note warning the parent to call a physician and take proper steps quickly to quarantine the patient, and to\ntake other necessary precautions. Here again, in order that the child\nmay be willing to obey and the parent to co-operate, an intelligent appreciation of the necessity for such steps should be possessed by the pupil as\nwell as the parent. They can and ought to know all the fearful consequences which may result from disregard of prompt and effective measures\nfor the prevention and further spread of the disease, and at the home the\ncase is much more easily managed, thru all the details of isolation and\ndisinfection, if there be on the part of child and parent proper knowledge\nas to the reason for each step taken. In a word, by having taught the subject in the schools, adapting the instruction to the grade of the pupils\ntaught, and continuing the work thru a generation, if necessary, ignorance,\nwhich is the ally of superstition and recklessness ; ignorance, which disregards all precautionary measures and all consequences which may flow\nout to do harm to others, is exchanged for intelligence, and intelligence\ncarries with it a willing co-operation of all concerned, the end of which\nis the restriction of the scarlet fever or diphtheria to the first case, and\nthe saving of untold sickness and death. The experts know enough in\nregard to all these questions, but they must be understood and acted upon\nby the common people.\nAnd there is ample justification for the suggestion that school authorities should turn their attention to this subject and enter energetically\nupon the work of the education of the people along these lines. Hundreds of pupils who, under existing circumstances, are compelled to pass\nthru their school course suffering from the sequelae of one or more of\nthese diseases which, according to the traditions of the past, have been\nconsidered as the inevitable experience of every child — hundreds of pupils\nin our schools are today suffering from throat affection, impaired vision,\ndefective hearing, diseased nervous system, which have come to them\nbecause of having had to pass thru diseases which ought to have been\nprevented, but were not.\nIt ought to be said that the teaching of sanitary science in the public\nschools does not necessitate the teaching of any of the deep and mysterious phases of disease such as characterize the study of medicine and its\nmission in the world of curing disease. Sanitary science does not concern itself in the least with the cure of disease.\nPractical sanitation is as\n\n"}
{"page": 549, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nMEDICAL\n\nINSPECTION\n\nOF SCHOOL\n\nCHILDREN\n\n539\n\nfar removed from the domain of curative medicine as the east is from the\nwest. The principles of practical sanitation, let it be repeated, are simple\nin their application, easily understood by young' and old, and the great\nscourges which now afflict mankind — consumption, with its 1 50,000 victims\neach year in the United States ; diphtheria, carrying away 60,000 ; scarlet\nfever, 40,000; a like number from typhoid fever — all these and many\nothers might be destroyed from the face of the earth, and man be permitted to live his allotted time and die only from old age.\nOne other point I would suggest and emphasize, did time permit, viz.,\nthat a somewhat radical change be made both in the matter and in the\nmethod of teaching what goes by the name of hygiene, or, as I prefer\nto call it, sanitary science. As I have had occasion to say in another\nplace, \" I think there can be detected a considerable reaction against the\nmethods of teaching which have heretofore been used in anatomy and\nphysiology. Some knowledge of anatomy and physiology is the proper\nfoundation for those lessons which qualify one to shun the dangers to life\nand health in his surroundings, but it is understood that anatomical teaching is carried forward solely with the thought of its subservience to physiology, and the latter subject, in turn, is taught largely with reference to\nits practical relations to personal and public hygiene.\" In addition to\nthis, I would have every child in our public schools taught the facts concerning those communicable diseases which are dangerous to the public\nhealth, the germs which cause them, their modes of spread, and the method\nof the prevention of each such disease.\nThe ideas thus briefly outlined in this paper have been enlarged upon\nin the following papers :\n\" Better Methods of Teaching Hygiene.\" Supplement to the Annual Report of the\nMichigan State Board of Health, 1894.\n\"A Plea for the Teaching of Sanitary Science in Our Schools,\" Education, Yo\\.\nXVH, pp. 266-75.\n\" Sanitary Science in a College Course,\" Transactions of Michigan State Teachers'\nAssociation, 1896, pp. 80-86.\n\" The Teaching of Hygiene and Sanitary Science in the Secondary Schools,\"\nSchool Review, Vol. VI, pp. 66-74.\n\nMEDICAL\nBY SEVERANCE\n\nINSPECTION\n\nOF SCHOOL\n\nBURRAGE, INSTRUCTOR IN SANITARY\nUNIVERSITY, LAFAYETTE, IND.\n\nCHILDREN\nSCIENCE, PURDUE\n\nNo one more than the superintendent or teacher realizes what a\nglorious place the public school is for the spread of contagious disease.\nSchool epidemics are quite common ; and yet it cannot be denied that\n\n"}
{"page": 550, "printed_page": null, "text": "540\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Nationa\n\nin most cases, if ordinary precautions are taken, these epidemics, as such,\ncan be prevented. It is not often that the teacher is at fault, however.\nIt is thru ignorance and carelessness of the parents, and because of\ninsufificient sanitary regulations on the part of the public authorities, that\nthe epidemics prevail.\nAn epidemic may originate either from within the school, directly or\nindirectly from some sanitary effect about the building, or from without\nthe school thru the agency of infected children or teachers.\nWhen an epidemic has broken out, extraordinary or heroic measures are\nnecessarily taken to check its spread and to prevent its future outbreak.\nIf the trouble is in the sanitary condition of the building itself, the\nschool may have to be closed for repairs or renovation. If it is brought\nin by the pupils, a most careful isolation, quarantine, and fumigation,\nwith perhaps a temporary closing of the school, may be necessary.\nBut, looking at the subject from the standpoint of the sanitarian, it is\nour great desire to prevent these diseases altogether, particularly in\nepidemic form. This being the object, we must observe a number of\nordinary precautionary measures continuously, such as a regular sanitary\ninspection of the building, resulting in the proper cleansing and airing\nbefore the beginning of the school year, and the subsequent cleaning and,\nperhaps, fumigation at regular intervals ; providing the scholars with a\npure water supply, and distributing the same in a safe and proper\nmanner ; maintaining good sanitary arrangements ; keeping the amount of\nfloating dust and dirt down to the minimum, perhaps by the use of some\nform of \"dustless\" oil on the floors ; and, in short — assuming, of course,\nthat the school building is properly constructed, ventilated, heated, and\nhygienically furnished — every precaution should be taken to keep the\nchildren in that vigorous and healthy condition in which they are least\nsusceptible to disease of any kind.\nBut more immediately effective than any of the above precautionary\nmeasures is the medical inspection of the school children. While only\npracticed by a very few of our larger cities, it has worked so well there\nthat we can no longer regard it as an experiment.\nThe aims of the system are, first, to discover cases of contagious\ndisease at the schoolroom, and to send such cases to their homes before\nthey have done mischief ; and, second, to obtain better isolation by keeping these cases at home as long as the period of possible infection lasts.\nDaily medical inspection has been in operation in Boston since\nNovember i, 1894, and it will be instructive to use the words of Dr.\nDurgin, chairman of the Boston board of health, to describe exactly how\nthe system is worked :\nThe board of health divided the city into fifty districts, giving an average of about\nfour schoolhouses and fourteen hundred pupils to each district. No difficulty was\nexperienced in finding well-qualified and discreet physicians who would undertake the\n\n"}
{"page": 551, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nMEDICAL\n\nINSPECTION\n\nOF SCHOOL\n\nCHILDREN\n\n541\n\nduties prescribed ; and the board selected and appointed one physician for each district,\nwith a salary of $200 a year. His duty was to make a visit to each master's school\ndaily, soon after the beginning of the morning session. The master receives from each\nof the teachers in his district early reports as to the appearance of illness in any pupil\nin his charge. These reports are given to the visiting physician, who at once examines\nthe reported children and makes a record of his diagnosis and action in books furnished\nby the board of health for this purpose, and kept in the custody of the master. If the\nvisiting physician finds the child too ill, from any cause, to remain in school, he advises\nthe teacher to send the child home for the observation and care of its parents and family\nphysician. If the illness is from a contagious disease, the child is ordered home and the\ncase reported to the board of health. The disposition of the sick child while at home,\nand the proper isolation in cases where contagious diseases develop in such children, as\nwell as giving them a warrant for returning to the school, depend principally upon the\nreport of the school inspector.'\n\nInspectors are not allowed to give professional advice or treatment in\nany case, with the exception given below, and great care is necessary to\navoid giving offense to the family physician. This one exception is in connection with pediculosis, which was found to be so prevalent thruout the\nschools, existing in one instance to the extent of nearly 80 per cent, of\n■ scholars in one building. The board of health did recommend an\neconomical wash or remedy for this trouble, but not without some friction on the part of the families whose children had to be advised to use\nit. Obviously, medical inspection requires the thoughtful co-operation\nof the teachers, and a generous amount of tact on the part of the\ninspectors.\nIt is a comparatively simple matter for the teacher to recognize an\n\"ailing\" pupil, one who does not appear as bright and responsive as\nusual, and the process of reporting such cases to the master can occupy\nbut a few moments at most. It would seem, after conversing with several\nof the Boston teachers, that they found but little objection to the system\non account of the time it required of them, and they did not hesitate\nheartily to commend it. They did say — and, of course, we would naturally\nexpect — that very much depends on the personality, the disposition, and\nthe tact of the medical inspector. On the other hand, some parents have\ntaken the stand that boards of health have no business to prevent these\nchildren's diseases in this or any other way ; that they wish their children\nto have the measles, scarlet fever, etc., while young, and thus have it over\nwith. But taking into account the very great difference in degree with\nwhich different children are affected, and the serious results which commonly follow many of these diseases, such as deafness and blindness, to say\nnothing of those cases which result fatally, I feel that the authorities are\njustified in taking this and every other possible precaution to prevent\ntheir spread in our schools. I can see no reason, within the bounds of\ncommon sense, for commending such a stand on the part of the parents.\n' Paper read at annual meeting of the Massachusetts Medical Society, June 9, 1897, by Dr. Samuel H.\nDurgin,\n\n"}
{"page": 552, "printed_page": null, "text": "542\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nThe extent of the work already done may, in part, be shown by the\nfollowing figures :\nFor the fourteen months from November i, 1894, to December 31,\n1895, in Boston, 16,790 children were reported by the teachers and\nexamined by the medical inspectors. Of these, 6,035, about 36 per cent.,\nwere found to be not sick ; 10,737, the other 64 per cent., were ill. Of\nthese, 2,.o4i, or 19 per cent., were sick enough to be sent home. About 22\nper cent, of these sick ones sent home, or 2.7 per cent, of the total number\nexamined; proved to be cases of infectious disease, specifically as follows :\nCases\nDiphtheria,\n77\nScarlet fever,\n----28\nMeasles,\n- •\n116\nChicken pox,\n----28\nMumps,\n- • 47\nWhooping cough,\n■\n- 33\nPediculosis,\n.\n.\n.\n.\n69\nScabies,\n- 47\nCongenital syphilis,\n...\ng\n453\n\nIn 1895, 8,964 scholars were examined ; 1,156, over 12 per cent., were\nsent home; and 23 per cent, of those sent home, or 2.9 per cent, of those\nexamined, were cases of infectious disease.\nIn Chicago similar work was inaugurated in September, 1896, altho\ngreatly abbreviated by lack of financial support from the city. Dr. Reynolds, health commissioner of Chicago, informs me that he knows \" of\nno other single line of effort in which his scanty force of inspectors has\nengaged that has been of more obvious and direct benefit to the community in general, as well as to the school children themselves.\"\nDuring the school year 1896-97, in Chicago, even with their small\nforce, 1,181 visits were made to the schools; 4,023 cases of contagious\nand infective diseases were located and taken charge of for preventive\npurposes; and insanitary conditions in sixty-three public schools were\nreported to the board of education, and similar conditions remedied in\nfifty-three homes of patients.\nIn the first three months, in New York, 63,812 children were examined,\nand over 6 per cent, were excluded because of contagious disease.\nIn several other American cities the introduction of a system of\nmedical inspection has been under serious consideration, but, as far as I\nknow, it has been in active operation only in Boston, New York, and\nChicago. By this I refer to an extensive system covering the whole\ncity — as it is a well-known fact that some individual schools have been\nfor a longer or shorter time under medical supervision in other than the\nabove cities.\nThere is absolutely no reason why its introduction should be confined\n\n"}
{"page": 553, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nMEDICAL\n\nINSPECTION\n\nOF SCHOOL\n\nCHILDREN\n\n543\n\nto large cities. The fact of the matter is that it would be very much\neasier to introduce, and much cheaper to operate, in smaller cities and\neven in towns, and as a system it would be just as effective.\nAs to the expense of the system, it seems to me slight in comparison\nwith the enormous benefits that result from it. If railroad companies find\nit economical to spend thousands of dollars for the analysis and supervision of the water supplies of their employees, believing that they can get\nmore and better work from healthy workmen, why should not towns and\ncities get much better educational results from healthy teachers and\nscholars, which they almost insure by spending some money for sanitary\nimprovements and medical inspection ?\nIt is impossible to estimate the extent of prevention which has already\nresulted from this system, but the figures cited above, particularly the\nspecific infectious diseases which were eliminated at once from the\nschools and placed under proper care, supervision, and isolation, give us\nan idea, at least, of the great value to the school and to the community.\nTake alone the seventy-seven cases of diphtheria which were sent home\nthe first year in Boston — we can simply ask the question. How many\nmore cases did this early separation prevent ?\nThat there has been a demand for something of this sort abroad is\nshown from the following extracts from the Berlin letter to the Medical\nRecord oi date January 22, 1898:\nPublic meetings were field at Berlin after a serious epidemic of\nmeasles, in which three-fourths of the scholars of the local academy\nsuffered because the school was not closed. These meetings resulted in\nthe passing of resolutions as follows : \"Laymen and physicians demand\nthat each school have a physician assigned to it, to have charge of the\ngeneral hygiene of the building and be watchful over the health of\nscholars; to see to the proper heating, ventilation, cleanliness, and, if\nnecessary, disinfection of the building ; to order the closing of the school\nwhen the heat becomes excessive and in time of epidemics ; furthermore,\nto examine new scholars ; in short, the school physicians should protect\nthe scholars against the dangers of school life.\"\nAltho this is not at all similar to our systems in its details, it shows that\nthe need of something of the kind is widespread.\nBesides being a most valuable preventive measure against the fostering and spreading of contagious disease, medical inspection may be\nlooked upon as a most important factor in the education of the children\nand their parents on sanitary matters. Its operation also brings before\nthe health authorities, in a very emphatic manner, several needed reforms\nand improvements, such as a sanitary inspection of school buildings and\ntheir surroundings, entirely apart from the medical inspection ; the examination of the eyes and ears of the scholars, and humoring the weak ones\nas far as possible by seating in most favorable locations, according to\n\n"}
{"page": 554, "printed_page": null, "text": "544\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\ntheir weaknesses ; and the introduction of bathrooms iii the schools, as so\nmany of the children do not have access to the proper bathing facilities.\nWhile not intending to lose sight of many of the other features of\nschool hygiene and sanitation, nor detract from their value and importance, itis the purpose of this paper to emphasize above all this matter of\nmedical inspection, as it is one of the greatest preventive measures so far\ndevised. It has been highly commended by all thinking people who\nhave seen it in active operation, especially by teachers and physicians.\nRealizing its importance to the health of a community, as well as its great\neducational value, and feeling that untold benefit can come from a more\nwidespread introduction of it in one form or another, the writer does not\nhesitate to commend the matter of medical inspection to this conference\nfor its thoughtful consideration.\n\nDISCUSSION\nB. A. Hinsdale stated that he had understood Professor Burrage to say that it would\nbe easier to secure needed medical inspection of schools in the villages, towns, and smaller\ncities than in the larger cities.\nProfessor Burrage said this was a correct representation of what he had said.\nMr. Hinsdale said he could not assent to this view. In the communities referred\nto the sentiment and practice of individualism were developed to a remarkable degree.\nThe people were very democratic. They were not so accustomed to feel the pressure of\nwhat is called the \" social whole \" as the people of the larger cities, and did not so well\nunderstand it, its value, and its necessity. The communities that he referred to were not\nprepared to accept measures that large cities accepted as a matter of course. This fact\nmight be the best of all reasons why the campaign of education should begin at once and\nbe carried on with vigor, but it was certainly a conclusive reason why it should be undertaken and be conducted with prudence, tact, and wisdom.\nDr. Fall, in response to a question asked by Dr. Henry E. Dawes, of Omaha,\nemphasized the necessity for teaching the simple means of quarantine and restriction.\nW. E. Sheldon urged more attention to this subject, such as creates public sentiment in favor of medical inspection which will control these conditions and secure legislation, adding that the real way to get public sentiment is to educate the children.\nJohn W. Cook spoke of the difficulties in the towns of from 800 to 1,000 persons,\nowing to the absence of available systems of waterworks, of sewers, etc.; and also\ncalled attention to the aid which can be secured from intelligent local physicians.\n\nTHE\n\nHYGIENE\n\nOF INSTRUCTION\n\nBY\n\nG.\n\nASSISTANT\nPROFESSOR\nOF PHYSIOLOGY\nHARVARD\nUNIVERSITY\n\nDR.\n\nW.\n\nFITZ,\n\nIN PRIMARY\nAND\n\nSCHOOLS\nHYGIENE,\n\nThe topic \"Hygiene of Instruction\" is so broad that in the short\ntime at my disposal I wish to limit myself to a consideration of one phase\n\n"}
{"page": 555, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nHYGIENE\n\nOF INSTRUCTION\n\nIN PRIMARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n54^\n\nonly of this subject — the \"Hygiene of Instruction in the Primary\nSchool.\"\nWe are brought here at once face to face with one of the most vital\nproblems of our educational system. The primary school receives our\nchildren at a critical age. It lays the foundation of their future physical\nand mental development ; it determines, many times, their moral attitude\nas well. We cannot question the right of the primary school to exist ;\nthat right it has long since proved. That it has grave faults, however, is\napparent to anyone who has seen and studied the actual conditions.\nWhy is it, as the school year progresses, the children become less attentive, less able to grasp relations and to memorize simple statements of\nfacts ? Why does anthropometry show that growth takes place largely in\nthe vacation and is retarded during the school year, and that children of\nseven years of age who have not attended school are taller and stronger\nthan school children of the same age ? Why does the specialist find that\nthe nerve signs in children increase in proportion to the effort necessary\nto do the school work ?\nWhy is it that young teachers break down with nervous exhaustion\nwithin the first six years of teaching ? Why is it, in short, that school is\na treadmill in which the natural curiosity, interest, and health of the child\nare so frequently lost, the ambition and the enthusiasm of the teacher\nkilled ?\nIf we turn to the teacher for the solution of these questions, she tells\nus frankly: \"We are forced to press the children beyond their strength.\nOur problem is, how shall the children, coming from the freedom of the\nhome, be brought to undergo the grind of routine work; and the general\nadvance of the class kept to the standard of school superintendent\nor school board ? We see our way clear to but one method — discipline\nthe children and make them work.\"\nThe grammar-school teachers claim that the children are sent to them\ntoo immature to do good work, and we hear the echo of the same criticism from the high school, and later from the college, that the young men\ncome with undeveloped powers of observation and description, with no\nmethod of study or ability to concentrate. The college lays the blame\nupon the high school, the high school upon the grammar school, the\ngrammar school upon the primary, and the primary is now laying it\nupon the home.\nThe parents ask : \" What can you give us so good as school ? It is\na means of securing the full intellectual development of our children, of\nhaving them looked after under pleasanter conditions than at home, and,\nfinally, of getting rid of them during the busiest part of our day.\"\nThese answers offer no solution. The problem has been recognized\nby educators, and they have made many attempts at correction. The\nschool program\nhas been pronounced poor, and efforts have been\n\n"}
{"page": 556, "printed_page": null, "text": "546\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nmade to enrich it. The work has been pronounced abstract, and objectlessons have been introduced ; uninteresting, and bright colors, varied\nshapes, pictures innumerable have been rushed upon the child, until it\nhas been bewildered by the multiplicity of detail and further exhausted\nby the demand for more discriminating attention.\nThe fundamental difficulty has been that too much was required of\nthe child in the beginning, and the attempt at enrichment and greater\nvariety has but increased the burden. Little or no effort has been made\nto diminish the old work that room might be made for the new, or to\ngive adequate physical exercise and insure fresh air and sunshine to all\npupils. The result is that the minds of the children are in a state of\nconstant over-pressure in the effort to accomplish the many-sided daily\nprogram presented to them, and their bodies are weak and poorly developed.\nIn considering the hygiene of this instruction, it is essential to consider in detail the teaching of reading, writing, and arithmetic, since\nthe^e form the classical foundation of all instruction and the backbone\nof the primary-school program.\nReading has ordinarily been made to include all the steps leading to\nthe acquiring of the English language. This is natural, since the ability\nof the child to read is the most tangible measure of his advancement in the\nuse of his native tongue. Reading has thus been made to take the place\nof oral descriptions of interesting natural objects, of personal experiences, of oral reproductions of stories, all of which would give him the\npower of coherent logical description. In learning to read, the child is\nintroduced at once to arbitrary, conventional symbols, which have no\nnatural relation to the sounds he has already learned as labels of things.\nThe whole process is of the nature of a puzzle, and in itself is not educative. Not reason, but convention, is the key to the puzzle. The solution lies in the memorized association of symbol and sound. The child\nof six or seven is so limited in this power of conventional association\nthat he learns to read with extreme slowness, and is of necessity restricted\nto such simple words and phrases that he has none of the stimulus of\ninterest. \"The dog is black. The dog has foui feet,\" is as uninteresting\nto him as to you and me. Experience has shown, over and over again,\nthat the child who begins to read at eight years is in no wise handicapped\nin his later educational progress. He has the inestimable value of the\nadvantage of intense interest, roused by his sense of power in unlocking\nthe secrets of books and papers after the fashion of his elders. Increased\nmaturity makes the slow, irksome task pleasurable and easy.\nWriting presents difficulties similar to those of reading, inasmuch as it\ninvolves the use of the same arbitrary symbols. This is, however, intensified\nby the required drawing of the conventional forms of the letters. This\ndrawing is made still more difficult by the fact that the smallness of the\n\n"}
{"page": 557, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nHYGIENE\n\nOF INSTRUCTION\n\nIN PRIMARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n547\n\nletters necessitates a muscular control of which the child is relatively\nincapable. When to this is added the new requirement of making the\nfirst attempts with pen and ink, the difficulty has become enormous. It\nis undoubtedly true that the effort at fine co-ordination demanded of a\nyoung child by writing with a pen leads to a degree of nervous exhaustion unapproached by other school work. Many a teacher has come to\nfeel that the pen in the hand of a child is, indeed, mightier than a sword !\nA rational substitute for this, which may be made of high educational\nvalue, is blackboard drawing and picture writing, which the children so\nenthusiastically undertake whenever an opportunity is given them.\nArithmetic has been considered of such great importance in the education of the child that in many schools it is made the sole criterion for\npromotion. In the primary school a consistent effort is made, from the\nentrance of the child at five or six years of age, to train him to recognize number relations, concretely or abstractly, and to build on these the\nlogical superstructure of arithmetic. Most teachers confess that, in spite\nof the effort to make the number and arithmetic work concrete, it becomes\nessentially abstract, and a mere matter of memory, because of the immaturity of the children. They are unable to grasp the numerical relations\ninvolved, and the drill, which makes it a pure exercise of memory, becomes\nnecessary. Much of the aversion to arithmetical problems found later\nis undoubtedly due to the disheartening drill of this primary work.\nHere again the child who begins arithmetic at eight or ten years of age\nfinds himself able to take it up quickly and has the liking for it that easy\nmastery always gives. Manual training undoubtedly offers the best\nopportunity for the concrete teaching of arithmetic which we possess,\nand has the double advantage of making it vivid and at the same time\nincidental to interesting exercises.\nBesides these classical subjects, many schools have introduced what is\ncalled nature work, which includes the study of geography, plants, and\nanimals. This has formed the most important part of the materials\noffered for the enrichment of the school program and has met with success in some schools, with failure in others. It offers wonderfully valuable and interesting material for awakening the intellectual activities of\nchildhood, and it cannot fail to take a high place in the curriculum of the\nprimary and grammar schools. Its material for study and description is\nunlimited, and yet its demands upon the child may be perfectly adapted\nto his power of observation. In its broadening and humanizing influence\nit is probably superior to all other subjects.\nAnother, not less important, enrichment of the school program has been\nthe introduction of physical training. In most schools, however, the\nalready overcrowded program has left so little time that it has frequently\ntaken the place of recess or has been made wholly insignificant in the\nweek's work.\n\nIn considering physical training we must remember that\n\n"}
{"page": 558, "printed_page": null, "text": "548\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nphysical activity is the supreme factor in the development of the child ;\nthat during the age of primary-school attendance growth is rapid, and the\nstimulus of exercise is essential. It may be justly claimed that the child\ngains more educationally in the first eight or ten years of his life and\nlays a surer foundation for the mental and physical health of afterlife thru vigorous, unrestricted physical activity than thru any other\nfactor whatsoever. By this I mean spontaneous play under favorable\nconditions, with accompanying fresh air, sunshine, and good food, supplemented and enriched by gymnastics and athletics, including swimming.\nI do not mean that nervously exhausting and deadening drill known as the\nSwedish gymnastics, which, in the name of educational gymnastics, adds\nfatigue to fatigue, by taking the initiative away from the child and forcing\nhim to pay constant and close attention to the orders of the teacher, that\nhe may execute with precision entirely uninteresting and conventional\nmovements.\nThe plays and games of childhood present ever-varying conditions, constituting both\nmental and physical problems of the highest educational value. The child is habituated\nto make rapid judgments in the face of changing conditions. He must be constantly on\nthe alert, must perceive conditions as they are, must immediately adapt his own action to\ntheir quick-changing relations, and, as a result, he gains that perfect control of his body\nwhich serves him throughout life. As teachers, we must recognize that the judgments upon\nwhich all these active movements are based are intellectual operations. In play the\nchild is the unit of force ; he initiates his own conditions. His limitations are selfimposed. His self-control lies in execution rather than in inhibition. He is concerned\nwith self-expression rather than with self-repression. Play thus relates itself to the truest\nconception of education, the development of power — the power of the individual to act\nas a self-directed unit in the community.'\n\nBesides plays and games, physical training rightly includes manual\ntraining, gymnastics, and athletics. Manual training presents such a\nvariety of problems in selection of materials, choice of tools, size, number, and form of pieces, and methods of construction, all of which enlist\nthe deepest interest of the child, and seem to him to be play, that it is at\nonce the best educator of brain and hand, and makes the acquirement of\narithmetic, reading, and writing a conscious necessity. The work can be\nadapted to the power of the youngest child, and made to present problems of perception, judgment, and muscular co-ordination of steadily\nincreasing complexity.\nGymnastics are also necessary, that the physical activity of the child,\nrestricted by convention or environment, may be made adequate to insure\ncomplete growth. To be educational they must constantly enlarge his\nexperience by the presentation of progressively fresh physical problems.\nSet drills and conventional movements may be of value hygienically or\nfor correcting deformity, but cannot be considered educative. In view\nof the importance of physical activity for the development of the child,\nI \" Play as a Factor in Development,\" A merican Physical Education Review, December, 1897.\n\n"}
{"page": 559, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nHYGIENE\n\nOF INSTRUCTION\n\nIN PRIMARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n549\n\nboth mentally and physically, we must agree that physical training should\ntake first rank in primary-school work, and that at least half of the entire\nschool period should be devoted to its various phases. This apportionment of time has important confirmation from various quarters, notably\nfrom the experiment necessitated in Philadelphia by the crowded condition of the schools. The pupils who attended school half time apparently accomplished as much as the others, even under conventional\nmethods of instruction.\nAfter what I have said, it seems unnecessary to mention the hygiene\nof discipline, that fetich of the old school ideal. The child is self-disciplined when he is held to his work by the reflex attention of interest.\nThis can always be secured when the work is within the grasp of the\nchild ; when he has the sense of power which comes with easy conquest; when he is not exhausted by the imposition of a sequence logical\nto the adult, but incomprehensible to him ; when his attention is not\ndulled by a demand for observation continued beyond a physiological\nlimit.\nPleasure in success will ever be the child's stimulus to effort. Joy in\neffort is for the mind trained by successful effort, and should be the end\nsought by all teachers for their children.\nIn conclusion, I would suggest for your consideration the following\npropositions :\n1. The mental effort of which the child is capable is primarily connected with physical activity and with sense-perceptions.\n2. The physical activity most needed by developing childhood is\nnot found in formal and artificial systems of exercise, but in plays and\ngames, in the various occupation imitations of childhood, in gymnastic\ngames, and in the progressively difficult demands of well-directed manual\ntraining. These present mental as well as physical problems, fully\nadapted to the child's stages of development, and insure adequate mental\nand physical growth up to the age of eight or ten.\n3. The conditions favorable to the mental development of a child\nseven years of age are not found in arithmetical processes, but in concrete\nnumber relations; not in the science of language, but in its use; not in\nthe use of symbols, as in reading, nor in the efforts at fine motor co-ordinations, asin writing with pen or pencil, but in drawing and picture\nwriting on the blackboard, in gymnastics and manual training, and in\nthe fascinating study of plants and animals.\n4. The wholesome development of the child's nervous system depends\nupon maintaining his interest in school work, fostering and directing his\nspirit of inquiry, and satisfying his love and need of activity. Substitution and suggestion must take the place of prohibition and repression.\nThe true discipline is the self-control of interest.\n5. The teacher must not be misled into demanding logical sequence\n\n"}
{"page": 560, "printed_page": null, "text": "55°\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nor continuity from the child.\nthe stimulus of childhood.\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nSuperficiality is both the safeguard and\n\n6. Not less than one-half of the school time of the primary-school\npupils should be devoted to physical activity in its various aspects, and\nthe remaining time should be devoted largely to nature work, drawing,\noral description, and oral reproduction.\n7. The child's increase of mental power is not in proportion to the\nmental effort he is forced to make, but is largely determined by natural\nphysical growth.\n8. The final test of primary-school work must be — is it joyous?\ndoes it give full scope to the play impulse?\n\nFATIGUE\n\nBY\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nEDWARD\n\nR. SHAW,\nDEAN\nOF THE\nNEW\nYORK\nUNIVERSITY\n\nSCHOOL\n\nOF\n\nPEDAGOGY,\n\nThe president of the Council asked me to go over the investigations\nthat have been made on mental fatigue and to prepare therefrom a\npaper for this meeting, putting before you whatever there is of practical\nvalue to educators as the outcome of those investigations.\nThe question of mental fatigue with school children concerns itself\nwith the work that may be put upon the nerve centers, so that their\nchange toward more complex modifications of structure thru function,\nand also their interaction, may not be interfered with, and may not impair\nthe highest power of efficiency that these cells are potentially capable of\nperforming.\nThe acquiring of a new process of thought uses up energy very rapidly,\nmuch more rapidly than those who teach are likely to realize. When\nintellectual application on the part of the pupil is carried beyond a certain point, under such conditions not only is more lost than is gained in\nestablishing the desired process of thought, but the nervous mechanism\nreceives impairment from which it must recover. If the too great intellectual application on the part of the pupil goes on day after day, permanent injury is done to the nervous mechanism. This may show itself in\nthe difficulty with which the mind can do mental work, and in its inability\nto acquire more complicated thought processes, or in some pathological\ncondition.\nThe studies which have thus far been made to determine mental\nfatigue divide themselves into two main classes. The first class comprises\nall those investigations — such as those made by Burgerstein, Bolton,\nHolmes, Hopfner, Friedrich, and Ebbinghaus— in which some formal\n\n\\\n\n"}
{"page": 561, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nFATIGUE\n\n551\n\nexercises — as, for instance, addition and multiplication of figures, memory\ntests, replacing words and letters which have been omitted from sentences,\nand the bisecting of lines — are used as tests. The index of fatigue is\nmeasured, it is assumed, by the number of errors and inaccuracies made.\nThese investigations have been carried on with great elaboration, involving enormous detail in collating the errors. It is not necessary to go\nover the ground of all these investigators. The last investigations of this\nclass were those of PViedrich and Ebbinghaus, and these, having been\nmade in the light of the experience of previous investigators, embody\nwhat is best in their methods and results.\nFriedrich's investigation involved, first, the dictation of twelve easy\nsentences of about three hundred letters each to fifty-one children in the\nfourth school year, averaging ten years of age. His second tests were\nexamples in addition and multiplication. The number of errors were\ntaken as the index of fatigue. The tests were made in the regular school\nhours from 8 o'clock to 1 1 o'clock in the morning, and from 2 to 4\no'clock in the afternoon. His conclusions were, substantially, that the\nquality of the work done by pupils decreased with the increase of hours\nat school. He found the best work at the beginning of the school session and the poorest at its close. He found, further, that the quality of\nthe morning work was better than the quality of the afternoon work, and\nthat three hours of noon intermission were not sufficient to restore the\nfreshness which pupils showed at the morning tests. He found at the\nclose of the afternoon that children were in a worse condition, so far as\nfatigue is involved, than at the close of the morning session. Some of\nhis tests were made after pupils had been given a fifteen-minute recess at\nthe end of the hour ; some of his tests were made after two recesses of\nfifteen minutes each at the end of each hour. The influence of the\nrecess was, in every instance, found to increase the quality of the work,\nand in three hours' session the two recesses increased the quality of the\nwork more than the one recess. His practical recommendations were\nthat short, intensive periods of study are better than long hours, and that\na recess in the lower grades of from eight to fifteen minutes should be\ngiven every sixty minutes.\nThe investigation of Ebbinghaus was made in Breslau upon twentysix classes of boys and girls, ten to eighteen years of age, in the schools\nof that city. Tests were made on three Wednesdays a fortnight apart.\nThe tests were made to determine the effect of the five hours' continuous\nschool session upon children. In making tests, Ebbinghaus adopted the\nmethod of Griessbach as to the time of making the tests, placing these at\nthe beginning of school and at the end of every hour. There were three\nkinds of tests : First, easy passages of prose were printed on slips of\npaper. In these passages, words, syllables, and letters were deleted and\nthe omission marked by a dash ; the pupils were required to fill in these\n\n"}
{"page": 562, "printed_page": null, "text": "552\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\nCNational\n\nblank spaces. Five minutes was the time devoted to each test, and the\namount of work done by pupils and the number of errors made were\ntaken as an index of fatigue. The second test was a computation of\nfigures after the method of Burgerstein. These tests continued ten minutes. The third test was a memory test according to Bolton's plan.\nThe monosyllabic names of the German numbers one to twelve were\narranged in miscellaneous order, and series of these were read to pupils,\nthe pupils being directed to write down what they could remember.\nEach of these last tests continued from four to five minutes. By computation of the results of the test like that of Burgerstein, the increase in\nthe number of errors from the first test to the last test was as one and\none-tenth to one and nine-tenths. Roughly stated, twice as many errors\nresulted from the last test as were found in the first test ; but there was\nan increase in the amount of work. These results agree, in the main,\nwith the results of Burgerstein's investigation ; that is, an increase in the\nnumber of errors and an increase in the amount of work.\"\nBy the method of filling the places of deleted words, syllables, and\nletters, the results of fatigue were more decidedly indicated than by the\ncomputation method. But by the memory method of Bolton, the errors\nat the end of the fourth or fifth hour were less than the errors at the end\nof the first and second hours. The results of Ebbinghaus' investigation\nof fatigue are vitiated, it is held by some, because of excitement on the\npart of the children, due to a rumor which had spread among them to the\neffect that the restoration of an afternoon session depended upon the\nresults. From my own experience in finding that excitement on the part\nof pupils vitiates the data, I am inclined to attach considerable importance to this point that is made against the returns of Ebbinghaug'\ninvestigation.\nThe second class of investigations into mental fatigue, as those of\nGriessbach and Vannod, seeks to determine the presence and degree of\nfatigue by testing the sensitiveness of the skin to perceive the distance\napart at which the points of a pair of compasses may be placed and be distinguished as two separate points. The tests of the sensitiveness of the\nskin by these investigators were made upon the medium line of the forehead, upon the extremity of the nose, upon the cheek or the cheek bone,\nupon the edge of the lower lip, and on the ball of the thumb and of the\nindex finger. Griessbach made his investigation at Miilhausen, and Vannod\nupon children in the schools of Berne, Switzerland. Vannod's investigation was concluded in 1896. His conclusions are almost indentical with\nthose of Griessbach in finding that there is a decrease, a marked decrease,\nin the sensibility of the skin due to fatigue. He found, further, as did\nGriessbach, that the branches of instruction which especially exhausted\npupils are mathematics and ancient languages. He found, besides, that\nthe afternoon hours of study fatigue much more than the morning hours.\n\n"}
{"page": 563, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nFA TIG UE\n\n553\n\nand that giving the entire afternoon fr^e from study to pupils generally\nproduces a return of the sensitiveness of the skin to the normal.\nLastly he found that' written examinations lasting from 7 o'clock in\nthe morning until noon decreased very considerably the sensitiveness of\nthe skin, and that even five hours of rest following such an example\nfailed to bring the sensitiveness of the skin back to the normal.\nIn a work recently issued by Binet and Henri, La fatigue intelleduelle,\nGriessbach's investigation and also that of Vanned are indorsed. It\nwould appear from all this agreement and testimony that in measuring the sensitiveness of the skin we have a reliable means, could it be\neasily employed, of determining fatigue. When, however, we study\nGriessbach's returns, one is led to believe that he made but one series of\ntests on a student, and his returns are so uniform as to excite our inquiry,\nVannod's investigations, corroborating in their returns those of Griessbach, are open, in the light of experiments not yet published, and in the\nlight of trials made in several psychological laboratories in test of the\nsensitiveness of the skin to determine fatigue, to great question as to\ntheir reliability.\nIn the July number of the Psychological Review Professor Cattell, one\nof our most careful and accurate investigators, says, in speaking of Griessbach's results, that he has entirely failed to confirm the enlarged sensation\nareas as found by Griessbach in the course of schoolroom work. The fact is\nthat in measuring the degree of discrimination of one of the lower senses,\nas the sensitiveness of the skin, there is opportunity for great error due\nto suggestion. Anyone who has made such tests in the psychological\nlaboratory will appreciate this statement.\nWhat, then, has resulted from the investigations into fatigue, of\npractical value to us as educators ? Thus far, I regret to say, very little\nof value.\n1. These investigations force upon teachers an appreciation of the\nfact that there is such a thing as mental fatigue on the part of school\nchildren induced by the tasks put upon them and by an improper\narrangement of the daily school program. This appreciation will, therefore, in some degree, lead teachers to be on the lookout to detect signs\nof fatigue and to use their best judgment in guarding against it.\n2. The influence of recesses is to increase the quality of the work of\npupils.\n3. Short, intensive periods of study are better than long periods.\nPupils will, therefore, accomplish more and with less wear if the\nperiods of work are short, and are each followed by a short recess in which\nthe children are given full liberty for spontaneous physical activity.\nIt may be said, in conclusion, that investigations into fatigue have\nnot been made upon pupils under ten years of age, the field where the\nlight in this regard is most needed.\n\n"}
{"page": 564, "printed_page": null, "text": "554\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nDISCUSSION\nB. A. Hinsdale, in discussing the question of the age of children in connection with\nteaching the art of reading, said it was easy and dangerous to generalize too rapidly.\nSweeping conclusions were sometimes deduced from single facts. He had himself had,\nas a student in an academy over which he once presided, a young man, aged twenty,\nwhose education, in the conventional school sense, had been wholly neglected until he was\nten or twelve years of age. Measured by the other pupils, this young man had not suffered\nin his education, for he was fully equal to the average student of his age, and, in fact, a\nlittle more than equal. Of course, it was impossible to tell what this young man would\nhave done if he had been educated in the ordinary way. On the other hand, he knew\npeople of fine cultivation who were put at their reading lessons, or who took up the subject for themselves, at an age so young that they could scarcely remember the time when\nthey did not know how to read. Nor would it be true to say these persons had short\nmemories. They had been perfectly able to read easy reading matter from the age of\nfour or five years, at most. Very much depended upon the child, as well as upon the\nteacher, and the method of instruction.\nWilliam E. Sheldon alluded to the fact that, in homes of cultivation and intelligence, many children learn to read unconsciously.\nJohn W. Cook thought it would be difficult to prevent children from learning to\nread at an early period.\nH. H. Seerley requested Miss Button to recall to the Council her testimony on this\nsubject, given at the meejing in Denver, in discussion of the subject \" Economy in Elementary Education.\"\nMiss Button added to this that, of a company of 200 pupils who had gained from\none to three years in their elementary course, 95 per cent, had learned to read at an\nexceptionally early age.\nJ. F. Millspaugh asked Miss Button if these children had had kindergarten training, and was told that they had not. Mr. Millspaugh stated that in the schools of Salt\nLake City exercises preparatory to reading were given the children at five and one-half\nyears.\nC. B. Gilbert emphasized the necessity of avoiding sameness and of holding the\nsympathy of the children in their work.\nMr. Cook asked Professor Fitz as to his approval of our ordinary school gymnastics.\nBr. Fitz replied that any exercise is valuable to a child which broadens his experiences.\n\nTHE\n\nNEW\n\nBY\n\nPSYCHOLOGY\nAND\nTHE\nPSYCHOLOGIST\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nJOSIAH\n\nROYCE,\n\nHARVARD\n\nCONSULTING\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nThere have been recently a number of discussions by very competent\nauthorities concerning the present situation and prospects of the various\nstudies and investigations that constitute what is often called the new\npsychology. It is perhaps presumptuous for me to undertake to add to\nthe contributions to this topic. But as a student of general philosophy,\n\n"}
{"page": 565, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nPSYCHOLOGY\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nCONSULTING\n\nPSYCHOLOGIST\n\n555\n\nand also as one interested in certain aspects of the new psychology itself,\nI have taken such interest in the recent controversies as to lead me to\nattempt, in the present paper, bojth a brief review of the general nature of\nour present problem, and a practical suggestion as to a way in which the\nnew psychology may be aided in obtaining a more satisfactory relation\nto the practical profession of the teacher.\nNo one familiar with the literature of any of the recent types of psychological investigation can doubt that much, both of novelty and of\nvalue, is constantly coming to light in the course of the newer studies of\nthe mental aspects of human nature. It is not surprising, therefore, that\nthose who have practically to deal with the management of human nature,\nand that, above all, the teaching profession, should be encouraged to\ncherish very high hopes as to the practical service which may be derived\nfrom these investigations. On the other hand, as has lately been pointed\nout by various authorities, a good many of these hopes concerning what\npsychology, in the present state of its development, can already do to\nsettle fundamental questions as to educational methods and ideals have\nbeen over-sanguine. The psychologist, whatever his specialty, has his\nown scientific tasks. The teacher, whatever his training, has his own\nplans, and must pursue, in the end, methods determined by these plans,\nand by numerous social interests with which the study of psychology may\nhave little or nothing to do. The teacher hopes too much if he ventures\nto anticipate that the scientific study of human nature can, of itself alone,\npredetermine the whole, or even the most fundamental part, of what the\nteacher himself has to seek as an ideal, or of what he has to use as means\nfor attaining that ideal. Over-sanguine hopes, however, may easily lead\nto correspondingly bitter disappointments. When you pursue a science\nfor its own sake, you do not thereby make it certain in advance that any\nspecific practical purpose is certain to follow from such discoveries as you\nhave made at any particular stage of your scientific research. This\nincongruity between the purposes of a science and the undertakings of\nan art is in other branches of human endeavor a familiar fact. The theoretical study of electricity went on for a long time before modern electrical engineering was in existence, or was even a very near and reasonable\nhope. Yet, in many such cases, patient waiting has been rewarded ; and,\njust as truly, over-hasty hopefulness has often been disappointed. Now,\nin the study of psychology, as it is at present going on, the situation\nat the moment is, in many respects, similar to the situation in physical\nscience when the electrical phenomena began to receive the attention\nthat they obtained during the first half of this century. Or, again, the\nsituation is somewhat similar to what it was in physiology at the outset of\nthe researches in experimental physiology that went on in the first half\nof the present century. Anyone duly acquainted with the present undertakings of modern psychology ought to agree that these undertakings\n\n"}
{"page": 566, "printed_page": null, "text": "556\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nmust in the end prove as important for our dealing with human nature as\nthose physical and physiological researches have proved in other modern\narts. But, on the other hand, it is perfectly true that the psychologists\nthemselves have a right to pursue these lines of research without being\ncontinually interrupted by over-hasty demands for practical results. It\nis equally true that no immediate and fundamental revolution in educational methods and ideals can be said to be warranted by what is at\npresent known thru the newer psychological researches. One who discusses the relation between psychology and education at the present time\nhas no right, therefore, to attempt to settle anything as a finality. For\nthe psychological science of today is simply no finality whatever. The\ntrue practical interest of such a discussion lies in attempting to consider\nhow, at the present time, and under the present temporary and rapidly\nchanging conditions, the teacher and the psychologist can best be brought\ninto co-operation.\n\nA closer approach to this question may first be made thru an attempt\nat a plain statement as to the general situation in psychology at the present day. Every discussion of the new psychology, and of its place in\neducation, seems to presuppose the thesis that there is a new psychology.\nThis thesis is undoubtedly, in some sense, correct. None the less is the\nwhole matter subject to a good deal of misunderstanding, and we may,\ntherefore, ask at once : In precisely what sense is there a new psychology\nat all ? In what sense was there an old psychology, which is now abandoned or superseded ? To these questions I find at present answers,\ncurrent and frequently repeated, which I think to be, nevertheless, wrong\nanswers. I refer, particularly, to two statements, both of which are not\nunknown in the recent literature of the subject. I will consider these\ntwo statements in order.\nThe first of these statements runs : There was once something in\nexistence and in favor which is henceforth to be known as the old or\nrational psychology. This psychology, so the statement in question\nruns, was concerned with the nature, the origin, the destiny of the human\nsoul, of the ego, of man as he is in himself. But, so the same statement\ncontinues, modern thought has somehow changed all this. We now no\nlonger study that old or rational psychology. We have given up trying\nto find out the true nature of man, or of the soul, or the true destiny and\nmeaning of our life. We now study nerve cells and reflexes, the knee\njerk, and the scatter-wittedness of children.'s minds. We take reaction\ntimes, and make tables of the statistics of fears, bad dreams, and color\nhearing. And this is the new psychology. This, in sum, is the first of\nthe two statements to which I have just referred. I summarize this statement in a somewhat crude form.\nBut what I mean is that the statement\n\n"}
{"page": 567, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nPSYCHOLOGY\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nCONSULTING\n\nPSYCHOLOGIST\n\n557\n\nin question, in any form, sets forth an essentially false antithesis. As a\nfact, no such change in the objects and interests of human thought has\ntaken place as this false antithesis implies.\nIt is true that once questions about the origin and destiny of the\nhuman ego — in other words, questions about man's place in the universe —\nwere current and favorite questions, current and favorite, namely, amongst\nbelievers in any form of the religious faith, amongst theologians of every\nschool, amongst philosophers of every seriously reflective and thorogoing group of philosophical investigators. That is true. It is also true\nthat precisely such questions are current today amongst precisely the\nsame types of persons. If you have any form of religious faith, you\nbelieve something about man's nature and destiny and place in the universe.\nIf you study a technical theology, you are interested in the statement and\ndefense of some such faith. ' If you have time and right to study philosophy, the principal part of your work as a student of metaphysical issues\nwill properly be devoted to precisely these questions. These questions,\nthen, are in no sense antiquated. They are not superseded. They are\nas modern, as human, as intensely fascinating, as rational as ever they were.\nThe human mind has precisely the same right to face ultimate issues that\never it had. And in facing these ultimate issues, if it of course seeks\nnew light, it also respects, uses, and depends upon types of insight that\nare very ancient. No new psychology, no other form of current doctrine,\nhas in the least changed this essential situation. So long as man is\ninterested in his own destiny, he will either believe or philosophize about\nultimate questibns. And when he has time and spirit for the undertaking,\nhe will have a right to philosophize, and neither neurology nor childstudy will ever interfere with rational attempts at a philosophy of mind.'\nIf such a philosophy of mind be what is meant by the old psychology, I\nreply that such \" old psychology \" is precisely as new and as interesting\ntoday to philosophers as ever it was.\nBut, meanwhile, I myself should maintain that no such philosophical\nstudy of ultimate questions has, of itself, any very direct bearing upon\nthe technical problems of educational methods, or upon the similarly\npractical problem of any other art. Philosophy notoriously bakes no\nbread. It is true, therefore, that the sort of psychology which can be\nof direct interest to the teacher will, in general, be empirical psychology.\nEmpirical psychology is an effort to understand, in as scientific a way as\npossible, the natural history, the facts and laws of the behavior, of man's\nmind, as they exist for our daily experience. And the study of the natural\nhistory of the human mind is itself in no wise dependent upon any particular philosophical or theological theory. The philosophical study of\nmane's nature and destiny is itself very distinct from the study of empirical psychology proper. But now this distinction is itself in no wise a\nnovel distinction.\nNor is the recognition of this distinction in any sense\n\n"}
{"page": 568, "printed_page": null, "text": "55^\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[National\n\npeculiarly modern. Aristotle already clearly distinguished the study of\nthe natural history of man in his physical, in his mental, and in his social\naspects, from the inquiry into metaphysical or ultimate philosophical and\ntheological problems. Empirical psychology, viewed as such, never has\nundertaken to solve ultimate philosophical issues. Like any special\nscience, it is a doctrine of whose inductions, when they are made, a wise\nphilosophy will take a fair account. So far, then, there is a true antithesis\nbetween the philosophy of mind and the empirical study of the contents\nand behavior of man's mind. But this antithesis is simply not one between\nthe old and the new. It is, mutatis mutandis, very much the kind of distinction of ofifice which exists between mathematics and the special physical sciences. A man who talked of mathematics in general as something\nto be called \"old,\" and who opposed what he called the old mathematics\nto what he called the new theory of electricity, and who said that one\nof these pursuits was destined to supersede the other, would be as ignorant of the business of science as are those who narrowly and absurdly\noppose- something said to be superseded, which they call the old or rational\npsychology (and which was and is nothing but the philosophical study of\nman's life), to something which they call the new psychology, which is\nmerely our best present effort to make out what we can about the natural\nhistory of the human mind. So much, then, for the first of our two statements of the antithesis between old and new in psychology.\n11\nThe second false statement which I wish to set aside defines the\nantithesis between the old and the new as follows : Once, says this statement, there existed a study of human nature which was exclusively introspective. The psychologist studied merely his own individual mind.\nThat was the psychology of the armchair. That was the old psychology.\nIt was pursued, says this statement, until very recently, say until Fechner,\nor until Herbert Spencer. The new psychology is not thus exclusively\nintrospective. It is experimental, or social, or physiological, or comparative. It forsakes the armchair and makes use of the laboratory, of the\ndissecting room, and of a wide observation of many beings with minds.\nNow, of course, the old psychology, being, according to this view, introspective, interested merely the individual psychologist, who edified himself and not the brethren. As the teacher has not amongst his own pupils\nthat particular old psychologist whose book used to be a classic, the\nteacher can be but little helped by that respectable person's study of\nhis own states of mind. Therefore the teacher must be exclusively\ninterested in the new psychology, since that psychology is not concerned\nwith any one man's states of mind, but with facts capable of a more universal verification.\nOnce more I have stated somewhat crudely the view that I oppose.\n\n"}
{"page": 569, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nPSYCHOLOGY\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nCONSULTING\n\nPSYCHOLOGIST\n\n559\n\nBut what I mean is that in any forno this statement is hopelessly unhistorical. It gives us a false antithesis. There has never been any notable\nstudy of human nature in its empirical aspects that was satisfied to be\nmainly introspective. Aristotle's psychology, as it appears in his treatise\non that subject, the first of all European treatises belonging to the field,\nis fundamentally a psycho-physical doctrine. Aristotle very carefully\nstates the psycho-physical program, and pursues it according to his light.\nHe uses introspection very much as a modern experimental psychologist\nwould do. His sources of psychological knowledge are on occasion\nmedical. They are very frequently, in the more general sense, biological.\nThey include an effort toward a study of comparative psychology. They\nmake especially prominent observations upon mankind in general. In\nthe ethical and political treatises of Aristotle such observation was pursued far into the social realm. Nor is the later psychology of the\nancients, nor is mediaeval psychology, at all exclusively introspective. To\ntake a notable instance, the famous doctrine of the faculties of the mind\nwas obviously derived from nobody's study of his own mind, but rather\nfrom the common social traditions about human nature embodied in the\ncurrent psychological vocabulary of language. These common social\ntraditions are the precipitate, so to speak, of generations of comments\npassed upon men by other men. In brief, one may simply defy students\nof psychology to point out where in the whole class history of man's\nefforts to understand the human mind an exclusively, or even mainly, introspective empirical psychology has ever existed, or even been attempted.\nThe common gossip of social intercourse, the more precise observation\nof the forms of social and of political life, the obviously psycho physical\ndoctrine of the temperaments — a doctrine absolutely inaccessible to pure\nintrospection- — these are typical cases illustrating the methods by which\nthe psychological study of the natural history of mind has always been\npursued. To quote one more special case, consider Locke's doctrines\nabout the intellect. The first book of Locke's Essay on the Hutnan\nUnderstanding is devoted to the famous onslaught on the doctrine of\ninnate ideas. As Locke pursues this argument, what are his sources of\npsychological information ? I reply, apart from their necessary crudity\nwhen criticised from our present point of view, Locke's sources have to be\ndefined as anthropology and child -study. Locke uses as empirical arguments travelers' reports about savages, and anybody's observations of\nchildhood. Is this an exclusively introspective psychology? Is this an\nespecially antiquated method of work ? To be sure, in the Scottish\nphilosophers you very frequently find, side by side with psychology, a\ngreat many investigations which depend upon what some people call\nintrospection, and upon what nobody should call empirical psychology.\nBut this other something in the works of such thinkers is philosophical\nreflection.\nIn such works empirical psychology and metaphysics are\n\n"}
{"page": 570, "printed_page": null, "text": "56o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[National\n\nfrequently very confusingly blended. But, in any case, philosophical reflection is something very different from the introspective observation of\nthe contents of one's own mind for purposes of natural history. Introspection, inthe psychological sense of that word, the relatively exclusive\nstudy of the contents of one's own mind for the sake of finding out the\nlaws of this mind, is a process that you find deliberately pursued in a\nvery few of the older works belonging to the literature of our subject.\nBut these works are not text-books of psychology'or independent investigations into the science as such. They are psychological autobiographies of greater or less value as documents. But in precisely this same\nsense introspection is present as a notable factor in the literature of\ntoday. In fact, there is much more autobiographical confession in modern literature than ever there was before. The introspection of St.\nAugustine has its representatives in the older literature, say by tens.\nThe introspection of Marie Bashkirtseff has, in the newer time, slain its\nthousands. And so much for the old and the new, as regards this i'spect\nof introspection. But if you ask whether the truly scientific psychologist\nof the present time has wholly abandoned introspection, then every\nrespectable text-book of recent psychology would show you how little\nthis is the case. In general, modern experimental psychology constantly\ninvolves the scientific pursuit of introspection under artificial conditions,\naccompanied, indeed, by a wide comparison of the reports of various\nobservers.\nIn brief, then, the second statement often current as to our antithesis\nis false. The old psychology was not exclusively, or even mainly, introspective. Itwas always, according to its light, psycho-physical, social,\nand comparative. It studied mind and body together, and observed\nindirectly as many minds as could be got under some sort of scrutiny.\nOn the other hand, the new psychology does not neglect a proper introspection, but gives to a due comparison of introspectively obtained\nresults an even more prominent place than the introspective ever\nobtained in the older psychologies.\nI have thus dealt with two false statements of the antithesis between\nthe old and the new psychological methods. Having set aside the false\nantithesis, it is easier to state in more practically valuable terms the\nnature of the true answer to our question, What is the new psychology ?\nRecent psychological study is separated by no chasm from the psychology of the past. It is a pursuit with vastly improved instruments, and\nwith vastly increased numbers of observers, and with greatly intensified\ntechnical training — a pursuit of the old study of the natural history of\nmind upon methods and with ideals everyone of which the past, according to its light, already in a very genuine sense anticipated. It is the\nfruit, therefore, of the past, just as it is a stage on the way to a higher\nfuture insight into how man's mind behaves, and into what he can best\n\n"}
{"page": 571, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nPSYCHOLOGY\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nCONSULTING\n\nPSYCHOLOGIST\n\n561\n\ndo to manage and to cultivate minds. Very imperfect is our knowledge\nabout all these matters at present. Perfectly worthless would be our\nknowledge, however, if we had. not the whole tradition of our older\nacquaintance with human nature to draw upon. And every sensible\npsychologist constantly uses that older tradition, constantly attempts to\nadd to it, and is a new psychologist merely in so far as he is at present\nable to use certain special instruments of research which were until\nrecently inaccessible. In the novel use of these special instruments lies\nwhat makes our psychology a new psychology.\nSo much for the situation of the moment. The new psychology is\nno mystery, no miracle, no wonder of- recent invention. The newer\nresearches have, indeed, been as fascinating in their details as they have\nthus far been incomplete as regards their theoretical results. Our empirical knowledge of human nature is still in its infancy. It has always been\nin its infancy. And so far the old and the new may, indeed, lie down\ntogether. Our knowledge of human nature is unquestionably growing.\nBut our scientific theories as to the natural history of the human mind\nhave not recently been in any thorogoing sense revolutionized. We\nknow a great deal more than Aristotle knew about the psycho-physical\nproblems that he already began to study, but our theoretical insight\ninto the fundamental laws of mind is still small. Nevertheless, if\none considers the worth of special researches, there is, indeed, a complex, and, in view of the great mass of details which the new instruments\nof research have recently- added, there is a relatively new empirical\npsychology. The power of this psychology to give final guidance to the\nteacher or to any other practical manager of the mind is very imperfectly\ndeveloped. Nevertheless, just because practical workers have constantly\nto do with details, rather than with theories, this vast collection of manifold details concerning the behavior of mind is full of suggestions that,\nfrom time to time, can prove of very considerable practical importance to\nthe teacher.\nIll\nThis being the general situation, the practical problem once more\nreduces to this : There is a great deal in the newer study of mind which\ncan be, and which ought to be, of practical service to the teacher. But\nthe new science is pursued for its own sake, just as the teacher's art is\ncarried on with reference to the teacher's own interest. The problem is\nto bring about a wholesome co-operation between pursuits related, but\njust now too much kept apart. What the teacher constantly desires is to\nget at the new psychology, to learn what it means, and what it has found\nout. If its results were already statable in definite theoretical form, the\napplication of the theory might become immediately possible. If the new\npsychology were in some perfectly clear and glaring contrast to the old,\n\n"}
{"page": 572, "printed_page": null, "text": "562\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[National\n\nsome equally striking revolution of practical methods might be expected\nto follow from it, and to be capable of definition. But since neither of\nthese things is so, since neither theoretical development nor novelty is\nas marked a feature of the new psychology as some hopeful accounts would\nimply, the teacher in general no sooner approaches the new science than\nhe is baffled by its wealth and by its puzzle, while the new psychologist no\nsooner endeavors to guide the teacher than he is obliged to show by his\nmysterious manner and wonderfully constructed sentences that what he\nmost desires to impart is still in the main simply unspeakable. As a fact,\nI myself feel that at present the relation between the students of the\nnewer psychology and the teachers of our country is not yet a very healthy\nrelation. I myself have been for two or three years temporarily the chairman of a philosophical department in my university. As such I have\nhad to consider the hopes and difficulties of a number of young men\nentering upon their profession as psychologists. I have felt very much\nconcerned about the harassing and painful situation in which some of\nthem are at present put. I have feared sometimes lest the public misunderstandings asto what their profession may do or ought to do for\nteachers might result in the end in injury to the success of these ardent\ninvestigators. I believe profoundly in the study of that psychology\nwhich, in the sense just pointed out, is indeed new, since, without breaking\nwith the past, it is constantly renewing its use. But one of the missions\nof the public, whenever it feels a strong need for a good thing, seems to\nbe to do all sorts of deeds to hinder the fulfillment of its own ends, and\nto confuse those who are trying to help it. I feel, then, disposed to\nsuggest what at the moment is too often the situation in which the young\npsychologist innocently and painfully finds himself.\nThe psychological investigators, and especially the younger psychological investigators in our laboratories, are, for one thing, just now in\nthe position common to men who are forced to win a hearing by somewhat magnifying their own office. If empirical psychology is not new,\nthe laboratories are new, and they are unquestionably very valuable and\nadmirable means for the advance of the science. Attention, however,\nhas to be attracted to these laboratories. The attention and support of\nsuch practical people as the teachers are very valuable for the young\npsychologist. He, in his turn, is sanguine. He is devoted to his calling.\nHe hopes that whatever interests him can be made to interest everybody ;\nand so he is disposed, if not to make very large promises to teachers, at\nleast to make very considerable calls upon their time and patience. In\nconsequence, the teachers who are under his influence are frequently led\nto hope that whatever happens in his laboratory may, in some wise,\npretty directly contribute to the establishment of sound methods in\neducation, to the saving of souls, or to the answering of all those countless practical questions that seem so frequently, in the average teacher's\n\n"}
{"page": 573, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nPSYCHOLOGY\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nCONSULTING\n\nPSYCHOLOGIST\n\n5^3\n\nmind, to demand an immediate solution. Hence, the teachers look more\nor less wonderingly toward the laboratory. And the man in the laboratory is more or less stimulated,- and, I fear, sometimes more or less distracted, by these calls from another profession. Thus stimulated and\nthus hopeful, he of course longs to help everybody. Distracted by the\nexternal calls for aid upon matters which perhaps do not directly concern\nhim at all, he tends to undertake the solution, not indeed of everything,\nbut of most of the things that the teachers desire him to solve. Meanwhile the young psychologist feels that the teachers have countless facts\nwhich they might furnish to aid him in his researches. These facts are\noccurring in the schoolroom or elsewhere, but, so far, not in the laboratory. Perhaps the psychologist thinks that these facts can be got\nindirectly into the laboratory by means of the now well-known syllabus.\nThe syllabus asks questions and furnishes a blank which the teachers,\naccording to their lights, are to fill out in such wise as to indicate the\ncontents of the minds of their children. But the psychologist in the\nlaboratory cannot well control the scientific use of the syllabus by persons outside of the laboratory. Lacking himself the time for an adequate\npersonal study of children in schoolrooms, the laboratory psychologist is,\nconsequently, too often left dependent on the observation of unskilled\npersons for far too many of his data. Meanwhile the syllabus, often inexpertly used and filled out, thru the busy teacher's aid, may have led to\nmuch waste of time in the schoolroom. It may also tend to produce in\nthe end a feeling of disappointment in the teacher's own mind. Countless\nso-called facts go on record, but the results are still to wait for. The\nsyllabus comes, but wisdom lingers. The teacher, too, lingers on the\nshore of psychology ; and, somehow or other, the entire situation begins\nto get a painfulness of which we have recently heard many echoes.\nOr perhaps the young psychologist does not use the syllabus. He\nrather plans to bring his instruments to the schoolroom, or, on occasion,\nthe school children to his laboratory. Both undertakings are frequently\nthoroly justified. But, in any case, experiments pursued under such conditions are subject to a double criticism. The laboratory psychologist\nproperly desires these experiments for theoretical purposes. The teacher\ndesires them to be at once and directly of practical significance. It is\ntrue that the combination of these two interests has been in some cases\nnotably very easy. But in other cases it may be of great difficulty. And\nthe psychologist in his laboratory may find it hard to acquire sufficient\nexperience of the schoolroom and its problems to adjust these conflicts\nwhen they arise. He is led to making vast promises. The teachers\nremain promise-crammed. That is, so far ; too often, for the time being,\nall. As a fact, the young psychologist ought not to be distracted by this\ndemand for immediate practical application. On the other hand, the\nteachers ought not to be asked to give extra time to contribute to the\n\n"}
{"page": 574, "printed_page": null, "text": "564\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nadvance of purely scientific interests. They need to get direct practical\nbenefits. And yet at present these two bodies, whose interests, if related,\nare so diverse, ought to be made to co-operate ; while the co-operation is\nstill left to the ingenuity and social adroitness of a busy young laboratory\nman, who has recently obtained his doctor's degree, who has the whole\nproblem of his career before him, who has to teach college classes, to\ninterest the general public in his science, to contribute papers to the\npsychological journals and, perhaps, to keep up polemic relations with\nhis metaphysical colleagues, at the very moment when the teachers desire\nhim to give them infallible advice, and when he himself is longing to\nfind out something about what goes on in the schoolroom as well as in\nany other place where human nature displays itself. Now, I say that this\nsituation involves altogether too great a demand upon the young psychologist. If he frequently fails wholly to satisfy the demand, if his polemical essays have a somewhat hectic tone, if his promises to the public have\na somewhat crude vagueness, the fault is very frequently not his, but the\nresult of the unfortunate situation in which his profession and the public\nstill place him. Now, if we do not better this situation, we shall all suffer.\nAnd the remedy lies, not in trying to ignore the new psychology, nor\nmerely in telling the teachers that they have nothing to hope from its\nwork. The remedy lies precisely where experience has so often shown\nthat, in similar cases, the difficulties of too complicated a situation are to\nto be met.\nThe remedy lies in a new division of labor.\nOne who attempts to define a relatively new practical office is subject,\nat the present day, to the easy criticism that we already have too many\nofficials. It seems, indeed, unnecessary to create an office for a man until\nyou already have a man for the office. But, in case of the recommendation that I now propose to make, it seems to me that we already have\nboth the men and the practical need for the office. The situation of the\nstudents of the new psychology is one which needs to obtain relief. The\nsituation of the teachers who desire to get at the new psychology is one\nwhich needs to receive assistance. From both sides comes the call for\nthe official whose office I shall try, as I close, to define. Already, in a\nnumber of cases, young laboratory psychologists of sufficient skill and\nenergy have actually made the tasks which I have in mind their principal\nbusiness. Already, in case of certain special public institutions, as in\nschools for defective children, an office substantially identical with the\none that I have in mind has been recognized. What I wish is to suggest\nthat the recognition and definition of the proposed office should be made\nsystematic, and that its importance as a means of contributing toward\nbringing about a true relation between modern psychology and modern\neducation should be recognized.\nI think, then, that the time is ripe for the recognition of a new kind\nof intermediate scholar and official, whose business it shall be to mediate\n\n"}
{"page": 575, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nCouncil]\n\nPSYCHOLOGY\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nCONSULTING\n\nPSYCHOLOGIST\n\n565\n\nbetween the teaching profession and the work of the laboratory psychologist. Mypractical proposal is that in our large cities, and later in\nother places, there shall appear in the office of the superintendent of\ninstruction a person whom I shall venture to call a consulting psychologist. He should be a well-equipped, modern, experimental psychologist,\nwith a thoro university training, with skill as a laboratory investigator,\nbut, after he once accepts his office, with the resonsibilities and duties of\na decidedly practical man. He should be well versed in what our better\ninstitutions have to offer in the way of the general study of the art of\neducation. He shall also, if possible, have had himself some experience\nas a practical teacher. But he shall not, on the other hand, be a professor of pedagogy. He shall not be responsible for teaching psychology\nto college classes, or to anybody else, excepting so far as the spirit moves\nhim to discuss his science with the teachers of his city. He shall, indeed,\nconsult, but he shall not be regarded as anybody's final and authoritative\nofficial adviser, infallible or otherwise. If possible, he shall never be\ncalled \"professor.\" He shall have no authority over the organization of\nschools or the determination of school methods. But this shall be his office\nand his responsibility, namely : to find out, so far as that may be possible,\nand with a minimum of interference with the ordinary work of any school,\nwhatever it is possible and worth while for the teacher and the trained\npsychologist together t6 know concerning the mental states and processes present in the children of the schools of his city. In other words,\nbis official task shall be simply investigation and report upon those facts\nconcerning the school children of his city which are at once of a psychological character and of practical interest.\nTime would, of course, fail me in this connection to attempt to set\nforth, with any sort of fullness, what classes of facts answering to this\ndefinition may be regarded as already accessible, in the schoolroom, in\ncase the trained psychologist is from time to time present to direct their\ncollection. The recent literature in praise of the virtues and the hopes of\nthe new psychology has already had a great deal to say about these classes\nof facts. For instance, at the moment, a great deal of discussion is going\non concerning the phenomena of fatigue in the schoolroom, and concerning the influence of fatigue upon the intellectual work of children.\nThe difficulty with all these later investigations of fatigue is that they are\nat present in a stage which forbids the inexpert person to form any\nindependent judgment about the worth of the methods of investigating\nfatigue or about the practical results of such investigation. The whole\nsubject is in a transition state. Yet there can be little doubt that work by\nexperts, when practically controlled by the presence and the plans of\npractical teachers, would rapidly tend to reach results that would be more\nor less tentatively applicable for educationl purposes. The development\nof the study of fatigue in its practical relation will never be rapid and\n\n"}
{"page": 576, "printed_page": null, "text": "566\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[National\n\nwholesome, unless theoretical students and practical workers co-operate ;\nnor can one hope for sufficient attention to be given to these investigations on the part of the possible medical inspectors of our schools. The\nphenomena\n\nin question are largely, and, in some cases, very subtly, psychological. Athoro investigation of them can be hoped for only from\nthose who are primarily interested in mental life as such. One need\nentertain no exaggerated hopes concerning the revolutionary effect of\nsuch study, if one believes, as a matter of plain sense, that much will be\ngained if the psychologist and the teacher have the opportunity to consult together concerning the accessible facts, and concerning the methods\nof work, as they from time to time develop. Yet nobody but a psychologist whose time is principally devoted to consultation with teachers\ncan have at his disposal time sufficient for such useful investigation.\nIf the phenomena of fatigue form thus one of the general fields of\npossible investigation, there are other fields that even more obviously and\ndirectly both interest the teacher and puzzle the psychologist.\nGood\nand bad spelling ; the countless sorts of good and bad memory ; the mental\neffects of physical exercise ; the psychological relation of manual training to\nother parts of the school work ; the increase of skill with the use of this or of\nthat method of training in arithmetic, or in some other branch of school\nwork; the phenomena of school excitements, rumors, occasional mutinies,\nand the like ; the psychological relations of various methods of school\ndiscipline; the presence and the variety of the psychologically interest\ning temperamental differences amongst the school children ; all these\nare instances of classes of facts already accessible in useful ways to expert\npsychological observation.\nNone\nof these classes of phenomena are\nexclusively related to the study of exceptional or of morbid children.\nThe matters thus far on our list may also be studied more or less statistically and in relation to large numbers of children at once. The interest\nof all these classes of phenomena, both for the psychologist and for the\nteacher, is easily recognized.\nYet there is nobody at present whose official\nbusiness it is to study them at once with professional expertness and\nwith a strongly practical interest.\nNeither by the use of the syllabus,\nnor thru occasional invasions of the schoolroom by the overworked college teacher of psychology, nor by the equally sporadic visits of medical\ninspectors, will such facts come to get the sort of examination that they\nneed. To interest teachers in such classes of facts is, indeed, useful in its\nown place and time.\nBut the teachers are not sufficiently expert in\npsychology to make successful study of that fact for themselves.\nIn\nconsequence, at present we are left to crude observation or to loose generalization bythe practical teachers, on the one hand, and to laboratory\ninvestigations or to statistical collections of far too theoretical an interest,\non the other.\nThe consulting psychologist, working from time to time\nin the schoolroom, and engaged along with the teacher in investigating\n\n"}
{"page": 577, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nPSYCHOLOGY\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nCONSULTING\n\nPSYCHOLOGIST\n\n567\n\nsuch facts, is the person needed at present to bridge over the gulf\nwhich separates the two professions, whose co-operation is now so desirable, but often apparently so hopeless, an ideal.\nThe term \"consulting psychologist\" suggests, however, at once, to\nmany minds the thought of a person specially interested in the more\npathological problem of the schoolroom. And, of course, I should be\ndisposed to expect that our consulting psychologist would, indeed, be\nmuch interested in precisely these problems also. I should merely\nbe unwilling to confine his work, or the prospects of his success, to the\nfield of the study of exceptional phenomena. The psychology of the\nhealthy is in itself more practically important than the psychology of the\nmorbid ; and I do not wish my consulting psychologist to be conceived\nmerely as a student of the defective and disordered school children.\nNevertheless, it is true that the study of defect and disorder of any grade\ncould be carried on in a useful way by our consulting psychologist in\nconnection with the rest of his task. And here he could co-operate with\nand supplement the work of the medical inspector. Defects of sense\norgan might easily attract his attention, when they had escaped the attention of others. Extraordinary forms of naughtiness or of stupidity\nmight yield their secret to him, when the medical man had not had time\nor interest to advise the teacher concerning the nature of the defect.\nThe various sorts of liars who appear at different ages in many schools\nwould frequently be proper persons for the study of the consulting psychologist. Obstinacy, eccentricity, precocity, all these characteristics,\nwhere they occur, would interest him, and would be a topic for useful\nconsultation between him and the teacher. As our theoretical knowledge\nof the meaning of such phenomena increases, the consulting psychologist would be responsible for knowing the progress of his science, and\nfor applying it to the schools with which he had to do.\nBut most important it is, for my present purpose, to insist upon the\nfact that, at all events in the present state of the science, my consulting\npsychologist, as I conceive him, would be a searcher for facts much more\nthan a director of other people's methods. He would not be an authoritative adviser in any such sense as that in which the medical inspector may be\nan adviser. The decision as to what has to be done in a given case involves\nas much the practical experience of the teacher as the scientific wisdom\nof the psychologist. The consultation would always include both the\nconsulting parties in a very effective way. The investigations conducted\nby the consulting psychologist would always be subject to the direct\ncriticism of his superintendent, of his school board, and of the teachers\nwhom he both serves and, within the range of his own skill, enlightens.\nThe false impression now existing that, if psychology means anything, the\npsychologist can infallibly direct the teacher, would tend to pass away at\nthe very moment when an intimate relation between the two made each\n\n"}
{"page": 578, "printed_page": null, "text": "568\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Nationa\n\nserviceable to the other. My consulting psychologist cannot say : \"Great\nis science, and we, the prophets of science, are verifying this or that\ntheory, and you, the teachers, must wait until we have, some day, shown\nyou the value of it all.\" The consulting psychologist will cultivate\nmodesty along with his efficiency, and will avoid mystery the more he\nbecomes useful. His daily speech will be plain ; and in his \"pedagogical\nseminaries,\" if ever they come to exist, the sentences used will be as\nstraightforward as those now customary amongst practical workers. He\nwill be directly responsible for pointing out to the practical people with\nwhom he is associated verifiable facts present in their schoolrooms, and\nfacts capable of being advantageously used by them and in their art. Such\na consulting psychologist, relieved from the heavy duty of expounding\nhis science as college teacher, of contributing to its theoretical advances,\nof converting the public, and of dealing with the theologian, all at once —\nrelieved, I say, of all these heavy burdens, would be able, by reason of\nthe very limitations of his task, to contribute in the end what might often\nprove the most universal as well as the most practical interests both of\nteachers and psychologists.\nIn fine, my consulting psychologist would occupy a place that would\ngrow progressively more important, when once progressive young men\nwere given a start in the calling. Collector and reporter of facts about\nthe minds of school children, he would tend to be a discreet and cautious\ninvestigator, because he would work constantly under fire. Expert in\nhis work, and limited as to the field of its application, he would be able\nto prevent the waste of time now frequently involved in the pursuit of\nchild-study by psychologically inexpert teachers. He would be near\nenough to control the sort of child-study that it is worth while to pursue\nin given schools. He could be constantly consulted as to how to make\nthis or that child-study investigation exact. He would venture upon distributing no syllabus, unless he could pretty clearly show to his own\nsuperintendent and teachers why their practical needs were furthered by\njust such an inquiry. On the other hand, he could distinctly represent\nto the teacher the interests and the dignity of the truly scientific study\nof psychology.\nAs to his practical influence, that he would obtain in proportion to\nhis strength. But he would lack that infallibility which sometimes seems\nto hedge the college professor — yes, to hedge him in, until somebody\ndetects that it is only a false infallibility, and until people then, with false\nreaction, forsake altogether the studies that have disappointed them. As\nfor the actual daily usefulness of the consulting psychologist as a person\npresent in the superintendent's office, I have been told by a prominent\ncity superintendent of this country that in his own office a great part of\nthe actual work is, as he expressed it, psychological, since so many of the\nproblems that come to his office are psychological.\nOnce get such a\n\n"}
{"page": 579, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nPSYCHOLOGY\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nCONSULTING\n\nPSYCHOLOGIST\n\n569\n\ngood consulting psychologist into the schools of the city, and the superintendent would prize him, the school children would love his visits, and\nthe teachers, I may say, would constantly, and, I may venture to add, even\nardently, surround him. Meanwhile he would be in no sense priest or\nprophet. He would be investigator, investigator of what was practically\nworth knowing about the minds of children in that city. In his turn he\nwould constantly be able to pass over contributions to the professional\ncollege psychologist in the laboratory. The latter, for his part, would be\nrelieved of the arduous duty of constantly providing milk for all the\npsychological babes of his community, whatever their calling, while from\nthe work of the consulting psychologist the theoretical psychologist\nwould, in the end, derive numerous and fruitful scientific contributions.\nThe new calling would thus contribute both to the organization of psychological research and to the practical application of such research to\nthe work of the teacher.\nWhile no immediate revolution of methods would follow from the\nservices of the new official, the practical and daily value of properly\nadapting psychological research to practical needs would be shown to\nteachers thru the person and work of the consulting psychologist. And\nthen we should no longer hear this unhappy question concerning the old,\nor rational, and the new psychology, since all, from the least unto the\ngreatest in the teaching profession, would know that the only psychology\nworthy of the distinctive name of empirical psychology is neither old\nnor new exclusively, and is always both old and new, and is best called\nsensible psychology. It is destined to be as useful to the teacher as his\npractical skill and tact can learn to make its results, when the expert\nexhibits these results.\nIf one asks whether good, young consulting psychologists could even\nnow be obtained, I answer, unhesitatingly, yes. There are in this country\nmore than half a dozen universities already well equipped to train such\nmen. If one asks whether the useful consulting psychologist would be\na very expensive luxury, I answer that he could be obtained easily,\naccording to his age and experience, at from $1,500 a year upward. If\none asks whether such a man would have to be a great genius in order\nto be serviceable, I answer at once, no. In the present condition of\npsychology, any really well-trained young man of sense, a graduate of a\nfirst-class university course in his subject, when once at work in the city\nschools, could show the teachers, in six months, more about the practical\nrelations of empirical psychology and teaching than these teachers will\never get out of years of those dreary general courses of public lectures\non pedagogical psychology which our teachers nowadays so pathetically\ncrowd, and so self-sacrificingly support. I speak advisedly and as a\nlecturer, when I say this. Many shall run to and fro, and knowledge\nshall be increased, and of the making of many lectures there will doubt-\n\n"}
{"page": 580, "printed_page": null, "text": "570\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nless be no end. But in this field, as in any other, it is, after all, as everybody knows, work that counts, and not talk. And the work that teachers\nwant done by psychology for them is discreet, practical work, done from\ntime to time in the schoolroom, by a trained psychologist, who knows\nwhat he is doing in his science, and who wants to help the teachers see\nin their schoolroom facts worth seeing.\nAnd that is what, as a poor metaphysician, whose practical wits are, of\ncourse, dull, I may venture at the moment to say about a way to bring\nour rich and progressive educational life into a closer study and truer\nrelation to what in a proper sense is to be called the new study of psychology.\n\nRATIONAL\nBY. W. T. HARRIS,\n\nPSYCHOLOGY\nUNITED\n\nSTATES\n\nFOR\n\nTEACHERS\n\nCOMMISSIONER\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION\n\nThe president of this Council has courteously asked me to present a\nshort paper on the value of rational psychology for teachers. I have\ngladly consented, because I place a high estimate on its worth. I shall\ntry, therefore, to describe as concisely as possible what is understood by\nthe expression rational psychology, and discriminate it from other psychology, and, after that, to tell something about what it claims to do, and\npoint out its use in education.\nFirst, what is meant by rational psychology ? To this question the\nreply is that, while psychology in general includes all observations on\nthe operations of the soul or mind, these operations fall into two classes,\nnamely, transitory activities on the one hand, and the permanent forms,\nor laws, that govern those activities. The former order, the transient\nactions, flow on in a perpetual stream, each one replacing another. But\nthe stream abides, and so, too, do its essential forms. We turn our\nattention from the flitting events, or actions, and look upon the form of\nactivity, and then we come to see general conditions, or laws, that govern\nthe particular events in consciousness. The famous philosopher Wolf,\nwho systematized the ideas of Leibnitz and reduced them to pedagogic\nform for the universities of Germany, named the former observation, that\nof the transient actions, empirical psychology, while he named the latter\nspecies of observation rational psychology, sometimes calling it metaphysical or transcendental psychology. While empirical psychology contained the classification of the particular mental facts under certain general\nheads, such as cognition, feeling, will, and other anthropological and\nethnological characteristics, on the other hand, rational psychology would\ntreat of the fundamental distinctions in the soul, such as its personality,\nits freedom, and its immortal destiny.\n\n"}
{"page": 581, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nRATIONAL\n\nPSYCHOLOGY\n\nFOR\n\nTEACHERS\n\n57 1\n\nLeibnitz had shown, in his New Essay» on the Human Understanding,\nhow to find these traits of the soul, and he had called the mental\nact by which they are known -apercevoir instead of percevoir — apperception instead of perception. We perceive mental things and events,\nbut we apperceive the nature of the mind itself. Leibnitz would, therefore, have defined rational psychology as covering apperception, while\nthe field of perception belongs to empirical psychology.\nThe philosopher Kant, in his transcendental deduction of the categories, has spoken of the synthetical unity of apperception, and declared\nit to be the highest principle of the understanding. He evidently had\nin mind the thought of Leibnitz.\nAgain, Herbart has borrowed this doctrine of apperception from\nLeibnitz, thru Kant, and extended its application to all recognition, interpretation, and explanation, making it the fundamental activity of the\nmind to seize ideas and adjust them to the stock of ideas already on\nhand. Rational psychology deals especially with this apperceiving\npower, by which it explains the transient facts and events by referring\nthem to the energies of the soul that produce them.\nLet us illustrate this further : Space, time, and causality are apperceived, but not perceived. They belong to rational psychology, and not\nto empirical psychology. But they furnish the logical conditions that\nmake plain the relations of events observed by empirical psychology.\nWe observe a succession of events ; we are able to do it only by the idea\nof time. We observe a thing and its environment, but we are able to do\nthis only by the idea of space. We observe a change in an object ; the\nidea of substance makes this possible, for the thing before and after its\nchange has preserved some identity, and this identity is substance. We\nthink the change as an effect only by thinking of a cause as something\nactive that produced the change. The change belongs to the order of\neffect, and is dependent, but the cause must be thought as active and\noriginating. The nucleus of the idea of cause is, therefore, selfactivity.\nAgain, space and time involve infinitude. They are self-continuous.\nEvery limitation thought in them implies space or time to exist in, and,\ntherefore, continues space or time, instead of limiting it.\nLooking anew at this process, we find that perception furnishes thing\nand environment, but apperception furnishes space as the logical condition, and infinitude as its form.\nWhile perception furnishes the event, apperception, in the sense\nLeibnitz used it, furnishes infinite time as the logical condition of any\nand all events. Perception furnishes a change or movement, apperception furnishes the idea of causal energy and makes it to be an\noriginator of new modifications in the world. This is the idea of selfactivity.\n\n"}
{"page": 582, "printed_page": null, "text": "572\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nRational psychology, following out this thought, arrives at the ideas\nof freedom and responsibility, and can explain the facts of social experience— the return of the deed upon the doer, and the growth of conscience. For conscience has this significance that the individual man\nrecognizes himself as a transcendental ego, originating modifications in\nhis environment, causing new chains of causal relation to take the place\nof old ones. More than this, his conscience involves the recognition of\nother free wills than his own. He thinks these other free wills and unites\nthem to his own course of action, and thereby makes their will his own,\nand thus ascends toa social willj This is a great conquest for rational\npsychology, perhaps the greatest of all its conquests. For in seeing the\nmoral will it gets a glimpse of the conditions of absolute being. It is, in\nfact, able to say with confidence that the absolute being itself is ethical.\nBecause it would forever destroy the results of its creative activity, unless\nit were altruistic and possessed what the psalmist calls loving kindness.\nBut rational psychology has shown clearly that, if it were not altruistic, an\nabsolute mind could not exist. It could not be conscious of itself, it\nwould destroy all self-objectivity, and hence would not be self-determined.\nIt follows that it could not even exist.\nThe great thinker Hegel reached this insight in 1806, when he wrote\nhis Phenomenology of Mind. The last two chapters show that the consciousnes ofthe free will is an act of absolute knowing. In the Christian\nconsciousness — yes, even in the Hebrew consciousness of the Old Testament, as reached in the Psalms — man has come to know the nature of\nabsolute, self-determined, independent being. Hegel called this book\nhis voyage of discovery. This has been a puzzle to his disciples. It is\nonly on applying the key of his logic that one comes to see what Hegel\nsaw on his voyage, namely this : that there is no independent being\nnot self-determined ; no independent being not an intellect and will ; no\nintellect and will that does not find its perfect ideal in goodness or\naltruism. After his Phenomenology he could write his logic, and show\nthat every category, except the ethical idea, is inadequate for independent being.\nRational psychology, it is evident, is founded on the insight of Plato\ninto the self-moved one. Individual immortality follows as a logical\nconsequence of this insight. For without it the divine self-knowing\nwould not be a knowing of its own substantiality and independence. It\nis not strange, therefore, that Plato wrote the Phmdon and the tenth book\nof The Laws. Nor is it strange that with this insight Aristotle could\nwrite the Nichomachean Ethics and the seventh chapter of the twelfth\nbook of the Metaphysics. Those writings of Plato and Aristotle, together\nwith the Nouveaux Essais of Leibnitz, the Contra Gentiles of St, Thomas,\nKant's Critique of Practical Reason, and Hegel's Phenomenology, are the\nfinest parts of the literature of rational psychology.\n\n"}
{"page": 583, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nRATIONAL\n\nPSYCHOLOGY\n\nFOR\n\nTEACHERS\n\n573\n\nThe ethical ideal is the summit of rational psychology, but art and\nliterature, too, borrow their ideals from it. For it furnishes the standard by which works of arts, whether in poetry, music, painting, sculpture,\nor in architecture, are measured. Do they express perfect freedom, and\nthe negation of selfish exclusion, they but reveal the highest ideal found\nby rational psychology. If they portray the crushing out of human\nindividuality by the world-power, they pronounce judgment against\nthemselves.\nFormal logic is counted apart from psychology, and yet it is one of\nthe most important chapters in ■ rational psychology. The discovery of\nthe three figures of the syllogism and the valid modes for deductive\nreasoning by Aristotle revealed the structure of the mind as a process of\nknowing by inference.\nBut rational psychology, besides this structure of the syllogism, has\ndone a better thing in showing the three stages of knowing. This was\none of Plato's best contributions. In the tenth book of his Laws is found\none of the many discussions which lead up to the third stage of knowing.\n\" All kinds of motion,\" says he, \" may be reduced to two, motion thru\nanother and self-motion,\" and it is clear to him that self-motion is the\nbasis and foundation of motion thru another.\nThe lowest stage of knowing sees things without their essential relations, or at least it has only a slight glimpse of these relations. As it\ngrows stronger, it passes into the second stage of knowing, when it comes\nto see that every thing or event is relative, depending on an environment\nof things and events. Then it pronounces all knowledge to be knowledge of phenomenal being ; mere show or appearance, and not true reality.\nBut with the operation called apperception by Leibnitz it sees the conditions of true being, and knows pure self-activity as the fundamental existence. It sees that all things that exist, whether transient or permanent,\nare to be explained by and thru it, and that this forms the .third stage of\nknowing, the knowing which Plato called knowing by totals, and Aristotle\ncalled theoria.\nThese three stages of knowing are variously named. The first may\nbe called that of sense-perception — it knows sense objects and supposes\nthem to be independent. The second stage may be called that of the\nunderstanding — it acknowledges the relativity of all things. They are\nmutually interdependent. Like the waves of the ocean, their individuality isonly a seeming one. They are really swallowed up in the sea of\nbeing. But the third stage of knowing, the fundamental principle of\nPlato and his philosophic followers, uses the insight into self-activity.\nIt knows with perfect certainty that any whole or total of being is a personal mind.\nIt is an interesting theme in rational psychology to note the relation of the mind to the world of experience in the three stages of knowing.\n\n"}
{"page": 584, "printed_page": null, "text": "574\n\nNATIONAL\n\nIn the first the mind\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nis dependent on the objects perceived for its\n\ncontent. In the second, with the doctrine of relativity i't has freed itself\nfrom experience by arriving at a negative first principle. The ocean of\npure being swallows up all the data of experience ; they are merely phenomenal. Freed from the data of experience the third stage of knowing\ndiscovers the true conditions of all existence to be found in mind as perfect, self-active being. Life is self-active being of a lower order than\nconscious knowing.\nThe plant is lower than the animal.\nThe third stage of knowing alone can correctly interpret the world of\nsense-perception, for it explains all its forpiations and transformations as\nsteps in the realization of mind. A perfectly altruistic mind has made a\nschoolhouse, time, and space. In this schoolhouse it has set up a school\nof training in individuality. The mineral, the plant, the animal are all\nat school training for individuality and independence. As the intellect\nand will become perfect, goodness and righteousness become more and\nmore the goal of the conscious intellect. With the perfect intellect there\nwould be realized a theodicy.\nGod's ways would be justified.\nRational psychology is not a substitute for empirical psychology ; still\nless is empirical psychology a substitute for rational psychology. The\nknowledge of ideals, the unital purpose of all education, is given to the\nteacher by rational psychology. It shows him the ladder of ideas and\nstages of thought up which he is to climb with his pupils. He will not\nrest contented in the first stage of knowing, nor in the second. He will\nteach all things in the spirit of the third stage.\nBut the concrete bodily conditions, the pathology of education, must\nbe learned from empirical psychology. The rate of progress in studies,\nthe amount of drill which will not arrest development, but hasten it, the\nidiosyncrasies that may accelerate or retard growth, the diseases of the\nsense organs, the code of health — these and their like must be learned\nfrom empirical psychology, borrowing its standards, however, from\nrational psychology. For without these standards of progress a lower\norder of activity is just as good as a higher order.\nThe real, just as it is, is not the true norm. Empirical investigation\ncan tell us what is, but not what ought to be.\nRational psychology can give to the teacher that higher apperception\nof which Leibnitz has told us. Empirical psychology cannot give us the\napperception, but it can give us the facts and instances which need apperception. It can bake bread, but it cannot give us a knowledge of God,\nfreedom, and immortality.\nWe need not ask the question which is the more profitable, as Novalis\ndid, for we must have our daily bread, and use it for the procurement of\nhigher things.\n\n"}
{"page": 585, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council!\n\nDISCUSSION\n\nSCHOOL\n\nMAINTENANCE\n\nOF REPORT\nSCHOOL\n\nON RURAL\n\n575\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nMAINTENANCE\n\nA. S. Draper opened the discussion of theses found on pp. 53 and 54 of the report,\nand expressed hearty appreciation of the thoroness and candor of the report, and the\nlogical reasoning for its conclusions.\nW. E. Sheldon believed the state should control, and that the small unit of the\ndistrict was too liable to fail to accomplish the best results in administration.\nDr. John T. Prince, of Massachusetts, stated that, while Massachusetts has no centralized system, it does not need the centralized system in operation in some other states.\nLocal taxation gauges the degree of efficiency, the degree of taxation which the\nlocal communities are willing to give themselves, the effectiveness of the schools. We\nmust rely on the intelligence of the community ; and we must keep active those forces\nwhich cultivate this sentiment.\nIn this' work we must look to the teachers.\nThere is, it is true, too much petty politics, leading to the employment of personal\nfriends. We believe no teacher should be employed who has not certain qualifications —\nthe equivalent of a graduation from a state normal school of at least two years ; and\nthat no teacher should receive less than Jj!500.\nEllen C. Sabin. — In the state of Wisconsin we have been under the district system.\nWe are working toward a larger unit. We find that our country schools are too largely\nin the condition described in the report.\nMr. Hinsdale said the taxing unit must be such as can be carried ; the question is\nvery different in different states.\nE. Oram Lyte asked if a percentage unit can be established.\nR. G. Boone thought the percentage would constantly change.\nMr. Hinsdale, in closing the discussion on \" School Maintenance,\" said it was easy\nto overdo system, assuming that, if the system were right, everything would be well. He\nbelieved in system, that is, in good system, but no system, however good, was worth\nanything unless it was well worked. Efficiency — results — was the standard. For\nexample, altho he had firmly fixed ideas about the organization of city schools, he would\nnot think of disturbing an organization that was now working well, because it did not\nconform to his theoretical ideas. The man who would do so was a doctrinaire ; while he\navowed himself to be an opportunist — provided he was allowed to define the word —\nhe did not mean, necessarily, that the small unit should go first ; he meant only that the\nsmall unit should certainly contribute its share, and that such contribution should be made\ncompulsory.\nThe relative merits of rural and urban schools were not altogether an easy question.\nThere was, however, reason to think that the advantages sometimes claimed for rural\nschools should really be carried to the credit side of another account.\nCountry life, communication with nature, close contact with real things, were most\nwholesome and helpful in the development of character, and often overcame defects of\nschool education ; but the real question was whether some of the good features of the\nurban schools could not be brought into the rural schools without diminishing in any way\nor to any degree the compensatory advantages that rural life now enjoys as compared\nwith city life.\n\n"}
{"page": 586, "printed_page": null, "text": "576\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nED UCA TIONAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nBY\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nASSOCIA TION\n\n[National\n\nSUPERVISION\n\nN.\n\nC.\n\nDOUGHERTY,\n\nPEORIA,\n\nILL.\n\n[abstract]\n\nThe existence of the rural school, Mr. President, is, it is true, neither threatened\nnor opposed, and yet shares the danger of every accepted institution. The danger\nis that the purpose which gave it birth, and the spirit which at first gave it a vigorous\nlife, will or may degenerate into a dead mechanical force and an unmeaning routine.\nThe rural school is the school of the people. From it, in the future as in the past,\nmust come the majority of those who will pursue a scholastic career in our colleges\nand institutions of higher learning ; and from it will come, also, most of those who are\ndestined by native force of character to create the great fortunes, and to wield the potential influences, of the next generation. Either this is true or it is not true that history\nrepeats itself. The improvement of the rural school is a question of greatest importance\nto this Council. This report holds that there must exist between the . superintending\npower .and all connected with rural schools — children, parents, teachers, and school officers— the closest possible relation. The superintendent stands in a peculiar relation to\nthese schools, and they are peculiarly susceptible to his influence. The test of his efficiency isthe efficiency of his schools.\nThe report points out :\n1. The superintendent must be one who can discern and appreciate the higher\nelements of teaching power. He must be a man, not only of general intelligence, but\none who has studied the profession of teaching. He must determine whether or not the\ncandidate for teaching possesses qualities not nominated in the certificate, but which are\nessential to his success. He must see that the teacher, in addition to a knowledge of\narithmetic, geography, reading, etc., possesses tact, sympathy, earnestness, firmness of\ndecision, and, above all, strict conscientiousness. He must sustain and encourage his\nteachers. The isolation of a country teacher makes him to be in peculiar need of such\nencouragement. Working alone, as he does, seldom meeting his fellow-teachers or\nreceiving words of cheer from them, he often sinks under a weight of sheer loneliness\nand fails to do his best, simply because there is nobody to appreciate the best when it is\ndone. Such a teacher needs the strength which the sense of companionship affords.\nThe weakest teacher, strengthened by assurances of fellowship, goes to his work sustained bythe strength of all. The superintendent, therefore, must be the link which connects these isolated teachers with the electric current of his entire county.\n2. The report shows that the superintendent must also be an inspector of schools.\nThe character of the inspection will go far to determine the character of the school.\nWithout it, qualification and opportunity avail little. The teacher is strengthened when\nhe knows that his work is to be tested ; when he knows that he is to be answerable, in a\ndefinite and tangible form, for the manner in which he does it. It seems to me, therefore,\nthat a rigid inspection of rural schools is an indispensable condition to any great improvement. Better to the young teacher than books ; better, in some respects, than the best\nschools, is the criticism from those who have had similar difficulties, and who have solved\nthese difficulties.\n3. The superintendent must not only have the power to arouse enthusiasm in his\nteachers, and in the pupils of his schools, but he must also touch, by his influence, every\nhome in his county. He must be a leader of thought and opinion. He is the creator of\neducational sentiment, and that sentiment will be what he makes it. He finds most of\nthe parents of his county destitute of knowledge respecting school methods. He finds\nthat few of them have any conception of a better school than the one taught in their own\n\n"}
{"page": 587, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nSCHOOL\n\nSUPERVISION\n\n577\n\ndistrict. He finds that few of the school officers have any knowledge of what constitutes\na good school, or of what is necessary to improve one. But he cannot enter the home life\nof his people without being convinced that, whatever outward evidence there may be to\nthe contrary, these people do desire the right education of their children, and are willing\nto make any sacrifice to secure it. It is, however, so easy for them to believe that, when\nall is (juiet, all is well, and to feel that the obligation to act rests upon their neighbor\ninstead of themselves ; that year after year goes by and little is attempted and little\naccomplished toward the improvement of their schools. The impulse to better views and\nhigher influences must originate with those who know and feel the importance of education, and of making education the very best that it can be made. This duty rightly falls\nupon the county superintendent ; hence, a successful superintendent must be an agitator,\nbecause agitation is the first step toward purification ; the first step of progress. If we\nwould have better schoolhouses, better teachers, better schools ; if we would have our\nrural communities reach any higher ground in educational matters ; then the county\nsuperintendent must arrest the attention and awaken the thought of the community,\nuntil it realizes the importance of the work it has neglected, and feels that, in so neglecting it, a grievous wrong is being done its own children. Let the good the people\nshould aim at, and the evils which they endure, be clearly shown them, and it will be\nfound that there is no lack of interest, there is no indifference, in the subject of schools.\nIt will be found, also, that when the people are once aroused, they find a way to act, and\nare willing to give freely of their time and means to secure the best training for their\nchildren.\nN. C. ScHAEFFER. — The report does not claim to have said the final word on the\nsupervision of rural schools. So long as there is growth and progress in life, there will\nbe new phases of education for superintendents to define and discuss. I wish the report\nhad given us more light on how a superintendent may earn his salary. A book agent;\nwho was asked what question interests superintendents most deeply, next to drawing\ntheir salary for the current year, replied : \"The question of drawing it next year.\" The\nnew superintendent invariably talks about the course of study he is introducing, but, after\nhe has been at work on it half a dozen years, he is very anxious to learn about vacancies\nelsewhere. To retain his place, the superintendent must not only make people believe\nhe is earning his salary, but he must actually earn it.\nHow is this possible when he gets from $2,000 to $5,000 a year, while the teachers in\nthe lower grades get only as many hundreds ?\nNot by perpetual revision of the course of study, nor by a vigorous policy of doing\nnothing while busily engaged in visiting schools, nor by dispensing that compound of\nacid and alkali called criticism, the chief ingredient of which is fault-finding.\nLeast of all can he earn his salary by perpetually preaching the gospel of a new\neducation. That may impress the community with a sense of great reforms to be achieved,\nrequiring time and tenure of office if they are to be successfully carried out.\nOccasionally radical change becomes necessary. Generally the attempt at radical\nreform robs the teachers of joy in their work, makes them believe everything they have\nbeen doing fundamentally wrong, and increases the crop of patients which physicians get\nfrom breakdown and' sleeplessness.\nHow does the manager of a factory earn his salary? If, by superior skill, wise direction of the work, scientific knowledge of how everything should be done, he prevents\nwaste of effort and of raw material ; if he arranges the machinery to the best advantage,\norganizes labor for common ends, thereby enhancing the quantity, quality, and market\nvalue of the product, so that the profits are increased from 550,000 to $100,000, who can\ndeny that he has earned a salary of $10,000 a year, while the workman earns but a small\nsum in comparison? Brain products cannot be exhibited like those of a factory; but\nbrain waste is worse than waste of raw material.\n\n"}
{"page": 588, "printed_page": null, "text": "578\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nWaste of effort in the school is worse than waste of steam and labor in the factory.\nA poor superintendent is too dear at any price ; but a good superintendent is worth many\ntimes his salary. By preventing the waste of time, money, and effort; by getting done\nwhat ought to be done ; by excluding school politics and other politics from the appointment of teachers and from the management of the schools ; by efficiency in the discharge\nof his duties as executive, examiner, visitor, and counselor ; by the creation of a public\nsentiment that demands good teaching above all other considerations, ha may earn his\nsalary many times every year, and feel secure in his tenure of office, even after his\nstrength begins to wane.\nIn response to questions, Mr. Schaeffer said the state of Pennsylvania is one of the\nfirst to stand for supervision of rural schools ; the highest salary paid to this office is paid\nin this commonwealth. The man came from a district where they have those large works\nof Carnegie, where the superiority of \" brains \" is illustrated. A special provision of\n#98,000 is made to pay rural superintendents.\nCharles R. Skinner commended the report of the committee, and called attention\nto the great numbers of the report published and circulated in the states of Michigan,\nOhio, Kansas, and New York.\n\nSUPPLY\nBY PRESIDENT\n\nJOHN\n\nW. COOK,\n\nOF TEACHERS\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nNORMAL,\n\nILL.\n\nThe rural-school problem is like all of our other problems in which the conditions\nare similar in character. The situation demands good talent, and, as everyone knows,\ngood talent costs money. More : persons who are qualified to do anything like superior\nwork expect conditions that shall at least be ordinarily favorable. I need not say in this\npresence that the average rural school presents a combination of difficulties that are in\nmany ways discouraging. They are usually small, the average attendance in many\nstates of the union being scarcely more than twenty. School appliances are usually\nlacking, or are at best but meagerly furnished. Good boarding places are rare. The roads\nare bad during a good part of the school year. In localities where the tenant class forms\nthe chief part of the population the tax levy is kept at the lowest possible point by the\nselfishness of the landlords. It is by no means an unusual thing for the landowners to\nhave understanding with the renters as to the amount of public money that shall be voted\nfor school purposes. The school year is rarely more than seven months. If extended by\na summer term to eight or nine, the attendance is so small and the pupils are so young\nthat the cheapest candidate is secured. In the presence of all of these disheartening conditions itis not strange that many county superintendents should confess that in a deplorable number of cases the schools are of little value, and that the children derive the\nsmallest advantage from attendance.\nIt is the easiest of tasks to prescribe the remedy. There should be good buildings,\ncentrally located. The tax levy should be large enough to provide modern furniture,\nproper blackboards, apparatus, reference books, maps ; most important of all, a good\nteacher. How easy it is to say it, and how hard to realize it ! But the problem remains\nand must not be given up as insoluble.\nDoubtless we are directing our energies at the right point when we attempt to secure\nfor these schools a better supply of well-prepared teachers. There is nothing else that\nwill go so far toward the improvement of the school sentiment in any community as a good\nschool. I have had several illustrations of this palpable fact within the last six months.\nA really successful teacher establishes a criterion by which public opinion estimates all\nsubsequent efforts. In a somewhat extended correspondence with school officers within\n\n"}
{"page": 589, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nSUPPLY\n\nOF\n\nTEACHERS\n\n579\n\nthe few weeks just passed I have been especially impressed with the revolution that has\ntaken place in certain communities in the sentiments of the people with respect to the\nvalue of professionally prepared teachers.\nThere is a common misapprehension respecting the character of the schools into\nwhich the normal pupils go. It is doubtless true that the large majority of the normal\ngraduates find employment in town and city schools. In my own state we have been\nunable to retain for our graduating classes thus far more than 7 per cent, of the whole\nnumber of students matriculated. There are several reasons for this unsatisfactory\nshowing that I shall not stop to discuss' here, but one potent influence is the demand for\nteachers who have had even a single year of normal-school work. While this demand\ncomes in no small measure from the towns, it is materially stronger from the^ural schools.\nIn the school with which I am connected we have three courses of study. Graduates of\nthe best high schools are admitted to a two-year course. Unfortunately a considerable\nmajority of these pupils remain with us but one year, as they readily find employment in\ntheir home schools after that amount of professional discipline. Nearly all of these\nstudents go into the graded schools. Graduates of high schools of lower grade are\nadmitted to a three-year course. They are disposed to remain longer. The average\nperiod of their attendance will probably reach a year and a half. Without having reliable\nstatistics at hand, I venture the assertion that they divide about equally between the town\nand rural schools. A third class is composed of those who have received nearly all of\ntheir training in district schools. They are older than either of the other groups, and,\nwhile inferior to them in scholarship, are harder workers, are more serious in disposition,\nand are more willing to endure the comparative inconveniences of country life. They\ngrew up on the farm, attended the district school, have not been demoralized by the\nCapuan luxury of the town schoolhouse, and are contented to return to the familiar life\nof the country to begin their work as teachers. A highly respectable percentage of them\ntake high rank in their classes and in the work of the practice school. They understand\ncountry ways, are satisfied with country living, and get on well with country people.\nMany of them \" farm \" thru the long vacation, and teach the district school during the\nfall and winter. They become resident teachers, continuing their services in the same\nlocality for several years. It is to be regretted that there are not more of this class of\nteachers. The farmer girls teach for a term of years, and many of them marry farmers.\nTheir services to education are by no means lost by such an arrangement. In all\nmatters of educational influence they are to be counted in as potent factors.\nThe point to these remarks, if they have point, lies in the proposition that an effort\nshould be made to recognize this class of teachers and to give them opportunity for professional training. The plan of admitting to normal schools only graduates of high\nschools will take away from them about the only chance. I am prepared to oppose the\nassertion that they are unfit for such a discipline. The mind has a method of its own of\ngaining power. The nutriment contained in the common branches is really quite surprising, when such subjects are pursued by relatively mature students. If 1 were to\nrecite the names of men and women now prominent in educational circles in this country\nwho came from the district school to the normal schools and went from them to the work\nof teaching, it would surprise many who will hold against my position.\nIt has long been my conviction that the outcry against what has been called \" academic work,\" in normal schools, has come from many who have little notion of the character\nof such work. I have no apology to make for its presence in the schools with which I\nam most familiar. It is not academic work in the sense that the grade work or the\nhigh-school work is academic. The first requisite of a good teacher is a thoro familiarity\nwith the subject in which he is to give instruction. The high-school graduate is years\naway from the work of the grades. It is the common remark of normal-school teachers that\nsuch pupils seem to have forgotten all that they ought to have learned of such subjects as\nthey will be called upon to teach in elementary schools.\nA well-known principal of a\n\n"}
{"page": 590, "printed_page": null, "text": "58o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nfamous city normal school remarked in a recent interview that the most surprising fact\nof his experience is the ignorance of the average pupil who has gone thru the twelve\nyears of the ordinary city system.\nIt is my contention that the condition of such pupils should occasion no surprise.\nThey have not pursued the subjects in a way to meet the purposes of the normal school.\nA new examination, from a different point of view, is necessary. Any method that\ndeserves the name must surely take into account the logical unfolding of the subject.\nA rigorous examination of the studies of the curriculum reveals exactly this phase of their\norganization. And this it is that is called \"academic work.\" So far as my observation\nhas extended, every normal school has it to do. To my mind, it is professional treatment.\nSo many normal-school people aspire to what they call \"pure professional work \" that a\ncertain sensitiveness has developed in regard to this aspect of their work. It is the\nboast of some of them that they spend no time upon it. I have never looked for it,\nhowever, without finding it. It is my conviction that it has a legitimate place in the\nnormal school.\nSuch institutions, then, will educate in a general way so long as they deal with the\nsubjects of instruction in this half-academic fashion. As a result, the normal schools will\ndo more than simply professional work. This fact will attract to them people who do\nnot expect to make a life work of teaching, but who will follow it for a term of years at a\nsomewhat small compensation. The district schools will get a fair share of this class of\nnormal students.\nAnd so I am of the opinion that the main reliance of these schools is upon the\nnormal schools, both directly and indirectly. To help them more efficiently directly,\nhowever, the normal school must change its plans somewhat. Since their teachers are\nemployed for a part of the year, an effort must be made to get them into the normal\nschools during, at least, a part of their vacations. Free summer schools, of not less than\nsix weeks, must be maintained, and a strenuous effort must be made to afford board and\nall necessary supplies at the lowest possible rate. It seems, indeed, a shame that we\nshould be obliged to haggle over the price of things when the education of a people is at\nstake, but it is a necessity in the interests of the district schools in the present condition\nof affairs, and that condition of affairs is likely to continue for some time to come.\nAnd it is quite surprising to see what can be done, even in so short a time as I have\nindicated. Indeed, many of these schools are so poor that almost anything will improve\nthem. In making so severe a criticism, I do not forget that some of them are decidedly\nsuperior to the average town school. Yet I have no disposition to temper my statement.\nIn an experience extending over a third of a century I have frequently seen a transformation little short of miraculous as the result of a single term at the normal\nschool.\nI am aware that these statements may seem a trifle exaggerated. They are the very\nsoberness of truth.\nThe work of the summer school for teachers of rural schools should be in the\nhighest degree practical. I use the word in its most common acceptance. In the states\nhaving substantially uniform courses of study for rural schools such courses should furnish\nthe main material upon which effort should be centered. It goes without saying that no\none should be admitted to these courses whose purpose is not to become a teacher. In\nthe examination of the courses of study deficiencies in academic preparation will appear.\nThen is the time to remedy them, so far as they can be remedied. The study of method\nnaturally allies itself to the work as it develops. Here, also, arises the opportunity for\nthe examination of the most simple and obvious facts of child growth. To the average\npupil the psychology of the books is dry and difficult, and seems to have little bearing on\nthe teacher's work. It is quite surprising to most people to find how large a stock of\nknowledge of mental action they have accumulated in the ordinary experiences of life.\nThey have never inventoried it under the caption of psychology, and would plead entire\n\n"}
{"page": 591, "printed_page": null, "text": "Councin\n\nSUPPLY\n\nOF TEACHERS\n\n5^1\n\ninnocence of any acquaintance with such a science if asked about it. It is a first duty of\na teacher of teachers to attempt to bring to the front and systematize this random\nknowledge. This is done better by the way, in most cases, than by the book method.\nWhen a pupil has been given a start in the way of organizing his knowledge and\nexperience around a professional core, far more has been done for him than we have\noften suspected. Indeed, since so many of the pupils of this class will remain in the\nprofessional schools for only a short time, a start toward future study is the best thing\nthat the circumstances will permit. Nothing is easier than to indulge in large talk about\nthoro professional discipline. It is, at present, out of the question for the rural-school\nteacher. Such an attempt will simply discipline him away from the rural school. We\nmust learn to think more highly of the day of small things in this field of educational\neffort.\nI have experienced a change of conviction in regard to another matter which has\nbeen discussed at some length in certain quarters. In states in which the number of\nnormal and summer schools is limited I am convinced that we should make strong\nefforts to establish training schools in connection with township high schools. I have\nno doubt that much good can be accomplished by such agencies. The crying need is\nsuitable teachers for such institutions. The normal schools can do much in the way of\nsupplying them, doubtless. But school authorities are not always open to advice.\nIncompetent teachers will have charge of them in many instances, but some good will be\ndone and the principle will have a recognition. The normal schools have been obliged\nto work themselves into professional lines, so far as they have succeeded in getting there,\nand there will be a similar experience with the small training schools of which I am\nspeaking. It is high time to get them started. Their improvement will be a subsequent\nproblem. If we shall wait until training schools will spring into full life at the instant\nof their inception, we shall wait for an educational millennium. Once established, criticism\nand competition will work wonders in correcting their faults.\nAm I in error in saying that there is great need of simpler books in pedagogy ? In\norder that a book shall make its way with the average reader, it should be interesting.\nIf it shall be charged that I am so touched with the Herbartian doctrine of interest as to\nbe led to cater to a low educational sentiment, I shall endure the stigma with such\nphilosophy as I am able to summon to my aid. Nearly all of the books that are most\nhighly commended to teachers are found to be too difficult for beginners. They ignore,\nto a greater or less degree, the doctrine of apperception of which they talk so learnedly.\nIt is the plain duty of sensible people to accept conditions as they are, and to attempt to\nimprove them. We are using too heavy artillery for the teacher of the rural school.\nThe high curve carries the projectile over his head. There should be more lev«l shooting at short range. Where is the man or woman who can treat the so-called trivialities\nof the schoolroom in such a way as to win readers and thus to correct the most common\nand fundamental faults ? This is the day of the story. Have we anything to learn from\nthis palpable fact ? Preaching to small congregations on the sin of absence is simply\ntalking to people who are not there. We are imitating this familiar folly in much of the\neducational literature intended for the teachers of whom I am speaking. I am looking\nfor the development of a most helpful and highly practical set of manuals in connection\nwith the state courses of study that are gaining such a foothold in many of the western\nstates. They will grow out of the study of the rural schools by those who are most\nfamiliar with their needs, and will be leveled to the comprehension of the teachers to be\nbenefited.\nBut, after all is said, the most urgent need is an improved system of supervision of the\nrural school. Until this is secured, the improvement will be slow and halting. The remedy\nshould first be sought in the abolition of the antiquated district system. The situation\ncan but be grotesque, when there continues to be an army of forty thousand school\nofficers in a single state.\nThe county superintendency is a failure, so far as overseeing\n\n"}
{"page": 592, "printed_page": null, "text": "5**\n\nSATIOSAL\n\nEDUCATlOfrAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n\\r^m^mA\n\nth« work of the teacb«r is cooceraed. Tke towm sdwaJs owe sach sapenocitjr ^ tkey\npossess to the fact that teachers are ia ctoae taack wiCk eack otkR. and with a priKipdl*\nBoi% than to any other one thing. Wken tke priaatr feeacho' understands ttet W*'\nwork is to be tested by the teacher of the higher grade next year, she feeis a degiee of\nresponsibility not otherwise easily developed. Where there is ifirr tkua oae fc>f Wr ia\na schooL the spirit of criticism, competition, and of a phase of sapendsiaai eatei&. R May\n■ot always be the s«perrtskn of a cam{ietent principaL but it is sapervisioa all tte saatt.\nWhen there is added the cxitkal exaauaation of a competent overseer, the good iwflfTf\nis immensely multiplied.\nThe adoption of a sensible towasUp system introdaees into tke district sdkaal tke\nelements that work so advantageously ia the town schook. Isolation — the baat of tl«\ncountry school — wiU, in a great measure, disappear. Sometiuag approachiag otgaauatiaa\nand co-ordination will take its place. Teatdhers thus becoaM united into groups with\ncommon interests. Meetings for mutual improvement becsaae possible. Classes oaa be\norganized for the study of the same thing. The principle of Ttriiiff attrition entns, Oac\ngood teacher may be so used as to leaven a dozen. Best of all, there will co^e^ aft kaa^\nthe dawning hope of competent supervision. While there will be good schools keve aad\nthere without it, there will never be anything else. Business eatetpcises are coBStaatlr\ntaking in new workers at the bottom and educating theaa for their ta^s by wafeehfsi\noversight. Errors are promptly discovered and as promptly corrected. The aimce\nfinds himself in a school where those who are above him become his tcacha&. He is\n•nder constant criticism and correction. He is not obliged to discover the art of doiag\nthings all over again by himselL He enters into the experience of those who have goa*\nbefore him. In our educational methods we seem reluctant to profit by the plaia t«\"t^B\"»*\nof the past. Ia this department of our social life democracy has gone to seed. I have\nheard tateffi^^ men argue for the old system on the grooad of its fjnainlaag. a training\nschool iat office holding and for cnfitivating an interest aa pahfic aliiirs. It\nthat there is some force in the sagKCStion. Doubtless the SMhum has :\nBaft the cost is too greaL Let us devise soaat tlthnd of satiafyiag Ae\nfor office holding that will not jeapardize oar highest iaterests.\nST CHAIXJES B. GXLBKKT, SCrKSt>TKM>B>iT OF SCHOOLS,. SWJUKK» K. JL\nRural sdiools should have a permanent body of teachcxs^ sea aad woaaem «1» have\nadopted teaching as a life work, who are especially iafteMfihed ia Ae taaal scknafcfc who\nfeel that th^ opea. a salwfactMqr casecr aad aae adUfiag to take i\nsaxy to eqni^ tkuascttes far sadk a rawict. The\nstiawlate the creation of such a class :\n1. The rural school year should be as long as dtat of Ae <\nmonths,\n2. Emptoytat shooM be tor aft least a year, wi& coaCiaaaaee of teaaie coaftaseaft\nonly upon success.\n3. ConiLpensatioa shouU be aiaipiiifw^ l» make the prwiirinan aftbcafdkivc. ft 1\nbe as high as in cities^ becaase Ike laatcr cask af Kna^ wmj ke lakeai\nit MHSt be saiifieat to fiarHfik a Koi^ e<{Bal to tkaft of the awage 1\nof the rural caaMMBiliBS,\n4. OfportMMttK Anakf beeflfeieA totoadhessof nnl\ncottrscSk aad make iNgMSS ia the pcofasmia.\nTkase en— f liT Mint ke aa> anaagcd Aat dhey oaa be takca vilkaat Ike sacBfiee of aa\nvide these tnaKWi^ sack as are menftniaed ta the report. Normal srkaofe af varinas\ngrades* acconfiag to tke lefdRaaeafts far arf»iiiwina aad gn abatf iiin» eapedatty dwoted\nto Ike aeeds of naal sekoak awkft Muaakkr be <\n\n"}
{"page": 593, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nAND\n\nDISCIPLINE\n\n583\n\n5. V'arii^us grades of certificates should be offered, and salaries should be partially\ndetermined by the grades of certificates held by the teachers.\nThese ccrtiticatcs, from the lowest to the highest, should be obtainable as the reward\nfor completing certain prescribed professional courses, provided that for obtaining certain\nhigher certificates a record of successful teaching experience should be re<iuired in addition. This would furnish rural teachers the necessary inducement to take professional\ncourses, and would tend towaixl the creation of a permanent class of rural-school teachers.\n\nINSTKUCTION\n\nBY\n\nDR.\n\nR. (;. ROONK,\n\nSTATR\n\nAND\n\nNORMAL\n\nDISCIPLINE\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nYPSILANTI, MICH.\n\nIn its report on \" Instruction and Discipline in Rural Schools,\" the Committee of\nTwelve named as \" remedies for the evils of the rural schools \" :\n1. Transportations to central schools.\n2. Improvement of roads.\n3. Special appropriations for certain rural schools.\n4. Concentration of the higher grades of pupils.\n5. School exercises at the town or county centers.\n6. A guarded u.se of competitive examinations.\n7. The promotion of home readings.\n8. A system of school extension,\n9. Incidental monitorial assistance.\nThese nine suggested \" remedies \" arc taken from the summary made by the subcommittee, and included in its report on pp. 106-12. They cover, in the judgment\nof the committee, the conditions for the improvement of the rural schools incident upon\nthe non-Mocial character of the rural communities.\nIn the body of the report it is recommended, also, that all such schools be \"graded\nin the sense that they will have a course of .study, and that the pupils will take up their\nbranches of study in due order, and these studies will be associated, so that a given\ndegree of advancement in one study implies a given degree of advancement in another.''\nIt is recommended, further, that \"the course of study in the rural schools should be substantially the same asth.it of the city schools;\" and, likewise, that \"the discipline of the\nrural school should be strict, tho mild, like that of the city school.\"\nOn p. 15, also, of the introduction Mr. Sabin. the chairman, mentions, as \"the\nmost important subject intrusted to this subcommittee,\" that of \"the training and preparation of teachers.\" Normal training classes having short courses are recommended.\nContinuous sessions in normal schools promise much for the improvement of rural-.school\nteachers. One argument for the consolidation of schools is that \"it will make possible\nthe employment of better teachers, and pmmote good instruction.\" Intelligent \"supervision\" isnamed as one of \"the vital needs of the rural schools;\" and the need is\nemphnsi/.ed because of the unstable, as well as raw and unfit, quality of their teachers.\n\"The l)est work of a supervisor is his skill in selecting teachers.\"\nThis paragraph is inserted as calling attention to the relatively small consideration\ngiven by the report to the exercise of teaching functions in the rural schools, and the\nunfitness of the average rural teacher for teaching, and the means at hand for his improvement. Dr. Rounds, as chairman of the Subcommitttec on Supply of Teachers, argues\nIhat, \"in ortler that the rural school maybe supplied with better teachers, . . . . (i)\nthere must he in rural communities a clearer appreciation of the qualities essential to\na good teacher;\" (2) the school year must be lengthened to not less than nine or ten\n\n"}
{"page": 594, "printed_page": null, "text": "584\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Nation\n\nmonths, so that along with a \" year's work \" may go a \" year's wage,\" as a condition of\nretaining in suburban and rural communities accomplished teachers for continuous service ;(3) inexpert and perfunctory supervision must give way to professional control.\nTo the end that teachers in these outlying districts may be improved, the various recognized agencies are characterized and commended: (i) state and local associations;\n(2) extended summer schools; (3) normal and county institutes and short conventions;\n(4) libraries ; and, finally, beside? a better-digested system of examination and certification of teachers, (5) teachers' normal and training classes, and especially summer sessions of the normal schools for the especial benefit of rural-school teachers. Here are\ntwenty-two recommendations for the bettering of the rural schools, as set forth by the\nchairman of the original committee, or by the two subcommittees; about one-half of\nthem being immediately concerned with matters of organization, and the others with\nadministrative processes or the handling of the school machinery. In what ways the\nteaching itself is poor, and why it is poor ; what is good teaching for the children of\nfarming and sparsely settled districts; how the discipline of the rural school maybe\nmade mild and as satisfactory as that of the city school, seem thruout the report to\nbe rather taken for granted than discussed.\nAppendices G and H are very suggestive.\nAll this is said, however, not at all by way of criticism of the report, either in its\nspirit or its letter; but rather to note the consensus of opinion that the fundamental\nquestions of the rural-school problem are questions of administration chiefly, when not\nquestions of organization. It seems to be nowhere supposed that the pedagogical processes of mental and moral growth are not identical for both urban and outer districts.\nThis seems to be a long step, and in the' right direction. Obviously the difficulties as\nthey appear to the committee are the real difficulties.\nInstruction and discipline constitute together one aspect of the school. The supplementary aspect is that of organization. The former comprises teaching, and the several\npurposeful exercises directed by the teacher toward educational ends. The latter regards\nthe system so-called, and the various mechanical and prudential arrangements designed\nto make the teaching exercises effective. Of these two, this is an incident of that and\ndepends upon it for whatever significance the organization has and the form which it\nassumes. No consideration of plans and machinery and equipments and money support,\nsalaries and school years, examinations and certificates, central .schools and consolidation,\ngradation and classification and promotions, can carry any adequate influence except as\nthese matters are seen to change, as the meanings of education and teaching change.\nThere is no virtue in any system of gradation, except as it better meets the human needs\nof the child or the adult, in his individual or social relations, or both.\nThe five theses here presented for our present consideration are :\n1. The advantages arising from grading small country schools are more than\ncounterbalanced by the disadvantages of teaching together pupils widely separated in\nability and acquirements.\n2. Whenever practicable, the pupils of small outlying districts should be transported\nat public expense to the town center; this plan may embrace all the pupils of the district or only the older and more advanced.\n3. With t?ie limitations suggested in the report, the monitorial system can be\nemployed to advantage in rural schools.\n4. Where rural schools are maintained, written examinations should be held at\nstated times in town centers by some competent officer, adequate record of the result of\nthe examination being preserved for future reference.\n5. For those who have left school, \"school extension,\" in form of recommended\nhome reading under the care of the teacher of the district, should be organized and\ndirected by the town or county superintendent.\nThese theses obviously assume that the quality and purposes and conditions of\nright teaching in the rural schools have been agreed upon.\nOf the five, but two, the first\n\n"}
{"page": 595, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nAND\n\nDISCIPLINE\n\n5^5\n\nand the last, take hold in any close way upon teaching. The others have to do chiefly or\nentirely with administrative organization : these include (a) the policy of concentration,\nor the combining of several small grades or schools into a few ; {b) the selection of\nassistance thru the monitorial or cadet system; and (f) the central control of examinations and the preservation of records. These are important ; but far less so, it would\nseem, in the present stage of development of the rural schools, than the preparation,\nselection, and employment of well-qualified teachers, and the use of sensible and welldigested methods.\nOne plea in the argument for free transportation of the advanced pupils from outlying\ndistricts to a central school is that in this central school a better quality of instruction may\nbe offered thru the use of more abundant equipments and the employment of betterqualified teachers. But let it not be forgotten that the duty which we owe to the rural\ndistricts will not have been fulfilled until every school in the remotest corners, large\nenough to be maintained at all, is provided with as good instruction and as devoted\nteaching intelligence as are furnished in the central school. So that the policy of consolidation isan economic one and not a pedagogical necessity, and derives its chief\nsignificance from the application of a principle that should operate not less to the advantage of the small, undifferentiated school than to that of the large, graded, and long-termed\nschool with city connections. Similar observations, might be made of items {b) and (f)\nabove, concerning monitors and the more formal examinations emanating from the central office.\nThe dangers incident to the over-grading of small country schools seem to me to be\noverrated; or rather, the difficulties, while the natural results of an unintelligent attempt\nto apply a course of instruction to a small school, are yet of a kind that quickly yield\nwhen good sense in the teacher and a familiar acquaintance with the local conditions are\nconsulted. This difficulty, to the degree that it is a difficulty at all, resolves itself into\na question of education in a larger sense, and vanishes when it is once understood what\nthe school's business with the child is and what it isn't. It aims, or should aim, to enrich\nhis life by an abundant and elevating experience — the safest, most wisely chosen and\nprojective experience — and not at all to parallel the experience of an other, of any\nother. It is not to be inferred that there is not here a serious situation of affairs, and\none that deserves the ripest insight and maturest reflection for its resolution ; but simply\nthat the questions of close or loose grading, frequent or infrequent promotions, and the\ncomplexity of the machine, must find their answer in interests that lie beyond organization and management and the machine — in the nature of the educative process.\nOf all of the five theses named, the last offers opportunity for the most far-reaching\nconsequences to both individuals and neighborhoods. It is obviously not a school question at all, or only incidentally such. \" School extension \" is in the interest of those who\nhave left school. At least this is the class had in mind, evidently, by the committee\nmaking the report. It is a relatively large class — even in the country. In every\nstate the aggregate of schooling is small among the children of farmers. Generally the\nmonths of actual attendance at school are fewer each year than in the cities. Both during the school period in the months of continued absence from school, and subsequent to\nthe school period, this extension study might go on. The farming class is not by any\nmeans strongly persuaded of the large utilities of a sound education. It has not, I am\nconvinced, been made clear that one farmi better, or is more industrious, or thrifty, or\ninfluential in his neighborhood, or of sounder business judgment, because of his formal\nintellectual training, his wide and choice reading, and travel. The first requirement in\neducation extension, therefore, is this, that the rural adult public shall be given or shall\nacquire a cultivated sense of not only the economic, but the aesthetic and ethical values of\na well-disciplined mind and a chastened life. The connection must be made in some\nway between the literature of Thoreau and Burroughs, and their kind, and the best life\npossible to a cultivator of the soil ; that a critical appreciation of excellent literature, an\n\n"}
{"page": 596, "printed_page": null, "text": "S86\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nacquaintance with tiie proved results of recent science and invention, and tiie pointings\nof the laboratory and the shop, and a habit of watching public interest and efforts in\nthese directions, makes an otherwise isolated life bearable, procures one leisure and something of ease, exalts one's own reflections by reinforcing the experience of each with\nthe contributions of many, and furnishes a standard of excellence and efficiency for even\nthe commonest labor and service of the farm. This education extension ought to reach\nthe fathers and mothers, thru lectures, thru literature introduced into the homes,\nthru making the schoolhouse a center of intellectual movements during the leisure\nmonths of the year, and thru interesting the children in carrying on some independent\nlines of investigation or skill in their homes. In our own state of Michigan not a little\nhas been accomplished in this way by means of the P'armers' Reading Circle, organized\nwith the encouragement of the state board of agriculture and the Agricultural College,\nand under the immediate direction of the county school commissioner. The corps of\ninstructors of the local high school, or a near-by college, might well make its resources\navailable to enrich the local out-of-town life. Of course, this must be done by connecting\nthe expert knowledge of the school or college with what constitutes the dominant interest\nof the people to be enriched. Here, as elsewhere, it is less important that they shall\nthink about any particular movement or interest, than that they be brought to think, and\nthink about their work in its larger relations, and their own lives as meaning something\nmore than toil and privation, or abundance and the accumulation of material possessions.\nIt must be conceded, I suspect, that the prevalent conditions of farm life, as most of us\nknow it, tend toward a narrowing of spiritual interests.\n\" This great, round, wonderful, beautiful world,\nWith the wonderful waters around it curled,\"\n\ndoes not greatly impress with its wonders and beauties the slave of the seasons — the\naverage American farmer. Ground must be put into condition for seeding, the seeding\nmust observe times as well as seasons, monotonous and uninspiring toil follows during\ncultivation, harvesting in heat and hurry, putting the season's product upon a vacillating\nor decrepit market ; and along with and in the midst of it all, the stock must be cared\nfor, fences must be repaired, the drainage must be looked after, the woodlands cleared of\nfallen timbers, repairs of farm equipments and barns cannot be neglected — and the feet\nof even the well-to-do farmer seem bound to earth. Nevertheless, the elevation of the\nrural sections must carry, along with all this, faith in the sanities of a richer spiritual life,\nparticipation in others' thinking and living, confidence in learning and the invitations of\nan abundant culture ; and the possibility of enjoying all this, while professionally responsible for the maintenance and management and promotion of a successful farm business.\nTo reach the end sought, the more abundant life must not take families from the farm,\nbut make life bearable on the farm. This result is already in promise in parts of our\ncountry. The outlook is not disheartening. The improvement comes slowly, but it\ncomes. The schools, were they in the hands of capable, scholarly young men and\nwomen, who themselves believe in the regenerations of a sound mental training, might\ndo much to hasten this amelioration of the social condition. As in every community the\nchurch is the center of the religious life, its service and ceremonies, so ought the schoolhouse to be in every neighborhood the point of convergence and divergence of its intellectual life. The net result of the world's best thought and achievement, as it may be found\nnaturally to appeal to their local interests, should emanate from the school. Free discussion of great ideas and public affairs should receive the patronage and encouragement of\nthe school. Wide reading will inevitably result to supplement their own thinking.\nLibraries will soon be regarded as a necessity. Traveling libraries will be made use of\ngenerally, as they are now employed in a few states. It is not so necessary that, for the\naccomplishing of all this, the teacher be scholarly beyond her neighbors and patrons ;\nbut, as one of them, seeing clearly herself the need of such elevation of the community\n\n"}
{"page": 597, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nAND\n\nDISCIPLINE\n\n587\n\nlife, and with a conviction that the want may be satisfied, the school, thru her co-operation, may be made the rallying point of the community's intellectual movements. So much\nfor \" school extension \" for the adults. What can be done for the young out of school\nand away from lessons ?\nSchool extension for rural districts has, in one way or another, been successfully\nundertaken in Indiana and other states, thru the Young People's Reading Circle,\nwhich is under the immediate direction of the local teacher ; in Michigan, in part,\nthru the grange societies ; and in both, and elsewhere, by university and college\nextension classes and experiments.\nThe following theses may fairly be taken to summarize what needs to be further said\nin this connection :\n1. The teaching of the school has been good to the degree that the interest accompanying or aroused by the lessons has persisted and followed the child to his home after\nschool hours.\n2. The teaching is better if the love of books and an interest in affairs, and a habit\nof seeking adequate explanations for whatever occurrence, have become a guiding\nimpulse after school attendance has ceased. Not much can be done with extension studies, unless the influence of the school has been found satisfying and authoritative. There\nmust be in the minds of the outgoing youth confidence in the intelligence and good will\nand the unselfish endeavor of the school. If they have believed in the teacher during\nschool days, they will more easily believe in her after school days.\n3. In a systematic way, upon his permanent withdrawal from school, every child\nshould be reached by the teacher with purposeful plans for his improvement : not dog-'\nmatically and prescriptively and with any show of dominating his opinions and interests,\nbut furnished with the conditions of his best growth therein. If the school could really make\nits influence felt in a helpful and far-seeing way for five years after the day of recitation, the\nproblem of how to effect the elevation of the rural community would have been solved.\n4. The principle of the multiplication of results thru associated efforts should be\nused in the organization of clubs, societies, and circles, grouping those whose interests\nare common, and associating with each group someone fitted by nature and attainment\nto be a leader, at least an inspirer and courageous comrade. This may be the teacher, or\na local physician who is a student, or a broad-minded clergyman or lawyer, or a man or\nwoman of travel and cosmopolitan experience, or anyone of acute and critical, and, at the\nsame time, sympathetic, insight into the finer meanings of nature or art or life. These\ngroups, of youth or adults, maybe large or small ; the circles will have a masterful leader\nor exist under a thoroly democratic organization ; it is a fairly liberal education in\nitself, for five years emerging from adolescence, to have exchanged with one's fellows\none's best thoughts on whatever deserving concern ; for five years to have escaped the\ntyranny of the trivial ; to have established the habit of beholding and interpreting truth\nin an impersonal way, and to have found such life attractive.\n5. The subject-matter of this extension work is relatively unimportant. The statement should need no argument, and before this audience does need none, that such afterschool intellectual pursuits should increase, not diminish, the respect for the simple\nindustries of the farm, a healthy content with its high possibilities, an appreciation of the\nmanifold opportunities afforded by nature and the accompanying occupations for personal\nregeneration and spiritual promotion. Primarily the studies may safely be such as grow\nout of the rural conditions, the pastoral and agricultural life, and the plain, undisguised\ninstincts of unspoiled nature. You will, of course, see that even so there shall have been\nomitted no great brute and human problem, tho the view will obviously be elementary and partial. Upon the farm, scarcely less than among men in urban centers, may\nbe found the beginnings, if not the mature developments, of man's almost unqualified\ndependence upon this wonderful inert nature ; the primary relations that we call ethical ;\n\n"}
{"page": 598, "printed_page": null, "text": "588\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\nthe root forms of history; the first rude steps in human art; the genesis of institutions.\nReflection upon the great world problems may be as well begun here as elsewhere.\n6. True, there are further developments ; and readers who have done so much will\nbe led on to do far more work. As my final thesis I quote from the subcommittee's\nreport (p. no) : \"It is desirable that the course of home reading shall not be one-sided,\nbut shall move in each of the three directions : literature, including poetry and prose ;\nscience, looking toward the organic and inorganic kingdoms of nature, the plant, animals, and the details of matter and force ; and toward archaeology, ethnology, and sociology, and politics, history, biography, and art.\" •\nThis may all be well beyond present attainment ; nevertheless, it is believed that the\ncommittee has seen and spoken wisely, and the ideal has a permanent value. Moreover, the attainment is not wholly ideal ; something of it is within easy reach of the better\ncommunities of our day. With adequate instruction in the schools much more may be\neffected. Libraries will be formed ; home life will be vitalized ; account will be taken of\nthe country's attractions not less than its economic utilities ; in society's division of labor\nand the redistribution of population, the country will receive a larger recognition ; and a\nbeginning will have been made toward resolving certain municipal conditions. \" School\nextension \" is not a panacea, but its known good effects justify large confidence in its\npromise.\n\n"}
{"page": 599, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT OF KINDERGARTEN\nEDUCATION\nSECRETARY'S\nFIRST\n\nMINUTES\n\nSESSION.— Friday, July 8, 1898\n\nThe department met in Calvary Baptist Church, Washington, D. C, at 3 o'clock\np. M. Mr. B. Pickman Mann, chairman of the local kindergarten committee, on behalf\nof the city kindergartners, welcomed the visiting kindergartners to Washington.\nMiss Mary C. McCulloch, of St. Louis, Mo., the president of the department,\nresponded to the address of welcome.\nMiss Grace Fulmer read the paper of Miss Elizabeth Harrison, principal of the\nKindergarten College, Chicago, 111., who was ill in the city, on \"Froebel's Mother-Play\nSongs — the Ideals Suggested by Them.\"\nA communication from Dr. W. N. Kallmann, president of the Elementary Department, was read, suggesting a joint session of the elementary and kindergarten sections\non the afternoon of Tuesday, July 12.\nAs an interesting item of information, the secretary read the data collected from the\nregister by Mr. B. Pickman Mann, showing that, of the 200 now registered in this\ndepartment, 102 are from Washington. The ninety-eight from abroad represent twentyseven states and fifty-three towns or cities. The states represented are Ontario, Massachusetts, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Delaware, Virginia, West\nVirginia, Kentucky, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Missouri, Iowa, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Nebraska, North Dakota, Colorado, Utah, California, North Carolina, South\nCarolina, Georgia, and Louisiana.\nThe following papers were read :\n\"Children's Gardens,\" by Dr. Jenny B. Merrill, kindergarten supervisor, public\nschools. New York city.\n\" Kindergarten Games,\" by Miss Susan Pollock, principal of Froebel Institute,\nWashington, D. C.\n\"A Child's Song,\" by Miss Mari Ruef Hofer, Chicago, III.\nThe president announced the following committees :\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON RESOLUTIONS\n\nMrs. J. L. Hughes. Toronto, Ont.\nMrs. M. J. B. Wylie, Buffalo, N, Y.\nMiss Ada Van Stone Harris, Newark, N. J.\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON NOMINATIONS\n\nMiss Jenny B, Merrill, New York, N. Y.\nMiss Elizabeth Harrison, Chicago, III.\nMiss Susan P. Pollock, Washington, D. C.\n\nThe department adjourned to attend a reception and lawn party on the grounds of\nMr. John E. McLean, which was tendered by the Washington kindergartners.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION.— Monday, July ii\n\nThe session was called to order at 3 o'clock P. M. by the president. Miss McCulloch.\nSuperintendent F. Louis Soldan, St. Louis, Mo., spoke on *' The Influence of the\nKindergarten upon the Schools.\"\nS89\n\n"}
{"page": 600, "printed_page": null, "text": "59°\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nMrs. Maria Kraus-Boeltd, of New York city, read a paper on \"The Development\nof the Inner Life of the Child.\"\nA paper on the subject \"A Kindergarten Message to Mothers \" was presented by\nMrs. James L. Hughes, Toronto, Canada.\nMiss Elizabeth Harrison, Chicago, 111., addressed the department.\nThe Committee on Resolutions reported as follows :\nResolved, That the Kindergarten Department of the National Educational Association extends hearty\nthanks to Mr. B. Pickman Mann, chairman, and the members of the local committee for the many courtesies\nextended to this department.\nResolved, That thanks be given to the press of Washington for the excellent reports of the work of the\nsessions, and for the notice of business meetings.\nResolved, That the thanks of the department are due to the officers for their valuable services in planning,\nand carrying out satisfactorily, an ideal program.\nResolved, That we gratefully acknowledge the kindness of the trustees of Calvary. Baptist Church in\ngranting its use for the meetings of the department.\n\nThe report was unanimously adopted.\nThe Committee on Nominations made its report, which was adopted, as follows ;\nFor President — Mrs. Maria Kraus-Boelte, New York city.\nFor Vice-President — Miss Florence Lawson, Los Angeles, Cal.\nFor Secretary — Miss Alice M. Parker, Washington, D. C.\n\nThe department then adjourned.\n\nPAPERS\n\nMary F. Hall,\nSecretary.\n\nAND\n\nADDRESS\n\nBY\n\nB.\n\nPICKMAN\n\nDISCUSSIONS\nOF WELCOME\n\nMANN,\n\nWASHINGTON,\n\nD.\n\nC.\n\nMadam President, Members of the National Educational Association, and\nFriends of the Kindergarten :\nThe National Educational Association holds its meeting at the\nnational capital this year for the first time in its history of thirty-seven\nyears. The Kindergarten Department of this association is of younger\ngrowth, having been organized in 1885. By a pleasing coincidence, the\nestablishment of the kindergarten in Milwaukee dates back to the same\nyear.In 1870 so much interest in the kindergarten had been excited in this\ncountry, by the labors of Miss Elizabeth Palmer Peabody and others, that\nthe recently established National Bureau of Education was plied with\nnumerous inquiries for definite information about the system, which\nHon. John Eaton, then United States Commissioner of Education,\ninvited Miss Peabody to come to Washington to answer.\nAs a result came the demand for the establishment of a kindergarten\nhere, that its work might be seen by the national legislators, and\n\n"}
{"page": 601, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nADDRESS\n\nOF\n\nWELCOME\n\n591\n\nMiss Peabody induced a young lady, Miss Mary Hooper, to open this\npioneer kindergarten. From that day to this private kindergartens in\nsome form have been maintained in the District of Columbia, and for\nmany years a varying number of free kindergartens have been maintained\nat private expense.\nIt has been a cause of intense gratification to me that at last these\nendeavors have here reached their fruition. Hardly one week has passed\nsince the signature of the president of the United States, attached to the\nDistrict of Columbia appropriation act, made the kindergarten an integral\npart of the public- school system of the district.\nBy direction of the Columbian Kindergarten Association, I prepared\na memorial last spring for presentation to the United States Senate.\nIncidentally I then learned that public kindergartens had been established\nin nearly one hundred and fifty of our larger cities and towns. The\nsignificance of this wide adoption of the kindergarten is great beyond\nestimation. The kindergarten serves, not alone directly, but to a still\ngreater degree as yet indirectly, in modifying the accepted school systems.\nIts principle of appeal to nature, and, most of all, its influence in directing attention to the nature of the child, will open up an avenue to progress as yet little trodden.\nGreat reforms move slowly. The inertia of the masses of the people\ncannot be overcome except by the accumulation of force. During the\npast twenty years many children have grown up whose early years were\nspent in kindergartens. Their lives exemplify the effects of kindergarten\ntraining. They have now reached the age when they are among the\ndetermining factors of the character of our nation. They are more\nreceptive to the ideas embodied in the kindergarten than their fathers\nand mothers were twenty or thirty years ago. I attribute to this a part,\nat least, of the progress which the kindergarten is now making toward\ngeneral adoption. This progress is, I believe, destined to continue at an\naccelerated rate for the same reason.\nOne of the most far-reaching reforms in education which we owe to\nthe kindergarten idea is that of the cessation of the endeavor to impose\ndogmatically upon children the conclusions of their elders. Unfortunately this reform has not penetrated deeply, even yet, into the schools,\nand often the professed kindergartners are devoid of this fundamental\nidea, and so are false to their professions. This National Educational\nAssociation affords an opportunity for kindergartners to come into direct\nrelations with each other on a scale commensurate with the vast extent of\nour country.\nThe leading ideas of the conference this year are the kindergarten\nidea and kindergarten ideals. We are all indebted to you for the feast\nyou have prepared for us. We welcome the visiting kindergartners to\nWashington.\n\n"}
{"page": 602, "printed_page": null, "text": "592\n\nTHE\n\nNATIONAL\n\nVALUE\n\nBY\n\nMISS\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nOE THE IDEALS\n''MOTHER-PLAY\nELIZABETH\n\nHARRISON,\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nSET FORTH\nBOOK''\nCHICAGO,\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nIN THE\n\nILL.\n\nIf, as another has said, \"all profoundly great books are preceded by\nprofoundly deep living,\" then surely this book has a place in the world's\ngreat literature. If we read Frederick Froebel's autobiography, and see\nthe sensitive, introspective, misunderstood child grow into the earnest,\naspiring youth, reaching out after knowledge in every direction, satisfied\nwith nothing until he gets at the root of it, overcoming obstacles which\nhave turned many a noble, ambitious youth into a commonplace drudge;\nif we follow him still farther, as he begins one vocation after another, only\nto drop it because it does not satisfy; if we watch him write the prophetic\nword§, \"You may give to men their bread, I would give to them their\nspiritual food ;\" and later on see him unhesitatingly lay aside his work\nto join the army of his nation, because he feels that he cannot teach\npatriotism to children unless he has himself stood the supreme test of\npatriotism by offering his life for his country — we shall see that he slowly\ncame into the sublime ideal of the meaning of life. If we catch the\ncontagion of his enthusiasm, and have communicated to us some touch\nof the divine consecration, which lifted him above poverty and misfortune and apparent failure, and kept him strong and cheery to the end,\nsurely we shall stand ready to exclaim: \"The first requisite of a great\nbook is here; a deep, fervent life has been lived.\" Froebel was not\nsimply the founder of a method of development for little children, but\nan educator who saw, from the beginning of life, its end and high\ndestiny, and traced with clearness and logical connectedness the needs\nof its various stages — of infancy, childhood, and boyhood — with here and\nthere sweeps far out into manhood, and the duties and responsibilities of\nparenthood. He explains the breadth of his thought in these words :\n\"The whole of nature, up to the appearance of man ; the whole of history,\nfrom the beginning of the human race through all the past up to the\npresent moment, and still onward to the final consummation, stand before\nmy soul, in one accurate representation of true education.\"\nOur theme today is \"Kindergarten Ideals.\" The Mother-Play\nSongs were written later in life than either of his other books, and were\nintended to illustrate, to mothers and teachers of young children, how\nto lead the young child, easily and naturally, into a consciousness of the\n\"truths that sit sublime as directive power upon the throne of life; the\ntruths of God, freedom, and immortality.\" In speaking of this book,\nFroebel said : \" I have here laid down the fundamental\nideals of my\n\n"}
{"page": 603, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nVALUE\n\nOF IDEALS\n\nIN \"MOTHER-PLAY\n\nBOOK''\n\n593\n\neducational theory ; whoever has grasped the pivot idea of this book understands at what I am aiming.\" The baroness Marenholtz von Biilow\nsaid of this book : \" Notwithstanding the fact that the form of the book\nis capable of being improved (when its substance is really understood), it\nis not only new and important, but it is in the highest degree a production\nof genius. It reveals the process of development of the whole instinctive\nlife of the child, and converts the intuitive, aimless action of mothers into\nan intelligent plan, in a way which has never before been interpreted.\"\nDr. Richard Lange, in speaking of the book, says : \" It is not a formal\nsystem of early lessons for children, but is a moral whole, held together by\none pervading fundamental idea, and impressing wonderfully all who are\nopen to its influences.\" Miss Elizabeth Peabody says: \"This book\nstands unique in the world's literature.\"\nI could quote from many other authorities who speak with equal\nenthusiasm and earnestness of the value of the book. Let us turn, rather,\nto the help which it gives to mothers and kindergartners, in solving\ntheir practical problems, in order that we may disabuse your minds of\nany unfair prejudices which may have arisen from a mistaken idea that\nit is the fine-spun theory of a German philosopher, or the beautiful dream\nof a poetic idealist, of very little use to the average American mother.\nThe truth of the matter is that it is of more real value to the mother,\nwith the everyday problems of the family upon her hands, than any\nbook I have ever studied. It deals with incidents universal enough to\nhave taken place in the life of any child, and which do occur in the lives\nof most children, and shows the full significance of the seemingly insignificant manifestations of the experiences of childhood. A glance thru\na half dozen of its plays and songs will prove this to be theicase ; a child\nfresh from his morning bath is spontaneously tossing his limbs about; a\nmother is playfully teaching her child to sit alone; a group of children is\ntesting the power of the wind by flying a kite, or running against it\nwith a paper windmill; the baby is peering into its empty cup to\nsee if all the bread and milk are gone ; a child is testing a juicy plum or\nbiting a sour apple ; a mother is teaching her little one how to smell a\nrose by smelling it with him ; a child is interested in the swinging of the\npendulum of the clock ; a baby is learning to play pat-a-cake with its\nlittle hands; some children are feeding the chickens ; a boy reaches his\nhands into the water to seize a fish that flashes below. These and like\nsimple incidents are the text from which Froebel preaches to us some of\nthe deepest and most profoundly spiritual sermons ever preached by\nprophet, priest, or sage.\nLet us consider what the ideals are which are set forth by this book.\nFirst, what is Froebel's ideal of the development needed by the child\nhimself?\nSecond, what environment aids best in this development?\n\n"}
{"page": 604, "printed_page": null, "text": "594\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nThird, what are the ideals presented, as to the child's relationship to the\nrest of mankind and to God ?\nIn every consideration of the child's own development it is always\nwith reference to his threefold nature ; every song and game in the book\nis given as an illustration of how to develop simultaneously the body, the\nmind, and the spirit, as well as their relationship to each other. The\nbody is to become a strong, free, and beautiful instrument of the soul.\nThe right development of the body is shown to react upon the soul.\nFroebel shows how physical energy, put forth by the child in pushing\naway an obstacle to the free 'and joyous tossing of his limbs, awakens a corresponding consciousness of inner power; and again points out to us how\nthe quiet folding of the baby's hands tends to produce an inner collectedness or unification which is the first step toward the comprehension\nof true knowledge, namely, the unity of all things in God. In the development of the child he would have simple and childlike words sung to\nsoft, sweet music as an appeal to the intellect and the emotions. As an\nillustration of the practical manner in which he shows how this threefold\ndevelopment may be carried out, let us take his little song of \" The\nWeather Vane\" — almost any other song would serve as well. Here the\nchild is taken by his mother on a windy day for a walk. He notices the\nmoving weather vane, the swaying branches of the trees, and other\nobjects which are in motion, and by the law which is as universal as it\nis wholesome he tries to understand the cause of the movement by\nexperiencing the same in his own life ; in other words, he begins to imitate the moving weather vane with his hand. Now comes the mother's\npart. Seeing that her child is trying to translate the meaning of the outside world by taking it into himself and putting it forth in his own baby\nfashion, she assists him by helping him to turn his hand bent to a horizontal position, now this way and now that, and accompanies the little\nplay with the song, sweet and simple and suggestive, in that it connects\nthe invisible power of the wind in the world about him with the invisible\npower of the will in the world within him. Simple as this play is, it not\nonly awakens new physical and pleasurable activities of the body, and\nincreases the accuracy of the child's powers of observation, but it leads\nhim, also, to the reasoning concerning the cause of the manifestation he\nsees about him, and stirs within him the vague presentiment of the truth\nthat all external objects and activities are the result of this invisible, intangible, not entirely uncomprehended, force, energy, or cause. In his commentary on this little play Froebel explains to the mother how, in the\nchild's effort to understand the cause which moves the weather vane, he is\nreaching out after the cause which moves the universe. Thus he begins\nthe most sublime inquiry which can occupy the human mind. Were there\ntime, I could show you how each little game not only exercises some of\nthe muscles and senses of the child's body, but aids in the development\n\n"}
{"page": 605, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nVALUE\n\nOF WEALS\n\nIN\n\n\"MOTHER-PLAY\n\nBOOK''\n\n$95\n\nof his powers of observation, comparison, etc. No view of child nature\nshort of this ever-present struggle to understand spirit and to manifest\nspirit is accepted for a moment by Froebel. He holds up always the\none thought that human life is the divine life striving to manifest itself\nin concreted form; that, in this manifestation, body, mind, and spirit\neach has its place. Each must be understood and respected — aye, even\nreverenced — if the whole is to show forth the God-thought given to that\nparticular human being to develop.\nLet us now turn to the ideal environment held up by this apostle of\nchildhood as the fittest and most wholesome surrounding for the unfolding of the power within, as well as the absorption of power from without.\nIn almost every song in the book the mother is the child's companion,\nnot simply that she may attend to his bodily needs and protect him from\nharm, but may aid his every effort at self-expression, as well as his every\nattempt to increase his knowledge of the outside world. Nay, more :\nshe must so understand the spiritual meanings of these efforts that she\nwill lead him past failure to successful expression of what is stirring\nwithin, to definite knowledge of what is reached for from without, realizing that all endeavor, all aspiration, is the voice of God calling to the\nhuman soul to overcome its present limits, to come up higher. If the\nmother could only once read this transcendently beautiful volume, her\nchild's soul written by the hand of God Almighty himself, we should\nnever again hear of the drudgery of baby tending, the narrowness of\ndomestic life, the self-sacrifice of motherhood. The first would be transformed into the office of the high priest attending upon the shrine within\nthe holy of holies. The second would be entrance upon a course of\nculture, of both intellectual and spiritual growth, the like of which no\nuniversity in the world furnishes. The third would be the glad exchange\nof a life of trivial pleasures and nonessential occupations for the highest\nand holiest and most lasting joy that can come to the human soul. A\nnoble woman once said to me : \" I never make a sacrifice — I always weigh\nthe alternatives and choose the higher. Surely that is no sacrifice.\"\nCould every mother look at motherhood in this way, she would soon see\nthat she was merely giving up external, oftentimes unsatisfying, activities,\nthat she might accept the deep, rich satisfaction of an inner life at one\nwith the divine — of a coworker with God. I do not mean by this that\nunnecessary sacrifice of health or strength or time or intellectual growth\nor social pleasure is to be made ; but, rather, that all these should be so\nunderstood and used that she may be the better and stronger for her\ngreat work. I know of no other book which will so uplift and inspire\nthe mother's heart, until she is able to accept just this view of her calling,\nas does this Mother -Play Book.\nThe first essential, then, in the right unfolding of the child's nature is\nright motherhood.\nIt leads her to feel that the vague stirrings of physijcal\n\n"}
{"page": 606, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n596\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Kindergarten\n\nactivity in the child are a \"hint from heaven,\" given to her, that thru the\nouter life she may awaken and quicken the inner life. I might go on and\non, thruout the songs of the entire book, and show in each some great\nunderlying truth that makes all life glorious to the degree that it is\nunderstood and lived.\nBut we must hasten on to the second, scarcely less imt)ortant, element\nin the ideal environment of child life. If consecrated and intelligent\nmotherhood, thru the power of love, discerns and aids the growing soul\nin its unfolding, the constant contact with nature, in her free out-ofdoor aspect, leads this same soul into consciousness of the love and power\nand mystery of the divine mind by which it is surrounded. There are\nbut three pictures in the Mother- Play Book from which the out-of-door\nworld is shut out. The hills and streams, the earth and air and sky\nabove, are made the child's silent teachers. The birdlings in the nest help\nhim to comprehend the depth of family life ; the flowers that grow in the\ngarden become his messengers of love that overflows the meager boundary of words. The gleaming fish as it darts thru the water, the songful\nbird as it mounts in the air, stirs his own sense of joyous freedom. The\nants that are busy in the ground below his feet and the stars that shine in\nthe- heavens above his head are his companions ; \" he knows no limitations\nthat separate him from heaven.\" In his play with the light he learns, as\ndid his race before him, the beauty and joy of the good. In the shadows\nhe feels the nature and limitations of evil. Even the negative side of\nbrute life, as shown in the pictures of \"the wolf and the wild boar,\" gives\nhim the repulsiveness of selfishness and greed, the responsibility of the\nhigher orders of creation for the lower.\nLet us turn now to the third set of ideals contained in these \"Nursery\nSongs.\" All education has, or should have, a twofold aim ; not only is\nthe end, the individuality of the child, to be considered, and as favorable conditions as possible established for its right development, but he\nhas also to be trained to realize that he is part of the human race, and has\nadvantages and privileges, duties and responsibilities, which arise from\nhis relationship to the rest of mankind. To the degree in which this side\nof his education has been attended to does he grow into a conscientious\nparent, an honest workman, a loyal citizen, and a broad-minded lover of\nhumanity. This as well as other training must begin with the child's\nfirst consciousness of his relationship to others, else it is never complete.\nI know of no more charming or surer indication of inner wholesomeness than that of the child who fears no stranger, but meets each newcomer\nas his friend. In order that this happy condition may be maintained, itis necessary that the ideals of right family life, of the true significance oflabor, of the only just basis of the world of commerce and\ntrade, of the noble self-sacrifice of true citizenship, of the breadth and\ndepth and sublime beauty of the true church invisible, shall be laid before\n\n"}
{"page": 607, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nVALUE\n\nOF IDEALS\n\nIN \"MOTHER-PLAY\n\nBOOK\"\n\n597\n\nhim. Almost all of the crime and degradation of soul which is in the\nworld today comes because the right ideals of these relationships have\nnot been understood ; or, if understood, they have not become such an\nintegral part of life that the pain of violating them outweighs the supposed gratification or pleasure whith is to be gained by this violation. I\nhave seen almost every face in a mother's class become luminous as lesson\nafter lesson in this book has revealed to their inner eye the deeper meaning of the joyous play in which the baby's limbs are taught\nTo stamp the flaxseed out at length,\nTo make the oil so clear and bright\n\nThat feeds the pretty lamp all night —\n\nhis part in the great drama of protecting and being protected, the comprehension ofwhich harmonizes all differentiation in powers, sanctifies\nall labor, purifies all love, and explains at last to the struggling soul its\nrelationship to the divine. I have watched their minds expand and\ntheir lives broaden as they discussed the far-reaching meaning\n\nof the\n\nchildish song of \"Grass Mowing,\" in which the baby learns to thank the\nman for his mowing, the maid for her milking, the cook for her baking,\nand mamma for her serving of his supper of bread and milk, \" so no\nthanks forgotten are.\"\n\"The Charcoal Burner,\" \"The Carpenter,\" \"The Joiner,\" \"The.\nWheelwright,\" each and all open doors into the great trade world by\nwhich the child is surrounded and shown, beyond the material prosperity\npresented in their foreground, a background where are seen the eternal\nfoundations of all laws of sociology which bind human activity into one\nwhole. I firmly believe that, when these songs are rightly understood by\nparents, so that they will become a part of the child's being, a large\namount of the present struggle between capital and labor will be done\naway with. In the two songs of \" The Toyman and the Maiden\" and\n\" The Toyman and the Boy\" are given to us, not only the motives which\ngovern an expenditure of money, but also hints and suggestions of that\ndeeper lesson of choice, the right or wrong learning of which means\nvictory or ruin to many lives. The value of service, the dignity of labor,\nthe need of skill, the power of industry, are all shown in their true light,\nuntil the young mind learns to scorn idleness and uselessness, and the\nchildish heart longs to add its name to the list of the world's workers.\nNo wonder Froebel looked prophetically toward America as the future\ncenter of the ideal education. Here, and here alone, amid all the nations,\nis an idle class looked down upon, and the privileged class is the class\nwhich earns its privileges.\nI can but briefly touch upon the ideal set forth in this remarkable\nbook as to the deepest and most profound of all relationships — that of\nthe human soul with the divine source of its being. For, after all, no\nmatter what our external activities or achievements may have been, or\n\n"}
{"page": 608, "printed_page": null, "text": "598\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nwhat prodigious growth our human relationships may have attained, when\nthe great, deep crises of life come, be they of joy or of sorrow, each\nhuman soul stands in its inmost chamber — alone with God. Hence the\nmost vital of all questions is the one : \" How shall we so train the child\nthat he shall rise into a clear consciousness of his oneness with God?\"\n\nCHILDREN'S\nBY\n\nDR.\n\nJENNY\n\nB.\n\nGARDENS\n\nMERRILL,\n\nNEW\n\nYORK\n\nCITY\n\nGreat efforts have been made by kindergartners all over the country\nto bring natural objects into the kindergarten. The children play with\nsand, shells, and pebbles, making miniature seabeaches, farms, and gardens. They sort seeds and design with them ; they outline with twigs ; they\nmount flowers and leaves. There are often pet animals to be found in\nthe kindergarten. The children treasure the cocoon all winter, 'and are\nwild with joy when nature's real fairy story \"comes true\" in the spring.\nThe aquarium, with its dainty fishes darting \"now here, now there,\"\nwith its tadpoles and polliwogs, its snails and lizards, is a daily pleasure\nto many kindergarten children. Potted plants and window boxes are\neverywhere to be seen, and since our Cornell Agricultural College has\nentered the field, we are beginning in New York to look for what we call\nthe eggshell farm. The kindergartner who cannot say, \" Every one of\nmy children has planted a seed, watered it, and watched it grow,\" is\nbecoming hard to find.\nYet some of us are not satisfied, for we know that the best of nature\ncannot be brought indoors. The wise kindergartner longs, not only to\nbring nature to the child, but far more to take the child to nature. The\nbee on the flower in the garden, the bird flying up to the clouds, the rustle\nin the treetops, the shadows on the grass, the blue sky, the sun, the moon,\nthe stars — these cannot be brought into the kindergarten ; we must take\nthe children to them. Hence the city kindergartner walks out with her\nlittle flock into the public parks. I am happy to report that there is\nscarcely a public park in New York city that has not been visited in this\nway by our kindergartners; and this is doubtless true elsewhere.\nTo take the child to nature was originally the strongest feature of\nthe kindergarten. Every child was to have a garden. Froebel laid great\nstress upon this ; he recognized the child's instinct for digging in the\nsoil, as he watched him \" making a little garden under the hedge near\nthe fence of his father's garden.\"\nSomeone has said : \" Kindergartners want the earth.\" Yes, that is\njust what will content us, and the children too— a small patch of Mother\n\n"}
{"page": 609, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCHILDREN'S\n\nGARDENS\n\n599\n\nEarth, where each child may have his own little garden bed ; where he\nmay raise a few flowers and a few vegetables ; where he may handle a spade,\na rake, and a hoe; where he may delight, if possible, in a watering-pot, a\ntrowel, a wheelbarrow ; where he may dig and plant ; where he may watch\nand wait and reap. It is not only figuratively, but literally, that kindergartners \"want the earth.\"\nThe purpose of this paper is simply to renew an interest in children's\ngardens, and to cause every kindergartner and- every mother to question\nwhether she has done all in her power to secure a small piece of ground\nfor cultivation. When this proves impossible, then, and not till then,\nlet us content ourselves with flowerpots and boxes indoors.\nBy way of encouragement, I have secured a number of interesting\nletters that tell of efforts being made, even in our largest cities, to have\nat least a few out-of-door gardens. St. Louis, Philadelphia, Chicago, and\nBoston have responded, and also several smaller cities in New York state,\nwhere the work of the Agricultural College of Cornell University is\nbeginning to bear fruit. While I cannot now take time to describe\nthis work at Cornell, I cannot refrain from noting that during the\npast year ten thousand strawberry plants have been distributed to the\nchildren who applied for them, over one thousand coming to New York\ncity.\nOne of the most interesting and encouraging letters is from a kindergartner in St. Louis, who, with the help of eighty pairs of little hands,\ntransformed an old brick-paved yard, 12X24 feet, into a \"real live flower\ngarden.\" This yard had been a playground for many years in the lower\npart of the city, where little children came from crowded tenements. The\nchildren loosened and removed the bricks, afterward using the same as\nboundaries. They made the beds, transplanted vines from the kindergarten room, planted seeds, trained vines, and took turns in watering the\ngarden.\nThe kindergartner writes: \"There were times when the earth was\nloosened with tiny spades and shovels, more often with little fingers ;\ntimes when walks were swept, and, best of all, an occasional day when a\nwee bit of a paper basket was folded, and we all went out to fill it with a\npansy and a daisy, and perhaps a baby rose, and to carry it with joyous\nlove to our principal, a woman of rare sympathy and power.\n\"We all decided together just which flowers to cut, and never was a\nflower taken from the garden without our mutual consent, although no one\nwas forbidden to touch, and the gate stood open into the playground\nof about eight hundred children, many of whom often stood at the gate\nand enjoyed the garden, but never intruded. Sometimes whole classes\nwere invited in ; sometimes a big brother or sister. There were many\nbright mornings when all the little chairs were carried out into the garden, and the morning song sung there.\nStories were told, too, while we\n\n"}
{"page": 610, "printed_page": null, "text": "6oo\n\nsat among\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nthe flowers, with the fleecy white clouds floating above our\n\nheads.\".\nMiss Williams, supervisor of Philadelphia public kindergartens,\nreports twenty out-of-door gardens. This is the best record I have\nreceived. She tells a touching story of one little boy who was so\nimpressed with the one hill of corn raised in the garden that he said :\n\" God is a better man than I used to think he was, because he ma.de it\nAnother Philadelphia boy became so interested in gardening that he\ngrow.\"\nfilled a tin mustard box from an ash heap, the only semblance of Mother\nEarth to which he had access, planted a pea, and kept all in his pocket,\nlest in his absence it should be thrown out.\nOne Philadelphia kindergartner tells her whole story on a postal card,\nas follows : \" We have a small patch of ground in the schoolyard where\nthe children have planted seeds, both flower and vegetable ; also a few\nplants, and one or two vines. The children delight in taking spade,\nshovel, rake, and hoe on fine days, and in watering their garden.\nWe have also three flourishing trees planted on as many Arbor Days.\nWe frequently have our kindergarten games in the garden. The children\nseem to revel in the open air.\"\nA St. Louis kindergartner writes of lunch parties where lettuce and\nradishes were served from \" our garden.\"\nFrom Miss Alexander, supervisor of Chicago public kindergartens,\nwe learn of a kindergarten where the children stored beets, potatoes,\nbeans, and corn for Thanksgiving, in a cellar walled with bricks of their\nown molding — quite an interesting lesson in correlation. \"Not a\nlarge crop,\" she writes, \"but all their own, and quite enough to fill their\ntiny storehouse.\" Miss Alexander also writes that patches of ground are\nbeing offered to suburban kindergartens in Chicago, and she takes it as\na good omen that garden tools are becoming a part of kindergarten supplies— a suggestion which I hope will not be lost.\nWe find several additional suggestions in a letter from Boston. The\nkindergartner writes of raising, among other garden vegetables, a\nsquash, and speaks also of an abundant sunflower crop, which gave\nopportunity for an exercise in seed gathering in the autumn. We will\nremember the sunflower.\nMiss Poulsson writes of her interest in this subject, and adds that the\ncity gardener of Boston fills any school window boxes that are brought\nto him, if they have holes bored in the bottom.\nMr. Clapp's article on school gardens, in the Popular Science Monthly,\nlast fall, shows what valuable work is being carried on in Boston. I hope\nall kindergartners will read it, if they have not done so.\nI have two more letters of special interest, from which I shall quote\nin closing.\n\n"}
{"page": 611, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department |\n\nCHILDREN'S\n\nGARDENS\n\n60 1\n\nYou are all aware that the baroness von Billow traveled extensively\nthru the United States last year, visiting the kindergartens in both\nsmall and large towns. Upon her return to New York she told me that\nshe had been surprised to see how few out-of-door gardens were connected with kindergartens, even where to her there seemed abundant\nopportunity to secure ground. In a letter recently received she says :\n*• In Dresden we have many little gardens ; we do not think a kindergarten a real one without at least a small piece of ground where the children\ncan have their little beds.\" She describes Froebel's ideal kindergarten,\nwith a flower and vegetable bed for each individual child, and one large\nbed belonging to all. She speaks of Froebel's suggestion that the children make gifts from their own beds, and enjoy together the product of\ntheir mutual bed.\nThe baroness offers several practical suggestions in her letter. She\nspeaks of having the children make the paths of gravel, with borders of\nshells for decoration ; of having the seeds gathered, dried, and put away\nin packages by the children for future use ; also of having bulbs cared\nfor in winter. In regard to having trouble with bad older boys, she says\nthat, by calling upon them for help, they have become guardians of the\ntiny beds.\nMrs. Maria Kraus-Boelte also writes of her experiences in England,\nGermany, and America, where she has had the ideal gardens of Froebel.\nIn a small yard back of her house, in New York city, the children raised\nradishes, peas, beans, salad, water-cress, mustard seed, cucumbers, wheat,\nrye, potatoes, etc , each child choosing his own seeds. In the flower\nbeds were pansies, pinks, phlox, mignonette, hyacinths, tulips, lilies-ofthe-valley, etc. Mrs. Kraus also speaks of the children's insect studies in\nthe gardens — of watching the spiders, worms, ants, caterpillars, butterflies, bees, etc., and noting their habits in their garden home.\nAt a meeting of kindergartners at Clark University, two years ago\nthis summer, kindergartners were advised to develop the out-of-door\noccupations of the kindergarten. In following this wholesome advice,\nshall we not be enabled to help in solving the problem of freer and\nlarger movements, while still following Froebel most faithfully ?\nWe recognize how impossible is the ideal garden for many city kindergartners, but we are convinced, from the letters quoted, that much\nmore can be done thruout the country at large. In some instances may\nnot a plat of ground, a little distance from the school, be secured ? Are\nthere not mothers living near some of our kindergartens who will open\ntheir yards to a kindergarten, or to the neighborhood children ? Have not\ntoo many of us contentedly settled down to develop indoor kindergarten\noccupations? Possibly we have spent too much time in determining\nthe sizes of needles and blocks, and in learning intricate folding. These\nthings ought we to have done, and not to have left the other undone.\n\n"}
{"page": 612, "printed_page": null, "text": "602\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nThere is a story told of a little boy who, on being taken to a kindergarten, was disappointed. \"Why,\" said the little fellow, \"it isn't a garden at all.\" Let us pledge ourselves, wherever possible, to remove this\nreproach during the coming year.\n\nA CHILD'S\nBY\n\nMISS\n\nMARI\n\nRUEF\n\nSONG\n\nHOFER,\n\nCHICAGO,\n\nILL.\n\nPaying tribute to the enormous educational undertaking of the kindergartner, Kate Douglas Wiggin has said that in order to be a good kindergartner one must have the music of a St. Cecilia, the art of a Raphael,\nthe wisdom of Solomon, the patience of Job, and the eloquence of\nPericles.\nAdded to this, someone has facetiously remarked that the woman who\naccomplishes such a metamorphosis of herself here in this mortal state will\nhave to have a special heaven provided for her where she may pursue her\ncelestial career unhindered by the slower progress of less favored sisters.\nOne morning in kindergarten is sufficient to convince the most skeptical of the varied efficacy of music in meeting the educational demand.\nFrom the soothing of the savage breasts of the little obstreperous newcomers, who are testing the much-vaunted principles of the kindergarten\nto the full extent, to the last bow and nod of happy heads as they disappear around the door panel at noon, its harmonizing usefulness remains\nan unceasing miracle of delight. Here, in a kingdom ruled by love,\nsweet music stands enthroned, the magician of the kindergarten, evoking\nby sweet tones the spirit of good-will, arousing the weak to chivalry,\nsoothing refractory nerves and wills to good behavior ; coaxing, ordering,\nvitalizing, relaxing, \"it cheers, it warms, it comforts, and commands.\"\nA glimpse into the morning circle shows us the varied application of\nsong : First a gentle hymn or verse — a quiet moment altogether for spiritual\nrecognition with which to start the unwinding of the skein of the day\nfree from snarls and tangles. Next, like true children of the light, we\nturn our faces to the sun and invoke its blessing; then, with a good morning to everybody and everything, little doors begin to open and little\ninquiries and ideas to peep out. Here in a few short hours is run the gamut\nof human experience chronicled in song. Everything he thinks and\nfeels and sees the child sings about. Our musical material ranges from\na \"Mother Goose\" melody to a church choral, interpolated by thrilling\nexperiences of \" Johnnie's Kitten \" with a white tail, the latest news of baby\nsister come to Bessie, to Jimmie's excited information that \" our Bob \"\nhas gone to the war.\nAll this must be poetically and artistically met by\n\n"}
{"page": 613, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nA\n\nCHILD'S\n\nSONG\n\n603\n\nthe versatile kindergartner and harmoniously made to fit together like\nsnug little beads on a string. A good child's song is not a thing of a\nmoment, but the essence of an idea\" evolved from the experience of the ages.\nAdequately to \"sketch in\" one of these first musical experiences\nrequires the best skill and tact of the good kindergartner. First to\nprompt expression, then to seize the proper moment of interest when the\nlittle singing lesson can be applied, when we can develop better and\nsweeter voices, or help a little grumbling monotone on to his musical\nfeet — all this requires art.\nTo make Johnnie's eyes sparkle and little Mary's heart run over with\njoy is the first practical use of the kindergarten song. It must give a great\ndeal of pleasure first, and then it may instruct a little afterward. Some\nof our kindergarten songs err on the side of weight and seriousness.\nBuoyancy, spontaneity, simplicity, and sincerity are all-around art tests.\nA child's song should not theorize or promulgate doctrines. Whether it\nis absolutely necessary that the ultimate truth be stated in a child's song\nor not is a question ; of one thing we are certain — that it must interest,\nthru its beauty and spirit of freedom, or it marks a lost opportunity.\nA child absorbs a song like air and sunlight, he rejoices in it as in a\nnatural element. It appeals to him from the outside, and tells him what\nhe already knows, but what he has not quite formulated for himself. In\na song he sees himself in perspective. Thru music he enters into his\nimaginary inheritances, where he builds castles and revels in the possessions of that which is going to be.\nWe are glad to say that the kindergarten song has graduated from its\nposition of mere expediency into a carefully conceived work of art, tho\nthis be only four lines long. From a mere jingle it has risen to the\ndignity of a composition, and, tho miniature in its proportions, it is\noften made to embody the art principles of a Wagnerian drama.\nIt is difficult, indeed, for the adult who was brought up in a songless\natmosphere to regain this lost inheritance. How great the crown of reward\nto her who, in the later days of fixed habits and unresponsive organism,\nundertakes the gigantic task of becoming a singer !\nThe ideals of the kindergarten song lie absolutely in the hands of\nthe kindergartner. It can rise no higher than its source in her mind,\nno matter how spontaneous and beautiful it may originally be.. Whether\nfuture Mozarts and Beethovens will result from our work depends upon\nour taste and our discrimination — our touch of the piano, our vocal interpretations. This we know, where great musical genius results, the ideals\nof tone and rhythm and content must be early inculcated and fostered.\nArt is at our command, plenty of it and the best of it. Let us seek to\nbring this to the children reverently, treading softly in the presence of\nthe slumbering powers of the child. To relegate music to mere mechanical utilitarianism in the kindergarten is sinful and desecrating to both\n\n"}
{"page": 614, "printed_page": null, "text": "6o4\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kinderearten\n\nmusic and child. To make him an active participator in its beauties,\nand to let him help create its standards even in these early days, will make\nhim a better, nobler man and factor in the world's work.\nThis paper was followed by the singing of four\nthe following lullaby :\n\nlittle couplets and\n\nRock-a-bye baby upon the treetop,\nMother his blanket is spinning,\nAnd a light little rustle that never will stop,\nBreezes and boughs are beginning.\n\n»\n\nRock-a-bye, Rock-a-bye, baby,\nSwinging so high, Rock-a-bye,\nRock-a-bye, Rock-a-bye, Rock-a-bye,\nRock-a-bye, Rock-a-bye, Rock-a-bye.\nWhen the wind blows, then the cradle will rock,\nHush ! now it stirs in the bushes.\nNow, with a whisper, a flutter of talk.\nBaby and hammock it pushes.\nRock-a-bye, etc.\nWeave him a beautiful dream, little breeze ;\nLittle leaves, nestle around him.\nHe will remember the song of the trees,\nWhen time with silver has crowned him.\nRock-a-bye, etc.\n\nIDEAL\nBY\n\nMISS\n\nPLAY\n\nSUSAN\n\nIN THE\n\nPLESSNER\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\nPOLLOCK,\n\nWASHINGTON,\n\nD.\n\nC.\n\n\" He who helps a child helps humanity with a distinctness, with an immediateness,\nwhich no other help, given in any other stage of human life, can possibly give again.\"\n\nWhat is play ? Let us go to the child to find out. Froebel went to\nthe child to learn. Christ told us : \" Except ye become as one of these\nlittle ones, ye cannot enter the kingdom of heaven.\" Why did our Savior\ngive us a child as our type ? Because of the child's simplicity of nature.\nHe is natural, not artificial. First, then, a child does not require, or\nallow, artificial conditions when he plays. He is natural himself, and he\nwants everybody else to be. If, therefore, you wish to join him in his\nplay, be a child with him, or step aside and let him play with his fellows\nand mates; do not \" spoil the fun \" by being a discordant element. Ah !\nthen fun is a necessary element in play, is it ? What proof have we of\nthis ? The child himself. Watch a crowd of little people gathered\nexpectantly together for a soap-bubble party.\n\nI hear someone exclaim :\n\n"}
{"page": 615, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nIDEAL\n\nPLAY\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\n605\n\n\" Do they ever play soap bubbles in the kindergarten ? \" Certainly,\ncomrades, do we not ? Is the soap bubble not the most perfect representation of the sphere, adding to the joy of its perfection of form\nthe perfection of prismatic beauty in its coloring, and, best of all, an\nact of creation on the child's part, at least an act of will and action on\nhis part ? And when we have will and act combined, we have all the force\nof creativeness, Froebel's highest instinct in his ladder of seven. Hear\nthe cries of joy and happiness as one fairy ball after the other rises\nand floats ! It has even been thought worth while to write a sweet song\nabout the soap bubble, which the children love to sing : \" See the Fairy\nCastle Rise.\" You will find it in the Young Folk' s Opera. In this case we\nplay the game and sing a song to suit it; let us see if this is following\nnature. The child rocks a doll and sings a lullaby. Does he sing a\nlullaby and look around for a doll ? He plays steam car, and sings\n\"choo-choo,\" and whistles and toots. Does he sing \" choo-choo \" and\nlook for a steam car ? Sometimes he does ; he feels a melody, his\ninstinct of rhythm is asserting itself, he expresses it as best he may — in\nmusical sounds or otherwise — perhaps by pounding, calling himself\nmeanwhile a carpenter. We ha\\^e charming songs to give him for this,\nwhen he feels their need. Take Kate Douglas Wiggin's \" Builders \" in\nher Chimes, and numberless others. He begins to take an interest in the\nworkman and his work ; we accept it as an awakening, and lead him on\nto appreciate and respect the artisan and his art, wherever found, however expressed, and we have the trade games. Or he stamps and neighs\nand whinnies and calls himself a pony.\nThe kindergartner sings :\n\" Hop, hop, hop, go and never stop,\nDo not scold and do not grumble.\nDo not stop and do not stumble,\nGo and never stop, hop, hop, hop.\"\n\nThis needs modifying — not \" go and never stop,\" but not stop until\nthe right time, when the work is done. A moral then ! Yes, why not ?\nLife consists of opposites, action and rest, cause and effect. One of the\nprettiest plays I have seen I saw in Louisville, where, in a charity class of\nsome one hundred little ones, accordingly as the child was able to show\nperfect self-control or absolute relaxation, expressing rest, he was chosen,,\nor allowed, to be a pony, and express his impersonation in wildest\nexuberance of action. Sometimes one pony ran at a time, sometimes a\ndozen were galloping and prancing about. \" Children have too little\neducation in true liberty.\" Continue from the child's own standpoint the\nthought of the pony ; let the pony live on a farm ; think of what a field\nthis opens for investigation, for study, for representation. \"The secret\nof memory is interest. What children are deeply interested in they never\nforget\" (Locke). What avenues of suggestion from nature ! Let me add\nthat in Clara Louise Anderson's \" CharajCtQi:i.5tiQ Instrumental Rhythm'*\n\n"}
{"page": 616, "printed_page": null, "text": "6o6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\n— rhythms which may be capable of very beautiful interpretation, as\nbee, bird, flower, wind, or water is impersonated — great care is needed\nthat the action be not mechanical, and far beyond the child's comprehension or interest, as he imitates the movements af his teacher as she\nrises and falls and sinks and floats in obedience to the music. \" The\nriver makes its own shore, and each legitimate idea makes its own channels and welcome,\" Emerson says. A most stubborn, wild, headstrong\nlittle boy, who screamed and fought everything around him for eight or\nten days after having been brought to the kindergarten, one day surprised everybody in the midst of a play of \"The Miller.\" We were\nsinging, \" Here's some corn, sir, for your grinding,\" when Earl burst into\nthe ring, saying, \" You don't do that right. This is the way to be a\nwheel,\" and flew into the ring from his point of observation and rushed\nwildly around and around in ever-widening circles, as the ring spontaneously opened wider and wider for his accommodation. He was\nallowed to be a wheel, without interference from the kindergartner, until\nthe pent-up energy, which had hitherto vented itself in screaming and\nkicking, became \" the joy of living \" which accomplishes all things,\nand he was henceforth one of us, and continued to be for five years,\nwhen he left us to go to a boys' academy, where he made an excellent\nrecord.\nChildren are much nearer the truth than we, for their instinct is\nto give themselves up to full, vigorous activity. Froebel tells us the first\ninstinct on which his system is based is the \"instinct of activity.\"\n\" Activity means growth, be it of body, or mind, or spirit.\" \" Anything\ndone is a training,\" for better or for worse, for good or for evil. We\nare told we possess over four hundred muscles ; allow these muscles to\nexpand, and great blood pressure ensues, thus insuring good circulation ;\nif we all possessed good circulation of the blood, we should, none of us,\nbe sick. It is because of the too great rush of blood to the brain, the\nimperfect circulation — from every cause, beginning with mind and ending with matter — that our little ones, who have been frightened or\nscolded, or are hungry or cold or sick, are called \" naughty.\" Bring\nthem to the kindergarten and let them play. Play with them ; how\nquickly smiles chase tears away, little hands and feet get warm, cheeks\nget pink, eyes shine, while merry laughter is so infectious that visitors\nand children are sympathetically one, and sorrow and care are forgotten\nby all, as the little feet trip to the measures of a march or dance. What,\ndance ! Yes, for what is rhythmic movement but dancing, be it called\nphysical culture, Delsarte movements, or the various steps of a waltz or\npolka, as we sing :\n\" Let the children come, as we form our ring ;\nEvery footstep light and free ;\nAll the faces bright, every footstep light ;\nLet us clap our hands and sing.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 617, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nIDEAL\n\nPLAY\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\n607\n\n1 refer you to a History of Dancing, by Gaston Vuillier, published by\nAppleton, where its history is traced from its dawn in Egypt, thruout all\nits developments in the sacred -dances of the Hebrews, the Greeks, the\nRomans, and the early Christians, to the gradual decline of religious\nfeeling in this form of art, and the debasement of the poetry of motion\nto the level of licentious pantomime. Then you would encourage dancing and dramatic impersonation ? Yes, rightfully expressed, as rhythmic\nmovement and natural expression, without distinction of sex, simply by\nchildren as children, not as so many girls and so many boys, so-called\npartners and beaux — ideas wholly foreign to Froebel's philosophy. It\nis a ring play, where, for action's sake only, for mere suppleness and\ngrace, one child stands in the center, while all sing, \" Let us look at\nMary, who shows us the game ; let us look at Mary, and we will all do the\nsame,\" while all carry out, in turn, each child's pantomimic act, raising\nthe arms over the head and swaying as the wind blows the waving grain,\nturning the hands rapidly in rotating motion to represent a wheel, sifting flour, beating eggs, rowing, swimming, etc. In turn, we said : is Mary\ntherefore told to choose a boy to take her place ? Oh, no, she is told to\nchoose a playmate ; boy or girl is immaterial, and no one gives a passing\nthought to it, whether it is a boy or girl whom she chooses. There is no\nsex in the kindergarten any more than there is in the home. Is one not\ntaught to be courteous and chivalric, then ? One is decidedly taught the\ngolden rule, which does not say, \" Do unto boys and girls,\" but \" Do\nunto others.\" Is anything done in the kindergarten for mere action's\nsake ? Nothing. Then, when one little one stands in the center of the\nring to be an example to his comrades, be it simply by an act of volition\nor action, it requires great bravery and moral courage on the part of a\ntimid child or a self-conscious one. We have known a case of a little\nwaif, one of a large family, who lived with his drunken parents in a\ncellar, who was two years in a kindergarten of Baltimore before he had\nsufficient command of himself, or could so \"far forget himself, as to take\nthis part ; but in this case he proved that \" the fact of struggle carries\nwith it the possibility of victory,\" for poor little Sammy- was never the\nsame boy after that act. He walked erectly, more definitely. We heard\nfrom Miss Lucy Moten in an address, a short time since : \"The man of\nthe present age who would have success must have courage, pluck.\" This,\nthen, was a beginning for Sammy ; who shall foretell its ending, and what\nshall be said of the patience and love of that kindergarten mother, Mrs. S. L.\nWelsh, who was Baltimore's first inspiration in ideal kindergarten work ?\nMay I close with a few words from Miss Alice Fitts and Mrs. Theodore\nBirney, given to us at our last mothers' congress? \"A teacher learns to\nadjust her own life through teaching the little ones.\" It makes life worth\nliving to take natural methods and order them scientifically, it helps the\nsomething within to come out and learn, to come in touch with life, to\n\n"}
{"page": 618, "printed_page": null, "text": "6o8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindei^arten\n\neducate, to study children, to meet mothers, and be in touch, as we are\non the present occasion, with all educators. Mrs. Birney says: \"We\ncannot make our own ancestors, but we can endeavor to make over ourselves.\" My paper is necessarily one of suggestion rather than dictation,\nand there are many points which have, of necessity, been omitted, but if\nwe are the heart-mother to the child the kindergartner is meant to be, we\nshall study the child's best good, not for present enjoyment only, but for\nthe future good of this life and the next.\n\nTHE DEVELOPMENT\n\nBY\n\nMRS. MARIA\n\nOF THE\n\nINNER\n\nKRAUS-BOELTE,\n\nImproved infant education commences\n\nLIFE OF THE\n\nNEW\n\nYORK\n\nCHILD\n\nCITY\n\non a natural, i. e., logical\n\nbasis. — ideas being abstracted from perceptions — becoming thus the\nproduct of the individual's own mental activity, developing originality,\ninstead of becoming \" blind consent \" to the ideas of others.\nClearness of mind is needed, in order to reflect on the intelligent\nproductions of thought and work of others, in order to appropriate them\nindividually. The foundation for this should be laid during the first\nyears of the child's life.\nThe sam€ law of nature manifests itself in all organisms, \"undergoing a certain series of changes,\" leading, according to the characteristic of the organism, to like ends, i. e., producing \"like form.\"\nMan alone is endowed with a free will — to accept, to reject, to\nimprove and ascend, or to disregard and lower himself. This capacity\nis found in the race and in the individual ; without it education would\nhave no basis. Its aim is \"self-knowledge,\" and it is aimed at with more\nor less success.\nThe characteristics of mankind are reflected in the play of children.\nAt first instinctive life is predominant in the young child. Education\n\" steps in \" to modify, to moderate, to exercise, to guide and assist, to lead\n\"by example,\" showing that \"will-power has a higher aim than individual\nwell-being alone;\" leading the child to become conscious of the highest\nexpressions of the human being as an individual by acquiring \"selfreliance, independence, and freedom;\" letting him perceive that love,\nnot only in the narrow circle of a few, should hold him, but that his love\nshould grow strong within him to extend to mankind, thus reaching up to\nthe love of God. As in the \" form world \" of God's creations, so also\nin the mental development, \"a natural series of events\" must take place\nin order to reach the corresponding idea of the mind.\nFor this end certain means are to be given, by which not only to\n\n"}
{"page": 619, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department] DEVELOPMENT\n\nOF THE\n\nINNER\n\nLIFE\n\nOF THE\n\nCHILD\n\n609\n\nprepare and accustom the mind to logical thinking, but to assist equally\nthe natural functions of the soul correspondingly from without, doing\naway with \"mere educational instinct.\"\nIn order surely to reach the aim, the child should be given \" free\nchoice,\" within certain limitations. The child giving his attention to\nactions performed, or objects formed, evinces the pleasure of \" doing for\nhimself.\" His native curiosity will become a great factor in the proposed,\nintelligently guided play, or play-work.\nWhether instinctive manifestations or natural impulses, serving for\nthe development of all creatures, the natural development in the child is\nto be aided by supplying, from the earliest period, external conditions\nfavorable to healthy growth. Thus, for instance : \"Nursery songs Froebel\nwould not have less natural and fond, but wisely turned into a means of\nstrengthening the yet weak limbs, and equally healthfully feeding the\nreceptive mind.\" \" First impressions on the mind Froebel would give\nby a few typical objects marking contrasts, yet harmonizing in combination. The mind, receiving clear impressions, will later on develop them\ninto clear conceptions by reproducing them in intelligent acts.\"\nAll of Froebel's education means are based on this ; and the child, as\nhe investigates or originates a form or figure, merely by slight but orderly\nchanges in the material given him learns that \" in fornis of use, beauty,\nor knowledge, the symmetry of the whole always depends upon the exact\narrangement of the parts.\" The child is not expected to comprehend\nthis, nor is he even told of it as \"an abstract law.\"\nAll science is based on experimental knowledge. The child's knowledge is experimental.\nIn dealing with the fundamental forms of nature, and constantly (tho\nunconsciously) using the fundamental law by way of arrangement, classification, and combination, these become \"life elements,\" and thus a\nbroad foundation is being laid for liberal culture. There is the harmonious blending of play and work, of freedom and order, of individual\nrights and social duties, aiming to impress on the child's mind the\ngeneral properties of things, rather than varieties of form, always dealing\nwith it in the most elementary manner, thus standing out as \"archetypes\nof ideas.\"\nOur thoughts may rise to the \"loftiest heights\" — their roots are ever\nfound in the material world.\nThe \"point\" and \"aim\" are: that the proposed play materials and\nwork, the games, songs, stories, sand, and garden work, or whatever may\nbe used, should be regarded as means only to reach the child, so as to\ninfluence his character, his morals, his mind, heart, intellect — the child\nentire. The child's natural free development makes itself known in an\nactivity of his senses, limbs, and body — the strengthening and the development of which lead to their uses : \"from the impression to the percep-\n\n"}
{"page": 620, "printed_page": null, "text": "6lo\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\ntion of things ; from the perception to observation and contemplation ;\nfrom acquaintance with individuality and knowledge thereof to a recognition of mutuality ; from the healthy life of the body, senses, and limbs\nto the healthy life of the mind; from action, united with thought, to the\npure thought; from healthy, strong sensation to the thinking mind;\nfrom the outer conception to the inner comprehension ; from the outward grouping to the inward comparison and judgment, thus rising to\nthe development and cultivation of the intellect ; from the outward\napprehension of phenomena to the inner examination of their foundation and cause, to the development and cultivation of the 'life-grasping' reason.\"\nThe clear image of the individuality of each nature will appear to the\nchild at a later period, in furtherance of the education of his mind and\nsoul ; and finally he will grasp the idea : first himself, and then the whole\nof which he is a part, being thus led from the thing to the picture, from\nthe picture to the symbol — taking hold of the nature of a thing as a\nspiritual whole.\nThis is the development of the ideas of individuality and wholeness\nas conceived by Froebel — life becoming the revelation of the unity of\nnature and mankind, which means \"oneness of God.\" \"A little child\nshall lead them \" is as true today as it has been and ever will be.\nThe child, as a bud on the \"everlasting tree of life,\" must, like the\nfirst cause of existence, shape his being \"out of himself\" by creative\nactivity; and he must be so guided \"that the bud may throw out roots\nwhich will strike into the everlasting life,\" and that, \" in the fruit of his\ndoing and living, the divine and human may appear again in unity, i. e.,\nthat actions may spring from his inner being to the honor of God and\nthe use and advantage of man.\"\nPlay, thus rightly understood, proves itself a means of assisting the\ninner growth of the child, independent of formal instruction. Selfseeing, self-hearing, self-making, self-experience, self-thinking — these are\nthe activities of the child, and, rightly developed, they are associated with\nhappiness, gayety, and joyousness.\nThe child gradually acquires a number of intuitions, without any\nso-called \"intuition instruction.\" As he develops during the first seven\nyears of his life, he learns to count and join numbers, but has no arithmetic lessons ; he exercises the language of his country, and yet has no\ninstruction whatever in language. Without singing lessons, he learns to\nsing ; without geometry, he gains a knowledge of points, lines, surfaces,\nbodies, angles, etc.; without instruction in natural history, he learns\nsomething of flowers, plants, trees, insects, birds, animals, stones, etc.,\nkeeping all within limitations. His religious feelings are incited, without receiving any instruction in religion. No certain branches of science\nare discerned, as regards these young children.\n\n"}
{"page": 621, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department] DEVELOPMENT\n\nOF THE\n\nINNER\n\nLIFE\n\nOF THE\n\nCHILD\n\n6ll\n\nAll knowledge conjointly should be \"as one great subject,\" without\nseparation, open to the little ones on all sides, that they may \"reach out,\"\nin order to assimilate, take in, \"-according to their need,\" as does the\nplant.\nThe educational help given should consist merely in assistance, or\nrather in supplying \"food,\" as, for instance, for the sense of form, while,\nif the child were to evince the need for it, the sense of number may be\nnurtured in the next moment. Like the bee that flies from flower to\nflower, seeking food and finding it, so the child roves, so to speak, thru\ndifferent realms of science, passing some by without paying any attention,\nreaching out to others with perfect ease, in order to derive the necessary\nmental food.\nWhile the school tries to hold, the attention of its pupils for a given\ntime in one or another certain branch of the field of knowledge, thus\n\" holding on \" to one power, giving this a prevalent direction before all\nothers, in order to raise the same in particular, the little child is left free,\ndrawing equally alternately on all the mental powers, charging none too\nheavily, nor for too long a time. To follow one thought or merely one\nidea during an entire morning, week, or month would seem contrary to\n\"child nature\" and the laws of the child's natural inner development.\nEach new effort of the child is followed by \" recreation \" in inciting a\nnew power by passing over a new subject.\nIn nature and in social life we find that, within a short space of time,\never new and varied elements are met with, following each other in quick\nsuccession, being subjected and, as it were, accidentally intermixed and\n\"offered for absorption.\" Similarly education should deal with children\nunder seven years of age.\nThe element of free development should ever be predominant, as are\nthe plants in nature's garden. Care should, however, be taken that such\n\"free development\" does not diverge, and become degraded to arbitrariness and mere \" toying.\" The child's free agency should be sacredly\nrespected, while cherishing self-activity by sympathy, leading him unobservedly by moral sentiment and reasonable thought.\n\" All the conditions for aesthetic activity should first be given, then free\nwill, subject to intelligent motive, should be addressed, directing the\nsame to proximate ends through artistic and useful work or generous\nsocial action,\"\nIt is thought that each human being born into this world has an\nimpress peculiar to himself, constituting his individuality. By education\nthis may be modified or developed, but not essentially changed. The\nobject is \" the realization of a faithful, pure, inviolate, and hence holy\nlife.\"\nA quantity of meaning rests in these few words.\nA child is a perpetually changing, growing, yet potentially complete,\nhuman being, and stages of life, such as infancy, childhood, youth,\n\n"}
{"page": 622, "printed_page": null, "text": "6l2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nmanhood, etc., should not be so severed as to become unrelated. Each of\nthese periods has a \"culminating point\" of relative completeness and\nbeauty of its own. The more fully each stage is developed, the stronger\nwill be each succeeding period of life. By gentle, gradual steps, thru the\ncrudest and simplest modes of sensual perception, to the manifestation\nof divine beauty in art, and of divine truth in the Word, has God led the\nchildren of humanity.\nIn the play of children of all times and nations we see the nature of\nmankind experienced. As birds build nests, so children in their play\nbuild houses or dig holes. As chickens scratch up the earth, so do little\nchildren's hands, until in their little gardens they have learned in play\n\"how to till the soil, sow, and reap.\" Any chance-found material will\nserve for plastic forming, be it only m^oist sand. There is no art which\nis not attempted by children, be it \"pictures in chalk or pencil,\" or lines\ndrawn in the sand. The first cooing tones of the infant move rhythmically ;later the voices of animals are imitated, until true musical sounds\nissue from the little throats. And with the rudiments of industry and\nart the first germs of science show themselves also in the desire \"to\nknow.\" With the often repeated Why, How, and Wherefore the young\nmind strives to get to the bottom of things, to the fundamental truth, to\ntheir source in God.\nIt is a fundamental necessity that the development of the individual\nshould go thru the same phases as that of the race, for both have the\nsame end before them.\n\"Joy, peace, and freedom,\" as Froebel expresses it, \"are sought by\nmankind; these can only be reached through the fulfillment of man's\ndestination, which is the fu-11 development of the entire human nature.\"\nAt the beginning of his existence the child of nature rules in \" man \"\nas instinctive life, as an impulse which awakens the will at first only as an\nungoverned force of nature. Self-preservation is almost exclusively the\nunconscious object of all childish utterances. Education moderates this\ninstinct, and by exercise of his capacity for \" loving \" the child is guided\nout of the narrow range of personal life into that of the child of humanity,\ni. e., the social being who constitutes a member of human society ; and\nhere feeling and reason will guide the will power, lifting to a higher aim\nthan \" mere personal well-being.\"\nSelf-reliance, independence, and freedom are the highest stamp of the\nchild of humanity as an individual. Almost all progress in the world is\nthe result of that feeling of independence, \"to create for himself an\nindependent existence, a respected position in society.\" So long, however, as man considers only himself, or even the wider \"self\" of his family,\nso long \" the child of God \" still slumbers within him. Love must\ndrive him forth into the larger community of the nation and the race, in\norder to devote himself for the benefit of the whole, and thus, by entering\n\n"}
{"page": 623, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department] DEVELOPMENT\n\nOF THE\n\nINNER\n\nLIFE\n\nOF THE\n\nCHILD\n\n613\n\nthe service of mankind, he has entered the service of God, has become\na \" child of God \" in simplicity and piety.\nIt is well known how detrimental premature schooling is to the sound\ndevelopment of body and mind ; how it destroys all freshness and pleasure of learning. Up to the seventh year the child should not be so much\ninstructed, but, instead, his faculties and intelligence be developed by\nactivity and observation in favorable surroundings.\nThe point is to guide and influence the child to see correctly, to\nlisten intelligently, to acquire correct notions, to be interested in everything that surrounds him ; he should be observant, able to express himself clearly, to develop his inventive and constructive faculties; habits of\norder and cleanliness should be inculcated, a taste for labor and love of\ngoodness should be acquired, for they form the basis of aesthetic and\nmoral education.\nIt is not the value as knowledge, but the faculty to observe, to think,\nto express one's ideas. It is the harmonious development and cultivation\nof all the intellectual and bodily powers of the child, leading him to\nbecome conscious of those powers and to make use of them. And by\nintercourse with children of his own age he learns to become happy, sociable, and peaceable. Intercourse with others of the same age, under\nsupervision of intelligent and sympathetic adults, who render help at the\nright time and at the right point for the development of the child's nature,\nis necessary.\nIt is formation instead of reformation ; prevention instead of cure.\nThe human energies need to be utilized, inducing activity instead of\nrestraint. Sedulous attention should be paid to the effect of employment\non children of different temperaments.\n\"The fall from childhood's paradise begins painfully early in these\nmodern times.\" \"By forcing the child out of his unconsciousness, by\ndemanding of him reflection, by checking the joy of his receptiveness, by\ntoo much teaching, we spoil the divine teaching of God and nature,\" says\nFroebel. \"Let the child remain for a time ignorant of himself, live\nnaturally, and drink in his wisdom and his religion from the influences\nwhich God makes play around him.\" \" Make the bridge from the cradle\nto manhood just as long as you can, leaving the child a child as long as\npossible, not forcing him into premature development by intelligence or\nby anything else. Let him be a child and not a little ape or a man running about the town.\"\nRatich, Francke, Locke, Basedow, Pestalozzi, and Froebel based their\nsystems of education on the principle of observation by the senses; the\nlatter introducing into his method the spirit of self-activity.\none\n\n\"A good and proper beginning implies the end,\" says Diesterweg,\nof the most distinguished\neducational\nwriters and teachers in\n\n"}
{"page": 624, "printed_page": null, "text": "6 14\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nGermany of the present century, who regarded the principle of self-activity\nin the service of the true, the beautiful, and the good as the aim of all\neducation.\n\nA KINDERGARTEN\nBY MRS. ADA\n\nMAREAN\n\nMESSAGE\nHUGHES,\n\nTO MOTHERS\n\nTORONTO,\n\nCANADA\n\nI\nThe mother of a large family, who had borne the burden and cares of\nmotherhood in an uncomplaining, self-sacrificing spirit, had been reading\nthat helpful book, A Mother's Ideals; and as she handed it to another\nmother like herself, she said: \"I think I have not honored myself sufficiently for being a mother.\"\nShe had been patient with each added care and had given freely of\nloving service, but had not realized that in such giving she had made\nherself worthy of the highest honor given to humanity. To her, as to\nmost women, the increase in family cares had seemed to mean less opportunity for leisure and culture, and a sphere narrowed more and more by\nthe dull routine service of a mother in the home where her personality\nmust slowly dwindle into insignificance thru the aggressive force of the\nfresh, growing life of her children ; her only choice being to accept the\nsituation uncomplainingly or to trust her little ones to the care Of hired\nservants.\nIt is this sense of the insignificance of the office of motherhood that\nhas lessened the joy of life for many a self-sacrificing woman, and thru\nself-abasement many have limited the positive influence of their devotion\nto their children.\nQn the other hand, it has been the apology and excuse for many\nothers who have felt that they could not make such a sacrifice of their\nown identity, even for their children. Thru lack of insight into the\nsacredness of child life has come failure to recognize the relationship\nbetween mother and child as having any significance beyond proper provision for physical well-being, and has led to the mistake of supposing\nthat money can buy the required service and leave the mother free to\nfollow more congenial occupations.\nIt is strange how slow we have been to recognize that such service\nwithout the vitalizing influence of mother love is external and negative in\nits effect in character development. Money can never buy love, and\nlove divorced from service cannot make itself felt in the heart of a\nchild.\nFroebel's message to mothers is full of hope and promise.\n\nHis reve-\n\n"}
{"page": 625, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nA KINDERGARTEN\n\nMESSAGE\n\nTO MOTHERS\n\n615\n\nlations of child nature set the mother and child in the foreground of\nlife interest. He shows us the child, an unfolding life, not as the future\nman or woman made small, but the potential being whose future is to be\nshaped by present and coming influences, and the fountain source of\nwhose soul stimulant is sympathetic mother love and service.\nTo the mother, primarily, is given the task and privilege of caring for\nthe child at this most important stage of life, wheri any and all influences\nmake or mar the character for all time.\nWe have heard a good deal of sentimental discourse about the instinct\nof mother love and its all-sufficiency as a guide in the nurture of child\nlife, but it is the exception rather than the rule when it proves itself an\ninfallible guide. Human instinct must be illumined by reasoning insight\nto suffice for human guidance. Instinctive love cannot relate the present\nwith the past and future, and is therefore fluctuating and uncertain in its\nexpression.\nTo understand the nature of a child, to know the process of the\nunfolding of a divinely created being, requires the exercise of the finest\npowers of the mind, and, in giving the service of true motherliness, a\ndegree of consecration is necessary which involves the deepest spiritual\ninsight.\nWhen God infolds his own life in another human body and gives it\ninto a woman's care to foster and nurture, can anyone who realizes the\nsacredness of the mission fail to give freely and ungrudgingly her best\nselfhood to the task, and feel herself ennobled by her service, glad to be\na coworker with God? It is a work of exaltation, and every mother may\nwalk with face uplifted to the stars, if she realizes its full blessing, and the\nworld will learn in time to give her homage.\nThere are other years given to everyone for the development of intellectual strength, for satisfaction of the taste for artistic or literary\nachievement according to inclination and power, but no other years will\nbe so full of blessing as those given cheerfully to the nurture of infancy\nand childhood.\nWhen we realize what a power that instinct of mother love can become\nin the soul of a woman who has insight to feel that it is God's provision\nfor the soul life of her child, we long to point out the blessing to those\nwho have not yet seen, for the sake of both mothers and children missing\nso much of life's joy and best blessing.\nAll the wealth of culture with which woman\n\ncan enrich herself, all the\n\nstrength of reason she can develop, the consecration of a broad, responsive, sympathetic nature, are not too much to bring to such a task. Consciously exalting her office, she enters upon the daily routine of domestic\nlife with a joyfulness which keeps the whole sympathy of her children.\nIn their unfolding life she recognizes illustrations of the truths of deepest\nphilosophy, and in commonplace events of every day she reviews in the\n\n"}
{"page": 626, "printed_page": null, "text": "6l6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nconcrete the truths which before were seen only abstractly. There is a\nglowing vitality in such thought which mental exercise alone could not\ngive. Physical strength depends largely upon the action of the mind,\nand a consciousness of the wealth of her influence in these young lives\ndoes much to check the tendency to nervous exhaustion so much to be\ndeplored among mothers of today. We want not less of motherhood,\nbut an increase in the quality ; we want a richer, fuller insight into the\ndivine meaning of the ofifice, to make the new woman, renewing herself\nday by day in the joy of living.\nWomen have sought honor in social life, in literary achievement, in\nculture, in philanthropy. Many gain local fame as housekeepers and in\nthe culinary arts, but we have yet to realize how infinitely honorable\nabove such recognition is the office of motherhood, when well and wisely\nadministered.\nOne of the highest aims of mothers' clubs should be to idealize the\noffice of motherhood so that all may look beyond the narrow limits of\neveryday duty and weariness, and in the view from the hilltop find the\ninterrelation of the light and shadow of daily living. Such an outlook\nwill fill the days and hours of monotonous labor, which are inevitable in\nevery home, with hope instead of grim endurance. There is a vitalizing\nspiritual reality which underlies all living, but often our eyes are downcast,\nand we see only shadows.\nIt is an uplifting vision to see that these weary hours of watching and\nwork are a part of the process of unfolding life, and that the loving\nservice which mother love and life give is the sunshine in which the child\nsoul grows into a developed power for divine work in the world.\nThe child as a divine creation for a divine purpose, self-unfolding,\nself-determining, is a revelation of Froebel to the mother.\nOld-time orthodoxy, with its adult ideas of adult nature as needing\nregeneration, missed the thought of childhood as a fresh generation\nfrom the divine hand, and read the possible tendencies of heredity\nas the burden of sin already committed, to be atoned for by the innocent\nbabe, and in the name of religion declared it to be totally depraved in\nconception. It was the honest conclusion of those who conceived child\nnature to be only adulthood written small, of those who saw in the unfolding bud and in the ripened, perfected seed the same life conditions and\nfunctions, because in the one line of process for a common end.\nMotherhood has always loved the supposed little sinner notwithstanding the defamed character, and instinctively clothed him in the white garments befitting sweet innocence, while with outward word accepting in\ncreed what the heart denied.\nFroebel's interpretation of the nature of the child comes to the help\nand comfort of motherhood and dares to say, and proves it true, that the\nmother instinct is true to divine purpose and reason.\n\n"}
{"page": 627, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nA KINDERGARTEN\n\nMESSAGE\n\nTO\n\nMOTHERS\n\n617\n\nDepravity cannot exist except where the developing selfhood has wilfully debased its power to act by persistently serving the sensual instead\nof the spiritual nature.\nIt is one thing to be a possible, or even probable, sinner ; it is quite\nanother thing to atone for a burden of sin which we cannot understand,\nbecause there is nothing in our experience to show its relation to our own\nlife or any other life. In the possibility of sinfulness we mark the great\nneed of wise training to avoid sin. Hence the terrible significance of\nwrong, or neglect, in training.\nFroebel shows us the child creating for himself an ideal character or\nselfhood, growing thru exercise of an embryonic selfhood in lines of natural\ninterest.\nAs Froebel's idea of the child comes to be accepted as the true interpretation of Christ's love of children, we come face to face with the\ninevitable conclusion that parents are most solemnly responsible for the\ntraining of the child in infancy as well as responsible for its heredity, and\nwe cannot do other than demand a training for parenthood.\nI have a hope that in this new philosophy we shall find the antidote\nfor the evils of present university and college training, which so often\nresults in a wrecked, unbalanced physical and mental equipment for the\nstudent.\nTo return to Froebel's ideal of infant education. We have misunderstood the child nature in thinking the early days of infancy of little\nimportance, except in matters of physical good and comfort, but with\nnewer light we are impressed with the thought that iri these playing years the\nchild fashions the selfhood which, as it comes to maturity, reaches out and\nshapes and controls the environment as it wills.\nFrom one single embryonic cell the whole structure of the body is\nevolved, in its complexity and variety of function. If it is defective, the\nbeing is physically dwarfed from the beginning. It is equally true that, if\nthe first emotions of the soul are chilled or neglected, unfolded selfhood\nis forever dwarfed in its power to enter into other life thru participation.\nWhen we reach the ideal of the life of the individual as culminating\nin responsive sympathy with brother-man and reverent communion with\nGod the Father, and realize that development includes the completeness\nor incompleteness of every degree of every stage, we begin to see\nsomething of the importance of these first days of budding sympathy\nand the value to all future life of sympathetic nurture of infant emotion.\nIf the first emotion is starved, all spiritual insight is deadened, social\nresponsiveness is dwarfed, and the man falls short of divinely created\npossibilities, thru the defect of initial response.\nAs the Bible is an inspired revelation of the universal nature and\ndestiny of man, and reveals love as the process by which he enters into\n\n"}
{"page": 628, "printed_page": null, "text": "6i8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Kindergarten\n\nhis spiritual inheritance of sonship and brotherhood, beginning with\nGenesis, or origin, and completing itself in Revelation, or heavenly vision\nof a new life, so the Mother- Play reveals the particular relation of\nmother and child in the unfolding of child nature. It is a revelation of\nchild nature from its genesis to the personal revelation of a conscious\nselfhood as co-operative man and child of the divine Father. It defines\nthe steps in the process of that unfolding and the significance of its\nrelationships.\nIt shows the vital spiritual relation between the sympathetic heart\nof the mother and the responsive play of the child. It gives typical\nexperiences showing points of contact and interest, vital fundamental\ncenters out of which spring the fountains of universal life, and defines\nsimple means of stimulus lying right in the field of everyday contact.\nThere is no message from the kindergarten to mothers more important, itseems to me, than that plea of Froebel's to \"let childhood ripen\nin childhood.\" Recent investigations in child-study startle us with\nsuggestions of arrested development, not only in bodily and mental\npowers, but of spiritual strength and insight, where we have been wont to\nsee, as we thought, only willful lack of participation. We are equally\nstartled with the suggestions of premature development in as many directions, and the inevitable degeneracy which must follow.\nThe schools are not responsible. They are just what the majority\nof the homes demand, and when the mothers are sufficiently thoughtful\nto define what they really do want, and are willing to work for the realization of their ideals, they will succeed.\nOur children are not allowed to play naturally and freely. The conventionalities of adult life crowd upon this fresh young life in its\nupspringing joyousness, and we cramp and dwarf the spontaneousness of\nplay and childish outburst of feeling. Let the flower of life flaunt its gay\ncolors unrebuked. There is a vital relation between these bright petals\nand the slow-maturing seeds which now are green and soft and hardly\nperceptible. The strength and firmness of maturity depend upon the\nwealth of natural expression in blossoming time. Our children must play.\nThey must have room. They must play spontaneously, unrestrainedly.\nThey must be glad in their play, if you want individual courage and joyful\nstrength in mature life.\nToo boisterous expression is possible, but the restraint should not be\nexternal, lest it develop insincerity, but restraint will come from loving\nimpulse of the heart, if the sympathies are intelligently, systematically\nstimulated in the union of mother and child.\nI believe that educational reforms will not find their limit until every\nhome recognizes this inalienable right of childhood and gives it room and\nsympathy, and not until it will be possible for every child, rich and poor\n\n"}
{"page": 629, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department] INFLUENCE\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\nUPON\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n619\n\nalike, to come in contact with nature and find freedom for joyous expression of the play impulse in public playgrounds.\nThe best prayer is the one of work, so let us mothers and motherly\nwomen rouse ourselves to work\" systematically and persistently for such\nprivileges for universal childhood.\n\nTHE\n\nBY\n\nINFLUENCE\n\nF. LOUIS\n\nSOLDAN,\n\nOF THE KINDERGARTEN\nTHE SCHOOLS\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nUPON\n\nST. LOUIS, MO.\n\n[abstract]\n\nSuperintendent Soldan stated that the civilization — and the schools\nas a part of that civilization — of modern times is eclectic, a general\nproposition which is illustrated by the contributions lent by the art of all\nlands and all times to the making of the great Congressional Library.\nAmong the many valued influences of the kindergarten, its influence in\ncausing children to see mathematical truths more clearly, and to read\nmore quickly and intelligently, were emphasized. The Washington\npractice of putting in one class the children from intelligent homes and\nthose from the kindergarten, while children with less power to work are\nput in another class, was mentioned.\nIn tracing the history of the influences that have prepared the way\nfor the kindergarten in the United States, Mr. Soldan mentioned four\npoints :\n1. The influence of Horace Mann and of the Oswego Normal School\nin diffusing Pestalozzian and other fundamental principles and practices\nof education.\n2. The influence of Dr. W. T. Harris, to whom he paid a feeling\ntribute, and of St. Louis, in establishing kindergartens, and emphasizing\nthe Hegelian doctrines of sense-perception and thought.\n3. The personal influence of Miss Susan Blow, who added to Hegelian principles Froebel's doctrine of self-activity, which has broken up\nthe scholasticism of the schools, and made the manual-training school\npossible.\n4. Herbart's philosophy, especially the doctrine of interest, when\nproperly stated. Incidentally the likenesses of Froebel and Herbart\nwere indicated.\n\n"}
{"page": 630, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF ELEMENTARY\n\nSECRETARY'S\nFIRST\n\nEDUCATION\n\nMINUTES\n\nSESSION.— Monday, July\n\nii, 1898\n\nThe department was called to order at 3 P. M. in the First Congregational Church,\nby the president, Dr. William N. Kallmann, Dayton, O.\nThe following program was presented :\nAddress by President William N. Kallmann.\n\" Play as a Means of Idealizing and Extending the Child's Experiences,\" Miss AUie\nM. Felker, State Normal School, San Jos^, Cal. ; discussion by Miss E. V. Brown, Normal\nSchool, Washington,;^D. C.\n\" Successive Differentiation of Subjects of Instruction,\" Dr. Z. X. Snyder, president\nState Normal School, Greeley, Colo. ; discussion by Superintendent T. A. Mott, Richmond, Ind.\nPresident Kallmann appointed the following as a committee on nominations :\nT. A. Mott, Richmond, Ind.\nMiss E. A. Denny, Washington, D. C.\nMiss Sarah E. Miller,\n, Cal.\n\nThe meeting adjourned at 5 P» M.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION.— Tuesday, July 12\n\nThe department met at 3 P. M. in the First Congregational Church and was called\nto order by the president.\nThe following program was presented :\n\"Value of the Kand in Acquisition of Knowledge and Expression of Thought,\" Miss\nMary F. Kail, superintendent of primary work, Milwaukee, Wis. ; discussion by Superintendent George Griffith, Utica, N. Y.\n\"Manual Training in Elementary Schools,\" Principal Richard Waterman, Chicago, 111.\n\" Social Co-operation,\" Superintendent B. C. Gregory, Trenton, N. J.\nThe report of the Committee on Nominations was given as follows :\nFor President — William N. Hailmann, Dayton, O.\nFor Vice-President — J. W. Carr, Anderson, Ind.\nFor Secretary — Miss E. V. Brown, Washington, D. C.\n\nA vote of thanks was offered to the local committee for its thoughtful provision for\nthe comfort of the department.\nKarriett E. Smith,\nSecretary.\n\n620\n\n"}
{"page": 631, "printed_page": null, "text": "PRESIDENT'S\n\nDepartment]\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nPRESIDENT'S\nBY\n\nDR. WILLIAM\n\nN.\n\n621\n\nADDRESS\n\nDISCUSSIONS\nADDRESS\n\nHAILMANN,\nSUPERII^TENDENT\nDAYTON, O.\n\nOF\n\nINSTRUCTION,\n\nThruout the educational world the conviction is gaining ground that,\nin order to reach in its work the real life and character of the pupil, the\nschool must modify its practices in many ways; that it must eliminate\nfrom organization and method certain traditions of mediaevalisra which\nstill cling to it, and that it must enter unreservedly upon certain new\npaths, indicated most comprehensively by Froebel.\nThe traditional school deals chiefly with what have been aptly designated as school branches of instruction and the corresponding forms of\ntechnical skill. Even in its ethical work, it confines itself mostly to the\nschool virtues, such as punctuality, promptness, and obedience. It draws\nits material from the past ; it excludes the living present and turns its back\nupon the future. Hence it is a stranger to the science and art of life\nwhich lies in the present and tends toward the future. The traditional\nschool is interested in the origin of man and ignores his destiny.\nFrom this condition progressive education has sought deliverance\nsince the days of Bacon, as attested by Comenius, Locke, Montaigne,\nRousseau, Pestalozzi, Heusinger, and scores of others. The fullest\nformulation of aim and method, however, was reserved for Froebel. He,\nfor the first time, in clear and simple words, recognized the proximate\naim of education as the co-ordination of individual purpose with the\nprogressively manifest destiny of man. This formula frees education\nfrom its mediaeval trammels. It deals primarily with the child. For\nauthority it substitutes insight. The worship of the past yields to the\ncontrol of the present and to the deliberate conquest of the future. Life,\nwith its varied experience and. rich opportunities for achievement, takes\nthe place of the book.\nYet authority, the past, and the book are not discarded; nor do they\nfall into contempt. On the contrary, they become invested with a higher\ndignity, for, altho they have ceased to be ends in themselves, they have\nbecome indispensable means in the attainment of higher aims. Thus is\navoided the error of breaking with environment and antecedent; reform\nrests on the discovery of the true place and value of these, not only conserving them, but giving them new significance and higher purpose.\nIn the formulation of his principle of method Froebel is equally wise\n\n"}
{"page": 632, "printed_page": null, "text": "62 2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nand conservative. He preserves, indeed, the traditional formula which\nbids the teacher proceed from the concrete and particular to the abstract\nand general, but he extends it by requiring the application of the abstract\nand general to new concrete and particular facts and purposes. In this\nhe is followed by the Herbartians. Yet he goes farther. He demands\nthat these particulars should coincide as nearly as possible with the\npupil's own spontaneous desires, that the pupil should apply his general\nfacts and principles to his own experience, his own needs and aspirations.\nBy each new gain in insight, the life of the pupil should, at the very time,\nbe enriched and extended, gaining in aspiration and depth, in productive\nand creative fervor and efficiency. In other words, he requires that the\nessential and practical identity of the concrete particular and the abstract\ngeneral should be shown and become manifest in the actual life of the\npupil at his respective stage of development.\nThis leads Froebel to recognize the significance of manual activity\nand play in mental development, and his new education means to lead\nthe former to work and to creative art, and the latter to conscious social\nco-ordination in common social endeavor. Froebel sees in humanity the\nhighest expression of creative thought. With reference to this, the child\nappears to him as a part, but also, and in a higher sense, as a whole in\nprocess of development, a whole in which humanity is to attain consciousness ofits dignity and to reach a higher plane.\nFroebel successfully overcame in his work the fatal dualism which\nformerly had fancied impassable barriers between mind and body, which\nhad denied the paramount value of the hand, and had placed sole reliance\non the word, more especially the printed word. He recognized the\nunity of body and mind in life. To him the hand appeared as the outwardly acting mind ; in the deed thought is realized, completed. The\nword appears to him, on the one hand, as treasuring past achievement\nin the onward march of humanity, and, on the other hand, as mediating\nbetween members of society or social groups united in common interests.\nFrom these considerations it will appear, as was previously indicated,\nthat Froebel's new education does not underestimate' the value of the\nmaterial of instruction of the traditional school. On the contrary, it\nintensifies the importance of this material by giving to it in its treatment direct bearing, not only upon the prospective, but also upon the\nactual, life of the pupil. Fundamental data for logical treatment are\nfurnished by the pupil's immediate environment and experience ; motive\nfor action is found in his own natural interests. On the other hand, the\noutcome of thought and effort passes at once, more or less completely,\ninto the pupil's actual achievement life, and furnishes food for progressively higher aims and ideals, as well as incentive for correspondingly\ndeeper, more persistent, and wider research.\nThus, steadily, naturally, continuously, compactly, play is lifted into\n\n"}
{"page": 633, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPRESIDENT'S\n\nADDRESS\n\n623\n\nwork, fancy into creative art, interest into devotion. Starting from narrowest surroundings, the pupil, at first impulsively and incidentally, but\nlater on deliberately and systematically, makes ever wider excursions into\nbroader and more distant fields. Technical practice and the book, to\nwhich the traditional school was wont to bring the child by force or by\ncajolery, or, worse still, by the unworthy heat of competition, are sought\nby the pupil as indispensable requirements of success in the achievement\nof coveted purpose and in the attainment of cherished ideals, individual\nand social.\nThe applicability of Froebel's educatioiial principles in practice had\nbeen amply proved by him, not only in the kindergarten, but also in\nadvanced work, notably at Keilhau. Still more strikingly has the eminently practical character of his scheme in its application to elementary\nschool work been shown by many earnest teachers in the United States.\nIndeed, this scheme is so fully in consonance with distinctively American\nlife that its spirit permeates more or less helpfully every department of\nthe American school.\nOn this account, and in order to assist in lifting a desirable instinctive\ntendency into purposeful leadership, it was decided by the Elementary\nDepartment, at Milwaukee, to devote the sessions this summer to the\ndiscussion of a number of the leading features of Froebel's educational\nscheme in their applicability to elementary work. These features are\nemphasized in the program before you. They embrace the educational\nvalue of the hand, of play, of spontaneous purpose, of social effort, and\nof attention to the child's needs in the successive differentiation of subjects of instruction.\nI would not be understood that by such action the Elementary Department isto be committed to an effort to Froebelize American education, to\nthe exclusion of whatever good it may hold from other sources, and still\nless to the detriment of its own native sturdiness, its open-eyed independence and practical common sense. Indeed, everyone familiar with the\nlife and work of the earnest teacher whose name graces the principles to\nbe discussed is aware that such an effort would be wholly out of harmony\nwith his extreme modesty and aversion to personal following. Merely a\nnew direction would he point out in which light is to be found. Merely\nas a contribution to the common work would we add to whatever good\nmay have come to our schools from Locke and Rousseau, from Comenius\nand Francke, from Pestalozzi and Diesterweg, and even from Hegel and\nHerbart, the good which Froebel pointed out, and which is destined to\nvitalize every phase of education it touches.\nI congratulate the department upon the success of its officers in securing for the discussion of these vital points experts whose equipment,\nintellectual integrity, sympathy with childhood, and elevation of ideal\ngive them more than ordinary claim to be heard and foUo.wed.\nThere is\n\n"}
{"page": 634, "printed_page": null, "text": "624\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nno doubt in my mind that their presentation of the topics will fully realize the high anticipations of the department, and will serve as a permanent leaven for good to teachers and schools thruout our broad land.\n\nPLA y AS A MEANS\nTHE\nBY\n\nMISS\n\nALLIE\n\nFOR IDEALIZING AND\nCHILD S EXPERIENCE\n\nM. FELKER,\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nEXTENDING\n\nSAN JOS^, CAL.\n\nThe balance wheel of a nation turns on the well-directed plays of\nchildhood. To adjust this balance wheel in the lives of individuals must\never be the mission of our common schools.\nPlay has always been a determining force in national development\nand progress. England, for example, owes her greatness to the play\ninstinct. Wellington said : \" Waterloo was won on the playing grounds\nof Eton.\" The thought dominating the school mind of today is play.\nAmerica awakened to a realization of its value when she began to establish kindergartens and to make a connection between them and the public schools, thus making play the basis of her educational system.\nAristotle, Comenius, and other educators before Froebel's time, considered play essential to the child's development, but it was a mere matter of theory until Froebel put it into practice. Since his time physicians have learned that an inactive child is either mentally unbalanced or\nill ; teachers know that they should make a special study of children\nwho do not play ; college men think games a panacea for all the ills to\nwhich human flesh is heir, and leading educators consider play a safeguard against crime in the commonwealth. To understand that play is a\nmeans of idealization one has but to look into the boyhood of such men\nas Washington and Edison.\nPlay, to be truly educative, must have a double meaning. To the\nparent and the teacher it must mean a direction of the child's thought\nalong the line of his activities. To the child it must mean action without special hindrance, opportunity to work out his own ideas. As \" the\norganizations of developed society are exemplified in the plays of childhood,\" itlies with the citizens, the mothers, the fathers, and all friends of\neducation to provide right circumstances for joyous, loving, social\nactivity.\nThree ideal conditions for play are normal children^ model schoolhomes, and professionally trained teachers.\nIt is a comparatively easy matter to bring experience to a well-born,\nnormal child, and to establish in him high ideals ; but well-born, normal\nchildren are not the rule.\nAn educator says that kindergartens and\n\n"}
{"page": 635, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nFUNCTION\n\nOF PLAY\n\nIN\n\nCHILUS\n\nEXPERIENCE\n\n625\n\nteachers have to deal, rather, with children incapable of stable and continuous exertion, who come from unstable and dissipating environments,\nand it is only with great difficulty that these children can be led to\nacquire the habit of concentrated and faithful performance of work, which\nis indispensable to a vigorous, intellectual growth. Thru regular, welldirected play, however, the child may be given \"something of that\nbasis of stable habit, of regular response to right moral stimuli, which\nis the foundation of all intellectual and moral education.\"\n\"The most important function of play,\" says an authority, \"is to educate the individual for his life work in a network of social relationships.\"\nIt cannot be denied that the ideal home, the home in which are found\n•the playroom, the attic, the sand pile, the workshop, household and\nbarnyard pets, educational games, suitable pictures, books, papers, and\nmagazines, furnishes excellent opportunities for gaining experience and\nestablishing ideals ; but even this ideal home fails to satisfy the well-born,\nhealthy, normal child before he reaches the age of four. The grown-up\natmosphere does not meet his social requirements, and if he is to play\nrightly, he must mingle with his equals, little people who can sympathize\nwith him and have a keen appreciation of his pleasures, pains, and\nfriendship.\nThe kindergarten or school to which he is sent should, as certain\neducators have said, \" be a complete community and embryonic democracy,\nwhere the child is enabled to take lessons in love and self-respect, in duty\nand in privilege, in humility and self-esteem, in subordination, co-ordination, and independence,\" and this school home should be surrounded by\nthe beauties of nature, the great storehouse of children's ideals. These\nthe child should be led to take in thru the senses, until he is able to construct clear mental images and idealize to such an extent that he will know\nGod by his handiwork, catch his smile in the 'flood of light which\ngladdens the earth, and hear his voice in the rhythmic movements of the\nuniverse.\nA professionally trained mother-teacher, a lover of childhood, wise\nas Socrates and self-denying as Pestalozzi, is needed to guide the baby\ntongue, hands, and feet thru the maze of play into the realm of idealized\nwork which shall be lifelong in duration.\nExperience and perfect idealization are the result of conforming to\ncertain laws — laws of self-activity, unity, or concentration, as the Herbartians have renamed it, and the much-abused laws of analysis and synthesis,\nand the connection of contrasts, all of which merge into the law of life,\nlove, or gravitation in the moral and spiritual world. The ideal teacher\nwill lead the child to conform to these laws in such a manner that he will\nnot feel that they are a special hindrance, but rather that they are\nthe only means of turning what interests him most \" to practical account\nin play.\"\nThat a child may understand people, he must imitate them ;\n\n"}
{"page": 636, "printed_page": null, "text": "626\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nthat he may understand stories, he must dramatize them ; that he may\ndevelop true ideals, he must create. Robert Louis Stevenson says that\nthis crude attempt to realize truth \"is, in some ways, but a pedestrian\nfancy which the child exhibits.\"\nThis walk \"in vain show among mists and rainbows\" will, however,\nif guided aright, result in a strong, healthy imagination. \"Play takes\nchildren where they love to be, into the world of happy make-believe,\"\nwhere objects are transformed into birds, flowers, and animals, and where\nlong, delightful journeys can be taken into storyland or that enchanted\nrealm in which the sun, moon, stars, wind, and waves speak to the child\nwith \" voices prophetic,\" until he feels himself at one with the great, throbbing heart of nature.\nTo train the imagination so as to bring about the best results, the\nteacher must deal largely with the emotional nature. But she cannot educate the emotions without dealing with the whole mind, and in doing this\nthere is danger that she may lose sight of the end and aim, or the fact that\nthe crowning feature of her work is to establish ideals. Continued work in\nthe training of teachers shows us where the danger lies. There is too\nmuch instruction, too much interference with the ideals of children.\nThe over-enthusiastic kindergartner or teacher attempts to do too much\nfor the child, and she frequently forces him to see thru grown-up spectacles.\nShe does not enter into his life, but leads him rather to enter into hers. She\nseems to regard questioning as her business, and she does not stimulate\nhim to do his part in the work of education. If the teacher would supply\nconditions, and not assist the child too much, but rather help him to help\nhimself, she would pave the way for him to gain experience and realize\nhis ideals. Over-questioning, helping children until they become helpless,\nand giving them a surfeit of play or work, have retarded educational progress in the past. The teacher of the future will inspire the child to do\nfor himself, fan the God-given powers within him until they glow with a\nspirit of usefulness, burn with the steady fire of talent, or burst into the\nliving flame of genius.\nBoth in the home and in the school the play spirit should be fostered.\nThe home where father and mother become as little children and play\nregularly and systematically for an hour or two a day with their boys and\ngirls is a type of what all homes should be. There is no home so rich or\nso poor that parents cannot thru play enter into the lives of their children.\nBy guiding them rightly into senseland, storyland, and cloudland, parents\npave the way for the teacher who in the kindergarten and school can give\ngreater opportunity for individual and social activity. Experience can\nbe gained and ideals established thru imitation and dictation exercises,\nleading to invention; music, color plays, and drawing, leading to art;\nstories, the ethical basis of history and literature, and social indoor and\nout-of-door games, resulting in the all-round development of the child.\n\n"}
{"page": 637, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nFUNCTION\n\nOF PLAY\n\nIN\n\nCHILD'S\n\nEXPERIENCE\n\n627\n\nTo imitate action and speech, under right conditions, is to play freely\nand joyously. Imitation gives the child a realization of self, and makes\nhim in a measure \" self-regulative.'-' Imitating the cries and actions of birds\nand animals, and copying the ways of playmates and older people, are in\na way inventive, but the key which opens the door to true invention is\nprecision in dictating. Imitation causes the child to feel a certain sense\nof power ; following dictations makes this sense real to him. Skill and\nthoro preparation on the teacher's part are necessary to give a clear, concise, interesting dictation, one which will not end in itself, but \" prove\nthe child to be an inventor in the midst of it.\" Invention is too often\nthe result of accident. In the kindergarten it is the healthy outgrowth\nof the Froebelian plays. To carry out the laws underlying these plays\nin the occupations of the elementary school is to train the imagination,\nor foster the spirit of invention.\nFletcher says: \"Let me make the songs of a nation, and I care not\nwho makes its laws.\" That a nation may produce makers of song, the\nspirit of music lying dormant in every child must be awakened in earliest\ninfancy. The power to express poetic thought in song can best be\ndeveloped thru systematized play. Tomlins says : \" What one voices in\nsong one lives.\" In the finger plays of the nursery, beautifying and\nsanctifying the home spirit ; in kindergarten games, symbolizing nature\nand idealizing work ; in the educational games of the elementary school,\nwhere music is rightly blended with verbal speech, children are given an\nopportunity to voice in song what they see, hear, and feel, and thus to\nlive it. That the wholesome, elevating kind of music heard in the kindergarten be carried into the primary school is of vital importance. Too\noften we hear beautiful words set to street music and the lighter college\nairs in primary and grammar schools, and we see children marching out\nof their class-rooms to the sound of music that weakens and degrades\ntheir nature. The best is not too good for the future rulers of home and\nstate. Songs and marches should be taken from the best composers.\nMusic should always appeal to the highest and best in the child. The\nschool should give the child an appreciation of fine music; indeed, it\nshould stir his whole being with poetic love, patriotic fire, and religious\nthought — should be a means of illuminating the imagination until ideals\nare formed which, when fully realized, will add to the happiness of the\nworld by expressing \" sympathy and love to fellow-creatures and worship\nto the Creator.\"\nBaldwin says: \"The beginning of the art instinct in children seems\nto appear in the occupations which serve to bring out the imagination.\"\nColor play is important for gaining experience and developing ideals.\nNature affords, perhaps, the best opportunity for thought-getting. Animals, birds, insects, flowers, the rainbow — all bring color to the child.\nLight playing on the lake, along the stream, in the spray of the waterfall\n\n"}
{"page": 638, "printed_page": null, "text": "628\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nor fountain, reveals to him innumerable rainbow fairies who delight his\nfancy and enrich his imagination. His ideals may be carried out analytically in folding, cutting, weaving, etc., and synthetically with crayon,\npastel, pencil, and brush. The child passes easily and naturally thru the\ndaubing and experimental stages — both often painfully grotesque to the\nteacher — into the beautiful realm of artistic delight. His keen sense of\nenjoyment, and his desire to represent what he sees, hears, and feels, are\ngratified or turned to practical account in color play.\nDrawing, another method of expressing the child's ideas, is an excellent means of gaining experience and realizing ideals. Conceptional\ndrawing is play to any child, and this kind of play should receive proper\nencouragement from parents and teachers. It leads to true object drawing, and is a means of bringing out and intensifying ideals. Automatic,\nambidextrous, and inventive drawing have their origin in the gift plays' of\nthe kindergarten. Originality is the result of dictation exercises ; indeed,\nthis play gives \"constant opportunity for imitative learning and invention.\".\nStoryland is another birthplace of ideals. Here abide truth, beauty,\nand goodness, in a form awaiting materialization. Purely imaginative,\nrealistic, scientific, and historical stories, told and retold in clear, concise English, with appropriate gestures, give many ideas which the child\ncan make real thru doing, and go far toward establishing a pure literary\ntaste.\nMaterial and pictorial representation are means of working out and\nintensifying the ideals of children. Sunday-school teachers are beginning to realize the value of the play instinct in the use of material and\npictorial symbols, and they are supplying the conditions for a childlike\nunderstanding of biblical truths. .\nThe primary teacher wisely continues the drawing and story-telling\nof the kindergarten. We have in mind the nature work of a primary\nschool where the conditions are such that in the springtime the secondyear pupils have an opportunity to study the life history of the narcissus,\nhyacinth, and other bulbous plants. With each plant is connected a\nbeautiful story, an old-time myth fraught with ideas which the child can\nrealize in sand, clay, cardboard, paper, water color, drawing, and in social\ngames. Nature, in her flora and fauna, furnishes abundant material for\nstory and song, and as the child advances under wise guidance, she will\nlead him to the storyland of books, where he will make the acquaintance\nof wise and good people, who are a living inspiration to become noble,\ngreat, or heroic.\nA writer says that many plays originate in the instinctive desire to\nexert force, or to measure it against the force of others. For the social\nprogress of the world it is necessary that individuals feel and exert this\npower within them.\nIt is desirable that children become acquainted with\n\n"}
{"page": 639, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nFUNCTION\n\nOF PLAY\n\nIN CHILD'S\n\nEXPERIENCE\n\n629\n\ngames which involve competitive skill, strengthen the player physically,\nand help to lay the basis of idealization in history and art. Greek games\nare among those well suited to the requirements of children. They\nshould be selected wisely, however, and adapted to the needs of the\npupils. The power of adaptability should be one of the strictest qualifications of a teacher. That games may be successfully played in schools,\nteachers must exercise judgment in adapting them, and give constant\nopportunity for spontaneity.\nMake a child happy, and there will be no difficulty in teaching him.\nHappiness is the proper condition for the reception of knowledge. If\nplay is the legitimate business of childhood, then \"to turn work into\nplay is the teacher's highest achievement.\" Lessons in the elementary\nschools should be play work, free from toil or drudgery, so filled with\nenjoyment that they may successfully be merged into thoroly enjoyable\nlife work.\nWell-selected parlor games are valuable in giving knowledge and\nawakening aspirations. Kindergarten songs and games of the seasons,\nof animate nature, trades and occupations, movement plays, etc., are a\npower in training the senses and establishing ideals. Original devices\nsuited to the needs of the pupils, devices based on sound pedagogical\nprinciples, have a place in the early education of the young ; but devices\nare safe in the hands of professionally trained teachers only. When used,\nthey should be largely based on the play instinct. Elementary schools,\nwhere the nature work and geography lessons are the result of gardening,\nfield lessons, excursions, play in sand and clay, handling globes and\nmaps, picturing with the brush, charcoal, pencil, and pen ; where reading\nis the result of nature work, and stories told or read ; where arithmetic is\none series of games, involving counting exercises, buying, selling, measuring, building, and competitive number drills ; where pupils are kept busy\ncollecting plants, woods, shells, rocks, stamps, and books ; where readers,\nspellers, dictionaries, and newspapers are made and illustrated by the\nboys and girls ; where the school printing press is in constant use ; where\ntools, the children's delight, are used in the sloyd and manual-training\nrooms; where miniature houses, stores, and workshops are made and\nfurnished; where kitchen-gardening, sewing, and cooking are done by\nthe future home-makers ; where occasionally the solar microscope, graphophone, and animatoscope cause the children to roam 'fancy-free in\nunknown lands ; where, on cold and rainy days, pupils go to the playroom\nto realize their ideals in spontaneous play, and have space and material\nenough to carry out their conceptions with scissors, pencil, crayon, and\nbrush ; where in the out-of-door sand pile they make mountains, dig\ntunnels, lay railroad tracks, erect houses, and establish missions; where\nthe habits of fish, birds, insects, and other animals are studied ; where\nfree exercise can be taken and^'games played in the school gymnasium ;\n\n"}
{"page": 640, "printed_page": null, "text": "630\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nfElementary\n\nwhere there are spacious playgrounds for running and leaping games,\nhand-, base-, and basketball — these schools, the schools in which \" children\nare not tortured to satisfy public opinion,\" are the birthplace of the arts,\nindustries, and all that goes to make up life, liberty, and happiness.\nTeachers who realize that \"games of childhood and youth are an\nengine of great social value,\" and who can, thru them, \"sum up the net\nresults of the life of the race, and give it to the child, so that he shall be\nsaved from repeating the errors that had to be lived through before the\nwisdom expressed by the ethical code could be generalized,\" are indeed\nartists. \"To get children in the habit of forming ideals and of striving\nafter their realization — to lead pupils from play, through effort, to productive and creative work,\" is the teacher's mission.\nWhen children's fancy, or \" seeing, hearing, and touching through a sort\nof golden mist,\" is transformed into imagination which \"holds the hand\nof reason,\" and imagination is systematically trained along social lines,\nthe balance wheel in the lives of men will be properly adjusted, and they\nwill become \"humane, generous, and liberal,\" or at one with the Spirit\nwhich rules the universe.\n\nDISCUSSION\nMiss Elizabeth V. Brown, Normal School, Washington, D. C. — During the long\nyears in which educators have wisely thought, studied, and theorized on questions involving the intellectual, moral, and spiritual growth of children, the physical child has\npatiently stood awaiting his moment.\nBut new as the physical child may seem today, he has a reputable ancestry. History\nrings with his exaltation in the days of the Greeks, and gives occasional suppressed\nwhispers of him in the ages which follow. That his day has come is manifested in the\nexciting chapters of college athletics ; in the number of magazine articles he inspires ; in\nhis presence in the laboratory of the psychologist ; in the high respect in which manual\ntraining and physical culture hold him ; and, lastly, in the number of times and various\ndepartments in which his claims are considered in the program of the National Council\nand the National Educational Association.\nIn the primary school he asks but little from the hands of his teacher : the proper\ncontrol of certain of his activities, and freedom to work out his own salvation with certain\nothers ; in return for which he promises her freedom from the fetich of discipline and\neasier access to his intellectual, moral, and spiritual avenues.\nThe key to these requirements is so-called play, which not only gives sway to the\nchild's activity, but which also works off his overplus of physical and mental energy.\nIt is important, however, that he shall have the right kind of play.\nTo the researches of physiological psychologists and experts in physical culture\nacknowledgment is due from the schoolroom for much help in determining the character\nof play and its place in the child world (in school and out) ; for the introduction of medical\ninspection and the eradication of many common physical defects ; for light on the\nphysical and moral effects of recess, periods of fatigue, and the relation of physical culture\nto mental growth.\n\n"}
{"page": 641, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nFUNCTION\n\nOF PLAY\n\nIN CHILUS\n\nEXPERIENCE\n\n63 1\n\nIn our own city the gymnastic plays and games of the primary schools (particularly\nfor the first and second grades) are designed physically to call forth actions co-ordinating\nthe large muscles of the body, especially those of the trunk and legs. While subserving\nthis physical purpose, they also cultivate\" attention and imagination, stimulate curiosity,\ninspire imitation, and, one step more, are correlated as much as possible with the seasons\nand the subjects studied in the grade.\nAnother means of accomplishing the same result may be found in the manual training adapted to the capacity of the children of the lower grades. Armed with scissors\nand pastepot, brush, chalk, pencil, and clay, the little workmen find many outlets for their\nactivities and inlets for new ideas.\nThe creative instinct, the desire to use his hands, is strongly manifested in the firstgrade child. What rigors of discipline are now averted in attempts to make children\nkeep their \"hands off \" pencils and \" to let alone \" papers, rulers, etc., on their desks !\nHere, too, in the making of things the aim should be to look toward the co-ordination of the large muscles rather than toward the fine co-ordination resulting from contracting finger play. In the making of boxes for his desk tools, or of envelopes to hold\nhis ''official documents,\" of magnets and compasses for his physics, of flags and drums\nfor patriotic occasions, of Christmas and Easter presents for the home or for his schoolmates,\nthe child discharges a vast amount of energy, and becomes, moreover, a useful member\nof society, a contributor to the world of labor.\nThe fascinating realm of nature study liberates and stimulates the playful activities\nof children, turning the hereditary instinct of cruelty into a feeling of fellowship, sympathy,\nand protection. Means to such ends may be found in the biographical treatment of the\nfacts of animal life, which suggests the problems of the adaptation of the creature to its\nenvironment and of protective coloration. Excursions with the teacher to the woods,\nparks, and that always haven of delight, the zoo ; songs and games illustrative of\ncertain phases of plant and animal life ; stories based on the child's experiences, and\npoems which are not in advance of such experiences, but which give a safe and wholesome\nbasis to his flights of imagination and fancy, unite in furnishing means by which, thru\nthe medium of play, the child is led into a richer, healthier heritage of mental power.\nJust how much this element of play enriches, extends, and idealizes the child's experiences can hardly be measured, but that its influence has revolutionized the schoolrooms\ninto which it has entered is beyond question. Instead of an atmosphere of repression\nand deathlike stillness, with long rows of \" arms-folded \" or \" hands-behind-you'd \"\nchildren, are found the legitimate noise and flutter of the beehive, a wholesome air of busyness, freedom, and joyousness.\nThe demand of the child for freedom from apparent direction and supervision has\nled to that excellent suggestion for the division of the class into groups of halves or\nthirds, fulfilling not only the conditions for liberty, but at the ■same time giving the\nteacher opportunity to do much more effective individual work than could possibly result\nfrom whole class instruction.\nThus a teacher, having furnished occupation of one sort or another for one-half or\ntwo-thirds of the class, calls the remaining children around her near the material (perhaps\na live and frisky squirrel) and the blackboard. There is no \" toeing the mark ; \" no\npetulant reminders, \" Don't do this, or that;\" the character of the material, the interest of\nthe subject, and the manner of the teacher making demands upon the child's interest\nwhich preclude such disciplinary \" necessities.\"\nA brisk, interesting language lesson embodying the children's discoveries, queries,\nand exclamations either precedes or accompanies the reading matter which grows upon\nthe blackboard while interest is at a white heat. The little ones learn to reproduce their\nown thought as it is visualized for them in the symbols ; the point being that what is\nread is the child's thought, furnishing the key to natural expression.\n\nAs the lesson\n\n"}
{"page": 642, "printed_page": null, "text": "632\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nproceeds, particular words are taken out for special drill. The children changing their positions, moving nearer to or farther from the blackboard, craning their necks, standing on\ntiptoe, some tracing the word pattern in the air with large free-arm movements, present\nan animated scene. A sweep of the eraser, and the word is gone ! Upon which, as a\nsignal, willing feet carry the little ones to blackboards in all parts of the room, where\nsoon appear the recreated words singly or in sentences, with accompanying picture\ndrawings. It is great fun for the children, involving as much play as a'game, but resulting in the power to visualize, to reproduce, and intelligently use from four to ten words\npreviously known only thru the ear.\nThe key to the secret of the child's interest and his rapid growth of mental power\nlies in the fact that he is formulating and representing knowledge which is his own, under\nproper environment furnished by the teacher. Eye, ear, nose, mouth, arm, .hand, legs,\nand feet have been physically active in arousing excitation in different divisions of his\nbrain, with which they have kept up communication along double tracts of nerves, resulting in the correlation of all parts of self — which is at once the most profound, fundamental, and valuable correlation in education.\nAs in physical culture, manual training, nature study, and reading, so in music, language, composition, number, and science, illustrations multiply themselves to show how,\nthru the. binding relations under which mind and body co-operate, play may become\na means of idealizing and extending the child's experiences.\nIf may be that due consideration may not seem to have been given to the \"unruly\"\nchildren of the Dodd Weaver, Huckleberry Finn, and Sentimental Tommy sort, who form\nsuch picturesque variations from the average good, human-natured boys of our schoolrooms.\nPunishment is not the key to the problem in discipline of such children. It has been\nfound, instead, that some tactful way of concentrating their straying attention serves the\npurpose better. Besides, in spite of all this surplus activity, it has been found that the\nboy learns. He is restless because of inward impulses which he has not learned to control. By the time he has been in school long enough to show some effect of the intellectual training, a like effect in moral training has been noticed.\nThese children, formerly repressed and punished, so that they played truant next\nday, have gained physical control, which has been turned into the acquisition of knowledge, from which moral growth has come as they have been led to a proper use of their\nactivities thru the new idea of discipline, embodied in play.\n\nSUCCESSIVE\n\nBY\n\nZ.\n\nI. WHAT\n\nX.\n\nDIFFERENTIATION\nELEMENTARY\n\nOF SUBJECTS\nSCHOOLS\n\nSNYDER,\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nIS\n\nIN\n\nSTATE\nTHE\n\nCHILD\n\nNORMAL\nAND\n\nHOW\n\nDID\n\nGREELEY,\nIT\n\nGET\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nCOLO.\nTHERE\n\n?\n\nThe supreme center in education is the child in its relation to its\nenvironment. What is in the child, how it got there, its development,\nthe end in view, the means employed, its relation to nature, to man, to\nsociety, and to divinity, are all involved in the consideration of the subject.\nThe child is a composite potential.\n\nIt is a vitalized, \"mentalized,\"\n\n"}
{"page": 643, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nSUCCESSIVE\n\nDIFFERENTIATION\n\nOF\n\nSUBJECTS\n\n633\n\nspiritualized potential. It is an involution of possibilities. Matter, life,\nmind, spirit — all have been active thru the ages in making this potential ;\nin turn they are active in unfolding it into life, mind, and spirit.\nThis potential has in it an eletnent of nature expressed in matter and\nlife. The child's body, mind, and soul are inseparably connected with\nnature and by nature. This union has grown out of the intimacy thru\nthe ages of the race and nature. Nature was the first teacher of the\nhuman family. The child feels familiar with it. There is a race tendency\nin the child to respond to the phenomena of nature. By a process of\nabsorption, selection, and transmission the race has given to the child\nthis tendency to respond to and assimilate nature. In short, the child is\na concentrated evolution of the human family, as it has come into contact\nwith matter and life.\nBy heredity the child has in it a, parental element. Physical appearance, organic tendency, mental disposition, spiritual qualities of the\nparents may all be found in it.\nIt has in it national elements. Organically fixed in the child are\nnational characteristics. Its appearance, its habits, its sentiments, its\nprejudices, its entire being and life, are all influenced by its nationality.\nThe German child is German organically, mentally, and spiritually.\nThe same is true of the French child, the English, Italian, or whatever\nchild. Out of the stimuli that surround the child it is by nature fitted\nto respond to and most readily select that which is of its own nationality.\nThe child has in it race elements. The blood of generations is in\nits veins. The structure of the ages is in its tissue. The marrow of conflict is in its bones. Centers of doing are in its nerves and brain. Its\nentire organization is predisposed thru the experiences of the race.\nRacial dispositions of temperament are in it. Sentiments lodged in the\ntissues coming down thru the ages serve as centers of impulse. In\nshort, exigencies that have led the human family to wonder, to wander,\nto fight, to love, to reflect, to purpose, to perform, to worship, to civilize,\nare in the child's organization. There are two lives in it : the life of\ncivilization — race life — and its own individual life. Its own life is\nunfolded thru that of the race. In the child's nature there is the record\nof the stages of evolution of the human body, the human mind, and the\nspirit.\nThe child has in it a spiritual element. It has become a part of it\nthru revelation in nature, revelation in mind, revelation in events, and\nrevelation in itself. There are times in the lives of men when something\ndeeper than nature, when something deeper than human mind and effort,\ncomes to the surface and reveals itself as spirit. God has immortalized\nus with his divinity.\nHe is living in our natures.\nSumming up, the child-potential contains the factors, nature, mind,\n\n"}
{"page": 644, "printed_page": null, "text": "634\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nand spirit. It contains nature as it has woven itself into it thru matter\nand life. It contains mind as it has woven itself into the race thru the\nindividual and society. It contains spirit as it has revealed itself in\nnature, mind, and self. This potential is congenital. It is made up of\nrace experiences born in the child. These experiences constitute its\ncongenital apperceptive masses.\nII. WHAT\n\nIS THE\n\nORDER\n\nOF DEVELOPMENT\nEMPLOYED ?\n\nAND\n\nWHAT\n\nARE\n\nTHE\n\nMEANS\n\nStarting with the child as concentrated matter, life, mind, and spirit,\nor as the matter, life, mind, and spirit of the ages, its education is the\nevolution of these elemental possibilities under proper conditions.\nThe child-potential is constantly in the presence of the same forces\nthat made it. It unfolds in the same order that it folded. In the\nunfolding it gives rise to certain series of activities out of which grow the\nsubjects of instruction and training. The child's self-activity is the\nsource of subjects, and not subjects the source of the activity. Subjects,\nas formulated by men, may occasion activity and aid in its development\nat certain stages ; but they are not to be made the end in its development. The individual who is the product of subjects is a mechanical\ngrowth and never wholly finds himself in the social life. He does not\nknow how to think, to feel, to act in accordance with, or respond to,\nhis surroundings. He is not a natural evolution. Nature is a blank to\nhim, and he cannot enter into the conscious life about him. An individual's life is the symbol of his development; if it be natural and in\naccordance with pedagogical principles, he readily finds his place; if\nnot, he becomes estranged and cannot enter into the full realization of\nthe forces that have made him. In accordance with this conception the\norder of development must be such that the individual can enter fully,\nreadily, and righteously into the activities about him.\nNature seems to be the first force that enters into the formation of the\nchild-potential. It is also the first to influence it in its growth or evolution.\nWe have seen that nature, as it has entered into civilization, is in the child\nas a race element. Concrete nature is all about it. These two elements —\nrace nature and concrete nature — have an affinity. They are congruous.\nThey unite. Growth is the result — growth in all directions. When nature\ninfluences it properly, it grows phvsically ; it grows mentally when touched\nand stimulated by it; it sees power, life, and design in it. Nature is\ninstrumental in forming the temperaments and habits of men. Nature\naffects the individual as a physical product ; appearance, stature, and life\nitself are affected by it. It affects the mental product of man. Agriculture, mechanics, science, literature, and religion are all affected by the\nforces of nature. Nature reveals to the child the deeper life — life behind\nlife. It adjusts itself to it, because it is like it, because it is a reduced\n\n"}
{"page": 645, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSUCCESSIVE\n\nDIFFERENTIATION\n\nOF SUBJECTS\n\n635\n\nsection of all nature. The life about the child touches, stimulates,\ninspires it ; it sees, it thinks, it feels, it purposes, it performs. Life\nreveals something to the child that matter does not. It sees its kinship\nto nature thru it. It sees the plant select out of matter the flower. It is\nmoved by its beauty.\nIt begins to see God reign and live in nature.\nIn the life and growth of a child constant communion with nature is\nnecessary. The child that is in the home stage of development and\nwhose parents are in loving sympathy with nature is fortunate. What a\nfeast they can have ! That child is fortunate who has the opportunity of\na kindergarten. Most of the time of the kindergarten should be given\nto a simple, loving communion with nature. I do not mean here a study\nof it, but real communion with it. Poetry and literature are full of it\nthru communion. Scientific books are full of it thru facts. Thru communion you get the spirit of nature ; thru scientific study, the letter.\nLet us have more of the communion. All thru the child's school life\nnature should be a constant companion — nature as God gives it ; not so\nmuch as a curator of a museum gives it. The teachers are too much of\ncurators. They attempt to bring nature into the schoolroom. Dried\nleaves and flowers and plants and stuffed and pickled animals do not\nconstitute nature. They are only the shells of it. Nature as the first\ngreat teacher is emphasized, because she is in the child by inheritance,\nbecause she is all around it, and because she is the first and most welcome\nguest invited into the sacred temple of a child's soul.\nMind, as it has entered into civilization, is in the child as a race element. Race mind is in the child ; concrete mind outside of it. The\nconcrete mind, as parent, neighbor, teacher, church, society, state,\ntouches the child. These have an affinity. These are congruous — there is\ninterest. They unite. The child unfolds. In teaching, the individual\nmind, as parent and teacher, touches the mind of the child to occasion\nthe same experience in its consciousness as he possesses. If there is an\naffinity — an interest — the child develops. The social mind touches the\nchild's mind with opinion and with the institutions of civilization, as the\nhome, the school, the church, the state, and society. If the contact is\ncongruous, the child takes into its nature the force of these opinions\nand these institutions. As a result it develops. The race mind touches\nthe child thru history, literature, and art. It responds. ,It lives over\nthe life of the race in miniature. In its growth it shares with the race its\npleasures, its pains; its joys, its sorrows; its victories, its defeats; its\nrealizations, its disappointments; its purposes, its ideals. In its growth\neach section in its life has a corresponding section in the growth of the\nlife of mankind in general. This congruity of the race mind within\nthe child and the concrete mind without it, and the development of the\nformer thru the latter, fit it to become a wholesome, active unit in\ncivilization.\n\n"}
{"page": 646, "printed_page": null, "text": "636\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementafy\n\nIn the child-potential is a spiritual factor. The spirit, as revealed in\nmatter, in life, and in the institutions of man, is a mighty force in the\neducation of the child. As the child comes into intimate communion\nwith nature and mind, it sees more and more that they are vitalized and\nspiritualized, and that they are but the expression of the divine will in\nnature and in the affairs of men. Literature is another source of spiritual\nquickening. The immortal element in it is the spirit. This spirit touches\nthe spirit of the child, and it responds. Its life is enriched, its spirit\nrefined.\nLiterature is soul.\nThus far this study reveals that in the evolution of the child, while it\nis gradual, well-marked centers differentiate themselves — centers of\nactivity within corresponding to the centers of activity without. Out of\nthe contact of these centers emanate all human learning and endeavor.\nThey have given rise to all our philosophical systems. Out of these, naturally, philosophically, and pedagogically, are differentiated the subjects\nthat the child should pursue in his education. These centers are the factors of the potential — matter, life, mind, spirit. The centers of force lying\nwithout the potential are the same in name and nature, and serve as\nagencies to develop it.\nIII.\n\nAPPLICATION\n\nOF FOREGOING\nSUBJECTS\n\nTO THE\n\nSUCCESSIVE\n\nIN ELEMENTARY\n\nDIFFERENTIATION\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nIt seems that in the development of the child, matter first influences\nit. Its first adjustments are to those of temperature and resistance. This\nis the beginning of the interpretation of nature. As the element of consciousness expands and enters in, the adjustment and interpretations\nbecome more formal. It finally expands into physics. Physics grows out\nof the effort of the mind to interpret the phenomena of matter. In the\nfirst years of the child's growth its experiences with matter would scarcely\nreach the dignity of physics ; but they might be designated as lessons in\nform and matter. The mathematical sense develops almost simultaneously with the recognition of physical phenomena. Mathematics grows\nout of the efforts of the mind to quantify phenomena. The \" how large,\"\nthe \"how much,\" are the first wonders to be solved. The \"how many\"\nfollows. At first the mind quantifies spatially; later, serially. Spatial\nquantification. is geometry — form with the little folks. Serial quantification is arithmetic — number with the children. Pedagogically geometry\n— form — precedes arithmetic — number. Mathematics has definite subjective and objective sides. It does more to reconcile the child to its\nmaterial and mental natures than any other subject. It gives the individual a reach that nothing else can give. The interpretation and quantification of the phenomena of matter engage the child from the\nbeginning of its independent life (probably before it). In the home, the\nkindergarten, and primary grades, matter, form, and number engage\n\n"}
{"page": 647, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSUCCESSIVE\n\nDIFFERENTIATION\n\nOF SUBJECTS\n\n637\n\nthe child's mind in its development. The objective, the simple, and the\ninformal should characterize the work of the elementary school. As a\nrule, the abstract, the complex, and the formal are the bane of the child.\nThe mistake of teachers lies just here. In the kindergarten the work in\nmatter, form, and number should be incidental. In the primary department itshould assume definite shape, and in the grammar grades it should\ndifferentiate into definite recitation. The child grows as it moves\nonward in its education ; consequently the subjects become more complex and formal. They should, however, always have a concrete reference. The work in matter, form, and number, and in physics, inventional geometry, and arithmetic, should be on the laboratory plan. The\nhands and eyes should be used as well as the mind. What a splendid\nfoundation such work would lay for the continuance of it in the secondary school!\nThe child very early manifests an interest in the phenomena of life.\nNatural history grows out of the efforts of the mind to interpret these\nphenomena. This subject gives a new outlook which no other can. It\nenables the individual to discover his relation to all things. He sees\nhimself a part of the world of vitality about him. It serves well in the\ndevelopment of the inner connection of all things. The soul looks out\nand familiarizes itself with those things which are closely akin to the\ntemple in which it lives. It feels itself a part of all things. At home\nthe child incidentally comes in contact with life. In the kindergarten\nand primary school this contact is so directed that it takes the form of a\nloving association with life in its varied forms thru excursions, and as\nit is revealed in literature thru the myth. There is something in the\nchild's nature that responds very readily to the nature sentiment of the\nmyth. It is not strange to it. It has had the experience before in the race.\nIn the grammar grades it takes on the form of zoology and botany.\nHaving discovered somewhat its vital relation to animals and plants, it is\nprepared to study its own body — physiology. This preliminary training\nin matter and life forms an excellent preparation for geography. The\nearth is seen to be the home of plants and animals. Geography grows\nout of the interaction of matter, life, and home. The central thought in\nit is man's dwelling place. This subject differentiates itself to the dignity of geography in the later part of the primary department and continues to develop on up thru the grammar grades.\nThe mind centers within and without very early come in contact.\nThe child is influenced by the individual mind and by the social mind.\nThe individual mind, as parent, brother, sister, neighbor, teacher, preacher,\ncoming in contact with the child, gives rise in the home stage and the\nelementary school to the expressive series of subjects; as babbling, play,\ngames, songs, talking, writing, ethics, aesthetics, reading, constructing,\ndrawing, sewing, cooking, sloyd, religion, etc. The stimuli to the devel-\n\n"}
{"page": 648, "printed_page": null, "text": "638\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nopment of these expressive subjects are ideas, someone to receive, and\nimitation. There is a dynamic tendency in an idea to objectify itself ifi\nsome form of expression. This tendency is intensified by a spectator.\nThe tendency in a human being to imitate is inherent. This tendency is\nracial. These stimuli form the basis for training in these subjects. With\nmany of these subjects the training is incidental in the first stages of the\nchild's education, remaining so thru the elementary school. Again,\nsome of these subjects become somewhat formal in the grammar grades;\nbut the idea that they are used in the expression of ideas should never\nbe lost sight of. When this occurs, they become mechanical and useless.\nAs the social mind comes in contact with the child thru its institutions— the home, the school, the church, society, and the state — it is\ninitiated into these activities and becomes a part of them. The work of\nthe school must be such as readily to co-ordinate with these institutions\nof civilization. The kindergarten, the industrial jvork, all help to bring\nabout a proper relation of the individual and the social organization.\nThe child also comes in contact with the social mind thru history and\nliterature. In history it is made acquainted with the deeds of men. The\nchild becomes a spectator of all time. Its individual mind is worked up\ninto the social structure — into opinion, into institutions. In literature\nthe child is made acquainted with the best thoughts, sentiments, aspirations, and sayings of the race. Thru the fairy tale, legend, myth, and\nthru the deeds of heroism, the child is made acquainted with the early\nactivities of the human family. It is further initiated into the soul or\nspirit of the race thru the novel, and thru historical literature. The concrete series of subjects, together with the race series, forms a basis on\nwhich rests the subjects of the formal series, and out of which they grow.\nAll elementary schools are concerned very largely with these formal subjects. Indeed, that a child may learn how to communicate its thoughts,\nits sentiments, and its purposes is paramount. These forms of expression are the most human manifestations of humanity, and it is every\nchild's right to have an opportunity to acquire them.\nThat the spiritual nature of a child should be cultivated goes without\nsaying. This nature lies deepest. A child that has not a religious\nmother, that has not the opportunity of living in a spiritual atmosphere,\nis one whose best nature will not appear. This work is incidental ; but\nthe teacher who sees the unity of all things, and that all that is is but the\nexpression of the divine will, will quicken the spiritual and religious\nnature of the children with whom she associates. Her influence is a\nbenediction. The strong side of the kindergarten is that it is permitted\nto use the name Jesus Christ — the Christ -child — as the savior of\nhumanity.\nIn conclusion, in the growth of every individual from infancy to manhood there is a successive differentiation of his natures.\nAs he comes in\n\n"}
{"page": 649, "printed_page": null, "text": "SUCCESSIVE\n\nDepartment]\n\nDIFFERENTIATION\n\nOF SUBJECTS\n\nSTAGES\nM\n\nO\nn\n\no\n\n2.W\n\na)\n\n?1\n\nr\n3\n\n3\n\nB B\n\nS\n\n3\n\nES\nHK n\n\nW\nW 2-Oq § P- 5;\n\noq\n\n0-1\" 3S 3S «■ST o\">\n\no\n\no \"<\n\nr\n3\n\n3\n\n3*s>\n\ng!\n\nft 2_\n\nS\n\nB D\n\n3\n\noq cr\n\n>-<\n\nQ^ CO CL\n\nB ■\n~\n\n\"< 3 9 ff-\n\n\"\n\n3\noq\n\np\n\nr\n\noq\n\n3 OQ\n\no 2. o. i^ 5- s' ^ S. 2\n>—\n\noq\n\noq\n\noq\nW3^ OQ\nnc\n\np\n\n2. P P K 3^\n5- re •! c 0,3\"\n\nrr O a> IT f* !? P\n\n3\n\nC^oq\n\n«' S'\n\n\"^\n\no\n\n3 w\n\n3 ?;■\nn\nen\na\n\n>!•\n(/> r-r\np -^\nf%\n\n|C3re S.\" 2.;?^ S'\n\n»!'\n\nfn\n\n50\n\nrt\n\nT3 Oq \"O 3)\n\nS. tn\n\n\"\n\no\n\nW\n\n3\n\n— p\n\nO\n\n3-\n\n■-•\n\n"}
{"page": 650, "printed_page": null, "text": "640\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\ncontact with nature, his individuality develops. As he comes in contact\nwith men and society, he transfigures his individuality into humanity. He\ndevelops his personality. As he comes in contact with the spirit of nature,\nwith the spirit of literature, with the spirit of the living God — that deeper\nlife — he transforms his personality into divinity. He develops his spirituality. These three — individuality, personality, spirituality — are the living momentum of every life. This momentum is the measure of, success.\nSuccess is the realization of ideals. The highest realization of ideals is\nin the consciousness that you have made the most of life. Teaching is\nliving with children. Living with children is bringing about a natural\nand harmonious development of all their natures. It is unfolding the\npotential. The order of the development of the potential is thru matter,\nlife, mind, spirit. The successive differentiation of subjects in the unfolding of the individual grows out of these centers.\nIn the accompanying chart (p. 639) the order of the development of\ncenters is from left to right^ — ^from matter to spirit. The order of the\nsuccessive differentiation of subjects is from top to bottom — from incidental contact to directed studv.\n\nDISCUSSION\n\nT. A. MoTT, superintendent of schools, Richmond, Ind. — The problem of arranging\na course of study so that the successive differentiations of the subjects will accord with\nthe unfolding powers of the mind of the child, and at the same time accord with the laws\nby which the various subjects in themselves unfold from the simple to the complex, from\nthe lower to the higher, is perhaps the most difficult, as well as the most important, of all\neducational questions before us today. To make such a course of study will tax the\npowers of the broadest scholarship and highest professional knowledge of our time.\nA course of study is an organic thing, not a mechanical construction. It must bring\nto the growing, unfolding life for which it is intended just the material that this life needs\nfor its highest and most perfect development at every stage of its growth. The nature of\nthe mind of the child and the laws governing its evolution and growth are in every sense\nthe prime factors to be considered, rather than the needs of the child after graduation.\nThe school life may in a sense be a preparation for after-life, but in a higher sense the\nschool life is true living at the time.\nThe guiding principle that has controlled the formation of courses of study in the\npast has heen at every step the needs of the child the next term in the high school, in the\ncollege, in life after he leaves school, rather than the highest needs of the child necessary\nin order for perfect growth and true living. The important aim in each year's work was\nto prepare for the next year. The farmer wants his boy to learn to read and write and\ncipher, so as to meet the needs of the farm life. The merchant desires a wider reach of\nknowledge and experience, so as to enable his boy to succeed in the more extensive business activities. The university professor desires his son to prepare for college. The purpose of education with the majority of the people has been to give the children thru the\nschools a better chance to succeed in life.\nThis utilitarian principle has controlled to a large extent the formation of courses of\n\n"}
{"page": 651, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSUCCESSIVE\n\nDIFFERENTIATION\n\nOF SUBJECTS\n\nl^\"\n\n641\n\nstudy. If bookkeeping, stenography, typewriting, Greek, or Spanish were needed by the\nboy after leaving school, they were placed in the same course of study. We will probably\nall agree that in the true thought of today the primary purpose of education is the formation of character — the increase and development of the powers of mind and spirit,\nrather than the enlargement of mental possessions. And all agree that character here\nmeans \" a measure of mental power, a mastery of truths and laws, a love of beauty in\nnature and art, a strong sympathy and unswerving moral rectitude, the possession of true\nideals of life and the power to live consistent with these ideals.\" Education can mean\nnothing else. Every aim proposed by the educator not consistent with this high purpose\nof real living for the child will run counter to the true activities of the child mind.\nIn the formation of courses of study the subject-matter proposed for each year's work\nmust be such as will co-ordinate with the needs of the child to live an ideal life and to\ngrow rationally along lines of true development, taking into consideration at all times the\nlife and the civilization constituting the environments of the school. Dr. Snyder has\nclearly set forth the potentialities of the child and their order of development, and surely\nthese will form the basis for all scientific attempts logically to arrange subjects in a course\nof study. History, mathematics, language, science, and geography will, of course, constitute the subject-matter of our courses of study ; but the differentiations of these branches\nand the divisions of their subject-matter must always be based on the highest laws of\nmental growth.\nI will discuss but one of these subjects as to the arrangement of the course. History\nhas taken its place as a subject in all modern elementary schools, but the logical differentiation of the various phases of historical work along psychological lines has been\nattempted by but few. The growth of the race from individualism in the uncivilized peoples to the complex organization of civilized life has been co-ordinate with the true\ngrowth of institutional life. In the family was the first effort of the individuals of\nthe race to co-operate. The functions of the family in the care of the living and the care\nof the dead differentiated, and the church came into existence. The family, the church,\nthe state, the school, and society, in its-industrial and social phases, have blended their\nforces in the upbuilding of the civilization of the race. This growth of the race from the\nearlier simple forms of life to the complex civilization of today has been gradual and step\nby step.\nEach child in its development lives over the life of the race. In its growth each\ndivision of its life has a corresponding phase in history. The simple, imaginative life of\nthe early peoples has its counterpart in the trusting, fanciful period of early childhood.\nThe child of six or seven comprehends the institutional life and civilization as seen in the\nstory of the Eskimo, the Indian, and the Aryan much better than he can the institutional\nlife of the complex, multifarious social organizations of which he is a member. In the\nheroism and courage of the \" Persian Boy,\" as he is guided by principles of honesty and\nright, he sees the deep contrast to the .temptations to cowardice, untruthfulness, and disobedience that the life in the school often presents to him. The race in which the hardy\nSpartan wins the crown from the graceful Athenian appeals to the boy and the girl, and\nin the life of the Greek he sees the first steps of the race toward liberty. The Roman love\nof law is in harmony with the youthful ideas of justice and honesty that cause the rightspirited child to despise to cheat. With the pagan Saxon the boy may, for a time, think\nthat might is right, but with the Christian knight he learns that gentleness and mercy are\nabove the might of the Saxon or the law of the Roman. The boy's desire for adventure\nis satisfied by the tales of chivalry, and the longing for practical exploit by the stories of\nthe navigator and explorer. It is thru the views of history that the child gets in the systematic study of these successive epochs of the development of the race that he will find\nhis power to understand the history of today.\nPrimary history work has usually been along the line of American history, at every\nstep of which the complex interrelation of institutional life, of cause and effect, is such as\n\n"}
{"page": 652, "printed_page": null, "text": "642\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nto be beyond the reach of the child's mind. In this work the pupil fails to get the long\nview of the growth of the race that he needs and that his very child nature fits him to\nunderstand. My thought is that an important event in modern history, with causes and\nresults running out in varied lines and connecting it with all branches of our many-sided\ninstitutional life, cannot be made the basis of true work in primary history.\nThe defect in work of this kind is apparent, not only when we view the subjectmatter, but also when we turn our attention to the nature of the child mind. The children\nof the lower grade are much more able to understand the doings of the race when it was\nin its childhood than the complex events of the past two centuries, however we may simplify the wording in which they are expressed. The heroes of the early race seem to\ntouch the child as those of yesterday do not. Enveloped in the dim light of the past,\ntheir figures seem gigantic. They lived their life and wrought their deeds when life was\nmore simple and childlike than now.\nWhen the child's own life and games are considered, it is not to be wondered at that\nthe stories of men living when the race was in its childhood come closer to the pupils\nthan stories, however simply told, of the events of this century.\nThe nature of the child, his inherent tendency to see things in relation, and his\ndegree of development require that the history work for lower grades begin with the\nchildhood of the race, and follow in logical steps, co-ordinate with the child's growth, the\nhistorical steps in the growth of the race.\nLater in the grades, when the more complex and difficult subjects of American history\nare met, they are not only more interesting, but pleasant, as the child is ready for them.\n\nVALUE\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nBY\n\nMARY\n\nF. HALL,\n\nMISS\n\nHAND IN THE ACQUISITION OF KNOWLEDGE AND EXFJ^ESSION OF THOUGHT\n\nSUPERVISOR\n\nOF\n\nPRIMARY\n\nWORK,\n\nMILWAUKEE,\n\nWIS.\n\nThe child is ignorant and must learn. To learn the most, in the\nshortest time, he must sit passively and con, as his lesson, that part of the\ngarnered wisdom of the ages which is \"assigned.\" He must \"apply\nhimself\" to it, i. e., he must iterate \"three times three are nine,\" etc.,\norally, or by writing it on his slate ten times. Perfect celebration of this\nschool rite requires that he shall never be caught looking at anything but\nhis lesson. Later, to clinch his knowledge, he will spell and define multiplier, multiplicand, factor, and product. From time immemorial, in\nschool history, has\n\" Old Bobby Blink, the pedagogue,\nKept school down in Big Squalid Bog,\nCorrecting well each polliwog,\"\n\nafter this fashion ; but he has not done it without protest from a long\nand honorable line of educational reformers, of whom Froebel, one of\nthe latest, was one of the most original and radical. Froebel gave us a\nmethodized way of learning by doing. The most aggressive idea of the\nnew education is self- activity, one phase of which is my theme.\nIt boldly\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 653, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nVALLE\n\nOF HAND\n\nIN ACQUISITION\n\nOF KNOWLEDGE\n\n643\n\ndeclares that, since experience has been the great teacher of the race, it\nshould be the favorite method of study in the schools. By handling\nthings men learned the properties of matter; by making' and using\ntools they bridged the gulf between barbarism and civilization.\nBut handwork in school is not to be thought of as the addition of\nsomething new to the course; it is a mode of studying what is already\nthere. This is the kindergarten idea ; also the view taken by that sturdy\nchild of the kindergarten, the manual-training school. As it is a mode\nof investigation (and as we are ever told that \"education is one continuous,\norganic process \"), not the kindergarten, but that system which educates a child by practice before theory at the beginning and end of the\ngraded course, in kindergarten and manual-training work, and educates\nhim by theory before practice in the intervening years, is in need of\nexplanation.\nThe principal reasons urged by the new education in favor of learning by doing are these : (i) A little work, properly directed, will teach a\nchild more, and teach it more easily and thoroly — at the same time\nbringing more of the child's senses and powers into action — than many\ndays of memorizing. (2) His finest qualities, capabilities, and forces\ncannot be reached by a narrow, verbal course of instruction. (3) Selfactivity gives motor energy, habits of industry, sense of responsibility,\nclearness, discrimination, order, power to see things in relation, vitality\nof the moral nature and will, and courage to do, instead of the barrenness, timidity, capricious willfulness, physical inertia, intellectual sluggishness, and contempt for rectitude and law, which have ever been among\nthe products of the \"Bobby Blink\" school. (4) School order should be\nhabitual, and the result of the proper alliance of brain and muscle in\nintelligent effort, rather than anarchy held somewhat in restraint by a\ncode of school artifices and penalties — forms of \"nagging\" by which\nactive children are either subdued by spiritless task-work, or find an\noutlet for unused impulses to act in school mischief. (5) Purely subjective education, with its artificial and misleading \" standings,\" and its\nself-consciousness and rivalry, is selfish, unsocial, and mischievous in its\ntendencies.\nFor these various reasons the new education utilizes the child's\nnatural activity; its object is the increase of personal and social values ;\nits products are character, power, a developed brain and hand, readiness\nto act, conscience, and social harmony. In practice it finds the clearness\nand discrimination of a child's thought registered in the work of his\nhands. It sees that the child who defines a preposition wrongly, without consciousness of intellectual sin, will feel the error in a spoiled\nmortise and tenon. This capacity to know a failure is worth much in\neducation.\nThe plain, good sense of many sensible, practical people— farmers,\n\n"}
{"page": 654, "printed_page": null, "text": "644\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nmerchants, mechanics, manufacturers, and others — supported by both\nthe secular and religious press, is often, in these days, expressed in criticisms of schools and their graduates for their ignorance of affairs, powerlessness, and unpracticalness. It suggests more and more emphatically\nthat we teachers free ourselves from tradition, and train the children in\nan all-sided way that will make them thoughtful and effective in the\naffairs of adult life. Farmers and mechanics ask that such rudiments of\nscience as underlie the industries by which their children are later to live\nmay be taught in such practical, experimental, thoro ways that their\nboys may become thoughtful, expert farmers and mechanics. They\nthink, and they say, that this would be better than passing ninety in the\nmere verbiage of school subjects. This widespread interest in the training of children, and this criticism of schools, are significant signs of the\ntimes. The parent's greatest bequest to the future is not his titles to\nhouses and lands, but his children. He grows more and more thoughtful about their equipment for life, that it may be better than his own.\nThose who manage schools are more or less conservative, both with the\nwise conservatism that treasures all real achievements and that foolish\nconservatism that preserves the dead forms and mechanisms that once\naided the propagation of truth. Like those workmen at Ephesus, we\nteachers sometimes are opposed to any iconoclastic Saul of Tarsus whose\nphilosophy would endanger our craft and destroy our shrines; and, like\nthem, when our work is criticised, we proclaim, \" Great is Diana of the\nEphesians,\" by urging the force of precedent — which, of necessity, is on\nthe side of the antique — and authorities — whom we should invoke with\nmore care.\nWe teachers like a psychological reason for our faith and practices,\nand usually suppose that we have one ; thus psychology, like charity,\nmay cover a multitude of sins. Psychologists differ about many\nthings, but on all essential things that touch practically the development\nof the cognitive powers there is substantial agreement. They grant the\nphysical basis of habit. They say that performing given acts awakens\ncharacteristic thoughts and feelings belonging to those acts, and that,\nbecause function is constantly related to growth and power, what the\nphysical mechanism, including brain, does decides its own character.\nTherefore a child is the architect of his own brain as well as his fortune.\nA good brain is the result of a development of the sensory, motor, and\nother cells into functional power by exercising special senses, by muscular\nwork, etc. They say very emphatically that, if the nerve energy that distinguishes the doer from the dreamer is to be generated at all, it must be\ndone largely during the period of brain growth. Action, not iteration\nof words, is, therefore, required as a brain developer ; and we do well to\nremember that a large part of the motor area of the brain is assigned to\nthe hand and arm.\nAll this is practically ignored in the average school.\n\n"}
{"page": 655, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nVALUE\n\nOF HAND\n\nIN ACQUISITION\n\nOF KNOWLEDGE\n\n645\n\nChildren are not allowed to experiment with form and quantity — to\nweigh, measure, compute, make — they must say: \" Five into twenty-seven,\nfive times and two over.\" Theyjecite tables about scruples and drams\n— a lesson that they may assign either to arithmetic or temperance\nhygiene.\nThe laws of mental science make education a series of systematized\nexperiences and impressions, but the laws of the school board often\nmake it largely a series of verbal exercises about the capitals of the\nBarbary states, the tributaries of the Hoang-Ho, and the definition of\nsuch unknown and abstract things as lie generally out of the child's field\nof vision ; and they nurture this venerable school superstition by a despotic system of examinations and reports. If the child, under the sanction of a very old and wise law of nature — self-preservation — tires of\nword-grinding, and develops his motor cells by playing school tricks, the\nremedy is — another page of definitions! Or, the child at home who\nbegs for \" something to do \" is told, \" Sit and read your book,\" or to\nmemorize, \" I shot an arrow into the air.\" If the child is thwarted when\nhis mental images tend to pass into action, or when his growth requires\nactivity, being undirected, or misdirected, he educates himself by chance\nsuggestion. If he builds with Robinson Crusoe, it is well ; but we have\nlearned that the boy is in danger who is led by dramatizing the lives of\nthe desperadoes to confound lawlessness and heroism.\nTo know the value of handwork, watch a child who is making a cardboard box for the seeds from his garden. The main product is not a\nbox, but a new conception of accuracy, perseverance, the application of\nlaw to work, the joy of accomplishment, with trained senses, feeling, reason, will, and the child's \"activity in deeds as an index of his knowledge\nof things.\"\nWe are now living in a land and time which make peculiar demands\nupon the school. Future historians will surely note the unparalleled service of the American teacher of today as one of the large history-making\nforces which are transforming, by wholesale, and in one or two generations,- heterogeneous elements into a national type, doing, successfully\nand rapidly, work which has required centuries in other lands and times.\nBut school authorities should see that the mingling of these differing\nelements in our schools in these times of transition, if not of industrial\nand social revolution, requires something different from the traditional,\nconventional school. The first grade of a certain ward school had this\nspring 166 children. Of these 86 were Irish, 31 German, 23 Italian, 15\nAmerican, 4 Arabian, 3 Swedish, i Welsh, i Danish, i Norwegian, and i\nFrench. Similar facts are common in our larger cities. They give some\ncolor to Bismarck's assertion that we are not Anglo-Saxons ; and they\nshow that the most important business of a school board is not the control of school patronage.\n\n"}
{"page": 656, "printed_page": null, "text": "646\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nTo know a child's life in a slum home is to know one factor of the\npublic-school question. Defining the subjunctive mode will not cure\nslum torpor, or restore a lost sense of cleanliness to those who live contentedly in filthy kennels in dark,' vermin-infested alleys. This segregation of great masses of the very poor in tenement houses, where they\nlive below the general line of comfort — always a danger line — and the\nwidening and darkening of our slum areas, are a distinct menace to the\ncity. If the hopelessness, dissipation, and unthrift of the alleys are to\nbe cured ; if children who are tending to criminal careers are to be saved ;\nif sturdy beggars who live contentedly on charity are to be inoculated\nwith new ideas of self-respect and duty, the public school must teach the\nclumsy fingers of the children as a means of arousing benumbed powers.\nThat the stars and stripes float over the schoolhouse is not enough.\nThen there are some carefully nursed and helpless children of the\nwealthy to whom the story of the primitive industries — well known to\nparents and grandparents — is as a fairy tale. Many of these children\nare dull, superficial, lacking in insight into essential things, and some are\npositively depraved. How are we to train all these children, for whom\nthe home often does so little, up to the standards of character, insight,\nand integrity that the fathers held ?\nThe child who now comes to school belongs to a complex and unstable, because progressive, social order, for a part in which — himself complex— he is to be fitted.\n\nLike Browning's Sordello, he is\n\nCompassed murkily about\nWith ravages of long, sad hundred years.\n\nWhat shall be done with him ?\nHis mother takes him to the superintendent or the principal, and he\nis \"classified;\" that is, usually he is placed with others of his age or\nsize, or where there are the most vacant seats, or with children who can\nanswer the same questions in arithmetic or grammar — and this is all!\nThis is well, but it should not be quite all. The deepest insight, broadest knowledge, tenderest conscience, and most patient effort are needed\nby all who help to make or manage schools, that they may know that this\nshould not be all.\nOur schools, with some modification, are substantially patterned after\nthe early New England model, but with all else that distinguished early\nNew England left out. The high grade of intelligence and character,\nthe moral earnestness, thrift, and the varied industries of those homemakers of early New England — things which supplemented a school of\nthe humanities and helped it to make large-brained and large-souled men\nand women — are left behind. Before the children, in those days, got\naround to things worthy their Puritan mettle, like the \" rule of three,\"\nthe Gallic wars, or the calculus, they had risen early and applied all\ntheir intelligence and brawn to knotty problems concerning the mainte-\n\n"}
{"page": 657, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nVALUE\n\nOF HAND\n\nIN ACQUISITION\n\nOF KNOWLEDGE\n\n647\n\nnance of the family, besides \"doing the chores\" about the house and\nfarm — after which these capable, intelligent, resourceful young folks were\nin no great need of manual training. Their sturdy self-reliance, trustworthiness, sense of responsibility, and peculiar aptness in applying what\nthey knew to affairs were born of intelligent, purposeful effort, and gave\nthem that knack which later made so many of them leaders of the business and intellectual life of the cities. But in our days small industries\nare destroyed, and the general Cise of cheap, ready-made products has so\nchanged the home life that the average child takes as little heed of what\nhe shall eat or wherewithal he shall be clothed as the raven or the lilies\nof the field. This summer, in an eastern town, the boys and girls of the\nhigh school habitually repaired to the post-office, at the close of school,\nto await the coming of the mail, and to loaf, perchance to flirt — \"aye,\nthere's the rub!\" — for these were scions of New England.\nThese changes suggest the increasing, urgent need of handwork in\nschool, to insure clear and masterly thinking, to develop moral earnestness and will, and to ground later activities.\nIn the early days there was also an inspiring and ennobling familiarity with nature — now lost to most children — that gave lessons of\nutilities and insight into law, and made children acute and practical.\nWhat can the town school substitute for the topography of hill, stream,\nand swamp, the sweep of forest and meadow, a knowledge of soils, minerals, plants, animals, and their relationships and values ? It gives a day\nat the park, where the children must \" keep off the grass,\" and where\nthey \"must not feed or tease\" the unhappy-looking park animals that are\nneither wild nor tame; or a day at the museum — and blessed are the\nchildren thus privileged ! Yet the museum blackbird is not the wild\nthing that \"flutes its o-ka-lee\" from the recesses of the swamp, and the\nenvironment of the museum oriole does not suggest a fruit orchard. It gives\n— \"and pity 'tis 'tis true!\" — nature lessons about the \"water-dust,\" Mr.\nWind, Mrs. Crocus, Mr. and Mrs. Crab, and other impertinent personifications that so misrepresent the nobleness and dignity of nature.\nChildren who understand nature, whose mills measure the force of\nwind and brook, and who construct machines and implements for their\nmimic industries, are getting much that sloyd could teach them ; but\nthese are the favored children, and they are few.\nSound pedagogy and our present conditions of living demand handwork as an organic part of our graded courses. Utilizing the natural\nactivity of children as a mode of study is a simple solution of the problem. As to means, the kindergarten material for small workers, and\nmore resisting, refractory materials for older ones, may be used in studying physical and mathematical conditions, geographic relief, the instruments used in arts and industries, or in realizing the scenes and characters\nread about.\nWhen industrial work is methodized for all grades, by an\n\n"}
{"page": 658, "printed_page": null, "text": "648\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nextension of the kindergarten idea of instruction, more artisans will\nbecome artists, as they did in the old days ; then, also, the son of the\nfamily who can make a steam engine will be the social peer of his brother\nwho can follow some chemist's formula and build a pill. In other words,\nthis intelligent, joyous method of studying things, which awakens and\ntrains practical and artistic capabilities to the point where they express\nthemselves in useful, beautiful, and origii*al forms, will destroy that social\ntyranny which now impels so many to grope restlessly after happiness in\ncallings where they shall never find it. One thing that teachers should\nnot forget is the truth that an impelling force, not a compelling one,\ndevelops the child.\n\nDISCUSSION\n\nSuperintendent George Griffith, Utica, N. Y. — I find myself in a peculiar\nposition today. For years a friend and advocate of manual training, and instrumental in\nsecuring its introduction and continuance in our system of schools, I feel constrained\ntoday to utter two protests or cautions.\nFirst, I caution against the extravagant claims of many over-zealous advocates of\nmanual training. It has its place and value — and important they are — but we shall gain\nnothing by claiming that the course of study without it has produced \" contempt for rectitude and law,\" and that a course of study with it will obviate all the evil results now\napparent in our schools.\nSecondly, I protest against the common restriction of the term \"self-activity \" to\nmere physical or manual activity. \"Self-activity is the law of growth,\" is true ; but it is\nas true in the realms of imagination or reasoning as it is in the realms of physical activity and sense activity. To claim for manual training, or even for manual training and\nthe kindergarten, all the possible benefits of the self-activity of the child is certainly, in\nmy judgment, making an overclaim.\nWhat, then, are the proper place and value of the hand in acquiring and expressing\nknowledge ? This is made clear by a study of brain action. The division of the brain\ncells into sensory and motor cells, and the localization'of brain functions, have taught us\nthat the hand is most valuable as an organ of the sense of touch, as well as indispensable\nin the formation of motor ideas, and also has among the motor areas a large area predominantly itsown, and an area capable of highest development only by its activity in\nexpressing thought. Thus we see that the hand is one of the avenues to the mind and\none of the instruments for the expression of thought.\nMoreover, this brain area, with its important functions, is most capable of development while the person is young. In fact, it is doubted if it is possible completely to\ndevelop it in a person in whose youth it was neglected. Hence the importance of manual\ntraining in the lower grades as well as in the high school or in the school of technology.\nAgain, knowledge, to be of value, must be expressed. Manual work is often a mode\nof expression of thought. This develops motor areas, and tends to increase brain power\nalong very desirable, but often neglected, lines. It tends to make doers, and not mere\nselfish accumulators of knowledge.\nOt the influence of handwork upon the will, and hence its value as a moral invigora-\n\n"}
{"page": 659, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nFUNCTION\n\nOF MANUAL\n\nTRAINING\n\n649\n\ntor, I have not time to speak ; nor, indeed, is this phase of its influence properly included\nby the wording of the subject of the paper.\nIn conclusion, let me say that handwork has been found universally interesting to\nchildren, that it can be used in numberless ways in connection with nearly all subjects in\nall grades, that we must not tie ourselves down to this alone ; but, recognizing its proper\nplace and importance, go forward with clear vision and firm faith, until in all our teaching\nthe mind of every child is trained by the proper use of the hand in acquiring and expressing knowledge, as well as by the use of the eye or ear and tongue.\n\nTHE\n\nFUNCTION\n\nBY\n\nOF MANUAL\nELEMENTARY\n\nTRAINING\nSCHOOL\n\nRICHARD\n\nCHICAGO,\n\nWATERMAN,\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nILL.\n\nThe history of the manual-training movement in the United States is\none of the most interesting chapters in the school history of our country.\nStudied carefully it will reveal some very important truths Sn regard to\nthe laws of social development which are applicable to the growth of a\ngreat school system. It will show, for example, that, altho psychology\nsays, \" Manual-training should begin in the kindergarten and continue\nthruout each year of school life,\" sociology says, \"The manual-training\nmovement must begin at the top and go downward.\" The ideal in view\nmust be a working ideal. It was feasible to introduce manual training\ninto the high school twenty years ago. It was not feasible to introduce\nit into the first grade until public opinion had been formed, teachers had\nbeen trained, and the movement had gained some headway.\nThe school should develop not alone the power to think, but the\npower to act. Children will learn to do by doing. But further — and\nthis is a vital consideration — the power to think clearly and correctly can\nbe developed more quickly and more fully with the aid of the doing, i. e.,\nof the manual training, than without its aid. An eighth-grade teacher can\naccomplish more work in nature study, in physiology and hygiene, in\narithmetic and in language, if her pupils take two hours each week for\ncooking, than if they have no cooking, but give the two hours to the\nregular grade work.\nAs a result of this recognition of the significance of manual training,\nthe movement has advanced steadily, until now, in the public schools of\nsome cities, the course of study not only in the grammar grades, but in\nevery grade, includes some form of constructive work, and the girls as\nwell as boys take part in it.\nIn Chicago a number of manual-training experiments have been tried,\nand perhaps a description of some of these will be of value in discussing\n\n"}
{"page": 660, "printed_page": null, "text": "650\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nthe function of manual training in the elementary school. First, however, let us define exactly the terms used in this title.\nFunction is a word denoting activity as a part of an organism. Used\nin this connection it implies that the school is an organism, that the\nmanual-training department is one of the organs, and that the school\ncannot fully accomplish its purpose if the manual-training organ is\nallowed to remain inactive.\nManual training is a term that refers to both a method and a subject\nin the curriculum. As a method it means laboratory work, the handling\nof things, the use of tools, the training of the senses, the development of\npower thru experience. As a subject in the curriculum it means an\nopportunity for the pupil to enter a part of the field of human knowledge\nwhich should be studied in the school because it is important in everyday life, i. e., the investigation of scientific principles and their application in useful arts.\nThe public elementary school is an institution in which the state seeks\nto make good citizens ; the place in which sixteen million American children are now studying, i. e., 98 per cent, of the entire number of pupils\nin the educational institution of the United States. If manual training\nhas a function to perform in the education of every child, it must be\nintroduced into each grade of the public elementary school.\nThis has been done in the Chicago public schools, not in any one\nbuilding, but part here and another part there, one school emphasizing\nprimary work and another the work of grammar grades, one giving\ndomestic science to girls and another bench work in wood to a large\nnumber of boys. The several forms of manual training in the Chicago\nschools may be grouped under four heads :\n1. Bench work in wood for boys in the sixth, seventh, and eighth\ngrades.\n2. Domestic science for girls in the fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth\ngrades.\n3. Construction work for both boys and girls in the kindergarten and\nin the four primary grades,. this constructive work being based on the\nregular grade work in history, in literature, and in geography.\n4. Various forms of social activity, of which the use of the printing\npress may be chosen as typical.\nI.\n\nBENCH\n\nWORK\n\nIN\n\nWOOD\n\nIn the best schools in the city this work is very carefully planned,\nand includes the following elements : (i) A study of the materials used\nand of the purpose for which each is best adapted. (2) A study of each\nof the wood-working tools ; the materials from which it is made ; how it\nshould be cared for ; how it should be used. (3) A study of the principles on which mechanical drawing is based, and practice in the use of\n\n"}
{"page": 661, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nFUNCTION\n\nOF MANUAL\n\nTRAINING\n\n65 1\n\nthe drawing tools. (4) Practice in planing and making a certain number\nof useful objects. Part of these are chosen by the teacher with direct\nreference to the principles to be taught, and the particular form of skill\nto be developed. The others are chosen by the pupil, who is thus able to\napply in his own way the principles learned and the skill acquired.\nTogether they constitute a progressive series of models that is carefully\ngraded. Commencing with the use of soft wood, few tools, and simple\nexercises, the pupil advances to the use of several kinds of wood, a variety\nof tools, and more difficult exercises.\nIf a boy is asked to plan a box, he first decides what material he\nwill use ; then what the form and proportions of the box shall be ; then\nthe dimensions. These he expresses carefully in a working drawing,\nwhich must be so clear that it can be read by anybody. After he has\nthus formed in his own mind a clear image of what he will make, and\nhas transferred this image to the paper, he has obtained one of the\nmost valuable parts of the training to be derived from the making of\na box.\nThe chief obstacle to the introduction of manual training into the\npublic schools is the lack of competent teachers. It often happens that\nthe wood working, for example, is intrusted to a mechanic who knows\nnothing about teaching, and makes no attempt to relate his work to the\nother parts of the course of study. This results in a fatal isolation, and\nleaves an opening for the critics to call manual training a \" fad.\" The\nfact is that under these conditions the critics are right. A fad is a subject that is pitchforked into the curriculum without being related to anything else that the child is studying. If, instead of being completely\nisolated, this subject be made an organic part of the course of study, it\nceases to be a fad and becomes an important factor in accomplishing the\naim for which the school is established.\nAnother obstacle to the general introduction of manual training is the\nfalse notion that expensive equipment is needed. This is the natural\nresult of employing mechanics instead of teachers. They work for product in material instead of in man. When we succeed in getting true\nteachers to take charge of this work, we shall find more emphasis given to\nthe boy than is given to the benches and tools. The manual-training\nroom will be provided with a simple bench and a few tools for each pupil\nto use in making drawings and working with various materials. The\nseries of models will be chosen with direct reference to (i) the interest\nof the child, i. e., the experiences in home and school and community\nthat give him a motive for desiring to make the objects chosen ; and (2)\nthe development of the child, i. e., the many-sided growth which the\nschool aims to give him thru a study of the world in which he lives and\nthe people who live in it — their habits, their customs, their industries,\ntheir everyday life.\n\n"}
{"page": 662, "printed_page": null, "text": "652\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nThis brings us to the second group of manual-training activities mentioned above, viz, :\nII.\n\nDOMESTIC\n\nSCIENCE\n\nThe teaching of domestic science in the Chicago schools has opened\nup a wonderful vista of the possibilities that could be realized if the desire\nto make good citizens should become the controlling idea in planning\nthe work of the public schools. A good citizen is a man who is willing\nand able to fulfill his obligations in the home, in the community, in\nsociety ; one who cares lovingly for his family, is loyal to his government,\nand is ready to help his fellow-men. At the root of good citizenship is\nhealthy, happy home life. For this reason it is of tlje utmost importance\nthat the public school should aim to develop in the boys and girls a\ndesire and an ability to commence today to make the life in their own\nhome both healthy and happy.\nHow can this be done ?\nDuring the past year one of the Chicago public schools has attempted\nto answer this question. It has established a home department, in which\n250 girls in the fifth and sixth grades have spent an hour and a half each\nweek in the study of housework, and 200 girls in the seventh and eighth\ngrades have spent two hours each week in the study of cooking.\nThe equipment provided for the cooking department is planned to\ngive every member of the class an opportunity to do individual work.\nThe maximum number of pupils in a class is twenty-four. Each girl has\nher own table, equipped with the necessary cooking utensils and a gas\nstove. In addition there are certain things provided for the use of the\nentire class — a large gas range, a sink, a heater for the water boiler, a\ncoal range, and several cupboards for supplies. The housework room is\ndecorated and furnished in such a way as to make it very attractive and\nhomelike. The walls are tinted a gray-green, and, as far as possible, are\nhung with the best pictures. The room is divided by screens into parlor,\nbedroom, dining-room, and kitchen, and each is provided with the\nappropriate furniture.\nThe plan followed in teaching cooking and housework is based on\nsound educational principles, each subject being brought into the proper\nrelation with the other subjects taught in the school. Under the teacher\nof cooking the girls study the principles upon which cookery is based.\nFor example, the effect of hot water on meats, on cereals, and on other\nclasses of foods ; and the different effect produced by cold water ; the\ninfluence of dry heat and of steam on the several classes of food ; the\nconstituents of the various kinds of food, and the relative value of each\nfor nourishment ; and the physiological process by which each of these\nconstituents is digested in the human body. Thru all of this work the\ngrade teacher finds that in her class in nature study she is directly helped\nby the work done in the study of foods in the cooking room ; and in her\n\n"}
{"page": 663, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nFUNCTION\n\nOF MANUAL\n\nTRAINING\n\n653\n\nclass in physiology and hygiene she is aided by the study of digestion\nand nutrition which the girls have made with the cooking teacher. The\ncost of various articles of food is also studied, with a view to determining\nhow a large amount of nourishment may be obtained in return for a\nsmall expenditure of money. In short, the teacher uses every effort to\nprepare the girls to be intelligent and economical housekeepers in all of\nthose matters which pertain to the buying of food and preparing it for\nthe table.\nA generation of public-school work along this line would do a great\ndeal toward settling some of the grave problems which we as a nation\nare trying to solve today. What shall we do with the foreigners who\ncome to us ignorant of American habits and customs ? How shall\nwe counteract the demoralizing influences of city life ? What can be\ndone to win back the girls and women whose interest centers in business\nor in club life instead of in the home ? A home department in the public schools would help to answer these questions.\nIII.\n\nCONSTRUCTIVE\n\nWORK\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nPRIMARY\n\nGRADES\n\nThe third group of manual-training activities mentioned above is that\nwhich includes the various forrris of constructive work done in the kindergarten and in the primary grades, and based upon the work in history\nand literature.\nIn the kindergarten the children are interested chiefly in the home.\nThey have been asked, therefore, to make a number of simple things —\nchairs, tables, piano, picture frames, etc. — for their playhouse, which, in\nits turn, was made for them by the eighth-grade boys.\nIn the first grade the children hear in its simplest form the story of\nHiawatha, and they make his canoe, his bow and arrows, his wigwam, and\nthe clothing that he wears.\nIn the second grade the children hear about primitive man, the simplest of human beings, living in the midst of nature. How is he to\nobtain food ? How provide his shelter ? How make the clothing that\nhe needs ? They are called upon to face some of the problems that he\nfaced when civilization was young, and they are encouraged to make\nsome of the simple inventions that he made in trying to solve these\nproblems.\nIn the third grade the children read about Robinson Crusoe, the\nmodern man who was obliged to live under primitive conditions ; who\nknew what to do and how to do it, but had no tools and no helpers. He\nhad to provide food and clothing and shelter for himself, and to make his\nown tools and his own weapons. The children make his island, his raft,\nhis hut, and his tools, and many of the simple utensils that he used during\nhis stay on the island. Again they are helped to realize (i) what are\nthe needs of man, and (2) how these needs may be supplied even when\n\n"}
{"page": 664, "printed_page": null, "text": "654\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\ntools and machinery and books and a multitude of men, on which we\nare accustomed to rely, are wholly lacking.\nIn the fourth grade the children continue their study of man and his\nneeds, and in their constructive work they make from various materials,\nplastic and otherwise, objects which are more advanced in architecture, in\ndecoration, in invention. Their history is the story of the city and state\nin which they live, and their attention is called to the industries and\noccupations of men who live in their own time and in their own neighborhood.\nIn all this constructive work the teacher is trying to develop in the\nmind of the child a clear image to correspond with the objects or the situation described in the class in reading or history or nature study. The\nchild thinks in images or pictures; and if the image is clear, the though\nwill be clear.\nIV.\n\nSOCIAL\n\nACTIVITIES\n\nThe fourth group of manual-training activities is that which includes the\nvarious forms of social activity, of which the use of the printing press may\nbe chosen as typical. There is a considerable number of public schools\nin Chicago where the printing press is used daily by the pupils. A few\ntrustworthy boys are put in charge of this work, and are allowed to spend\nin the press-room a part of the time that would otherwise be given to language and to manual training. They are given the assistance of as many\nhelpers as are needed for the mechanical part of the work. The typesetting and proofreading give a most excellent opportunity for training\nin spelling, punctuation, and paragraphing, and the various forms of grammatical construction. They also give constant practice in the correct use\nof the English language.\nThe lower-grade children are led to formulate in their own way the\nstory that is told in the class, and this story is then printed on the school\npress and used as reading matter by each pupil. The new words the\nchildren learn are first written on the board and then printed in large\ntype on sheets of paper. Each pupil is given a sheet, and he cuts out the\nwords and pastes them into a blank book, which he has previously made\nfor the purpose. He places together all the words beginning with the\nsame letter, and thus builds up his own dictionary just as fast as he can\nlearn the words.\nIn any grade where the teacher desires to place a beautiful poem or\na choice prose selection in the hands of each pupil she has the necessary\nnumber of copies reproduced on the school press. After the members of\nher class have used the sheets, they are collected and placed in the school\nlibrary as a permanent addition to the supplementary reading for use\nthruout the school.\nIt is also possible for the school which\n\nowns\n\na press to publish a\n\n"}
{"page": 665, "printed_page": null, "text": "SOCIAL CO OPERATION\n\nDepartment]\n\n655\n\nschool paper, containing some of the best compositions written by the\npupils ; news items in regard to the school and its work ; lists of additions to the museum, the library, and the school equipment ; and any\nother topics that would interest pupils and teachers and parents, and\nwould serve to promote the institutional life of the school.\nUsed in this way the printing press becomes a very important factor\nin the school work. The opportunity it offers for manual training is\nconsiderable, and this, together with the opportunity for developing the\nchild's mental power as well as his moral nature, makes the press an\nalmost indispensable part of the equipment of a large elementary school.\nSo much for the manual-training work that is now being done in one\nor another of the public schools of Chicago. The interest in these forms\nof manual training is growing rapidly, and it is safe to predict that before\nmany years these and other forms will be introduced very generally thruout the Chicago system. This will mean certain radical changes in the\npresent course of study and in the present methods of teaching. What\nis the force that will bring about these changes ? It is twofold : (i)\nThere must be a few great elementary schools whose work is controlled\nand directed by the spirit of the new education ; and (2) there must be a\nstrong public opinion that will sustain these type schools in their pioneer\nwork and will support the school board in its efforts to extend the influence of these institutions to all parts of the public-school system.\n\nSOCIAL\n\nBY\n\nB.\n\nC.\n\nGREGORY,\n\nCO-OPERATION\n\nSUPERVISOR\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nTRENTON,\n\nN.\n\nJ.\n\nFor several years I have given thoughtful attention to the question :\n\" How shall the kindergarten principle be applied to kindergarten\ninstruction ? \" A word concerning the general subject may make clearer\nthe special application I have to make, which might otherwise be regarded\nas inconsequential.\nThe happy results which have followed the introduction of the kindergarten into the public-school system have induced those who have\ncontrol of school affairs to extend its influence into the grades beyond\nthe kindergarten, or sub-primary, stage of education. These attempts,\ntoo often, consisted merely in supplying such grades with kindergarten\nmaterial to be used in the work of the curriculum. The results have been\nunsatisfactory. The kindergarten material is used aimlessly. Its purpose\nhas not been apprehended by the teacher, and much time and money\nhave been frittered away in consequence. The teacher, conscious of her\nlack of knowledge concerning the rationale of the kindergarten material\n\n"}
{"page": 666, "printed_page": null, "text": "656\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nsometimes resists its introduction, accepting it only when, compelled to\ndo so. From this state of things has been evolved an unreasoning and\nunreasonable opinion of the kindergarten.\nSuch efforts are irrational and doomed to failure. There is no logical\nconnection between the apparatus of the kindergarten and the purposes\nof the ordinary school. In introducing the kindergarten material, little\neffort has been made to ascertain what are the principles of which it is\nthe expression. Froebel, it must be remembered, not only bequeathed to\nus an apparatus, but also a philosophy of education, of which this apparatus is the expression as regards only one stage of education. It does not\nfollow, because such apparatus is the appropriate expression of the\nphilosophy at this early stage, that the same apparatus should be its\nexpression at a later stage. To illustrate : the habit of observing the\nmode of life and characteristics of living creatures may be cultivated in\nthe kindergarten by a game in which children personate birds, etc., but\nit does not follow that this habit is to be inculcated in the grammar and\nhigh schools by the use of such a game. Such an absurd course of procedure isduplicated whenever the kindergarten apparatus or methods are\nused without regard to their philosophical meaning. The logical mode\nof inquiry would seem to be this : given a principle, what is the proper\nmethod of applying it in the education of children of a given age ? It\nwould be found that for children of the kindergarten age the kindergarten apparatus offers the best possible medium of application ; for\nchildren in the second year in school another method of application\nmust be sought, and for children in higher grades yet other methods,\nthe principle remaining always the same. Froebel's philosophy, not\nFroebel's apparatus, is the essential consideration in his system of instruction.\nFroebel's definition of education at the very outset of his discussion illustrates my meaning and bears directly on the topic I am to\ndiscuss. Two adjectives are prominent in this definition. The development of the child must be \" conscious \" and \" free.\"\nThe two requirements are very closely related and very germane to\nthe present discussion. Children are individuals. The divine endowment is not the same in two different children. It varies greatly, but in\nthe eyes of many a teacher there are no differences. All children must\ntake exactly the same amount of arithmetic, the same amount of drawing, the same amount of music, and the individual peculiarities of the\nchild have nothing to do with the case. To be sure, we do not treat\nhorses in this way. In their training the individuality of each animal\nis carefully considered. But in our schools it is of no consequence\nwhether the child is to develop into an Edison, a Mozart, or a Napoleon ;\nthe treatment is precisely the same in all cases. It goes without saying\nthat such rough and unintelligent training must unduly stimulate certain\n\n"}
{"page": 667, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSOCIAL COOPERATION\n\n657\n\nsides of the nature and unduly repress other sides in the case of every\nchild.\nThe adjective \" conscious \" is, however, the most interesting point in\nthe definition. Froebel demands that the child shall be made conscious\nof his divine possibilities. We are to note that not only is the teacher\nto know what the child can do, but the child is to know what he can do\nhimself. We note, also, that the definition does not say that the child\nis to be made conscious of the evil side of his nature. The language of\nthe definition is \" a conscious representation of the divine unity.\" A\nconsideration of the methods employed by a great many teachers will\nreveal the fact that to make the child conscious of the evil rather than the\ngood in his nature is precisely what the teacher effects. She is constantly endeavoring to make the child conscious of what he cannot do, or\nof what he is doing that is wrong. In the discipline of the class, the\nchild is told very promptly if he disobeys a rule — if he whispers, for\nexample, or if he is inattentive ; but the teacher too often does not take\npains to tell liim that he did not whisper during that recitation, or that\nhe was very attentive, and that he deserves great commendation, etc.\nThe rules of the school mostly begin with the word \" don't.\" The child's\nattention is always directed toward what he must not do, and the evil\nthings that he does do ; he is not made conscious of the successes he\nattains, of how much he resists temptation, and how excellent his effort has\nbeen to do what is demanded in the school. The same thing is true as\nregards the curriculum. The teacher goes thru her compositions with a\nblue pencil and laboriously indicates all the errors, and when she hands\nthe composition back to the child, she has succeeded in showing him what\nhe cannot do. Why make him thus conscious of his weaknesses ? Let\nus assume a new use for the blue pencil. Let it serve to mark the excellences. We may suppose, for instance,- that the teacher is endeavoring\nto inculcate the principle that every sentence should end with a period.\nSuppose she marks with a blue pencil every sentence that does end with\na period and by that process makes the child conscious of attainment.\nIs it a doubtful proposition that a pupil so treated will generally try to\ndo better work next time ? The paper bristles with commendation ;\nevery blue mark is an encouragement.\nThe child is conscious of power.\nWe repeat that this course of procedure is the reverse of that followed\nby most teachers. They commend, of course ; some commend not a\nlittle; but the teachers are few in number who seek for opportunity to\ncommend, who make their principal criticism commendation. Such a\ncourse on the pa,rt of the teacher means, on the part of the child, consciousnes ofstrength, and consciousness results in development. The\nmatter is very easily illustrated in discipline. Suppose we assume a fight\nin the school yard. The culprits are brought before the teacher. Fighting has been forbidden.\nIt is, probably, just the worst thing, in the\n\n"}
{"page": 668, "printed_page": null, "text": "658\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nopinion of the teacher, the children can do, and, -no matter how the fight\ncommenced, there is a standing rule that there must be no fighting ; and\nboth of the children are punished, perhaps one more than another, as one\nis a trifle more guilty than the other. But let us conceive a reaSon for\nthe quarrel, which, altho extreme, may serve to make the teaching\nclear that we have in mind. Suppose, as in the case of young Oliver\nTwist in his memorable fight with Noah Claypole, the boy had maligned\nthe memory of a dead mother. Here is a dilemma presented to the\nteacher. On the one hand, it was wrong to fight. On the other hand, it\nwas honorable to hold sacred the memory of the mother. Shall the\nteacher ignore the better side of the nature, developed even in such an\nunpleasant incident, and deal only with the wrong side of character ?\nWhich feeling shall the teacher leave more prominent in the child's mind,\nthe feeling of shame or that of self-respect ? Shall the teacher say :\n\" Fighting is wrong, and it makes no difference what the reason was, I\nshall, punish you, and I shall expel you if you do it again; \"or shall she\nsay : \" Fighting is wrong, and I am very sorry that you have engaged in\na quarrel with one of your schoolmates, but I honor you for holding in\nreverence the memory of your mother. A boy that can thus hold sacred\na mother's memory cannot go very far wrong. We will postpone the\nfurther consideration of the fight until tomorrow\" ? I fancy, as a teacher\nof some experience, that the quarrel could be approached by both teacher\nand pupil the next day with the prospects of more permanent results\nthan if the quarrel alone had been considered. If the teacher grasps this\nthought, that her business is not to make her pupil conscious of his weakness, of what he cannot do, of his tendency to evil, but to make him conscious of his possibilities, conscious of what is hopeful in his nature; if\nher gospel is not discouraging, but inspiring, she has changed her whole\noutlook on the field of education, and her whole course of procedure\nmust be modified in view of such a change.\nThe present subject of social co-ordination is a fair illustration of the\nmethod of applying a kindergarten principle. The principle of co-operation runs thru the whole kindergarten system. The children work\ntogether, they combine to produce certain results, to evolve certain products; they unite in the playing of games. Co-operation is not the only\ncharacteristic of play, but it is a most important one. No game that can\nbe played alone is of any importance in the kindergarten. In every game\neach participant contributes something, and without the sum of these\ncontributions the game would not be possible. Later in the evolution\nof this idea of co-operation the notion of community is reached, which\nimmediately brings us, as Froebel would have us believe, into the presence\nof the two conceptions, religion and the Deity.\nNow, here is a principle; evidently co-operation is necessary, at least\nin the kindergarten.\nWhat is its application to the elementary school.\n\n"}
{"page": 669, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSOCIAL CO-OPERATION\n\n659\n\nnot the primary school alone, the grammar school also ? Let us ask a\npreliminary question : What is the genius of the elementary school at the\npresent time as regards this desideratum ? There must be as many\nanswers to this question as there are schools. In looking over the whole\nfield, however, I may be pessimistic, but I cannot resist the impression\nthat in far too many schools, and to far too great an extent in many\nother schools, the governing principle is not co-operation, but segregation, isolation. Perhaps I can best support my position and indicate the\napplication of the kindergarten principle of co-operation by calling attention to some of its violations.\nThe most obvious example of such a violation is found in the prevalence of the counter-principle of rivalry. It is everywhere present in\nschool management. We all use it more or less, because it supplies a\nkind of stimulus which seems, to us, essential in getting \"results.\" But\nrivalry is essentially a segregating principle.\nDo you remember the little poem of Whittier's that we used to parse ?\nIt begins :\nStill sits the schoolhouse by the road,\nA ragged beggar sunning.\n\nYou remember the story. You remember the match in school, the\nlittle boy defeated and glooming outside the schoolhouse when all is\nover.\nYou remember the sweet expostulation of the little girl :\nI hate to go above you,\nBecause, you know, I love you.\n\nNow, I have nothing to do witjj the sentiment of the story, but one\nteaching surely lies on its face, and that is that rivalry and love are\nincompatible. You can have one or the other; you cannot have both.\nIt is not necessary to assume the presence of love as a prime consideration in the social relations of the school. Don't call it love, if you object\nto this term ; call it friendship or call it only \" class tone\" : the principle\nremains the same. By whatever name you call the genius of social amity,\nit is antagonistic to rivalry ; one or the other must die.\nNow, I am far from saying that rivalry has no place in the schoolroom;I don't know; I wish I did. My feeling is against it. But this\nmuch seems clear : that the teacher must choose between that principle\nand love, kindly fellow-feeling, social co-operation.\nIf, ignoring this obvious principle, we emphasize comparisons of\nchild with child, with reflections on the unsuccessful pupil who has fallen\nbehind a brighter pupil, but has done wonders when we consider what\nwas to be expected of him, we are creating a caste of scholarship which\nmust work out the inevitable fruits of caste. I say again that the results\nof our comparisons, whether by per cent, or descriptive letter, may not\nalways be apparent ; the vicious principle, however, is always present and\nis insidiously working its malign results.\n\n"}
{"page": 670, "printed_page": null, "text": "66o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nrElementary\n\nLurking in the ranking system is a correlated evil often forgotten,\nbut serious in its relation to the subject we are considering. The\nteacher comes to rely on the stimuli supplied by the ranking system and\nfails to attach importance to the love of knowledge or to the pleasure of\nintellectual activity. She does not seek to bring about a union of sympathies, the ascendance of the principle of solidarity. Her system is\nopposed to solidarity. The good of one is not the good of all. The\ngood that is attained in the ranking system can be obtained only by the\nmisfortune of someone else. That one must gain, others must lose.\nThis principle is thoroly worked out in practical life, but even there it\ndoes not work for social co-operation, as our sad social relations testify.\nOne gets richer as his brother gets poorer, but the brothers are not\nusually drawn nearer together in the process.\nI am very fond of a stanza in one of Bryant's hymns :\nWe lean on others as we walk\nLife's devious path with pitfalls strewn,\nAnd 'twere an idle boast to t&lk\nOf treading that dark path alone.\n\nI call your attention to the fact that Bryant's conception is not realized\nwhere the law of social co-operation does not, at least unconsciously,\nhold. Primarily the teacher is responsible, and if the keynote of her\nadministration is that fatal word \" discipline,\" she will never get the\ndesired social condition. The atmosphere of her class-room will be more\nor less depressing. There will be little concurrence, enthusiastic or\nunenthusiastic, among the pupils.\n•\nThe secret of success in this matter has been charmingly expressed by\nFroebel in a couple of paragraphs which have not received the attention at\nthe hands of teachers of post-kindergarten grades that they deserve. He\nsays : \"The child has an intuitive insight which enables him instantly to\ndetermine whether what the teacher demands is expressed as an arbitrary\ncommand orasan unavoidable necessity to which both teacher and pupil are\nalike subject.\" Still more beautifully he alludes to the presence of what he\ncalls \"the third something.\" This is a rather vague expression, and yet\nI have never found anything I like better. The first \"something\" is the\nteacher, the second the pupil, the third the relation. If the third something is present, if the pupil sees in the command of the teacher only the\nformulation of an eternally true and divine law, there is no obedience,\nthere is only acceptance.\nThis is the divine method and applies to every divine command.\n\"Whatsoever ye would that men should do to you, do ye even so to\nthem,\" is not obligatory because Christ said it. It would be equally true\nif Plato or George Washington had said it. The fact is, it is true because\nit is true ; and the Great Teacher has merely formulated it for us. That is\nwhy \" his commandments\n\nare not grievous.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 671, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSOCIAL\n\nCO-OPERATION\n\n66 1\n\nNow, here is Froebel's. conception of the ideal class-room. Its adoption instantly brings about co-operation among pupils, and excludes\nrivalries and antagonisms. The teacher must choose between the two\natmospheres in determining the method of her administration. She\nbrings about social co-operation by her own attitude.\nIf you will allow me to compare small things with great, I may allude\nreverently to the expression of this law in the divine volume, and in\ndoing so I but follow my great German leader, who is ever making the\nclass-room the crystallization of the divine unity. \"He that loveth not\nhis brother whom he hath seen, how can he love God whom he hath\nnot seen?\" And again: \"That he that loveth God should love his\nbrother also.\" Do you not see the same thought ? Our relation to the\nleader and our relation to each other are correlative. If one is at fault,\nthe other must be.\nSo is it between teacher and class.\nNor is this merely a question of morals or order in the class-room, as\nmight be hastily assumed. Froebel is always reminding us that the\nhighest results in education are only possible when the pupils are in conscious accord with the divine plan, or, as he expresses it, with the divine\nunity. Only with this accord are possible the self-activity and self-revelation which are the keynotes of the Froebelian cojiception of education,\nfor only when the teacher's commands are in accord with eternal truth\nare they self-evident, and only then is \"the third something\" present.\nMay I now, by way of emphasizing my thought, ask you to notice\ntwo rather curious, but everyday expressions of the inborn social impulse\nin the natures of children ? They show how dull we are to recognize the\ndivine spark, and how we crush and extinguish that spark which might\nbe easily fanned into a flame. The expressions I refer to are found in the\ntwo habits of prompting and concealing the wrong-doings of schoolmates.\nI have seen few teachers who did not consider it their duty utterly to\nextirpate the vice of prompting by any means in their power. The\npractice was wrong and wicked, and they never failed to set it in that\nlight before their children. Did you ever notice how hard it is to make\nconverts to this article of our creed ? The best of children will o-© on\nprompting. Why ? Simply because the action is not wicked. Considered fairly, the act of prompting is noble, praiseworthy. It is the\neffort of one pupil, at considerable risk to himself, to help another pupil\nin distress. Children will often prompt their rivals who are struggling\nfor the same medal as themselves. I have a contempt for a boy who\nnaturally does not wish to prompt another, and the general consensus of\nopinion in all classes of normally constituted pupils regarding such a boy\nis that of strong disapprobation. I grant that prompting is unwise and\ninjures the person prompted, and that the practice should be abrogated,\nbut not by stifling the spirit of chivalry in the child who prompts ; not by\npunishing him and thereby forcing him to be selfish.\n\n"}
{"page": 672, "printed_page": null, "text": "662\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nHow would a boy look at you if he were brought into your presence\nfor prompting and you should address him thus : \"My boy, it was very\nkind of you to help John by prompting ; I was sorry for him myself, and\nwanted to help him. I honor you for your spirit. Help the man that\nis down every time, but help him in the best way. I think your way was\nnot the best that time. If he knew he could get your help all the time,\nhe wouldn't study at all, and in the end would he not be in a very bad\nway, and would you not have done him a fatal injury ? \" etc. ?\nI have enlarged on this habit merely to show that we not only do not\ndevelop the social idea in our class-rooms, but that we fail to recognize its\nsymptoms and stifle tendencies toward the ideal.\nI need say little concerning the other habit, that of concealment.\nThere are some teachers so utterly blind to the importance of social\nco-operation that they encourage tattling. This is amazing. Others do\nnot go so far, but they reprobate concealment, and there are few of us\nwho do not, at least, accept information brought to us, and who discourage its bringing. There was a time when I considered it a very high\nattainment, indeed, to be able to ferret out offenders by means of a skillful use of pupils' willing or unwilling testimony. Alas, we must all do\nsomething of this kind, for we are not yet in an ideal state. But, granting this necessity, is it not possible to keep the ideal in view and deprecate the use of means we should loathe ? For is not the desire to shield\nour fellow from the consequences of his misdoings a divinely implanted\nimpulse, and is not the desire to deliver the culprit to punishment,\nexcept as an ofificial act, the desire to play the r61e of the informer,\nfiendish ? Is it not possible to recognize the noble, the chivalrous in the\nannoying and obstructive acts of our pupils, and, by a wise manipulation\nof their motives, lift them into higher living? We cannot reach the\nideal, but constant pressure toward it will surely change our conditions.\nI have pasted on my desk at my office, right in front of me, this\nquotation, from George Eliot : \" Failure, after long perseverance, is\nbetter than never to have had a striving worthy of the name of failure.\"\nHow often and how sadly I have had to apply that consolation to myself\nduring my own career. How often must every man look to such a\nsource of comfort when \"he has but tears to give and must weep those\ntears alone.\" And to the pupil the recognition of the God-like striving\nis as grateful as to you and to me. The striving, not the failure, is the\nthing which must engage the teacher's attention.\nI will not close without making a brief allusion to Froebel's two\nprominent considerations in the Education of Man — play and rhythm. I\nfancy that, if Inspector Hughes had been here, he would have made much\nof play, and he would have rendered us a good service by so doing. I have\nnot time to discuss it. The work of the class-room may take the shape of\ngames more frequently than we think.\nDebates may stand as an illus-\n\nJ\n\n"}
{"page": 673, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSOCIAL\n\nCO-OPERATION\n\n663\n\ntration. A little planning will give to a serious lesson all the charm of\nthe playground, and will develop that characteristic of play, the subordination ofeveryone's effort to a common purpose, thus preparing for the\ndiscipline of life, as Mr. Hughes so well knows how to demonstrate.\nRegarding rhythm, a word concerning music may be in place. Music\nis essentially a co-operation subject. A teacher may throw away its\nadvantages. She may have the pupils sing a song just to keep them from\ndisorder while she is giving out the pens, and may not notice that their\nsinging is perfunctory and unenthusiastic. Many teachers do this. But\nmany teachers have not yet heard of co-operation.\nIf all sing even in unison, all must at least sing. But in part singing\nthe highest pleasure is felt. There is a distinct sense of co-operation in\npart singing. You feel that your neighbor who is singing another part\nis essential to your singing. If he stops, you may as well stop, for the\nchord is broken and the pleasure is gone.\nTo me co-operation is fundamental. It goes far down to the roots\nof things and relates to the conditions on which education must be\nfounded, to the postulates of education. Before I studied German I\nknew a young lady, a member of a German singing society, known as the\nEintracht. I asked her what the word Eintracht meant. She said she\ndidn't know thfi English word for it, but it meant that they would \"all\nstick together.\" That is my conception of school ; and as to the teacher\nin his relation to this ideal, let us remember that Froebel did not say, as\nsome teachers think, \"Let us live in front of the children,\" but, \"Let us\nlive with the children.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 674, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\nOF SECONDARY\nEDUCATION\n\nSECRETARY'S\nFIRST\n\nMINUTES\n\nSESSION. — Friday Afternoon, July 8, 1898\n\nThe department met in the Central High School assembly hall, with President George\nB. Alton, of Minnesota, in the chair. In the absence of Secretary E. G. Cooley, Mr\nRalph R. Upton, of Chillicothe, O., was elected assistant secretary.\nThe following program was presented :\n1. \"_English the Core of a Secondary Course,\" John C. Hanna, High School, Columbus, O.\n2. The presentation and defense of three printed syllabi for literature and composition- rhetoric in secondary schools, with a statement of the principles of choice and arrangement followed in the pieparation of\neach, by Samuel Thurber, master in Girls' High School, Boston, Mass.; Miss Charity Dye, department of\nliterature. Central High School, Indianapolis, Ind. ; W. F. Webster, principal of the East Side High School,\nMinneapolis, Minn.\n3. General discussion.\n•\n\nThe president appointed the following nominating committee :\nA. F. Nightingale, Chicago, 111.\nEdward F. Hermanns, Denver, Colo,\nFred W. Atkinson, Springfield, Mass.\n\nSECOND\n\nSESSION. — Tuesday\n\nAfternoon, July 12\n\nThe report of the nominating committee was given as follows :\nWe, the undersigned, the Committee on Nominations, beg leave to submit and report the following\nnames in nomination for the three offices of the department. Mr. Hermanns was not in attendance at this\ncommittee meeting.\nThe nominations are as follows :\n¥ot President — Edward F. Hermanns, Denver, Colo.\nFor Vice-President — W. F. Webster, Minneapolis, Minn.\nFor Secretary — Ralph R. Upton, Chillicothe, O.\n\nVery respectfully,\nA. F. Nightingale,\nFred 'JV. Atkinson,\nCommittee.\n\nOn motion, the report was accepted, and the secretary was directed to cast the vote\nof the department for the nominees.\nThe vote was so cast, and the nominees declared elected.\nMr. Plummer, Des Moines, la., offered the following resolutions, which were carried :\nWhereas,\n\nThree strong, carefully prepared, complete syllabi on the subject of \" Literature and Composition-Rhetoric inSecondary Schools\" were presented before the Section of Secondary Education Friday\nafternoon, July 8 ; and.\nWhereas, It is the sense of this department that the influence of these valuable papers should be\n66\nextended as widely as possible among teachers of English 4; be it\nResolved, That the chair appoint a committee of three, whose duties it shall be to devise means of\nsecuring the publication of these syllabi, and the papers which supported them, in full, in a neat pamphlet, and\nto secure their distribution, and to report action, if any, to the next annual session of this department,\n\n"}
{"page": 675, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nENGLISH\n\nTHE\n\nCORE\n\nOF A SECONDARY\n\nCOURSE\n\n665\n\nThe chair appointed :\nFrank E. Plummer, chairman, Des Moines, la.\nCharles C. Ramsay, Fall River, Mass.\nErnest R. Clark, Colorado Springs, Colo,\n\nResolutions of thanks were tendered Colonel Henry F. Blount, Dr. F. R. Lane, Miss\nH. M. Reynolds, and others for the cordial welcome which the department had received.\nMr. Edward F. Hermanns, president-elect, assumed the duties of his office.\nOn motion of Mr. Alton, the president was requested to set the example of opening\nnext year's session with a brief r^sum^ of the year's progress in secondary education.\nThe department then adjourned, concluding its proceedings in round tables as follows :\n1. \" Composition -Rhetoric\" — Leader, Ernest R. Clark, instructor in English, Colorado Springs, Colo.\n2. \" History\" — Leader, J. J. Shepard, Boys' High School, New York.\n3. \"The High School as a Social Factor\" — Leader, Charles H. Keyes, Principal of High School,\nIlolyoke, Mass.\n\nRalph\n\nPAPERS\nENGLISH\n\nBY\n\nJOHN\n\nTHE\n\nCALVIN\n\nR. Upton,\nAssistant Secretary.\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nCORE\n\nOE A SECONDARY\n\nHANNA,\n\nEAST\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nCOURSE\n\nCOLUMBUS,\n\nO.\n\nThe problem whether there is a place for secondary instruction is\nsettled by the laws of nature. \" The secondary epoch is due to the\nphenomena of adolescence.\" These are the words of Professor Nicholas\nMurray Butler in a valuable article in the June number of the Educational Review on \" The Scope and Function of Secondary Education.\"\nThe essential characteristics of secondary-school studies there enumerated\nare selected upon sound principles, and do much to clear the way in the\nproblem of curriculum-making — the second of the two great problems\nconnected with secondary schools.\nIn the attempt to solve this problem, the strife between extremists has\ngone to such lengths that there is a reaction coming. The most thoughtful and the broadest-minded workers in this field are coming to the conclusion that a sane and harmonious working basis can be established, and\nthat in the establishment of such a basis these ideas must have a controlling force :\nI. That many subjects must be omitted entirely; that, for example,\nthe formal study of psychology and allied subjects, of the advanced\nmathematics, of technical arts and sciences, of astronomy, geology, etc.,\nof mechanical trades, and of many other subjects, belongs not in the secondary school, but in special schools of various kinds, or in the colleges\nand universities.\n\n"}
{"page": 676, "printed_page": null, "text": "666\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\n2. That there must be, even in the secondary school, a recognition of\nvarious needs in the establishment of different courses.\n3. That there must be a considerable degree of flexibility and a large\nchoice of electives allowed, and that the college-entrance requirements\nmust be changed to harmonize with this idea — all within reasonable limits.\n4. That not too many subjects — four or, at the most, five — must be\npursued at one time, and that each subject must be pursued long enough\nto get some good out of it, preferably in no case less than a full school\nyear.5. That there must be an immovable center belonging to all courses\nand governing the whole matter of electives. Professor Butler says that\nthere ought to be three general elements in this fixed center, viz.: {a) the\nstudy of language ; {8) the study of deductive reasoning, as illustrated in\nmathematics ; {c) the study of inductive method, as in experimental\nscience and, in part, in history. Beyond these limitations the student\nshould be free in selecting his course. In support of this position he\npoints to the fact that too much uniformity in the German gymnasia has\nbrought about what Bismarck himself calls \" the educated proletariat.\"\nI will quote one sentence which applies to our own institutions most\nforcibly this thought : \" Democracy needs intelligent and trained leadership — leadership in public policy, leadership in industry, in commerce,\nin finance ; leadership in art and in letters. The basis of training for leadership is laid in the secondary schools, where the directive capacity of the\nnation is serving its apprenticeship.\"\nI accept all that he gives, and I believe the consensus of secondaryschool people will support it.\nIn presenting for my thesis \" English as the Core of a Secondary\nCourse,\" I claim that there should be a systematic and thoro study of\nEnglish during the entire four years of the ordinary secondary course,\nand, whatever is done in the way of foreign-language study — and\nI believe heartily in its educational value — that, even tho the required\nmathematics be limited to two years, which is enough, and altho the\nrequired science and required history be limited to one year each — all\nthe rest of the work in both these departments being elective — nevertheless, the study of English should be required of all pupils for four years,\nand that it should be systematic and thoro.\nThis will make English the \"core of the secondary course,\" and, in\nmy judgment, it will furnish a common ground of agreement, of honorable compromise, and of harmonious co-operation on the part of the\nspecial advocates of all the different departments of study. Here we\ncan all meet, the specialist in classics, in modern language, in natural\nscience, in mathematics, in history and civics.\nThe practical value of language study cannot be overestimated. The\nfixed laws of thought presented to us in the study of mathematics are\n\n"}
{"page": 677, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nENGLISH\n\nTHE\n\nCORE\n\nOF A SECONDARY\n\nCOURSE\n\n667\n\nabsolutely necessary for our training to logical methods. But the practical problems of life are mainly of a different character. The human\nelement is in nearly all of them. \" In law and legislation, in history and\npolitics, in art and literature, in business, in society and religious matters,\nthe problems which come to us for solution are solved better by him who\nis trained properly thru a study of language, for its rules are not, as those\nof mathematics are, fixed and iron-clad, but are full of exceptions, produced by the great element of humanity which has grown into all language, as it has into law and art, and business and society.\nFor its immediate helpfulness in relation to all other fields of study\nand activity the study of our own language is of paramount importance.\nThe relation between clearness of thought and clearness of expression is\noften a reciprocal one, and this fact is overlooked, sometimes, by teachers\nin all departments of study.\nThere is no field of study where \"laboratory\" work may be more\nhelpfully carried on than in language study, and the material for such\nwork in this department is as easily accessible as in any other, and,\nusually, much the easiest of access, and the most abundant.\nThe May number of Education contains an \"Address to Teachers of\nEnglish,\" by Samuel Thurber, which is full of sensible and practical suggestions. He makes his deductions from two axioms, which are these :\n(i) the child acquires language only thru unconscious absorption, not at\nall thru efforts to commit linguistic principles to memory, and (2) he\nacquires it as a whole, as the entire expression of a thought, not piecemeal, and not by analysis.\nHe then maintains that, in order to this absorption, two conditions\nare essential :\n1. You must give the pupil an abundance of English to absorb.\n2. You must bring him into a receptive frame of mind.\nTo the statement of the latter condition he adds the following, which\nis full of truth, and yet is much neglected : \" P'or the last (i. e., the\nreceptive frame of mind) he must be interested, and that which interests\nhim in language is by no means the form and structure of the language\nitself, but what the language says — its content.\"\nIf this be true — and who will dispute it? — then the instructor in\nEnglish who knows his business has a vast advantage over the instructors\nin some other portions of secondary education, because the \" interest \"\nmay always be aroused. The field of selection is practically limitless,\nand it is always possible to find something for study whose subject-matter\nwill command the interest of any sound mind. This, of course, means\nthat a teacher of English need never he overwhelmed by the painful discovery that his pupils are not interested in the mattei* of the study. It\nalso means that a subject of this sort ought never to be laid aside, or\nthrust aside, but ought to stand in the front and in the center and at the\n\n"}
{"page": 678, "printed_page": null, "text": "668\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nLSecondary\n\ntop, and ought to set the pace and point the way for all other work in\nthe school.\nOne practical suggestion of my own here which 1 believe in, and\nwhich I will give for what it is worth. It is based on class-room experience of several years in the East High School of Columbus.\nThe help that comes from the interest that may be aroused in the\nsubject-matter is readily made available in all matter of reading — the\nfirst of the two halves of this English work in secondary schools ; but,\nespecially in the lower classes, it is practically more difficult to utilize\nthis help in the second of the two halves of the English work, namely,\nin the matter of expression. And right here I wish to emphasize the\nthought in Professor Denny's excellent paper on \" English Requirements,\" presented before the North Central Association of Colleges and\nPreparatory Schools, at Chicago, in April last. He says: \"Too many\nschools are assuming that, if we only provide enough good reading, the\npower of expression will come, somehow, of itself. We might trust the\nsilent influence of good reading to make good writers, if we had forty\nyears at our disposal instead of four. The most difficult part of school\nwork, the part which needs the most careful supervision and unremitting\nattention, we leave the most to chance.\"\nNow, in the matter of expression, practice is essential to any degree\nof success, and the practice will be comparatively unfruitful unless the\ninterest is aroused and maintained in the subject-matter. Of course,\nvery many kinds of subject-matter may be made interesting by a skillful\nteacher in course of time ; but, at first, with young and immature minds,\nto whom little as yet is interesting in literature, what shall be done ?\nBetter, for this particular crisis, than the prose-paraphrase plan or the\nrewriting-in-your-own-words-of-a-masterpiece plan, or the describing of\na scene or a character in a poem just read, or the tell-what-you-saw-onyour-way-to-school plan, we have found by experience to be the use of\nGreek myths. These myths, if properly presented, are delightful and of\nabsorbing interest to the pupils of the ninth grade, and the form vanishes\nfrom their conscious vision while the subject-matter fills their horizon ;\nand, if skillfully and faithfully handled, the expression comes spontaneously, and only the restraining and guiding hand is needed, instead of the\ncoaxing and pumping that go so frequently with the work of that year.\nI will not dwell further on this method, but those who have given it a\nfair trial and are willing to work stand firmly by it.\nThe patriotic effect of the continuous, zealous, and enthusiastic teaching of English is not to be ignored. Let me quote again to illustrate\nthis. Another paper presented before the North Central Conference was\nby Dean Charles H. Thurber of Morgan Park Academy. It contains\nthis paragraph : \" The most striking fact of the nineteenth century is\nthe rise of great nations.\nHand\nin hand with this development of\n\n"}
{"page": 679, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nENGLISH\n\nTHE\n\nCORE\n\nOF A SECONDARY\n\nCOURSE\n\n669\n\npolitical power has grown the spirit of nationality, and, as a consequence,\nin every civilized country there has been, within a very few years, a great\nincrease in the interest paid to the teaching and study of the vernacular.\nThere was no question more important before the great school conference at Berlin in 1890 than that of the teaching of German. The\nGerman emperor, in addressing the meeting, said : * We wish to educate\nyoung Germans, not young Greeks or Romans.' One of the great\nresults of the conference was an increased allowance of time in all German higher schools to the study of the German language. Schools can\nmake no mistake in emphasizing the importance of the study of the\nnative tongue. The people will stand by the schools in every reasonable\nmeans to this end.\"\nI wish, modestly, but no less emphatically, and, I am almost willing\nto say, fiercely, to second all that is said in that paper about the present\ncollege-entrance requirements in English. Let us do away entirely with\nthe \" narrow, prescribed list of books.\" In Mr. Thurber's opinion,\n\" some of the books specified are not by any means acceptable. It\nwould be, indeed, difficult,\" says he, \"in the judgment of many schoolmen, to pick out books more unsuitable for use in secondary schools\nthan some of those laid down in the college-enttance requirements. The\nonly reasonable principle upon which they could have been selected is\nthat no one would ever read them unless forced to; consequently, if the\nbooks are not to disappear from the known body of literature, the children must be forced to read them in school. There is no more human\nkindness in compelling a high-school boy or girl to read the horrors of\nthe plague of London than there is to force him or her to a minute study\nof cancers as a product of over-indulgence in alcoholics. Yet both are\nbeing done in our high schools at this moment.\" (Thank fortune,\nsome of us are philistines enough to refuse to wear this harness!)\nWill not this body do something to further this suggestion of his that\nwe shall have an open list, i. e., a list of, say, fifty or one hundred books,\nfrom which the instructors may select the books best suited to their own\ntaste and training, and to the ability and tastes of their pupils ? Let us\nget rid of Palamon and Arcite, The Flight of a Tartar Tribe, The Plague\nin London, The Vicar of Wakefield, and Pope's translation of the Iliad.\nIf you want the Iliad, must you have Pope, when there are Lang and\nBryant and Church ? If you want Pope himself, why take his stilted,\nun-Hotneric translation of the //fVz^ rather than something else of his?\nWhy take him at all ? Then why Macbeth alone for five years ? Let us\nhave the open list !\nThe placing of English as the core of the secondary course will not\ndo any injustice to any of the other essential parts of that course, whether\nmathematics, foreign language, natural science, or history.\nA secondary course might be formed with sixteen year-units — four years\n\n"}
{"page": 680, "printed_page": null, "text": "670\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nwith four studies each year ; then let English occupy four units, history\none unit, Latin four units, mathematics two units, natural science one unit\n— total, twelve units of fixed work ; and, in addition, four units of elective\nwork, to be taken from the following : German or French, Greek, mathematics, natural science, and history — a grand total of sixteen units. A\nmodification of this course, with the modern language substituted for the\nancient, ought to make it possible thus to satisfy everybody in the secondary schools. The colleges, moreover, ought to accept for proper courses\nany pupils who have satisfactorily completed that course, with whatever\nelective.\nThe thing which ought to harmonize all factions and unite all specialists is this placing of English in the chief position.\nMr. Thurber's collection of opinions from business men on this subject is immensely interesting and instructive, for it shows how they value\nthe power of expression as a qualification for business. \" A working\nmastery of English,\" so he sums it up, \" is everywhere regarded as of the\ngreatest importance and utility for practical life.\"\nPresident Eliot has expressed it thus : \" The power to understand\nrightly and to use critically the mother-tongue is the flower of all education.\"\nNo line of studies can be more practical. Nothing can be more\nclosely related to all other studies. Nothing can be madje more interesting and instructive. The power of the subject-matter can nowhere else\nbe made so efficient a help. In no field is there room for more extended\nresearch ; in none greater reward for labor expended. Here may laboratory methods be easily and successfully applied with aH abundance of\naccessible material. Nothing is more entirely indispensable. Nothing\nmore truly needs a continuous study for a term of years. Nothing adapts\nitself more surely to the natural development of the pupil.\nThis arrangement is no loss to the supporter of the natural sciences,\nfor extreme claims in that direction are sure to react and to fail in the long\nrun. Professor Coulter is already pointing out to us that the laboratory\nmethod in science work in secondary schools must pass away.\nThis is no loss to supporters of the humanities, for the relation between\nart, history, language, and literature is so close and so vital that the study\nof our own language, which is the most practical of the practical studies,\ncan only give help to the study of the classics, for at the same time it is\nthe most refining of the studies that refine and the most life-giving of\nthe studies that give life.\nCan we not all, of whatever faith otherwise, unite on this one platform ?\n1. English a required study every year thruout the first eight years.\n2. English a required study for every course and pupil thruout every\nyear of the secondary course.\n\n"}
{"page": 681, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department] SOME\n\nPRINCIPLES\n\nOF SECONDARY\n\nENGLISH\n\nTEACHING\n\n671\n\n^3. English, in its grammar, history, composition, rhetoric, literature,\nthe core and backbone of all courses of study in all grades, and particularly\nin the secondary schools; the center about which, in due proportion and\nwith no extravagance and no bias, and with a reasonable array and breadth\nof electives, all other studies shall be arranged, and all demands, both of\ncollege and of life without the college, may be fully met.\n\nSOME\n\nOF THE\n\nBY SAMUEL\n\nMAIN PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY\nENGLISH TEACHING\n\nTHURBER,\n\nGIRLS' HIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nBOSTON,\n\nMASS.\n\n1. In a scheme of English study, carried out in minute detail, and\ntabulated according to years and subjects, a teacher may exhibit his own\nactual or ideal practice ; but if he publishes this scheme as a method, he\ninvites imitation, and so does harm. No good teaching is likely to be\ndone under a prescribed plan of work. Unity of spirit and aim is desirable ;but uniformity in procedures is worthless. There is no need that\nthe teachers in a large school, or in a city system, should follow the same\nmodel, or follow any model at all. The first thing a superintendent\nshould learn should be to repress the leveling instinct. He should\nacquaint himself with teachers' work by inspecting it, and should influence\nthis work by prompting motives, and by instilling respect for good principles. In playing the simple role of adviser, I shall follow out this conviction, trying only to lay down a few maxims of English teaching, and\nto make a few of the most obvious applications of these.\n2. In this attempt to establish principles and apply them to practice,\nonly those schools will be considered which are free to plan in harmony\nwith real needs. Real needs are determined by the facts of human\nnature, and by the nature of the subject taught. Exactions imposed\nfrom without — such as the entrance requirements of the colleges —\nintroduce into education a species of need that may properly be described\nas unreal, since it is not determined by essential principles, but by the\narbitrary action of persons.\n3. English study in the secondary schools at once divides itself into\nthree parts :\n(a) Training in the use of language.\n{f) The study of English literature.\n(r) The scientific study of the English language.\nIt must not be supposed, however, that these divisions can, in practice,\nbe kept apart either in time or in function.\nLike most attempts at\n\n"}
{"page": 682, "printed_page": null, "text": "672\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nanalysis, such an arrangement of elements serves chiefly to guide the\nordering of a syllabus.\nThe principles that seem fundamental to the training of youths in the\nuse of their own tongue are these :\n4. Language is acquired only by absorption from contact with an\nenvironment in which language is in perpetual use. Utterly futile is the\nattempt to give a child or a youth language by making him learn something about language. No language is learned except as it performs the\nfunction of all speech — to convey thought — and this thought must be\nwelcome, and interesting, and clear. There is no time in the high-school\ncourse when language will be learned in any other way.\n5. The youth absorbs only when his interest is roused.. His interest is\nroused at first chiefly thru his emotional nature. A purely intellectual\ncuriosity comes gradually more and more into play. Moral questions\nand aesthetic themes then begin to appeal to his mind. In full adolescence\nthe youth gathers and appropriates, to a degree determined by the extent\nof his natural powers and the felicity of his place in society, from all the\nranges of human interest,\n6. Hence the great consideration in teaching the mother-tongue is to\nprovide an environment from which the speech may be absorbed. Where\nthis environment is already perfect in the home and in society, the school\nhas but little left to do. But the perfect environment rarely exists. The\nschool must do what it can. The influences that go to make the speech\nof a youth are innumerable, and the school can but add its quota to the\nmultitude. Yet the school will contribute far more good elements to the\nspeech environment of the youth when it sees clearly what to do and what\nnot to do.\n7. Language is thus learned unconsciously. The preservation of this\nlinguistic unconsciousness for the longest possible time is all-important.\nSupply matter for thought and emotion, awaken curiosity about things\nthat men have always been inquisitive about, and language will take care\nof itself, because thought and speech are inseparable, and the youth is\neager to receive knowledge and hear stories, and can possibly get thoughts\nand fancies only thru language, which therefore he learns incidentally\nto the matter of his interest. This learning of language is sure to go on\nwithout the least concern for it on the part of the teacher. All the teacher\ncan do for it — tho this is a great deal — is to secure an environment\nof abundant intellectual and emotional interest. The sources of such\ninterest are infinite in number, and crowd upon the teacher who really\nwants them.\n8. To offer a negation : manuals of exercises in language that tell no\nstory and respond to no native curiosity are worse than useless, because\nthey try to make language interesting as a thing in itself, regardless of\nits meaning.\n\nThis is a pre-eminent pedagogical vice.\n\nThe teaching\n\n"}
{"page": 683, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department I SOME\n\nPRINCIPLES\n\nOF SECONDARY\n\nENGLISH\n\nTEACHING\n\n673\n\nwhich results in making the youth prematurely conscious of his speech\ndefeats its own ends. Such teaching is solicited by no principle of\npsychology. It is an outgrowth of that curious propensity of schoolmen\nwhich seeks to put all school subjects thru the same mill. These\nmen seem to think that they can teach language in portions, and that,\nwhen all the portions are taught, all is taught.\n9. The great means of teaching English, both as regards enlarging\nthe vocabulary and as regards formal correctness, are reading, writing,\nand speaking. All the English hours, in the earlier years, may best be\nfilled with these exercises. <»The teacher must be a good reader, both in\nthe sense of knowing what things are good to read, and in the sense of\nknowing how to read well orally. The good reader interests his fellows.\nYoung people find out this important fact before they find out that good\nwriting interests them too. An ambition to express one's self well is\neasily aroused. Genuine interest in a piece shows itself in the voice and\nthe manner. The voice is the true index of culture. I do not know how\nthe young soul is to be touched except thru the voice.\n10. Writing, in any modern school, is constant. The rule for writing\nshould be : no day without a line. But the English department is\nexempted from the enforcement of this wholesome principle, because all\nthe departments require writing, and one of the most wonderful things\nabout a high school is the quantity of paper it covers every day with some\nsort of written matter. That only the writing that is done for one special\nteacher should have educative value is absurd. So far as pupils' writing\ncomes under the eye of any teachers whatever, whether of English or not,\nsuch teachers should subject it to criticism, in order to check the bad\nhigh-school habit of slovenly writing when out of the jurisdiction of the\nEnglish teacher. Note-taking, as often practiced, is an exercise pernicious to good writing. But note-taking, rightly practiced, may be made\nto stimulate the mind without hurting habits of composition.\n11. The English teacher may, and usually must, make his composition work periodic. The intervals may be short for the poor writers, and\nlonger for the good ones. There is no need of treating all alike. Uniformity, a curse everywhere in the education of youth, is peculiarly\nbaneful in composition. The youth who most needs your aid should\nhave it most. He who writes with painful difficulty should write every\nday — keep a diary, perhaps. Others may write every week ; the majority\nevery two, three, or four weeks.\n12. These last may have themes more ambitious than the others —\nthemes that require research and careful thought. Composition themes\nmay be anything that interests youth ; and the ambition governing the\nclass should be, as regards matter, to interest an audience, and,. as regards\nform, to have the composition in shape to print without correction. The\naudience to be pleased and instructed is, of course, the class, or the\n\n"}
{"page": 684, "printed_page": null, "text": "674\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nschool ; and young people's interests are the ones to be kept in view.\nAbsurdly unwise is it to encourage learned writing, or the appearance of\nit. An excellent occasion for a composition is found when a young person has come in his reading upon something that strikes him as good,\nand will try to win imitators of his venture by setting forth what he has\nenjoyed.\n13. All compositions must be written, primarily, for the sake of saying something — the best possible thing — the most interesting, the most\npiquant thing the writer can evolve. Matter first — form as a thing of\ncourse. All writing prospers according to its effect on readers. Writing that is incorrect, getting into print, turns the writer to ridicule. This\nis the way of the world — a fact of human nature. The young writer\nmust learn this solemn truth. He goes forth liable to gross mortification\nif he cannot write his mother-tongue. The school should in this matter\nmake itself an epitome of the world.\n14. In reading compositions, the teacher is to note and correct those\nfaults which are actually made. A scientific naming and classifying of\nall faults made in all writing is not to be thought of at any time. All\nthe rhetoric to be taught in connection with English composition should\nbe in the teacher's mind and habits. The teacher should be embodied\nclearness, force, and elegance. Utterly futile is the repetition of rules.\nThe true situation is this : The pupil is ever writing, trying to please his\npublic with his matter, but knowing that his composition will never reach\nhis public unless it first please his teacher, who is good usage incarnate.\nPerpetually reading books and papers, and so living in a society of good\nusage, and kept unceasingly desirous of conforming to good usage, the\npupil has every incentive and every opportunity to do well.\n15. With regard to the teaching of literature, the school procedure is\nnaturally twofold : First is the silent reading at home, whenever time\nserves. In this way the learner is to get the bulk of his literature. The\nhome reading is indirectly controllable by the teacher by means of the\nvarious devices of questioning and composition writing. By far the best\nopportunity for influencing the pupil's private reading is the private conference between teacher and pupil.\n16. Second is the oral reading of selections in the class. In oral\nreading vocal culture becomes possible, and the form of literature, as\ndistinguished from its content, comes to require attention and awaken\ninterest. In this connection must be considered the all-important distinction between poetry and verse, and the distinction between each of\nthese and its proper antithesis ; verse and prose being the opposites as\nregards form, poetry and science the opposites as regards content. Pretty\nmuch all the literature the school deals with in the English department\nwill be poetry, whether in the form of verse or in the form of prose.\n17. A proper understanding of what poetry is can be achieved only\n\n"}
{"page": 685, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmen.] SOME\n\nPRINCIPLES\n\nOF SECONDARY\n\nENGLISH\n\nTEACHING\n\n675\n\nby acquaintance with much poetry. Definitions make good topics for\ndiscussion and may be learned by heart, but they convey no knowledge.\nOnly the definition that one makes for himself avails, and this definition\nwill have to be perpetually revised as one advances in his reading. Short\npieces of conspicuously beautiful verse, such as are found in innumerable\nanthologies, constitute the best text-book of poetic form. Then come up,\nnaturally, the questions : What themes, what illustrations, what motives,\ndoes verse poetry most affect ? What language does it make use of ;\nwhat is meant by poetic diction ; wherein does poetic diction differ from\nprose diction ? Pupils must not simply be told these things ; they must\nbe led to see them.\n18. Attention must be paid to meters, stanzas, rhyme, and blank\nverse. So much metric nomenclature as is necessary to describe the\nmeter of a given piece must be mastered. In reading Shakespeare and\nMilton the ear should be trained to the movement of the iambic ten-syllable .line, the great staple of English verse. Not to feel the metric\nrequirement of a line, to fail to yield the voice to its sway, is to confess\none's self no teacher of literature. That which verse undertakes to say it\nmay succeed in saying in grammatically constructed paraphrase ; but\nmay, and very likely will, thereby be made to appear in a dress so awkward as to be ridiculous. The truth is, things may be said in well-embellished verse that would be commonplace, or even silly, in prose. No\nteacher who is also a person of taste will encourage paraphrasing.\n19. How many authors a school may study, and how much time it\nmay give to each, will depend on the number of its weekly hours of English. In any case, Shakespeare should be read each year of three, four,\nfive, or six. A valuable addition to one's stock of English speech comes\nof familiarity with the Shakespearian phrase.\n20. Shakespeare stands at the head of English fiction. The fiction we\nall read, in prose or inverse, is an element of first importance to our lives\nas individuals and as members of society. English fiction has introduced\nus to a greater number of distinctly recognizable and familiar characters\nthan have English and American history. There has probably been\nmore written about Hamlet than about any Englishman or American\nthat ever lived in the tide of times. , It is a futile schoolmasterism to\nlament the tyranny of fiction. During adolescence chiefly, but also in\nlater life, the human creature peoples his fancy with forms that continue\nto live with him as powers of good or evil. Education must take facts as\nthey are. People will read fiction. Therefore we are to inure our youth\nto the fiction that is best and strongest. As to the fiction about which\neverybody is talking, I do not see how a busy teacher can keep up with\nit, or how, being crude and unwinnowed, it can be made surely to yield\nits best to choice. It would be a pity to give precious time now to what,\nten years hence, will be sunk in oblivion, considering that we have in\n\n"}
{"page": 686, "printed_page": null, "text": "676\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nabundance literature seasoned by many decades, and even centuries, of\nhuman approval.\n21. It will be of no use to assign lessons in the criticism or description of writings not yet read — perhaps most unlikely ever to be read. A\nwell-written manual of the history of English literature may serve, to one\nwho has a period of study, as a guide to the best things in that period.\nBut the desire for guidance should precede the guiding. To stimulate\nresearch tasks may be set — rather to individuals than to classes. Recitations in the history of English literature are useless, unless the authors\nare to be looked up. A recitation without research is precisely what a\nrepeated demonstration in geometry would be. \"To know by heart is\nnot to know at all,\" says Montaigne; and again : \"A sorry mastery is the\nmastery of a book.\" But our examination system keeps us in the profession of the belief that knowing by heart is perfect knowledge.\n22. In looking after pupils' reading, the teacher must consider individuals as regards sex, age, taste, condition, opportunity ; and in censuring compositions, private talk with the individuals goes infinitely farther\nthan reprimand before a class. Personal matters are not properly treated\nin public, and one's writing is a personal matter. You cannot impress a\npoint upon a pupil as a delicate matter if you speak of it in public. If\nyou bring his writing up in the presence of many, he takes your procedure\nas a piece of the scholastic routine, which he has learned will slip along ;\nand he practices the philosophy of the much-chidden, which is, to remain\nunruffled, knowing that \"come what may, time and the hour run through\nthe roughest day.\" But the private interview, by its very nature, suggests\ndelicacy, reticence, importance. The public reproof minimizes the fault,\nthe private conference enhances its impressiveness.\n23. The teacher of English is always inspecting written work, listening to vocal expression. In a certain sense he is perpetually examining.\nHe knows every day just where he is. Periodical examinations, therefore, he does not need, and could not profitably have. A young reader\nneeds, in his study of literature, all imaginable conditions of enjoyment. The purpose of literature is to be recreative and pleasurable. To\nmake it a gymnastic to the memory is to ruin it as literature and convert\nit into something ascetic, something teasing, something to be anxious\nabout and get marks for. Professing to cultivate a taste for good reading,\nwe go about to cultivate a distaste for it ; for it is to be said that, while\nsuch studies as mathematics and the ancient languages, which confessedly\nconstitute an apparatus for mental discipline, can stand any amount of\nscholastic battering and dissection, the residuum of literary analysis is\nnecessarily lifeless, its essence is gone, it is no longer literature.\n24. Examinationism is, in fact, a disease, now having a great run in\nour education. The examination machinery is wonderfully interesting to\ncertain minds.\nIts chief use seems to be to heads of systems, who find\n\n"}
{"page": 687, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department] SOME\n\nPRINCIPLES\n\nOh SECONDARY\n\nENGLISH\n\nTEACHING\n\n677\n\nin it a substitute for personal influence, hoping, by means of mechanism,\nto make themselves felt thruout the entire body which they are set to\ncontrol.\n25. As to the extent to which the scientific study of English can be\ncarried in the high school, opinions naturally vary. An absolute canon\ncannot be imagined. No part of the conceivably possible scientific study\nof English is essential to the practical acquisition of English speech.\nYet the ancient custom of putting grammar somewhere in the school\ncourse has its justification. Rejecting grammar as the art of speaking\nand writing English, and regarding it simply as a science, or knowledge,\nwe find its function to be to serve as a natural and easy introduction to\nabstract thought by familiarizing the learner with the conception that the\nfundamental categories of thought and speech are identical. To know\nthe parts of speech, the facts of syntax, the nomenclature of sentence\nstructure and analysis, is important. The usual mistake is made in putting\ngrammar too low down in the course. The language should be well\npossessed before it is subjected to scientific study. The youth should not\nbe troubled with grammatical technique till he knows enough to perceive\nits desirableness.\n26. Pupils who read the late middle English of Chaucer, or English\nno older than the Tudor period, will necessarily have to do something\nwith historical grammar. The usual compends of Chaucerian and Shakespearian grammar need expansion and explanation by the teacher, who\nshould therefore have some acquaintance with Anglo-Saxon. The. importance of historical English grammar consists herein, that it furnishes a\nsafeguard against narrow views as to what is good English idiom. It is a\nwidespread belief among English scholars that the language has in\nmodern times been losing some portion of its native raciness. This loss\nis sometimes ascribed to unintelligent teaching in the schools. If this\ndegeneration of the language really exists, the corrective of it lies in an\nincreased respect for the elder speech.\n27. It is doubtless feasible to teach youth of high-school age AngloSaxon. Text-books contemplating just such work exist in considerable\nvariety. But this study should not be introduced unless there is in the\nschool a proper constituency for it ; that is, a sufficient number of pupils\nwho have a genuine curiosity to study their language in its oldest forms.\nI could wish, and hope to see, all high-school studies optional, and would\nhave, instead of courses, only eligible subjects. To require a high-school\npupil to study Anglo-Saxon would be manifestly absurd. Anglo-Saxon\nshould be an available subject in a large high^ school, but it should not be\na required part of any course. The high school is the people's college.\nIn its college the people should have facilities for studying the native\nlanguage in its entire history.\n\n"}
{"page": 688, "printed_page": null, "text": "678\n\nNATIONAL\n\nA PROPOSED\n\nBY\n\nMISS\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nFOUR-YEARS' COURSE IN ENGLISH\nSECONDARY SCHOOLS\n\nCHARITY\n\nDYE,\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nFIRST\n\nYEAR\n\nFIRST\n\nHALF\n\nINDIANAPOLIS,\n\n[Secondaiy\n\nFOR\n\nIND.\n\nComposition-rhetoric. — i. A review of grammar; business-letter forms.\n\n2. Exer-\n\ncises in sentence variety tliru written impressions \"received from the literature studied;\nfrom observing nature and everyday life.\nLiterature. — Selections from Whittier, Irving, and Burns.\nSuggested reading. — Irving, The Alhambra, Tales of a Traveler, Life of Goldsmith,\nKnickerbocker'' s History; Goldsmith, The Deserted Village; Addison, the Sir Roger de\nCoverley Papers; Cooper, The Last of the Mohicans; Helen Hunt Jackson, Ramona, Bits\nof Travel at Home; Wendell Phillips, Toussaint V Ouverture ; Whittier, Margaret\nSmith's Journal;\n\nLanier, Boys^ King Arthur, Boys' Froissart.\nSECOND\n\nHALF\n\nComposition-rhetoric. — I. Paragraph formation, noting clearness, unity, sequence,\nand coherence. 2. Written exercises : the humorous in Holmes, Curtis, and the humorous writers in suggested reading ; table-talk ; impressions received from reading and\nobservation.\nLiterature. — Selections from Bryant and Holmes ; Shakespeare, The Merchant of\nVenice.\nSuggested reading. — Thoreau, Walden, Early Spring in Massachusetts; Burroughs,\nPepacton; Warner, My Summer, in a Garden; Curtis, Prue and I; Cervantes, Don\nQuixote; Cowper's and Luther's Table-Talk; Lowell, The Biglow Papers; Bryant,\nProse Writings and translation of the Iliad.\nSECOND\nFIRST\n\nYEAR\nHALF\n\nComposition-rhetoric. — I. Exercises upon choice of words ; upon the poetic words,\nepithets and figures in the literary study.\n2. Writing of simple events in connection with\nthe short story ; original epithets and figurative expressions embodied in written exercises.\nLiterature. — Selections from Hawthorne ; Shakespeare, fulius Ccesar.\nSuggested reading. — Donald G. Mitchell, About Old Story -Tellers; Mary E. Wilkins,\nShort Stories; Poe, The Gold Bug and The Maelstrom; Kipling, The fungle Book;\nBryant, translation of the Odyssey; Froude, fulius Ccesar; Clough, translation of Plutarch's\nLives.\nSECOND\n\nHALF\n\nComposition-rhetoric. — i. Arrangement of material into plan ; proportion of parts in\ncomposition. 2. Letters embodying impressions received from suggested reading and\nfrom life. A written analysis of one of the essays studied.\nLiterature. — Selections from Lowell, Emerson, and Whitman ; a brief view of\nAmerican literature ; intensive study of \" The Harvard Commemoration Ode,\" \" The\nAmerican Scholar,\" or \" Self-Reliance.\"\nSuggested reading. — Letters of fames Russell Lowell; Emerson-Carlyle Correspondence;\nAndrew Lang, Letters to Dead Authors;\nTennyson, Idyls of the King, Ode on the\n\n"}
{"page": 689, "printed_page": null, "text": "l>;partment]\n\n^ PROPOSED\n\nFOUR-YEARS'\n\nCOURSE\n\nJN ENGLISH\n\n679\n\nDeath of the Duke of Wellington; Lincoln's Gettysburg Address; \"Oration of Pericles\nover the Athenian Dead \" (translation) ; E. E. Hale, A Man Without a Country;\nPlumptre, translation of Prometheus.\nTHIRD\n\nYEAR\n\nFIRST\n\nHALF\n\nComposition-rhetoric. — I. The characteristic differences between the great divisions\nof poetry. Attention to rhythm, rhyme, stanza, foot, and the four measures most common\nin English verse. In connection with poetry, especial attention to exercises embodying\nthe elements of the poet's art in the selections studied. 2. In connection with the novel,\nten-minute compositions written in class without notes ; compositions to be based upon\nstudies made of the materials, setting, plot, incident, character, purpose, and method of\na novel ; also upon comments of books studied and upon their style and diction. The\ncompositions also include the principles of paragraph structure, variety of expression,\nand an acquaintance with the various discourse forms.\nLiterature. — The novel, studied thru The Talisman, Jvanhoe, Silas Marner, and\nHard Times {oihex novels may be substituted); poetry of Tennyson ; Byron's Childe\nHarold, Cantos III and IV.\nSuggested reading. — Austen, Pride and Prejudice; Eliot, Mill on the Floss; Howells,\nThe Lady of the Aroostook ; Hawthorne, The House of Seven Gables, Marble Faun; Scott,\nQuentin Durward, Kenilworth, Marmion, Woodstock; Dickens, David Copperfield;\nBlackmore, Lorna Doone; Hugo, Les Miserables; Tolstoi, Master and Man; Q,x^\\V,John\nHalifax, Gentleman; Stevenson, Treasure Island; Goldsmith, The Vicar of Wakefield;\nShelley, The Cloud, \" The Skylark ; \" Foe, essay The Poetic Principle, The Lotus Eaters,\nfrom the Odyssey.\nSECOND\n\nHALF\n\nCotnposition -rhetoric. — i. Exercises for discovering the aesthetic elements in literature;\nthe chief characteristics of literature known as criticism. 2. Writing of various forms of\ndescription as a test of the pupils' aesthetic development. Books reviewed from the point\nof criticism or appreciation.\nLiterature. — Ruskin, selections from Modern Painters, and The Queen of the Air;\nLamb, six of the Essays of Elia ; C&v\\y\\G, Heroes and Hero Worship and. The Edinburgh\nAddress; one oration from American literature ; assigned critical essays in interpretation\nof the authors studied.\nSuggested reading. — Keats, Ode on a Grecian Urn; Matthew Arnold, \"Dover\nBeach ; '\\ Rossetli, The Blessed Damozel; Walter Pater, The Child in the House; De\nQuincey, Essay on Literary Style; Barrie, Margaret Ogilvie; Dickens, A Tale of Two\nCities; Carlyle, tsszy on Burns; Ruskin, ^wa^Wf? and Lilies; Sumner, The True Grandeur ofNations; Burke, Speech on Conciliation with America.\nFOURTH\nFIRST\n\nYEAR\nHALF\n\nComposition. — Special theme work, involving the principles underlying all forms of\ndiscourse, but emphasizing exposition.\n[Aterature. — The history of the early and middle periods of English literature;\nChaucer, the prologue to the Canterbury Tales. Pupils are also expected to read and\nwrite a review of one of the Canterbury Tales. Shakespeare, Hamlet, Macbeth or\nCoriolanus; together with a study of the development of the modern drama; Spenser,\nthe first book of The Faerie Queene.\nSuggested reading. — Spenser, remaining books of The Faerie Queene; Bunyan,\nPilgrim's Progress; Langland, Piers the Ploughman; Abbie Sage Richardson, Tales\nfrom Old English Poetry; Maclehose, Tales from Spenser; Lowell, essays on Chaucer\n\n"}
{"page": 690, "printed_page": null, "text": "68o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nand on Shakespeare Once More; Shakespeare, historical plays ; Johnson, The Lives of\nthe Poets; Bulwer, The Last of the Saxons, The Last of the Barons.\nSECOND\n\nHALF\n\nComposition. — Special theme work, emphasizing the simpler forms of persuasion.\nLiterature. — Bacon, selected essays ; Milton, first two books of Paradise Lost, and\nLycidas. By means of written reviews prepared by individual pupils, the class is made\nacquainted with the remaining books of Paradise Lost, and also with the earlier poems.\nThe history of English literature in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, with a mention of the most prominent modern authors. Selections from Dryden, Pope, Addison,\nGray, Wordsworth, Coleridge, Shelley, Keats, and Robert Browning.\nSuggested reading. — Milton, Areopagitica ; Lowell's essays Dryden and Gray;\nDe Quincey, The Affliction of Childhood and Dream Echoes; Emerson, The OvetSoul; Lee, The Life of Dorothy Wordsworth; Thackeray, Henry Esmond; Dryden,\nPalamon and Arcite ; Walton, The Complete Angler; Macaulay, essays on Milton and\nAddison; Plato, translation of the Apology.\nNote. — Selections from Welsh's Development of English Literature and Morley's English\nWriters; Taine on \" The Saxons \" and \" The Normans ;\" Collier's comments upon the life of authors in the\neighteenth century, and correlated topics in English history read and commented on by the teacher,\nEXPLANATORY\n\nCOMMENT\n\nON\n\nTHE\n\nCOURSE\n\nAssumptions. — I. That the secondary school is essentially a preparatory school. 2.\nThat, as the majority of its graduates engage at once in the active duties of life, its primary function is to fit students for life. 3. That the secondary function of fitting students\nfor college may be fulfilled by si flexible program in any well-equipped high school. 4.\nThat entrance to the secondary school requires : (a) In grammar, a correct use of the\nauxiliary verbs ; of the principal parts of the irregular verbs in common use ; of the relative pronouns, possessives, and irregular plurals ; also an observance of agreement\nbetween verb and subject, pronoun and antecedent, and of tense sequence, {b) In composition, the ability to write a number of correctly connected sentences expressing consecutive thought upon some familiar subject ; and in connection therewith power to use\nthe dictionary and encyclopaedia, (c) In literature, a knowledge of the root stories of the\nHebrew and other great literary Bibles; some of the most prominent myths and historic\nlegends ; the life of Lincoln and the autobiography of Franklin ; the more familiar poems\nof Longfellow and Whittier, Hawthorne's Grandfather^ s Chair, Irving's Rip Van\nWinkle, Lamb's Tales from Shakespeare, and as many heroic ballads as the time allows.\nThe problem, — The general problem is one with that of public education. It aims\nto refine the mass of average mind till it is sensitive to the higher issues of life, and till\nthe individual is started toward self-realization. It seeks to provide discipline ; to lay\nthe foundation for institutional life, and to produce social beings ready to live in harmony\nwith their kind. The particular problem is one of matter and not of method. Its question is: \"What shall be selected from the mass of subject-matter, of what kind, and in\nwhat proportion, to accomplish the aims proposed ? \"\nThe basis for selection of literature. — The literature of the past is a fundamental\nfactor in education, and its function of giving worth to the present cannot be overvalued.\nIf American youth are to live in and perpetuate a growing democracy, they must be educated in democratic ideals ; they need to absorb the genius of American civic and literary\nlife. This need calls for a proportionate share of American literature in the curriculum\nof the public school. The literature produced in this country has claims of its own, independent of conformity to the standard of classical antiquity or of mediaeval feudalism.\nWith the growth of the spirit of democracy, art standards have been enlarged to include\nnew subjects and broader sympathies. Already new forms of expression more adequate\nto the growth of humanity have appeared.\n\n\" The Man with a Hoe,\" by Millet ; The\n\n"}
{"page": 691, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSYLLABUS\n\nOF A COURSE\n\nIN ENGLISH\n\n68 1\n\nWeaver, of Kaveloe, by EJiot, and \"A Man's a Man for a' That,\" by Burns, have indeed\ndignified labor and shown the poetic in the commonplace, and applied to all men the\nmeasure of a man. Not less have the \" Ride of Paul Revere ; \" \"The Concord Fight ;\"\n\" The Snow-bound Home ; \" \" Uncle Tom in the Cotton Field ; \" \" Democratic Vistas,\"\nby Walt Whitman ; \"The Harvard Commemoration Ode,\" by Lowell ; the defense of the\nconstitution, by Webster ; the upholding of civil-service reform, by Curtis, and the\naddress of Abraham Lincoln on the battlefield of Gettysburg dignified life and labor this\nside the Atlantic, and helped to produce a literature that is both American and national.\nOrder of discourse forms. — Since discourse is explained by literature, and literature\nis, in turn, explained by life, life must furnish a grounding for the study of discourse as\nwell as of literature. All the discourse forms are used together in natural expression\nfrom infancy to age; they should be used together in school. Not only should the general forms, narration, description, exposition, and persuasion, be used simply and freely\nwhenever an impulse would express itself thru them, but also the specific forms of dialog, soliloquy, or monolog should be employed when they are the natural means of\nexpression. Expression should be a perfect correspondence between feeling and form.\nWhile all the varieties of discourse are used thru the four years, narration and description\nare emphasized in the third year, exposition and persuasion in the fourth year. Argumentation isleft to be pursued in connection with the study of logic in college, where a\ncourse in analytic grammar is also recommended. The rhetorical study is made to conform to the literary study, and is intended to be made as practical and informal as possible.\nProvisions of the course, — This course in English provides for five lessons a week\nfor four years. For the first year, three lessons a week in composition-rhetoric, and two\nin literature ; the time afterward can be distributed as the teacher sees fit. In the fourth\nyear it is intended to give a historical view of the development of English literature.\nCollateral readings, while only suggestive, may be reported upon in class. Practice in\nthe use of indexes, the making of reference lists and reference cards in connection with\nstudies, are necessary provisions for helping students to a rightful use of books and libraries. The course especially recommends that stress be laid upon con\\position in connection with literature. For example, in the first-year studies in Whittier, pupils can write\nupon Whittier's heroes, his \" Flemish Pictures,\" \"A Typical New England Home,\" \" The\nCivil War Poet,\" etc. Weekly informal and impromptu compositions should be read and\ndiscussed in class. One lesson should be given to the biography of each author studied.\nBOOKS\n\nUPON\n\nWHICH\n\nTHIS COURSE\n\nIS BASED\n\nIn Technical Study. — Lewis, ^ First Book in Writing English; Scott and Denney, CompositionRhetoric; Dye, Tke Story Teller's Art; Carey, Guide to the Study of Criticism;\nWylie, Studies in\nthe Evolution of English Criticism;\nSantayana, The Sense of Beauty; Gummere, ^ Hand Book of\nPoetics; Baker, The Principles of Argumentation;\nrhetorics by Genung, Hill, and Carpenter.\nIn Literary Study. — Pancoast, Introduction to English Literature: complete and selected works\nof the various authors, owned by the school and rented to the pupils.\n\nSYLLABUS\n\nOF A COURSE IN ENGLISH,\nOF THE SAME\n\nBY W. F. WEBSTER,\n\nEAST\n\nSIDE HIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nWITH\n\nA DEFENSE\n\nMINNEAPOLIS,\n\nFIRST YEAR— FIRST SEMESTER\nLITERATURE — NARRATION.\n\nScott — Marmion or Lay of the Last Minstrel.\nVigor and rapidity.\nSkill in technique.\nPOE — \"Gold Bug,\" \" Ligeia.\"\n\nMINN.\n\n"}
{"page": 692, "printed_page": null, "text": "682\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nTennyson — \" Holy Grail.\"\nElegance.\nLowell — \" Sir Launfal.\"\nEase and beauty.\nWhittier — \"Snow Bound.\"\nSimplicity.\nBrowning — \" Hervd Riel,\" \" Incident in French Camp.\"\nAction.\nHome reading :\nStevenson — Treasure Island.\nKipling — Jungle Books and Tales.\nMeaning of the author.\n1. Outline of story.\n2. Incidents in life of any characters.\n3. Central ideas and purpose of story.\nMethod of the author.\n1. Does the interest center in the incidents or the characters ?\n2. Is there a climax ?\n3. Do all the parts converge to this point ? Unity.\n4. Are the parts arranged in a sequence ? Coherence.\n5. Is the interest sustained ?\nStyle of the author.\n. Words that give movement to any passage.\nCOMPOSITION\n\n— NARRATION\n\nVerbs.\n\n— TO give spontaneity.\n\nIncidents without plot.\nSelection of material.\nUnity.\nArrangement of material.\nTime sequence, coherence.\nProportion in treatment.\nMass, emphasis.\nAt least three-fourths of subjects should be incidents in lives of pupils.\nExternal form of composition.\nHeading, margins, indention of paragraph.\nGrammar study.\nReview the principles.\nEspecial attention to inftections of pronouns and verbs, agreements of verbs and\npronouns, verbals.\nConcord.\nPunctuation.\nCapitalization.\nFigures of speech based on likeness : simile, metaphor, personification.\nIt will be well to adopt at once some system of abbreviations for marking papers. These should be dictated to pupils and copied by them into a \" composition notebook.\" This book should be large, well made,\nto serve for the four years.\n\nFIRST\n\nYEAR — SECOND\n\nSEMESTER\n\nLITERATURE— DESCRIPTION.\n\nHawthorne\n\n— Old Manse.\n\nGraceful diction.\n\nLowell — \" Indian Summer Reverie.\"\nFigures and specific words.\nGray — \" Elegy.\"\nSerious, thoughtful.\nGoldsmith — Deserted Village.\nSubjective description.\nByron — Childe Harold.\nDaring description.\nPoE — \" Fall of the House of Usher.\"\nAttention to details.\nHome reading :\nBlackmore — Lorna Doone.\nBurroughs — Pepacton.\nKipling — City of Dreadful Night.\n\n"}
{"page": 693, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\n' SYLLABUS\n\nOF A COURSE\n\n683\n\nIN ENGLISH\n\nMeaning of the author.\nMethod of the author.\n1. Does the author retain his point of view ?\n\nUnity.\n\n2. Does the author arrange details' in order ? Coherence.\n3. Are they treated in right proportion ? Emphasis.\nStyle of the author.\nWords that produce pictures.\nGeneral terms or specific words ?\nCOMPOSITION\n\n— DESCRIPTION— TO givb accuratb expression.\n\nSubjects should be common and individual — not classes of objects.\nSubjects should be things seen by pupils.\nTreatment.\nSelection of details decided by purpose of description.\nGet a point of view and stay there.\nUnity.\nPlace details in some order.\nCoherence.\nArrange and proportion details to effect purpose.\n\nEmphasis, mass.\n\nIt is a good plan to use same subject, varying conditions or purpose. \" Appearance of My Home after\na Long Absence;\" \" Appearance of the Home from which Drunken Cruelty Drove Me ; \" \" My Dog ; \"\n\" My Neighbor's Dog.\"\n\nParagraph structure.\nTopic sentence developed by —\nParticulars and details.\nTelling what it is not.\nComparison and analogies.\nNote emphatic places in a paragraph and have something there.\n\nWords.\nChoose those which give clear pictures.\nNouns, adjectives, verbs.\nSpecific words opposed to general terms.\nSECOND\nLITERATURE — EXPOSITION.\n\nYEAR— FIRST\n\nRUSKIN — Sesame and Lilies, tv/o essays.\nBurns — Selected poems.\nCarlyle — \"Burns.\"\nPoetic imagery.\nHome reading :\nKiNGSLEY\n\nSEMESTER\n\nDigression.\n\n— HypcUia.\n\nStevenson — Crabbed Age and Youth.\nMeaning of the author.\nOutline showing main thesis and\n\nsubordinate propositions, preserving their\n\ndependence and relative importance.\nMethod of the author.\nDoes he stick to his point ? Unity.\nDoes he pass from the known to the unknown ? Coherence.\nDoes he arrange his material to get highest effect ? Emphasis.\n\n'\n\nStyle of the author.\nWords that link parts together.\nConjunctions, relatives, adverbs, and phrases.\nHow does he obtain clearness ?\nAre the figures of speech and comparisons effective ?\n\n"}
{"page": 694, "printed_page": null, "text": "684\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n'\n\n[Secondary\n\nCOMPOSITION — EXPOSITION — to encourage logical thinking and adequate expression.\nTerms.\nDefinitions — genus and differentia.\nPropositions.\n1. Clear statement of proposition.\n'^ Key sentence.\"\nThis will limit the\n2. Discussion.\na) What shall be included ? Unity.\nb) What shall be excluded ? Unity.\nc) In what order ? Coherence.\nd) In what proportion ? Emphasis, mass.\nSpecial attention to mass and proportion.\nMethods of condensation and expansion.\nOther methods of showing relative importance of thoughts in an essay.\nAt least ten weeks of this semester should be devoted to outlines, in which the topic sentences shall give\nthe headings of successive paragraphs. From this time there should be handed in with each essay an outline\nwritten before the essay. For class work, select a topic sentence, or more if necessary, to be developed by a\nmethod designated by the teacher, until the pupil understands the kinds of paragraphs so far studied and will\nmake a happy choice.\nIt is well to outline the same theme in different ways, having different points of view.\n\nSECOND\nLITERATURE— EXPOSITION\n\nYEAR — SECOND\n\nSEMESTER\n\n{continued).\n\nMilton — \" L' Allegro,\" \"II Penseroso,\" \"Lycidas.\"\nAllusion.\nMacaulay — \"Milton.\"\nSentence, paragraph.\nBurke — \"Conciliation.\"\nLogic.\nHome reading :\nLytton — Last Days of Pompeii.\nDe Quincey — English Mail Coach, Confessions of an Opium Eater.\nMeaning of the author.\nAnalysis of paragraph.\nMethod of the author.\n(As in first semester of this year.)\nStyle of the author.\nDoes each paragraph discuss a single topic ? Unity.\nAre the sentences arranged in logical order ? Coherence.\nDoes each paragraph have a climax ? Emphasis.\nCOMPOSITION\n\nOutlines.\n\n— EXPOSITION\n\n(continued).\n\n(As in first semester of this year.)\n\nParagraph structure.\nRepetition.\n*\nProofs.\nSpecific instances.\nCause and effect.\nCombination of forms.\nConnectives and methods of transition.\nCoherence.\nConjunctions, pronouns, adverbs, adverbial phrases, transition, paragraphs.\nSentences.\nPeriodic, loose, and balanced.\nTo make pupils think a whole sentence before writing, insist on many periodic sentences.\n\nLong — what effect ?\n\n"}
{"page": 695, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSYLLABUS\n\nOF A COURSE\n\nIN ENGLISH\n\n^^5\n\nShort — what effect ?\nbe studied, it should not\nIf argumentation is to be introduced as a distinct form of discourse which should\ntake more than six weeks at the end of this semester, and it sliould be very elementary.\n\nYEAR — FIRST\n\nSEMESTER\n\n•^coi-x — Ivanhoe or Talisman.\nStevenson — Kidnapped or The Black Arrow.\nCharacter.\nGeorge Eliot — Silas Marner.\nHome reading :\nGeorge Eliot — Romola.\nThackeray — The Newcomes.\nMeaning of the author.\n\n\\ incident.\n)\n\nTHIRD\nLITERATURE\n\n— NOVELS.\n\n(Read but one.)\n\nMethod of the author.\n\nIs the interest centered in plot or characters ?\nDo all the details work toward the climax ? Unity.\nAre parts arranged in best order ? Coherence.\nStyle of the author.\nPicturing power.\nPhrasal power.\nCharacter-drawing power.\nEmotional power.\nCOMPOSITION,\n\nThe principles studied in the first two years are sufficient to give clear, accurate\nexpression ; these principles should guide the pupil in writing, and the teacher in criticism during the remaining years of the course. It may be wise, however, to touch upon\nsome of the refiqements of composition.\nSentences should be studied for —\n1. Clearness dependent upon\na) Choice of words.\nLatin or English.\nSpecific or general (figures of speech).\nb) Arrangement of words.\nCoherence.\nMass.\n2. Force.\na) Choice of words.\nLatin or English.\nSpecific or general.\nb) Arrangement of words.\nInversion.\n3. Elegance.\na) Choice of words — by ear.\nb) Arrangement of words — by ear.\nAssonance, alliteration.\nMetrical phrases.\nThe subjects of composition should be drawn more from the literature. Outlines of stories, episodes,\nconversations by character upon topics of our time, descriptions of scenes, character sketches, and purpose of\nauthor give a variety of subjects which should employ the different forms of discourse in about equal proportions.\nForce and elegance should be subordinated to clearness, the real goal of composition in secondary\nschools.\n\n"}
{"page": 696, "printed_page": null, "text": "686\n\nNATIONAL\n\nLITERATURE\n\n— VERSIFICATION\n\nTHIRD\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nYEAR\n\n— SECOND\n\nAND\n\nCRITICISM.\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nSEMESTER\n\nWordsworth\n\n— \"She was a Phantom of Delight,\" \"I Wandered Lonely as a\nCloud,\" \" Hart-Leap Well,\" \"Milton\" (sonnet), \" Tintern Abbey,\"\n\" Intimations of Immortality.\"\nKeats — \"Ode to a Grecian Urn,\" \" Eve of St. Agnes.\"\nShelley — \"The Sky Lark,\" \"The Cloud.\"\nShakespeare — Merchant of Venice.\n\nArnold — \"The Study of Poetry,\" \"Wordsworth.\"\nLowell — \"Chaucer,\" \"Shakespeare Once More,\" or \"Wordsworth.\"\nHome reading :\nHawthorne — Marble Faun.\nCritical.\nKipling — The Light that Failed.\nLife vs. technique.\nShakespeare — Tempest ox Twelfth Night.\nMeaning of the author.\nMethod of the author.\nStyle of the author.\nEnglish or Latin words.\nPhrasal power.\nPicturing power.\nEmotional power.\nMusical power — vowels, alliteration, accents.\nCOMPOSITION.\n\nDuring the time the class is studying versification, the compositions may be letters\nasking employment, recommending friends for positions, and answering \"wantedcolumn \" notices. The latter part of the term should be devoted to book notices and\nreviews, newspaper editorials, etc., and criticisms of new stories and poems.\nFOURTH\nLITERATURE— DIFFICULT\n\nYEAR— FIRST\n\nSEMESTER\n\nSELECTIONS.\n\nChaucer — \" Prologue \" and one tale. Historic value.\nMilton — Paradise Lost (one book).\nImagery.\nEmerson — \"Compensation\" or \" American Scholar.\"\nBrowning — \" Balaustion's Adventure,\" \"Rabbi Ben\nstructure.\nTennyson — Selections and In Memoriam\npoetry.\nHome reading :\nStevenson — Lantern- Bearers, A\nRomance.\nHarrison — Choice of Books.\nFOURTH\nA HISTORICAL\n\nREVIEW\n\nEzra.\"\n\nDifficult sentence\n\n(parts).\n\nMusical\n\npower,\n\nHumble\n\nRemonstrance,\n\nYEAR— SECOND\n\nOF ENGLISH\n\nLITERATURE\n\nscience\n\nGossip\n\nin\n\nabout\n\nSEMESTER\n— TEXT- BOOK.\n\nHome reading :\nLowell — \"A Good Word for Winter,\" \"New England Thirty Years\nrne\n— Our Old Home.\nHawtho\ns\nn\no\ni\nt\nious, pproaching wo\ni\ns\ng\no\nn\np\ni\nm\nr\no\nu\nt\nthe l\"ast year should be more pretent\nd\nC d\nr a\nn\n.\nn\na\nd\no\ne\ne\ns\ns\nl\nt\ng\ne\n.\ne\nu\nd\nu\nh\nt\ns\nA\nr\nm\nr\no\nc\no\ni\ne\nch\ne\na\nh\nh\no\nr\nh\nf\ne\nh\ns este under the critical\ne\nb w\ns\no t\nT\nea\nw\nt\n.\nn\nn\no\nl\no\ni\na\ni\ns\nu\nt\ninstruc\nClass work will yield to individ\nof the teacher.\nsupervi\n\n"}
{"page": 697, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nBY\n\nDEFENSE\n\nOF SYLLABUS\n\nDEFENSE\n\nOF\n\nW.\n\nF.\n\nWEBSTER,\n\n687\n\nSYLLABUS\n\nMINNEAPOLIS\n\nMINN.\n\nIn addition to the principles which all admit should guide in making a course in\nEnglish, I shall introduce two, viz.: that composition should be taught in some definite\norder, and that the literature and composition should be so correlated as to be mutually\nhelpful. It will be granted that the literature should be the best, whether written on this\nside of the Atlantic or on the other. The quality of literature is not a question to be\ndecided by place of residence ; whether from Salem or London, Calcutta or Vailima,\nmakes no difference. It may be commendable patriotism, but it is a very partial survey,\nwhich finds half of the best literature written in our own fair land ; yet many courses are\nmore than half made up of American authors. Good they are, but not the best ; and less\nthan the best is an injustice. It will be conceded, also, that the course should be graded.\nThis should be by the selections read and not according to authors. It is a mistake to\nread \" Sir Launfal \" and \" The Commemoration Ode \" in the same term, or \" Rabbi Ben\nEzra\" and \" Herv^ Riel.'' I am way within bounds when I say that four years of growth\nlie between Tennyson's Idyls and In Memoriam ; and it is a discouraging waste of time\nto compel pupils to an arrangement that we ourselves never follow in our own reading.\nWe agree, then, to take from the broad stream of English as much of the very best as\nwe can read in the short time at our disposal, and to arrange it in such an order that\nthe advance from high to higher shall be gradual, easy, and fascinating.\nIn organizing a course in English, an intimate relation should be established between\nthe literature and the composition. We have done much in our schools toward correlating the different lines of work, in some cases too much ; in these two divisions of the\nsame subject, however, there has been little or no attempt at correlation. In branches\nso indissolubly associated, the arrangement should be sought which yields the most\nmutual benefit. The advantage of this alliance is a fact of all time. From Chaucer to\nStevenson there has been a laying on of hands and an unbroken succession of inspired\nmen, none of whom has neglected to acknowledge his debt of obligation for matter,\nmethod, or inspiration. The poet Keats was not the son of a hostler, but he was born\nthe day a copy of Spenser's poems fell into his hands ; and Keats can with pride claim\nthe youthful Lowell as his literary descendant. What do the terms Johnsonian, Shakespearian, Dantesque mean but that the writings so characterized approach the style of these\nworthies ? Even those gentlemen who assert that composition should not be taught by a\nspecial teacher — a proposition as absurd as that physiography should be taught by no one\nin particular — those persons who would divide the compositions into as many packages as\nthere are teachers in the corps, and allow each teacher to contribute his share to the general discouragement, even they recognize the subtle influence of a person's reading upon\nhis diction. The hand is subdued to what it works in ; ani just as surely as evil communications corrupt good manners, so surely constant association with the culture and\nstrength of greatness will result in stronger thinking and more refined expression.\nOb tl^e other hand, the study of a few principles which underlie good composition\nincreases the appreciation of good literature. Altho he enjoys music, it is folly for a\nlayman to claim that he\" appreciates Wagner as does Mr. Damrosch. His capacity for\nenjoyment has been augmented by every increment of his musical knowledge, and he has\nlearned secrets which admit him to a heaven of rapturous glory shut against the uninitiated. And the principle is true of all art. Tennyson would not so often have sought his\nVirgil, nor Arnold and Pater their Homer, had they not seen a beauty there far outshining\n\n"}
{"page": 698, "printed_page": null, "text": "688\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nthe beauty we behold. Beyond the power of the golden words of ancient wisdom to\ndo, they were transported with delight while looking at the gorgeous patterns of those\nmaster weavers. Every advance in the knowledge of any art is attended by a corresponding increase in the enjoyment of its beauties.\nIf it be accepted that classic English, in amount and kind to suit the capacity of the\npupils, shall be arranged to illustrate the work in composition, the question becomes, What\nis the course in composition ? And I am assuming that a few elementary principles can\nbe taught. Too long have teachers deluded themselves with the thought that they were\nteaching composition, when they were showing their pupils how not to do it. With thick,\nbulging eyeglasses they have been peeking here and there looking for misplaced\ncommas, misspelled words, and, forsooth, for a lack of agreement between verb and subject, unable to note the excellency of so large a unit as a sentence, to say nothing of a\nthree-page essay. Nagging criticism which sees nothing larger than a split infinitive is\nan abomination to a generously molded youth. Dickens has lapses worse than these, yet\nwe keep on reading him, because the superiority of the whole so far outweighs such\ntrifles. All his people will act consistently and be perfect creations of imperfect humanity, tho there may be a lack of concord between a relative and its antecedent. We have\nbeen tithing of mint and anise and cummin, and we have neglected the weightier matters\nof the law. This system has brought intellectual torpor and spiritual death. No wonder\nthat dull-eyed pupils, whose youthful vitality has barely withstood this starvation, have\nbeen seen in many a class-room lying listlessly about under the narcotizing influence of\nnegative, destructive criticism. To find fault is not the whole duty of a teacher.\nOrganized, constructive criticism is as necessary in this subject as in algebra or Latin.\nThere are clear, tangible, objective points in the construction of a theme, a paragraph, or\na sentence which can be taught. We have worked long enough telling these unfortunate\nyoung people how it is not done ; it is time that we begin to show them how it is done.\nThe forms of discourse I have arranged in this order : narration, description, and\nexposition. Narration I place first, to give spontaneity. The boy who can tell a good\nstory to his companions, arranging the details so as to get the best effect, and never losing sight of the point, when he comes to class finds himself all tied up in his efforts to\nsatisfy the numberless demands of his teacher. He is fettered, shackled, ball andchained, his shoulders bent under a load of don'ts, and then we expect him to run. It\nreminds me of my first day with a bicycle. A kind friend, solicitous for my gallant\nappearance, advised me to sit straight, not to balance by keeping my body over the\nwheel, but by keeping the wheel under my body, and then, on pain of a broken friendship,\nto use the ankle movement. I tried to do all these graceful things and made a sad and\nlaughable failure. One day, however, in the absence of my very proper friend, I led the\nwheel out, and by some accident got started. I had many curves in my spine, one pedal\nwas caught by a heel and the other in the hollow of the foot, I swayed from side to side,\nbut I was going. I learned that the first thing to do in riding a wheel is to go ; then\nafterward I could catch the pedal with the ball of my foot, sit gracefully, and move with a\ndignified ease: And in writing, the first thing is to get going ; the start will be ungraceful jumping, there will be uncontrollable digressions, and the finish will be a sudden fall.\nBut there has been an exhilaration, and there will be an enthusiasm to try again. Spontaneity isthe object in the first term's work.\nAccuracy of statement is best secured in description. Stevenson, Maupassant, and\nRuskin were always writing little bits of description; and the. author who can handle\nthis department of literature is pretty sure of success. In this field the theme is but a\nshort paragraph, and its perfection depends on a few severe principles. It is really the\npractice ground of literature. In securing method in description, nothing is of more\nvalue than reading many selections to illustrate the principles you wish them to absorb.\nThe definite point of view, the careful selection of details which heighten the effect, and\n\n"}
{"page": 699, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nDEFENSE\n\nOF SYLLABUS\n\n689\n\nthen the one right word to express exactly the thought — these require the strictest\nfidelity to truth, and the most painstaking accuracy of statement.\nWhen the pupil has gained some freedom of expression, and has learned the value\nof accurate statement, he is ready to take up the next form of discourse which makes\nseverer demands upon his reasoning faculty. As composition is the art of conveying to\nthe reader what is in the writer's mind, great care should be exercised that little or no\ndemand is made for the collection of materials. No worse mistake can be made than to\ndrive pupils to books when preparing an essay. In spite of their integrity, they will copy\nphrases while taking notes, and these they will slip in unintentionally, and as a composition exercise it has been entirely A^orthless. To know definitely what one does think of\nthe commonest topic ; to make an adequate and accurate statement of the proposition,\nincluding enough and not excluding too much ; to arrange in logical and forcible order the\nideas that lead to the conclusion, emphasizing important considerations and subordinating lesser matters ; to carry the whole forward to a firmly established, solid conclusion, is\nhard enough when one has the requisite knowledge, and this process makes exactions\nupon the rational faculty equal to any work in a school course.\nArgumentation any farther than it will inevitably enter into exposition should not be\na special subject of high-school study. Deduction and induction are matters that may\nbetter be deferred to a more mature age. All refinements of style should be excluded\nfrom a high-school course in English, tho they should be noted in the reading. Exercises for the development of any particular quality of style other than clearness are\nplainly not in the province of our work. The plan includes only the three forms of discourse, but these are susceptible of great variety in their applications. Outlines of\nstories, descriptions of scenes, conversations by characters, discussions of the author's\npurpose, and elementary criticisms give opportunity to avoid monotonous repetition. And\nif in the end the pupils can think clearly and adequately express what they think and\nfeel, if they can tell a plain tale so that a wayfarer need not err, all reasonable demands\nwill be satisfied.\nI have arranged the literature in groups ; narration, description, and exposition are\nfollowed by the novel, some shorter poems, a few critical essays, and difficult selections.\nThe reason for the arrangement during the first two years has been given. To avoid\nmonotony, prose and verse have been mingled, and authors have been introduced whose\nmanner and subjects will contribute sufficient variety.\nThe novel, which for some unreasonable prejudice has until recently been excluded\nfrom school — the form of literature the most read, and for that reason the most produced ;\nthe form which is the truest criticism of modern life, and therefore the most valuable for\nstudy — has been put into the third year. That pupils shall not skim along to get the\nstory, but be encouraged to read out of it what the author has, with his soul's strength,\nwritten into it, is the reason for introducing it into the course. Versification and criticism\nacquaint the pupils with the more refined beauties of literature which are found in the\ndelicate harmony of thought and phrase.\nThen there are authors who would not be fairly represented unless some of their more\ndifficult works were read ; and there are others whose works all seem difficult. Chaucer\nshould be read, not alone for his manly view of life, but for his great influence on the\nwhole course of English literature ; Milton, Browning, and Tennyson would be imperfectly understood if some severe study were not given to their typical compositions.\nThese I have placed in the fourth year. And last, as a summary of the course, comes\nthe history of English literature. For after looking at these authors singly and close at\nhand, it will be an advantage to step back and from a distance view the whole onward\nsweep of our literature, to discern the influence of the times and the relations of authors\none to another.\nFor this purpose there should be used a short and scholarly text-book.\nIt may be inferred, as I have said so much of the relation of literature to composition.\n\n"}
{"page": 700, "printed_page": null, "text": "690\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nfSecondary\n\nthat I think of it in no other way. The meaning of the author is placed first in the syllabus\nbecause it is the most important. Its supremacy cannot be exaggerated. Not only does\nliterature transcend composition in value, but I am more than half way to say that it has\nmore virtue than all the other studies, for it has extracted the best from them all. To follow Burke thru one of his demonstrations, with its propositions and counter-propositions,\nits corollaries and scholia, all marshaled in the most effective manner, and each contributing itsshare to establishing the main thesis, is an exercise the equal of a book in\nEuclid. But superior to the advantages of utility is the pleasure derived from the beauties\nof literature. The full-toned roll of Webster's deep-breathed periods, the burst and crash\nof the leaping lines in Byron, the dainty delicacy of Stevenson's studied prose, the liquid\nmurmuring of Tennyson's purling music — in each there is a beauty to match a Phidian\nmarble or a landscape by Corot. Yet deeper than these, and higher and wider than their\nutility and their beauty, is the relation of literature to life. Mathematics and science may\ntell us how to get a living and to keep our bodies well, but literature alone tells us how to\nlive. There is an awful warning in George Eliot's Tito, upon the horizon of whose\nyoung life there rested but a small shadow, imperceptibly spreading with his growing\nyears until his whole sky is overcast in hideous darkness ; and with his death he pays the\nwages of sin. Shakespeare takes the world's great heart ; and all its passions — its love,\nits hate, its despair, its forgiveness, and its treachery — are made flesh and dwell among us,\nand we, beholding the infinite possibilities for good or evil resident in each human soul,\ntremble or rejoice. Or under the serene stars, beside clear-souled Emerson, with heads\nuncovered to the deep sky, we catch the breezes of heaven ; and as the earth slips away\nfrom us, with its muck and mire, we can almost discern the divine harmony and the perpetual beneficence of God's unending creation. An efficient force in intellectual development, an abounding source of aesthetic culture, an open sesame to the deepest knowledge\nof life, our literature has but now come to claim her heritage ; and, easily advancing from\nmore to more, she grants to all who confess her gentle sway an immortality of pleasure\nand of profit.\n\nDISCUSSION\nP. W. Lyons, Bridgton High School, N. Y.— We should carefully consider the influence of home and local environment upon diction. Subjects for composition should be\nthe happenings of home and school life. My own practice is to have each student\nprepare and read a paper monthly before the school.\nF. O. Baker, Yonkers, N. Y., desired to ask Dr. Thurber whether each instructor\nshould be at liberty to choose his own authors for class use.\nDr. Thurber replied that in his vicinity it had been a time-honored custom to read\nliterature in school work as folllows : first year : American writers ; second year : easier\nEnglish writers — Macaulay, Addison, etc. ; third year: Milton and Shakespeare ; fourth\nyear : Shakespeare, Milton, and Chaucer.\nMiss Lucia Stickney, Hughes High School, Cincinnati, stated that in her school\nwork she had followed the college preparatory requirements, and found a tendency to\nfall behind the author as a refuge. She disapproved of this method and suggested that\npupils must draw upon themselves.\nMiss Dye added a suggestion in the line of her syllabus.\nCharles C. Ramsay, Durfee High School, Fall River, Mass., advocated a modified\nuse of good text-books in English.\n\n"}
{"page": 701, "printed_page": null, "text": "ESSAY CORRECTING\n\nDepartment]\n\nTHE\n\nENGLISH\n\nESSA V CORRECTING—\nBY PROFESSOR\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\nCAN IT BE MADE\n\nF. N. SCOTT,\n\nOF THE\n\n691\n\nA JOY FORE\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nVER ?\n\nOF MICHIGAN\n\n[abstract]\nThe disagreeableness of essay correcting is not due to an intrinsic\nquality of the task itself, but to the unfavorable conditions under which\nthe task is performed.\nThese unfavorable conditions are as follows :\n1. The amount of correction allotted to a given teacher may be more\nthan he can perform easily and well.\n2. The teacher who undertakes the task of correction may have no\nspecial aptitude for it.\n3. The teacher who undertakes the task of correction may have no\nspecial training for it. On this account, he may seriously misapprehend\nits purpose and essential character.\n1. The first unfavorable condition is the most serious of all, but\nit will not be discussed in this paper, for the reason that the data for\nthe solution of the problem have not as yet been collected. No one\nknows, except in a vague and general way, how many essays a wellequipped teacher of composition can read in a given period of time without fatigue. In all probability, however, too little allowance has been\nmade for this kind of work in the apportionment of the burdens of teaching, and it would seem that in our high schools there is need of more\nteachers of English, The idea that the special teacher of composition\ncan be abolished and the work of correction distributed among teachers\nof other subjects is attractive, but fallacious.\n2. Special aptitude for essay correction, including a genuine liking\nfor it in all its phases, is a rare quality in a teacher, but is nevertheless a\nsine qua non for the successful teaching of composition. Those who do\nnot possess this gift should abandon the field to those who do.\n3. Up to the present time little has been written upon the rationale\nof essay correction. Its fundamental principles have not been thoroly\nexplored. For this reason, perhaps, the word \" correction \" is often used\nin the narrow sense of marginal annotation. A broader view would\nregard it as including all words of encouragement, suggestion, advice,\ncaution, and criticism by means of which a teacher represses bad habits\nof expression and sets up good habits in their stead. It thus has a\npositive as well as a negative side, and this positive side must not be\noverlooked.\n\n"}
{"page": 702, "printed_page": null, "text": "692\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nLSecondary\n\nThe essentials of good correction are as follows :\n(a) Correction should be individual. It should be based upon study\nof the speech habits of the pupil and of the influences which have shaped\nthem. It should take into account character, habits of thought, and\nlikes and dislikes. The good teacher, when he makes corrections, will\nhave in mind the strength as well as weakness of each pupil in his class.\n{V) Correction should be constructive. Its aim should be to build up\ngood habits of expression. The best correction is stimulating and suggestive. Correction may even promote originality and spontaneity. The\ndifference between suggestive and unsuggestive criticism may be illustrated as follows : Suppose that a pupil has used the word \"transpire\" in\nthe sense of \" happen.\" One method of correction is to put an abbreviation or question mark in the margin of the essay ; but a more suggestive\nmethod is to write: \"See Z^Z£/<f//'j-Zi?//<?rj, Vol. II, p. 47.\" The pupil,\non turning to the reference, will read as follows :\nTo T. B. Aldrich :\nMy dear Aldrich : It is a capital little book — but I had read it all before, and liked\nit thoroughly\nI think it is wholesome, interesting, and above all natural.\nThe\nonly quarrel I have with you is that I found in it the infamous word \" transpired.'\nE-pluribus-unum it ! Why not \" happened \" ? You are on the very brink of the pit.\n\nTo be truly constructive, correction should be given in a kindly spirit.\nThis does not mean that it needs to be sentimental. It may even be\nsevere and cutting, provided there is behind it sympathy with the pupil\nand a genuine interest in his welfare.\n(<:) Correction should be rational. The teacher of composition should\nhave not only sympathy and good taste, but knowledge. He should be\nthoroly grounded in the underlying principles of rhetoric, and should\nknow something of rhetorical history. He should be able to distinguish\nbetween slipshod work, like that of Richard Grant White, and scientific\nwork, like that of Paul and Jespersen. Such knowledge will help him\nto avoid the faults of arbitrariness, inconsistency, and hyper-criticism.\n(d) Correction should be systematic. It should be directed, in the\ncase of each pupil, toward a definite end, which should never be lost\nsight of. Unsystematic correction, which strikes at random, is futile and\nwasteful of time. Not every fault in every essay needs to be corrected.\nSometimes a single word of encouragement or of explanation will suffice.\n{e) The teacher in his correcting should exercise common sense. This\nquality is needed in every department, but in the work of correction it\nis of especial value. Judiciously employed, it will save the teacher from\nthe besetting sins of narrowness and dogmatism. It will also absolve\nhim from the absurd reproach of knowing too much about his subject.\nIt remains to show that a teacher who takes this broader view, and\nwho is not hampered by other unfavorable conditions, may find the task\nof correction not unpleasing.\nIf we ask why any kind or part of teaching\n\ni\n\n"}
{"page": 703, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nESSAY\n\nSUBJECTS\n\nDRAWN\n\nFROM\n\n693\n\nLITERATURE\n\nis attractive, the answer is, because, primarily, it gives the teacher an\nopportunity to exercise special aptitude and training for the benefit of\nsociety; secondarily, because it enables the teacher to promote his scholarship, to cultivate his taste, to build up his character, to broaden and\ndeepen his views of things. Now, the correction of essays, commonly\ndeemed so trivial, so burdensome, so wasteful of the mental energies,\ngives opportunity for the attainment of both these ends. Has the teacher\na native gift, a special aptitude, for correction ? Here is his supreme\nchance in life. Let him not throw it away. Does the teacher desire to\ncultivate his scholarship ? The door is open. If his interest is in literature, he may so shape his methods of correction that the ransacking of\nany given field of poetry or prose will be an absolute necessity. If he\ndesires to pursue the study of psychology, he should know that the\npsychology of language processes is one of themost promising of modern\nlines of research. If he is interested in the reconstruction now going on\nof the science of rhetoric, the opportunity is all that could be asked for.\nThe written work of high-school pupils constitutes just the material\nneeded for investigation in this subject.\nFinally, that correction carried on in the manner and spirit that have\nbeen indicated is a cultivating, liberalizing, and character-building process need not be argued at length. A kind of teaching which brings\nthe teacher into so vital and so intimate relations with his pupils, which\ncalls for so great an exercise of sympathy, insight, and moral influence,\nneed not fear comparison with any other department of instruction. We\nmay, then, briefly draw the conclusion that essay correcting, when there is\nnot too much of it, when one has special aptitude and training for it,\nwhen its true purpose and essential character are understood, is not\nintrinsically disagreeable.\nIt may, in a true sense, become a joy forever.\n\nWHAT\n\nPROPORTION OF ESSAY SUBJECTS\nDRA WN FROM LITER A TURE i\n\nBY F. V. N. PAINTER,\n\nD.D., PROFESSOR\n\nROANOKE\n\nCOLLEGE,\n\nOF\n\nMODERN\n\nSALEM,\n\nSHALL\n\nLANGUAGES\n\nBE\n\nIN\n\nVA.\n\nIn seeking an answer to this question, it is necessary to recur to a few\nof the underlying principles. At best we can hope to reach only a\ngeneral answer, which must be varied according to different conditions.\nIn education, as in other spheres of labor, true wisdom consists in the\nproper adaptation of means to the accomplishment of a desired end.\nIt will be helpful in this discussion to understand clearly what is\nincluded in the phrase \"essay subjects drawn from literature.\"\nThe word\n\n"}
{"page": 704, "printed_page": null, "text": "694\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nliterature must be taken in its narrower sense of belles-lettres or polite\nliterature. It includes all those writings in which artistic form counts as\nprincipal element. In general, therefore, we may say that the word literature, as here used, refers to poetry, criticism, fiction, oratory, and even\nhistory and science when the artistic element is present in an eminent\ndegree.\nThe subjects to be drawn from this field are various. The biographical facts of various authors may be presented. The social or physical\nenvironment maybe studied. Reviews of particular works may be given.\nParticular characters and events may be analyzed. The literary changes\nand movements of different periods, and the relation of each work to\nthese changes and movements, is an interesting field of investigation.\nIn short, literature presents an. almost limitless variety of interesting essay\nsubjects.\nWhat is the main purpose in having pupils write essays? It is important to answer this question definitely and clearly. There are three\nprominent ends to be attained in essay writing. The first is an increase\nof knowledge ; and in this connection we may recall the saying of Bacon\nthat \"writing maketh a full man.\" The second is culture, by which we\nmean the ability to appreciate what is finest and best in human thought\nand feeling. And the third end is correctness, facility, and skill in the\nuse of language. This last is undoubtedly the principal end to be aimed\nat in the essay writing of our secondary schools, tho in a diminishing\ndegree with the advancement of the pupil.\nIt is important in teaching to distinguish between the ultimate and\nthe proximate end of instruction. The general aim of education is to\ndevelop a noble manhood and womanhood ; to make the student an\nintelligent, industrious, and right-thinking man or woman. But this end\nis ultimate, and is apt to be missed when aimed at too directly. The\nimmediate end of each study is to impart knowledge and skill. We\nstudy penmanship to learn to write, arithmetic to learn to compute, and\ncomposition to learn to compose. We best attain the ultimate end of\neducation by paying attention to the proximate end.\nThe question has been asked how skill in the use of language may be\nbest acquired. Does it come thru a study of the classics, or a teaching of formal rhetoric, or thru the essay writing of the pupil ? The\nable and enthusiastic teacher may attain good results in any of these\nthree ways. But, other things being equal, the best results will be\nsecured by a judicious combination of all three methods, which stand in\nan obvious and natural relation to one another. Rhetoric teaches the\nunderlying principles of effective discourse ; our classic works exemplify\nthese principles ; and composition writing teaches the student to apply\nthem. No matter what may be the student's theoretical knowledge of\nrhetoric, or the extent of his reading, he will never attain to eminence as\n\n"}
{"page": 705, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\n£SSAV\n\nSUBJECTS\n\nDttAWN\n\nJ^/iOM LlTEkATUHE\n\n695\n\na writer without a long and laborious apprenticeship. Here, as elsewhere\nin our educational work, we may apply the well-known principle of\nComenius : \"Learn to do by doing.\"\nIn seeking a definite and valid answer to the question before us, it is\nnecessary for us first to agree as to the relative value of the humanities,\nor literary studies, as over against the sciences, or so-called utilitarian\nstudies. This brings us on an educational battlefield, where the fight is\nstill in progress. While sympathizing with the fearless reformers of the\npast two hundred years, and while rejoicing in the triumphs over an\nessentially mediaeval education, we should be on our guard against the\nextreme tendencies so often associated with reformatory movements. We\nshould be intelligently progressive, not wildly radical. This moderate\nspirit, it seems to me, must assign a prominent place in our curricula to\nliterary studies, and, above all, to our mother-tongue.\nThis position might be defended successfully on plain, practical\ngrounds. Latin and Greek, in spite of the many absurd claims often\nadvanced for them, must be admitted to have at least a great etymological value. French and German, besides their utility in business and\ntrade, open the door to rich literary treasures. And the English language is our ordinary medium of social intercourse, and the instrument\nof our highest literary achievement. On grounds, therefore, entirely\npractical or utilitarian, we are justified in making language study prominent in our courses of instruction.\nBut from the standpoint of educational science there is still another\nand higher reason for making what we may call the modern humanities,\nand particularly English, very prominent. It is found in their educational and culture value. The language and literature of a people\nembody the accumulated results of its life. Every word stands for some\nintellectual conquest, some new domain, in most cases small indeed, won\nfrom the region of darkness. As a student, therefore, acquires a language and appropriates its literature, he ascends toward the highest\nplane of a whole people's intellectual life. This gives a height and\ndepth and breadth to individual thought and feeling that can come from\nno other source. Language and literature, as it seems to me, must ever\nremain our principal means of culture.\nOne other consideration will prove helpful in finding an answer to\nour question. The subjects assigned to pupils should be adapted to\ntheir stage of development. The day has passed for requiring impossibilities ofour children and youth. They should write only on subjects\nabout which they know something, or can find out something. This\nprinciple enables us to answer the question : \" What kind of subjects\nshould be assigned to the pupils of each class in the high school ?\" In\ngeneral, they should write about the things they are most familiar with,\nand naturally, therefore, about topics drawn in large measure from the\n\n"}
{"page": 706, "printed_page": null, "text": "696\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nstudies to which they have given the most attention. But with the\nincreasing age and intellectual power of the student, he may be required\nto investigate subjects more and more remote from his daily tasks.\nNow we are prepared to venture on an answer to the question before\nus. It is evident from the importance of literature in our educational\nwork that a considerable proportion of essay subjects should be taken\nfrom it. Have we any means of determining the proportion more exactly?\nIn every course of study a definite amount of time is set apart for the\nstudy of language and literature. This amount varies in different schools.\nBut certainly the proportion of essay subjects should not be less than the\nproportion of the time allotted in the course to language and literary\nstudy. In view of the importance of literature as a culture study, the\ntendency should be to go beyond this proportion in the upper classes.\nPerhaps we shall not go far wrong in saying that at least one-third of\nthe essay subjects in our high schools should be drawn from literature.\n\nDISCUSSION\nQuery : Shall the teacher allow the pupil to write many uncorrected essays or a few\nthat are carefully corrected ?\nProfessor Scott. — Students may write many essays not minutely examined, provided they are carefully filed somewhere, and the pupil knows they are so filed. I have\n200,000 essays so filed in a closet near my room.\nMr. Hermanns. — ^ Are essays returned to students ?\nProfessor Scott. — Yes; all essays are returned to pupils before end of school\nyear.\nAll essays of students are filed as long as they are connected with the university.\nMr. Hermanns. — How many uncorrected essays are afterward corrected ?\nProfessor Scott. — All are corrected before end of semester. Student must rewrite\neverything.\nMr. Ramsay. — Should English be taught as laboratory work, in small classes ?\nProfessor Scott. — Yes, if possible. But this is not practicable in modern schools\nwith their inadequate teaching force.\nFurther discussion followed by Professor Hurlbut, of Harvard; Miss Charity Dye, of\nIndianapolis ; Mr. Maynard, of Baltimore, and Miss H. M. Reynolds, of Washington.\n\nSUBJECTS\n\nBY\n\nEDWIN\n\nFOR COMPOSITIONS: SHALL\nWE\nDRA\nFROM LITERATURE\nOR FROM LIFE?\n\nL. MILLER,\n\nENGLEWOOD\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nW\n\nENGLEWOOD,\n\nTHEM\n\nILL.\n\nIt is perhaps unnecessary to remark that the choice of a subject has\nmuch to do with the success of a composition. In fact, upon it depends\nusually the value of all that is to follow.\nIt is to a piece of writing what\n\ni\n\n"}
{"page": 707, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nSUBJECTS\n\nFOR\n\nCOMPOSITIONS\n\n697\n\nthe foundation stone is to a building. If it is crooked or insufficient,\nthe whole structure will be out of plumb. It should not, therefore, be\nleft to chance, but depend upon a sound principle.\n. The great obstacles in the way of the successful teaching of the art of\nwriting that are commonly encountered in secondary work are two in\nnumber. The learner has nothing to say, and he does not know how to\nsay it. A considerable progress has been made toward the destruction\nof the first of these impediments. The second as yet has scarcely been\nattacked.\nThe study of the first question has produced two schools of theorists.\nThe first advocates the plan of drawing subjects for compositions from\nbooks. The second is in favor of deriving them directly from life. Both\nundoubtedly have been productive of good. Each, however, has given\nrise to certain absurdities and abuses.\nIn cases where subjects have been drawn from books, the student has\nat once found enough to say, but there has too often been a temptation\nto sacrifice originality. The method has also presented opportunities for\ndeception of which the dishonest and the indolent have not been slow\nto avail themselves. For example, instead of reading Tennyson and\nreporting their own opinions, they have only said clumsily what Mr. Van\nDyke has said well. Instead of reading Hamlet or Macbeth they have\nread Lamb's Tales from Shakespeare, and copied portions of the same\nverbatim et literatim, tho not usually punctuatim, upon their composition\ntablets. Such exercises may improve chirography, but they are not, in\nany sense of the word, of the slightest value in learning the noble ars\nscribendi.\nFrom such objections the practice of drawing subjects from life is\ntolerably free. It teaches accuracy of observation and inculcates a scientific love of truth. It is open, however, to one grave criticism. It does\nnot — and all pedagogical processes should do this — it does not uplift\nand clarify the conceptions of the student. It leaves the moral as well\nas the rhetorical conceptions of the learner exactly where they were. A\ncomposition on Towser, \" How Our Ball Team Won the Pennant,\" or\n\" A Perfect Summer Day,\" usually is not remarkable for its educative\nvalue. In nine cases out of ten it is a bore to all who read it and a\nsource of weariness and disgust to its author.\nNow, all of this is entirely natural. We must not be surprised or\nangered if we find children unable to write well. The majority of grown\npeople cannot do it. Nine out of ten of the essays read in literary clubs\nare copied more or less slavishly from encyclopaedias. People who do\nnot make a business of writing are overpowered by the sources of their\ninformation, when they sit down to write, simply because they have no\nliterary ideals. They are like the mariner who lost his way before the\ncompass was invented.\nEvery clever sentence swamps them with a help-\n\n"}
{"page": 708, "printed_page": null, "text": "698\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nless impulse to commit literary theft. If literary effort is to end thus, it\ncan assuredly be neither pleasant nor profitable.\nIt is certain, however, that many people have found in writing a consolation and joy, and have written in such a fashion that their compositions have been a consolation and a joy to other people. The question\nis, How did this come about ? The answer, if answer there is, will be\nfound in the early compositions of great writers and in the pages of their\nbiographies.\nA partial, but tolerably careful, examination of these sources of information has pretty well convinced me that nearly all writers who have been\nnoted for their manner of saying things have begun to lear-n the art of\ncomposition by a process closely analogous to our prevailing methods of\nteaching Greek and Latin composition. Consciously or unconsciously\nthey have formed their style by a close study and imitation of former\nwriters. They seem to have begun to write, in the first place, because they\nhad been charmed by something which they had read and had been filled\nwith the thought: \"How glorious it would be to write like that!\"\nSpenser's Eclogues bear witness to his love for Virgil, Shakespeare's\nearlier plays to a great admiration for Marlowe, Pope's Pastorals to a\nsort of Theocritean-Virgilian frenzy, and Wordsworth's Borderers to a\nboyish enthusiasm for Shakespeare. Tennyson has left on record the\nstatement that for a time his whole care was to write like Byron. Macaulay was successively the > slave of Scott, Cicero, and Burke. Carlyle formed\nhis style by imitating his father's conversation. Nor has this method of\ncornposition been practiced by boys alone. Some great writers have\nnever laid it aside. Virgil's obligations to Homer, Milton's to Virgil,\nPope's to Horace, and Johnson's to Juvenal are cases in point. The\nramifications of the practice are infinite. Every successful versifier for\nthe college paper is a devotee of Dobson or Praed, and the prize story\nin the college magazine bears unmistakable evidence of being an echo of\nHowells or Kipling.\nThe idea that I would impress upon you, then, is this, that here, perhaps, we have a true principle of teaching the art of composition, and\nthat perhaps, with the same method, the average boy and girl, under\ncareful instruction, may learn to do passably well what extraordinary men\nand women have learned by themselves to do surpassingly well.\nThe range of subjects that can be treated in the manner suggested is\npractically unlimited, or is limited only by the range of our literature and\nthe unspeakable wisdom of the committee on college-entrance requirements. Ican mention only a few, but those few will each stand for a\nclass and will suggest countless others. The description of the village of\nRaveloe in Silas Marner, for instance, may be made the basis for a\ndescription of the pupil's own town. John Burrough's Roof Tree will\ngive him a standard by which to evaluate the domestic architecture that\n\n"}
{"page": 709, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSUBJECTS\n\nFOR\n\nCOMPOSITIONS\n\n699\n\nhe sees. The character sketches in Goldsmith's Deserted Village and in\nthe prologue to the Canterbury J ales will inspire him to draw pictures of\nhis parents, his companions, the strangers who cross his path, and perhaps his teachers, Tom Brown' s School Days will enable him to describe\nhis own with fine feeling and insight. If he is of a satirical frame of\nmind, Johnson's London may rouse in him a wish to excoriate the faults\nof the city in which he lives, especially if he lives in Chicago. But perhaps the best of all fields for work of this kind will be found in the\nessays and the biography of Macaulay. The vigor and the perspicuity of\nhis style are well within the grasp of the beginner. His unsullied life,\nhis devotion to literature, and his fine simplicity, both as man and author,\nafford perhaps the best of all examples that we can hold up to our boys\nto prove to them that a man may cry over Homer and not be a milksop,\nand read Plato in the original and not be a pedant. His fascinating letters and journals, freer and simpler in style than his essays as they are,\nare often sufficient of themselves, without suggestion from a teacher, to\nset a bright boy to work upon similar efforts descriptive of his own experiences. His essay on Addison may well suggest a similar essay on\nIrving, his life of Pitt a life of Lincoln, or his description of the trial of\nWarren Hastings a description of the debate between Webster and Hayne.\nBest of all, and most interesting of all, an attempt may be made to finish\nhis incomplete life of Frederick the Great as he himself would have\nfinished it.\nI have reserved perhaps the most important consideration until the\nend. It is this, that exercises of the sort 1 have mentioned improve, not\nonly the ability to write, but also the ability to read. No one knows, and\nno one can know, how hard or how charming it is to write well until he has\ntried. No one can understand the glory of the simplest of our masterpieces\nuntil he has tried, and tried again and again, to reproduce their dignity,\ntheir simplicity, the naturalness of their style, their freedom from hypocrisy and from cant. It matters little whether success or failure, in the\nnarrower sense, attend one's efforts. Not failure, but low aim, is crime,\nand in the broader sense one cannot fail. Provided an honest effort be\nmade, no matter what is put down in black and white, the harvest of\npurer taste, riper judgment, deeper reverence, and keener delight in things\nhigh and good is sure to follow. It may be said, not as a paradox, but\nas a truth, with reference to this principle, that it is better to have writ\nand failed than never to have writ at all.\nThe conclusion which I would emphasize, then, is that for the matter\nof our compositions we ought, generally, to look to life, and for the manner, generally, to literature. In doing this we shall effect a closer union\nbetween our work in composition and our work in literature, shall combat a present widespread tendency to separate the two into distinct\ncourses, and shall discover that the closer relationship thus developed\n\n"}
{"page": 710, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n700\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nteaches people not only how to write, but also how to read,, more skillfully.\nFinally — and perhaps this is most important of all — it will be seen that\nthe question which we have just been touching upon is part of a much\nwider and deeper question, and that, do what we may as teachers of composition, we must not expect that our disciples will make any distinct\nstep forward in the power to write until they have made a corresponding\nstep forward in the power to see, to feel, and to know.\n\n"}
{"page": 711, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF HIGHER\n\nSECRETARY'S\nFIRST\n\nEDUCATION\n\nMINUTES\n\nSESSION. — Monday, July ii, i8q8\n\n(joint session of the departments\n\nof secondary and higher education)\n\nThe meeting was called to order by President R. H. Jesse, of the University of the\nState of Missouri, in Columbian University Hall, at 3 P. M.\nThe first paper was presented by Dr. James M. Green, State Normal School, Trenton, N. J., on the questions : \" Are there studies that, as constants, should be pursued in\nsome measure in every course in the secondary schools, and in the freshman and sophomore years of college ? If so, what are these constants, and what should be the minimum\nrequirement in each in these six years ? \"\nThe paper was discussed by Professor Frank Thilly, of the University of Missouri ;\nPrincipal Charles C. Ramsay, High School, Fall River, Mass. ; Dr. Robinson, Rock\nIsland, 111.; J. M. Davis, superintendent of secondary schools, Iowa; Professor A. T.\nOrmond, Princeton University, and Dr. Green.\nA paper on \" The Training of the High-.School Teacher \" was presented by Professor M. V. O'Shea, University of Wisconsin.\nThe paper was discussed by Professor Walter B. Jacobs, High School, Providence,\nR. I.; Miss Connolly, Washington, D. C. ; Mr. Roberts, of Missouri; Professor B. A.\nHinsdale, University of Michigan ; Superintendent George V. Buchanan, Sedalia, Mo.\nThe discussion was closed by Professor O'Shea.\nThe meeting then adjourned.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION.— Tuesday, July 12\n\nThe department was called to order by President Jesse at 3 P. M.\nDr. Nicholas Murray Butler, Columbia University, New York city, spoke on the\nsubject : \" Should the undergraduate curriculum of four years in colleges and institutions\nbe shortened by allowing such freedom of electives in the junior and senior years that a\nbachelor degree and a professional degree may be obtained in six years ? \"\nDr. William B. Smith, Tulane University, New Orleans, La., continued the discussion of the question.\nIn the absence of Dr. Albert Shaw, New York city. Professor A. T. Ormond, Princeton University, spoke on the subject : \" Should the undergraduate curriculum of four\nyears in colleges and universities be shortened by reducing it to three years ? \"\nThe discussion was continued by President James H. Baker, University of Colorado,\nand President William F. King, Cornell College, Iowa.\nA paper was read by Professor B. A. Hinsdale, of the University of Michigan, on the\nquestion : \" Is it possible and desirable to form a federation of colleges and universities\nin the United States similar to the Association of American Medical Colleges ?\"\nThe subject was discussed by Mrs. Ellen H. Richards, Massachusetts Institute of\nTechnology, and Professor Taylor, University of New York.\n\n"}
{"page": 712, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n702\n\nProfessor A. T. Ormond moved that a committee of five be appointed to report[Higher\nnext\nyear on a practical plan of effecting a national federation of colleges and universities,\nand to offer recommendations with reference to the same. The motion was amended to\nmake the committee consist of the present officers of the Department of Higher Education, together with Professor B. A. Hinsdale, University of Michigan, and President\nJames M. Baker of Colorado University.\nThe motion was carried.\nMoved by Professor W. H. Black, Missouri Valley College, Marshall, Mo., that the\ncolleges and universities of the United States be notified by the secretary of the Department of Higher Education that the question of a national federa.tion is being investigated and to be voted upon at the next meeting of the association. The motion was\ncarried.\nThe nominating committee reported the following nominations for the ensuing year :\nFor President — Dr. R. B. Fulton, chancellor of the University of Mississippi.\nFor Vice-President — Dr. Elmer E. Brown, professor of pedagogy. University of California.\nFor Secretary — Dr. G. A. Tawney, professor of philosophy, Beloit College, Wisconsin.\nJoseph\nSwain,\nA.\nT. Ormond,\nCommittee.\n\nThe report of the committee was adopted.\nThe department then adjourned.\n\nG. A. Tawney,\nSecretary pro tempore.\n\nARE\n\nTHERE\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nSTUDIES\n\nTHAT,\n\nAS CONSTANTS,\n\nSHOULD\n\nBE\n\n'PURSUED IN SOME MEASURE IN EVERY COURSE IN\nTHE SECONDARY SCHOOLS, AND IN THE FRESHMAN\nAND SOPHOMORE YEARS OF THE COLLEGE ? IF SO,\nWHAT ARE THESE CONSTANTS, AND WHAT SHOULD\nBE THE MINIMUM REQUIREMENT IN EACH IN\nTHESE SIX YEARS?\n\nBY\n\nDR.\n\nJAMES\n\nM.\n\nGREEN,\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nTRENTON,\n\nN. J.\n\nAll our theories of education should follow a careful observation of\nthe experiences a youth is likely to meet in life, and what will best fit him\nfor those experiences. So trite a statement as this would seem out of\nplace, were it not for the fact that many theories of education yet seem\nto be formed from an ideal of what should be, rather than a realization\nof what is ; or are the results of some ambitious efforts at invention. It\nwas not left for man to create the human race, and he can scarcely hope\nto invent any new laws concerning its development, but must content\nhimself with supplying the conditions for that development.\nIn forming any scheme of education, we must not lose sight of the\nfact that our temporal existence is not all of life, but the conclusion is\n\n"}
{"page": 713, "printed_page": null, "text": "DepartmentJ\n\nSTUDIES\n\nAS CONSTANTS\n\nIN HIGHER\n\nEDUCATION\n\n703\n\nwarranted that a proper meeting of the conditions of this life will so\ncompletely fit for the life to come that these two ends are in harmony.\nThe history of education reveals as great a swinging of the pendulum of popular opinion as to what constitutes a good plan of education\nas in any other department of public concern. The time was when the\ntutor was the only school. Two things made this school unsatisfactory ;\none was the expense, the other the lack of contact of the mind of the\npupil with other pupils' minds. Hence the forming of the real school\nwhich accomplishes not only the ends of economy, but community as\nwell.\nA mistaken notion has gained much credence, that when a person\nbecomes a member of a community, he loses his individuality. This\ncan hardly be said to be true, unless, to use an algebraic term, he is\nlosing an unknown quantity. Zoologically speaking, we must recognize\nthe fact that the various species of mankind are to be classified under\nthe genus homo, and that, as members of the human family, there are\nmany things in common. The special, or individual, grows out of the\ngeneral, as the branch leaves the trunk, but, as the branch must be\nrecognized as having the sustaining part of itself in the trunk, so a\nvery large portion of every individual is a part of the common human\ntrunk.\nThe question we are to discuss is : \" Are there studies that are constants, appearing in every course of study in the secondary school and in\nthe first two years of college ?\"\nWe should precede this question with another : Are there lines of\nmental activity that are common and continuous, the product of which\ndepends upon the relative training of the mind ? If such lines of\nactivity appear and require for their competent discipline a given proportion of time each week during the six years under consideration, th'en\nour question for discussion should be answered in the affirmative.\nThere appear to be at least three lines of mental action that are common and continuous. The abstract general names of these lines are\nmathematics, language, and history. The proposition is that there is so\nmuch of that which is of interest and profit to every individual within\nthese three lines that they should be placed in every course of study, or,\nin other words, that every pupil should be required to study them.\nMathematics should include arithmetic, algebra, geometry, trigonometry, and analytical geometry.\nAt first glance, those different names might seem to represent different subjects, but to the psychologist they represent simply progressive\nphases of the same subject. It is this subject that trains what might be\ntermed the measuring, or absolutely comparing, faculty of the human\nmind along all lines of conclusion as to material conditions, as well as\nspace relations.\nWhen one pauses to consider how much of mental\n\n"}
{"page": 714, "printed_page": null, "text": "704\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nactivity is involved in these lines, including, as they do, all financial conceptions, all comparisons of values, all unknown quantities and hypotheses, surely their claim for recognition is established.\nIt is expected that the pupil will have practically completed arithmetic with the grammar or elementary school, and that this subject, if it\nreceive attention at all in the secondary school, will receive only that\nattention which will show its fundamental or philosophical relations,\nthe one part to the other. And in these days, when the spiral system is\ngaining proper respect, the introduction to algebra and inventional\ngeometry is in the elementary school. To all practical purposes, algebra should be taken up with the secondary school, and so much of it taken\nas is indicated in the ordinary elementary algebra. In other words, exercises should be given in each of the essential forms that will give the\npupil a good working knowledge. That which is commonly understood\nby higher arithmetic and higher algebra, namely, an exceedingly high\nform of arithmetical or algebraic calisthenics, should be discouraged as\nconsuming too much time, keeping the pupil too long away from those\nprocesses which are absolutely essential to progress. Plane and solid\ngeometry, trigonometry, and analytical geometry will require a just proportion of the pupil's time until the close of the sophomore year, and will\nresult in giving him so much of mental discipline, and at the same time\nacquaintance with processes, as will fit him for all those forms of reasoning which may be said to be sufficiently common to receive the attention\nof everyone.\nTraining in language should be continuous from the first entrance of\nthe child in school, certainly until the end of the sophomore year. The\nterms grammar, rhetoric, English and American literature seem unfortunate byreason of their tendency to create the impression that there are\nphases to which we can entirely devote ourselves for a given length of\ntime. If the growth of the mind is to be natural, the growth in language\nmust be natural ; that is to say, continuous. Language is the power to\ninterpret and express thought. Too often it has been understood to\nmean the forms for the expression of thought. The writer is not at all\nin sympathy with a practice that yet prevails to some extent, and formerly prevailed largely, which consisted in distinguishing parts of speech\nand carrying them thru their modifications, independent of a correlative content of meaning. Figure of speech, order in thought, and sustained composition ar^ all relative terms. One phase of language passes\ninto another as imperceptibly as one shade of color passes into another.\nIt is unfortunate to define the work of the secondary school and the first\ntwo years of college in terms of rhetoric and literature, American or\nEnglish, classic or modern. It is much better to define it in terms of\nauthors. We must regard language as the reservoir of the thought of all\nthe ages on all the subjects of interest to any age.\nHere are found what\n\n"}
{"page": 715, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSTUDIES\n\nAS CONSTANTS\n\nIN HIGHER\n\nEDUCATION\n\n705\n\nthe physicist might describe as the varieties of mental energies, known as\nstyles in composition.\nThe course of study mapped out in language\nshould include treatises on the various subjects of most common interest\nin styles of most marked\npower.\nFiction, poetry, essay, description,\nanalysis — all should come in, as exemplified by the masters, in forms\nadapted to the child at the various stages of his growth.\nThe writer cannot heartily indorse as anything other than an expedient a practice, which\nseems to be gaining recognition, of selecting a certain few works in literature for college-entrance examinations one year and certain others\nanother year. It seems to imply that the virtue of an education in this\nline consists in being able to guess out beforehand what works will be set\nfor the examination, and then preparing on those works.\nLet us hasten\nthe day when good, wholesome common sense shall actuate us in matters\nof education, as well as in other matters of life. How well we know that\nto be educated does not involve necessarily a knowledge of any one author\non any one subject.\nA regular course should be mapped out which would\nresult in power — wKich, after all, is the only definition of education ; and\nall tests for college entrance or for college exit should aim simply to discover the degree of the existence of this quality.\nA man who understands testing power in language is perfectly willing to place into the\nhands of a student the work upon which he is to be examined, knowing\nthat the answers to such questions as he may suggest will expose the real\ncomprehension and grasp and culture he is seeking to test. This work\nin language should not be limited to the mother-tongue, but should\ninclude at least one foreign language.\nWhile the speaking value in the\nforeign language is to be prized, yet the increased power in the mothertongue, that is to say, the increased culture and power in our own forms\nof thought that we acquire thru the study of a foreign tongue, would seem\nto be the greatest value to be gained.\nWe are asked to name the minimum in each of these constants. It\nseems rather narrow to specify the subjects that should constitute the\nminimum. Fortunately for our youth, nearly every one of the great masters in English has written something for the children, as well as something for the adult portion of his readers. We should include something\nfrom Longfellow, Holmes, Emerson, Whittier, Kingsley, Anderson,\nIrving, Scott, Shakespeare, Dickens, Milton, Addison, Macaulay, Goldsmith, Tennyson, Dante, Homer, Virgil. Well-chosen selections from\nthese writers will furnish the growing mind with food from objects of\nnature, discussions of state, themes of literature of fictitious origin, principles of religion, art, and sociology — indeed, from all that variety of\nsubjects which is yet the common current thought of the race, and without\nwhich the mind can scarcely be said to be abreast of the civilization of its\nown period.\nHistory, like language and mathematics, should be taken up in the\n\n"}
{"page": 716, "printed_page": null, "text": "7o6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nelementary course ; but, in the very nature of the child's mind, little more\ncan be done than to present the narrative side in an interesting manner.\nThe subject of history should include much of geography, not particularly for the sake of concentration, but rather because you cannot properly\nstudy history without it. History, in the true sense of the word, is a real\ninquiry into the origin, growth, and development of all of our institutions,\nof whatever character, social, political, religious, educational, or otherwise. We need to study government in its widening stages, from the village thru the municipality and the state to the general government.\nThere appears to be very little value in the independent study of the\nordinary texts on civil government, or constitution, or finance, but we cannot intelligently study the development of a country without clearly\nunderstanding the important part that has been played by its system of\nfinance, its systems of transportation, and the relations between the local\nand general governments. We must understand of any nation something\nof its art, its religion, its literature, its government, its education, and\nits industries. The history of America cannot be studied intelligently\nwithout a study of the history of Greece, Rome, and England. It is\ntrue, we need also to know something of France and Germany. It is\nnot the thought that, in studying the history of these foreign countries,\nwe need to enter into all the dynasties, or, indeed, take up that incidental character which may be considered almost personal ; but we should\ncertainly be able to inquire into those institutions out of which grew our\nown. We are to be met in the future by those who would vote upon\nthe popular election of a United States senator, or upon his election\nby a legislature, as tho it were a simple question of popular choice,\nrather than one involving a fundamental principle. The same class of\npeople would vote upon a state or national banking system as tho they\nwere mere expedients or establishments of convenience, rather than institutions involving the principles of confidence upon which alone can be\nbased great business transactions. This same class of people will approach\nsuch questions as national or individual ownership of railroads and telegraph lines as tho there was involved no fundamental question as to what\nwill stimulate prosperity with a people.\nIt really seems sometimes, when we look back over our courses of\nstudy and our practices under these courses, that we have concerned ourselves least with the questions that are of most value, and given most of\nour attention to the phases that are of least concern relatively.\nWhat form of municipal government in England and America has\nbeen most economical, in the true sense of the word, is a question which,\nif answered, would help the great mass of people of our country very\nmuch.\nQuestions similar to this arise constantly in this subject of history.\nI should say a minimum in history should include of Greece, Rome,\nEngland, and America at least a study of their foreign relations ; leading\n\n"}
{"page": 717, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSTUDIES\n\nAS CONSTANTS\n\nIN HIGHER\n\nEDUCATION\n\n^o^\n\nwars and the results ; their constitutional development ; religion ; educational, social, and commercial development, and their general progress.\nIf these three subjects are taken up in the manner suggested, it will\nrequire a given amount of time each week during the six years to give\nthem the requisite attention, but there will be left opportunity for other\nequally important correlative subjects, but subjects requiring each a less\namount of time.\nIn closing this necessarily brief paper, I appeal again for these three\nsubjects as constants, on the ground that they concern every life, and that\nthere is in them more for every life than in any subject that might be substituted for any one of them.\n\nDISCUSSION\nFrank Thillv, professor of philosophy. University of Missouri. — The function of\nthe secondary school and the college is to educate human beings. To educate a human\nbeing is to fit him for solving the problems of \" complete living,\" or for realizing the\nhighest good. A man is educated when he understands himself and his physical and\npsychical environment, that is, nature and humanity ; when the world arouses in him the\nnormal intellectual, aesthetical, and moral feelings ; and when he can react upon it for his\nown and others' good. He must know in order that he may feel and act, and he must\nfeel and act in order that he may know. But since we cannot influence the emotional and\nvolitional nature systematically except from the cognitive side, instruction will be particularly concerned with the intellect. The young should be trained to perceive, judge, and\nreason ; to analyze and synthetize phenomena ; to break the world into pieces and to put\nit together again in new ways, according to the purposes of the individual ; to use the\nfacts as stepping-stones to something higher. Hence we shall do well to select such subjects as have both formal and material value ; that is, such as develop the mind and at\nthe same time furnish it with useful knowledge. That knowledge, however, is useful\nwhich gives us a deeper insight into the workings of the physical and spiritual universe,\nand enables us to enjoy and control it. Knowledge, as Paulsen says, that does not make\nus wiser and more prudent has no value. \" Was man nicht nutzt, ist eine schwere Last.\"\nAmong the studies meeting these requirements I mention, first, natural science. The\nstudy of natural science by the laboratory method develops all the intellectual powers and\nleads to the acquisition of useful information. \" Science,\" to use Huxley's words, \" is\nnothing but trained and organized common sense.\" The student learns to see things for\nhimself; to depend upon his own judgment; to be truthful, careful, and exact. Words\ncome to stand for clear and definite objects, and ideas are expressed in accurate language.\nThe contemplation of nature may also be made the source of aesthetical and religious\nenjoyment, as has often been pointed out. Three years of at least three hours per week\nshould be spent in the investigation of the forms and occurrences of the external world.\nBut facts must be measured and their quantitative relations discovered. This necessitates the study of mathematics, algebra, geometry, trigonometry, etc. In addition to its\npractical utility, this subject has great formal or disciplinary value as a means of exercising the powers of abstraction and deductive reasoning. I should, therefore, require at\nleast two years of mathematics.\nThe world, however, is not a mere soulless machine ; it is a spiritual being.\nMental\n\n"}
{"page": 718, "printed_page": null, "text": "7o8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nphenomena are as worthy of being investigated, and a knowledge of them is as useful, as\nthe facts of the corporeal realm, and only a one-sided system of education can afford to\nignore them. An educated man will have some knowledge of the operations of consciousnes , ofthe principles of conduct, of the laws of economic life and government, and\nof the development of the human mind in history. He cannot gain that insight into the\nmeaning of life of which we have spoken, nor properly perform his duties as a member\nof society, without understanding these things. A country, especially, in which every\ncitizen is called upon to assist in solving weighty moral, political, and economic problems\nshould pay attention to what we might call the mental sciences. I would recommend a\nminimum requirement of three years for history, one year for political economy and\n..politics, and one year for psychology and ethics.\nWe study language to understand the inner, spiritual life of a people, and to give\nexpression to our own states of soul. But language is not merely the outward symbol or\ninstrument of thought; it assists thought. Ideas and their relations are associated with\nmotor processes, words, gestures, facial movements, and thereby fixed in the mind. In\nlearning to speak, we learn to think and feel with our people : words are the frozen concepts and feelings of the race. We should teach the young to read, write, and speak\ntheir mother-tongue ; place them in possession of their spiritual inheritance. Four years\nshould be devoted to English rhetoric and literature.\nBut a national spiritual life is not an isolated, independent thing ; it is a part of the\ntotal spiritual life of humanity. Hence, in order to understand ourselves, we must understand other peoples ; and this we cannot do well without a knowledge of foreign languages. Occupation with foreign languages also gives us greater breadth of view ;\nmakes us more tolerant and sympathetic. \"To learn a new language is to acquire a new\nsoul,\" as has wisely been said. We should, therefore, study, first of all, the modern languages, the languages of the present intellectual leaders of mankind, German and French,\nwhich, owing to the growing international intercourse in science, art, and commerce, have\nalso a great practical value. The minimum requirement should be two years of modern\nlanguages.\nIn conclusion, a place should also be found, at least in the curriculum of the secondary school, for such subjects as drawing, manual training, and gymnastics. All of\nthese exercises assist us in gaining control of the body, in acquiring skill in the use of our\nlimbs. They are likewise a source of recreation and pleasure — the pleasure which\naccompanies healthful and successful activity — and develop the intellectual powers.\nPrinicpal Charles C. Ramsay, High School, Fall River, Mass., referred to the\npaper by Dr. Green and to the discussion of Professor Thilly as scientific appreciations\nof the different branches of knowledge. It is a mistake, said he, to think we can say just\nwhat lines of study should be universally pursued by pupils. I would go no farther than\nto require English and one foreign language of pupils in the secondary course, leaving it\nto the pupil to elect. Elaborate requirements give the students only the scraps and\nfragments of what might be a fine feast.\nDr. Robinson, Rock Island, 111., spoke in commendation of Mr. Ramsay's view.\nHis own experience would point to a similiar policy. We must, said he, make a minimum\nof requirement in the essentials, and leave the further choice of studies to the students\nand their parents. We should adhere neither to a purely elective nor to a pure requirement policy in the secondary schools.\nJ. M. Davis, superintendent of secondary schools in Iowa, emphasized the need of an\nabundance of good reading for the social as well as intellectual culture.\nProfessor A. T. Ormond, of Princeton University, dwelt upon the need of the\nstudent for guidance and direction in the choice of studies. Instead of one rigid\nrequirement for all, we might require one or more of several alternative courses. Very\noften neither the pupil nor his parent is able to choose wisely.\nThere are certain\n\n"}
{"page": 719, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nTRAINING\n\nOF THE\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nTEACHER\n\n709\n\nconstants, such as language, history, nature study, and mathematics, which, in some of\ntheir aspects at least, all should study.\nDr. Green renewed the discussion as to constants. It is not the question of electives, but of those studies which ought to be pursued by all students, with which we are\ndealing. He deprecated the idea that the child is able to choose his own studies.\nNatural science, manual training, drawing, etc., need to be taught, but they need not\noccupy the place of constants which continue thru the secondary and the first two\nyears of the higher courses.\nProfessor Thilly, in conclusion, emphasized the fact that theories as to the\narrangement of studies cannot be experimented with as a physicist or a chemist experiments with his elements. The question here discussed cannot be settled upon the basis\nof experience alone. The considerations, of greatest value for us are our knowledge of\nthe mind, the laws of its activity and growth, and our knowledge of the materials of\ninstruction.\n\nTHE\n\nTRAINING\n\nBY M. V. O SHEA,\n\nOF THE\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nTEACHER\n\nSCIENCE\n\nOF EDUCATION,\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nOF THE\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF WISCONSIN,\n\nAND\n\nART\n\nMADISON\n\n[abstract]\n\nThe present view of the requirements for teaching, as well in the\nhigh school as elsewhere, regards adequate preparation in scholarship and\nspecial study of the science and art of education as equally essential.\nThe Committee of Fifteen, reporting upon the training of teachers, rightfully maintains that \" If college graduates are put directly into teaching\nwithout special study and training, they will teach as they have been\ntaught. The methods of college professors are not in all cases the best,\nand, if they were, high-school pupils are not to be taught nor disciplined\nas college students are\nSuccess in teaching depends upon conformity to principles, and these principles are not a part of the mental\nequipment of every educated person\nThe training of teachers for\nsecondary schools is in several essential respects the same as that for\nteachers of elementary schools. Both demand scholarship, theory, and\npractice.\"\nWhile it is possible to obtain definite statistics respecting the\npreparation of high-school teachers in but a few of our own states, still\nestimates by officials familiar with the conditions declare that quite a\nlarge percentage of instructors in secondary schools — apparently less in\nNew England than elsewhere — have not had the advantage of a college\neducation. Of the 700 instructors in the secondary schools of Wisconsin 50 per cent, only are college graduates ; while of the remainder\n27 per cent, are graduates of normal schools and 23 per cent, have not\npursued their studies beyond the high school. In Minnesota, out of a\ntotal of 376 secondary-school assistants, 255 are college graduates, 76 are\n\n"}
{"page": 720, "printed_page": null, "text": "7IO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nnormal-school graduates, while 45 terminated their academic career with\nthe high school. The ideal of scholarly preparation on the part of the\nsecondary-school teacher has apparently not made so great headway thus\nfar in Missouri, for only about one-third of her teachers have college\ndegrees, while a greater number have had neither normal-school nor\nuniversity training.\nThe factor of meager salary is perhaps more than any other making\nimpossible the attainment of a scholarly teaching standard on the part of\ninstructors in the secondary school. The remuneration for services\nin many localities is not calculated to encourage thoro preparation,\nand so to draft college graduates into service. On the average,\nmale assistants in high schools the country over do not receive more\nthan $1,000 per annum, to be very liberal; while in the majority of\nschools in Wisconsin $800 is the maximum. A woman is thought\nto be unusually fortunate in my own state when she receives $700,\nand this appears to be regarded as a generous allowance in Connecticut,\nNew York, and other states as well. These amounts are no greater\nthan, commonly not so great as, normal-school graduates expect to\nreceive. Indeed — and it should be encouraging to the profession of\nschool-teaching to be able to say this — school officials in Wisconsin are\nnot infrequently informed by the presidents of normal schools that $700\nis the least sum for which any of their strong candidates may be obtained.\nSo far as my knowledge extends, persons completing their education in\ntraining schools, and occupying either assistant positions or principalships\nin the high schools, are, speaking generally, reaping as fruitful harvests as\nuniversity graduates in corresponding situations. Under such conditions\nit is little less than inevitable that young men and women should pursue\nthe path of least resistance leading to the desired high-school berth ; and,\nin view of these circumstances, it is evident that the problem of\nsecuring a high standard of scholarship in the secondary school is\nprimarily a sociological, not a professional, one. It needs ever and always\nto be appreciated that the school, being one of a complex of social forces,\ncannot rise far above the common level of social evolution.\nReform must strike at social inertia and social hindrances, as they\naffect education ; and very much is being accomplished in some parts of\nour country today by the social agitation of educational questions.\nSurely, criticism heaped upon the schools in general and the teachers\nthereof in particular, without indicating clearly the source of shortcomings,\nnot only fails to encourage amendment, but it seriously aggravates\nalready unhappy conditions.\nBut the factor of inadequate stipend is not the only one which has\noperated in the past, and is now at work barring applicants with university\ndiplomas from the secondary schools. The well-nigh hopeless inefficiency,\none might almost say imbecility, of a college youth fresh from his books\n\n"}
{"page": 721, "printed_page": null, "text": "DepartmenO\n\nTHE\n\nTRAINING\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nTEACHER\n\n71 1\n\nbefore a room full of high-school boys and girls, anticipating with eagerness, not to say malice aforethought, the performances of the young\nrecruit, has always attracted the attention and stimulated the irony of\nschool officials. One may hear it proclaimed on every hand, if he listens\nfor it, that, at the start at any rate, however it may be at the finish, altho\nso many college men switch off the pedagogical track before they have\ncaught their second breath that the indictment is doubtless true for the\nentire race, irrespective of tinie limitations — one may hear it said that\nthe normal-trained sprinter has better wind and gait than the university\nman, who during his college course has in reality never heard or seen\nanything about secondary teaching, and who steps off the first day totally\nignorant of the rules of the track or of how he should rightly handle\nhimself. , It is sometimes said in apology for the college graduate's\nempty-handedness that, having passed thru the process of schooling himself, he must of necessity have acquired the art of imparting knowledge\nto others. This doctrine, so deceptive because it sounds so rational, was\nadvanced long ago by a Massachusetts legislature appointed to report\nupon the work of the early normal schools ; but it met with little approbation at that time — much more than it merited, tho — and has since been\nentirely discarded by intelligent persons familiar at all with the real\nproblems of education. The situation here depicted is a really serious\none, and, until it is remedied by greatly improving the teaching power of\ncollege candidates, we must continue to have normal-trained persons in\nhigh-school positions. If, as is done in Wisconsin, inducements could\nbe given to normal-school graduates to complete a college course in preparation for high-school positions, the problem would be, in a measure,\nsolved. During the past year over forty graduates from the normal\nschools of Wisconsin, and a number from other states, entered the junior\nclass in the course leading to the degree of bachelor of philosophy in\neducation ; and it is believed that this indicates a significant departure in\nthe training of the secondary-school teacher. But it must be true that,\nfor a long time to come, the majority of teachers in the high schools will\nnot have attended a normal school, and it is with their preparation that\nwe are for the present concerned.\nIn 1895 the general assembly of Connecticut directed the state\nboard of education to inquire into the condition of the high schools ;\nand, after a painstaking and detailed study of conditions, a report was\nmade last year charging them with deplorable inefficiency, to be accounted\nfor, at least in considerable measure, by the inferior character of the\ninstruction.\nThe report proceeds to say that\nGraduates of colleges, fresh from their books, apply, fortified with recommendations\nfrom the president or professors, purporting to show that the holders have been faithful,\nhave attained a high rank in scholarship, and have traits of character which are sure to\nmake them teachers\nThe students thus recommended\nare often really strong\n\n"}
{"page": 722, "printed_page": null, "text": "712\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nin their college subjects, and particularly qualified in some special branch. None of\nthem are acquainted with the philosophy or history of education, and they are not\nprepared to teach any subject.\nIn not more than three or four schools was real teaching, as distinguished from\nexamination, found. Usually a lesson is given, consisting of so many pages or so many\nexamples ; the recitation hour is occupied in finding out whether this lesson so given has\nbeen learned. A lesson in algebra is assigned, say twelve examples on the thirtieth\npage, and then the recitation hour is occupied in finding out whether the scholar has\n\" done \" them. In a recitation in history the lesson consisted in part of the list of\nRoman emperors in order from Augustus to Trajan, and the only question possible was\nwhether the right succession and the years were correctly given.\nThere is no opportunity for skill except in questioning. This questioning, if mere\nquestioning or constant examination be teaching, was often without preparation and\naimless. It sometimes hit the mark, and sometimes did not. It is always suggestive of\nthe man who went out to kill a bear and hit a calf. There was little evidence of preparation on the lessons. In Latin classes taught by experienced teachers there was evident\nas much preparation as results from going over a subject year after year, and if eternal\nexamination on a definite line be teaching, the best teaching was found in the Latin\nclasses.\n\nWithout minimizing the evils of inadequate scholarship, still, regarding things as they are, the chiefest defect in the preparation of college\ngraduates for teaching is seen to be the almost utter lack of instructional\nknowledge, interest, and experience under wise criticism, which results\ntoo often in there being less genuine teaching in the high school than in\nany of the grades below it. But even if college students designing to\nteach had desired to make decent preparation therefor, they could not\nuntil recently have found adequate opportunities in universities anywhere ;\nand they can find these even yet in but a half dozen or fewer institutions, altho the facilities in universities for the study of education, particularly in its scientific and concrete aspects, are being multiplied\nevery year, and the number of students availing themselves of these\nadvantages is increasing rapidly. In 1890 there were reported to the\nCommissioner of Education 3,414 students, in 114 universities and colleges, pursuing courses of study designed for the training of teachers.\nIn 1895 the list of institutions had increased to 192, and the number of\nstudents to 6,402. However, in the larger proportion of these cases the\neducational studies were fragmentary, and entirely theoretical, the professor of philosophy frequently discoursing a few times a year in a highly\nabstract and learned manner upon pedagogical themes ; altho twentyseven universities reported having regularly organized departments of\npedagogy, with courses of study extending over four years, and leading\nto degrees equivalent to first degrees given in other departments. In a few\ninstances postgraduate courses were offered ; and in all attention was\npaid not alone to the history, theory, and philosophy of education, but\nmethods of instruction and school organization were considered as well.\nThus the good work moves on apace.\nWithin recent years it has\n\n"}
{"page": 723, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nTRAINING\n\nOF THE\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nTEACHER\n\n7 >3\n\ninspired the establishment of independent schools of pedagogy and\nnormal colleges; and in their organization these have, for the most part,\nrecognized the demands of concrete, as well as practical, training. While\nfacilities of whatever sort for the training of secondary teachers are, considering the exigencies of the situation, to be hailed with delight wherever and whenever they make their appearance, yet, in view of the needs\nof those who train youth, who should be men among men, in sympathy\nwith the varied interests of the community, broad in culture and catholic\nin opinion, capable of taking an important part in social functions and\ndirecting social activities — considering these obligations, it is apparent\nthat the teacher's training should be secured in universities, the home of\nall activities, the foster-mother of all interests, the best representative of\ncosmopolitan life. When the teacher's studies are pursued in independent endowments, where he sees and hears nothing but what has concern\nwith his special calling, and where all the minds he comes in contact with\nare running abreast of one another in the same groove — in such an\nenvironment he is only too apt to become a pedagog indeed, such a one\nas has supplied Shakespeare and Swift and Pope, and many another\nsatirist, with the motif iox some of their keenest jests. It would not be of\nso much account whether the teacher was cut on a generous or meager\nplan, if it were not that his attitude toward life and things has such a\ntremendous, almost immeasurable, influence upon the tide of life of rising\ngenerations, elevating or depressing as his own is exalted or narrowly\nlimited, instilling in the minds of the young just and reasonable, or\nbigoted and erroneous, views of varied political and social interests,\nreligion, and the like. And the best and surest way to secure breadth in\nthe teacher is to keep him, during his formative period, in an environment\nwhere things are built on generous foundations — the university, which, of\nall social forces, is, or ought to be, the most liberal and comprehensive.\nBut even regarding all of our opportunities, in the university and\nelsewhere, for the decent and efficient training of secondary teachers,\nthey are seen to be wholly inadequate to meet the demands. The German people have progressed far beyond us in this respect. Findlay,'\nwriting on the training of secondary-school teachers in Germany, says\nthat \"students who take a special interest in Pddagogik have opportunities for pursuing their inquiries during their university career. The\nliberty allowed to the German undergraduate of keeping terms in any\nGerman university enables such men to go to Halle, or Leipzig, or\nGiessen, or Jena, in each of which universities elaborate arrangements\nare made for 'practical' training in school classes, associated with courses\nof university lectures.\n\" For more than fifty years every intending teacher, after passing his\nStaatsexamen, has been sent to a gymnasium or other secondary school\n' Report of the Commissioner of Education, 1894-95, P- 703-\n\n"}
{"page": 724, "printed_page": null, "text": "714\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nfor his trial year, called the Frobejahr. He is not paid any salary, but is\nattached to the staff, teaching for a few hours every week and learning\nwhat he can from the head master and his colleagues.\" In 1890 an\nimportant reform law was enacted requiring that all candidates should\ntake a year of actual training in a properly organized seminar, and this in\naddition to a preceding Probejahr.\nWhile it may be questioned whether the German plan does not lay\ntoo great emphasis upon professional training for all instructors, yet it\ncannot be gainsaid that the principle upon which it is reared is eternally\nright, in its fundamental features at least. We in this country need on\nthe part alike of schoolmen and of the public a better knowledge of\nwhat professional studies aim to accomplish, and a greater appreciation\nof their value to the teacher in the secondary school or elsewhere. The\ndean of one of our great universities recently delivered himself of the\nopinion that it was not necessary, in order to teach biology in the high\nschool, that one should have studied the science and art of education.\nHe urged the argument that to have mastered the facts to be taught was\nin itself sufificient to give the candidate power to put those facts into the\nminds of his pupils — a very ancient contention, 'and one founded upon\na false view alike of the way in which the mind puts off ignorance and\nadorns itself with knowledge, and of the large purposes of instruction in\nscience or in other studies. Further expressions of the dean revealed the\nfact that he regarded the study of education as consisting of the parrotlike learning of pedagogical theories and devices for teaching — a chimera\nhaunting the minds of many in academic circles even today. The normal\nschools have doubtless fostered this widespread illusion, since in the\nindiscreet years of their youth they magnified to such proportions the\npetty details of schoolroom methods that the foundation principles were,\nin considerable measure, obscured. But for the most part these institutions have outgrown this formal stage in their evolution, until now the\nstudies which primarily engage their attention relate to the modes of\nhuman development, with the purpose in mind to determine how this\nmay be influenced for good by educational agencies. It is recognized\nthat the process of maturing in childhood proceeds in conformity to certain general laws of growth which reign everywhere in the universe, and\nwhich must be consulted in all education alike in the selection of subjects\nto be taught, and in the order and manner of presenting them. Need it\nbe argued that this constitutes a most profitable study to be pursued by\nthe candidate for teaching, and a most intricate one as well ?\nBut the average layman is inclined to regard this as he does other\nrelated matters — that there is nothing so involved or abstruse respecting\nthe maturing of childhood and youth, and simple common sense is\nsufficiently wise for purposes of instruction. Such a proposition proceeds,\nfrom a mind full of ignorance regarding the vital matters at issue; and it\n\n"}
{"page": 725, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nTRAINING\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nTEACHER\n\n715\n\nmay be explained by the well-known psychological law, that the less\ndeeply one's vision has penetrated into a field of thought, the less of consequence he is able to descry in it,, and the more confident he is that he\nhas acquired full knowledge respecting it. This may be likened to the\noptical phenomenon, that the farther an object is removed into the distance,\nthe smaller and more insignificant it becomes. If native instinct and\ncommon sense were a sufficient equipment for one who fashions the minds\nand attunes the hearts of childhood and youth, we should, indeed, have\nhad our best parents and teachers among the most ignorant of people,\nwhom nature, and not tuition, has instructed, and so in whom instinct is\nthe guide of life. But every psychologist knows that what is popularly\ncalled common sense is in many situations a most dangerous attribute, for\nit fills the mind with contentment regarding its own limited attainments\nin particular directions, and gives an assurance in wonted action which\nis the accompaniment of nothing else than ignorance and prejudice.\nCommon sense (common ignorance would be more appropriate) originally\nconceived and now nurses the rough-and-ready method of training childhood which is the only recourse of savage people, and which brutes\nemploy in the discipline of their young, but which has lost its effectiveness in the present stage of the evolution of the human race, and which,\nif continued, simply tends to hold the development of mankind in check,\npromoting arrest upon the savage plane.\nThe candidate for a position in the high school, then, should devote\nhis attention, in the first place, to the study of human development, seeking to acquire a sort of natural history of the maturing mind. Modern\nresearclj^s in the biological sciences have taught us that, at least in a\ngeneral way, every new being recapitulates in sequence, up to the point\noccupied by his particular species in the scale of life, the principal characteristics ofthe phylogenetic series ; and they have shown, further, that\ncertain influences hasten this process, while others retard it, and even\nprevent the individual in some instances from passing clear thru the\nlower orders, bringing them into life thus unformed, or, as we say,\ndeformed. Much evidence from many sources is constraining us in these\ntimes to the conviction that the child must reproduce within himself the\nancestral record not only physically, but he must live over again, in some\ndegree, the mental experiences of his predecessors in the racial series.\nAnd as in embryological development untoward influences may lead to\narrest, so in the child's mental growth unwise treatment may cause him\nto stop upon some platform lower than that which he was designed by\nnature to attain. Is it not of supremest consequence that the intending\nteacher should familiarize himself with these primary laws of growth,\nto the extent that they are definitely understood, so that in his training he may have his course guided by them to the greatest possible\ndegree ?\n\n"}
{"page": 726, "printed_page": null, "text": "7l6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nAnd it seems of particular moment that the secondary-school instructor\nshould study earnestly the principles of human development, considering\nthat the epoch in an individual's career occupied substantially by the\nhigh-school period is marked by the most significant and vital phenomena. So great are the spiritual transformations which are now wrought\nin the lives of youth that many have regarded these events as constituting in truth a second birth hardly less momentous than the first. There\nare no people so benighted but that they recognize in adolescence the\ngreatest crisis in the process of maturing; and nature has taught them to\nfill this period with religious ceremonies arid practices which are adapted\nto impress the cardinal virtues of courage, honesty, and obedience upon\nblossoming manhood and womanhood. This being a season of both\nphysical and mental unrest, of incessant change in ideals, of the advent\nof a great multitude of strange energies and emotions that need the most\ncareful direction, of the ready formation of settled convictions which\npersist thruout adult life — considering these and other things, how great\nis the necessity for the keenest insight on the part of those who are\ncharged with the responsibility of guiding lives thru this dangerous pass\nconnecting childhood and maturity !\nIn concluding, it scarcely need be mentioned, certainly not argued,\nthat the candidate for the privilege of instructing youth, having diligently\npursued studies relating to human development and to the great science of\neducation founded securely thereupon, should have seen the doctrines he\nhas thus acquired tested and applied in actual practice during his probationary period. He should himself try his hand at this, in order that he\nmay be aided by those who have been successful before him, and who may\nbe of service to him by pointing out wherein his practice is not in harmony\nwith his theory and suggesting how improvements may be made. It is\nsurely a crude, sorry way, and one entirely out of harmony with presentday methods in all walks of life, to turn loose upon youth, at a time when\nit needs the wisest guidance, raw, undisciplined tutors, who, it is hoped,\nwill ultimately acquire skill by lawless experimentation upon innocent\nsubjects.\nIf, then, the secondary teacher adds to a thoro college education\ngenuine scientific study of human development and the educational laws\ngrowing out therefrom, and tests his art in the presence of experts, he\nhas done only that which should be required of him before he is permitted\nto enter the schoolroom. It is true, of course, that he may not even\nthen be a fit guide for youth, if nature has not been generous in her first\ngifts to him ; but in any event, whether favored or not, he will be more\nefficient in proportion as he has improved upon and developed native\nendowments. To attain in the case of every secondary teacher the\nrequirement here presented is largely a social, but partly a professional,\n\n"}
{"page": 727, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSHORTENING\n\nOF UNDERGRADUATE\n\nCURRICULUM\n\nVI\n\ntask ; ahd when it is met, as it surely must be in the fullness of time, we\nmay, then, have in every secondary schoolroom one\n\" Who grows not alone in knowledge and power,\nBut day by day, and hour by hour,\nIn reverence and in charity.\"\n\nSHOULD THE UNDERGRADUATE CURRICULUM OE FOUR\nYEARS IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES BE SHORTENED BY ALLOWING SUCH FREEDOM OF ELECTIVES\nIN THE JUNIOR AND SENIOR YEARS THAT A BACHELOR DEGREE AND A PROFESSIONAL DEGREE MAY\nBE OBTAINED IN SIX YEARS?\nBY DR. NICHOLAS\n\nMURRAY\n\nBUTLER,\n\nCOLUMBIA\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nNEW\n\nYORK\n\nCITY\n\nA course of broad, liberal culture preparatory to a professional training is necessary to a complete equipment for life. Only those schools\nare, in a strict sense, professional which require such a course as a condition of entrance, and eliminate from their curriculum all subjects which\ndo not have an immediate bearing upon professional training. There\nare but two such schools in America of genuine university rank, viz., the\nHarvard Law School and the Johns Hopkins Medical School. On the\nother hand, we have too many schools in America of a semi-professional\nand semi-liberal character. Many of these are carried on as private\ninvestments, which bring large returns to their proprietors. It being to\ntheir interest to admit as many students as possible, they often take them\nwithout any secondary or liberal training. Consequently the time has\ncome when law and medicine are no longer learned professions. They\nare often pursued as trades.\nThe college offers the liberal education that should lie at the foundation of professional training, and it occupies a place midway between the\nsecondary school and the professional school. As such it can only\njustify its existence by giving a training which adequately compensates\nfor the four years and the expense involved in taking such a course. The\ntruth is, the college has scarcely effected its aim in this country, for the\nobvious reason that, in order to take a college course, the professional\nman must wait until he is between twenty-five or thirty years of age\nbefore he can maintain himself in life.\nThis difficulty can be met in cases where the college is part of a university system, and where the range of electives is broad, by permitting\nthe student to elect studies in such a way as to cover the first year of his\nprofessional course during the junior and senior years of college.\nIn\n\n"}
{"page": 728, "printed_page": null, "text": "7l8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nthis way the student shortens his stay in the professional school by a year,\nwithout really shortening either his liberal or his professional training.\nAt Columbia University this arrangement has brought about at least\none unexpected and beneficent result. Students who never expect to\ntake professional courses after leaving college are found availing themselves of the opportunity to take the fundamentals of professional training as a preparation for business pursuits. This is especially true of the\nlaw courses, altho it holds as well for the other technical subjects. There\nare certain studies in the mental, the political, and the social sciences\nwhich all students desire, because they contribute materially to that\nbreadth of culture and intellectual equipment which it is the aim of a\nliberal education to produce ; and these studies are made available to all\nstudents in the junior and senior years.\nAll this is possible only in colleges which form parts of universities. In\nthe 420 or 430 colleges in America which are not parts of universities the\nquestion arises whether the course should not be reduced to three years.\nThis difficult question is the subject of a later paper on this program.\nThe semi-professional schools, after reducing their entrance requirements to the minimum which enables students to enter them without a\npreparatory liberal training, are now endeavoring to lengthen their courses\nso as to extend over from three to four years. I deprecate this tendency.\nThe real solution is not in this direction. The surer way of effecting\nthat reorganization of our educational system which is so obviously\nneeded is to raise the entrance requirements of the professional schools\nso as to make a preparatory liberal training necessary, and then to eliminate all studies from the professional course which do not have an immediate bearing on professional training.\n\nDISCUSSION\nDr. William Benjamin Smith, professor of mathematics, Tulane University,\nstated that the subject was one upon which he had thought and formed definite\nopinions, but which had not occupied his attention recently. In the few minutes allotted\nhim he would endeavor to state some of his conclusions, but not to ground them with reasons satisfactory to himself, much less to his hearers.\nThe plan sketched by Dr. Butler had much to recommend it under certain conditions, and in its original, or perhaps some modified, form it might with advantage be tried in\nother college-universities. ' However, all such compromises and half-measures offered no\nfinal solution, in principle, for the educational puzzle of today, tho they might be useful,\ninstructive, and even necessary stages toward such a solution.\nThe fact is that our present college-university is a kind of educational centaur, which\ncannot be dealt with quite satisfactorily in its present form. It involves a certain junction\nof disparates, a mingling of heterogeneous elements that will hardly enter into combination. In the lower grades of the quadrennium\nthe culture elements are exclusively\n\n"}
{"page": 729, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSHORTENING\n\nOF UNDERGRADUATE\n\nCURRICULUM\n\n7^9\n\npresent, but in the upper these yield place more and more to the professional, or semiprofessional. This signifies that there is everywhere an awakening sense of too many\nyears preparatory to professional or university studies proper. To struggle against this\ntendency to shorten the college course is idle ; it will assert itself and accomplish its end\nthis way or that, even if it should have to strand the college course, expelling this latter\nfrom the general current of education. For the complaint that our American youth\nbegins his university course too late in life by at least two years is only too well\ngrounded. He is, in fact, at least in the backbone culture studies, more particularly the\nlanguages and mathematics, some three or four years behind his English, German, and\neven French cousins. While he is wrestling with Caesar, Xenophon, and elementary\nalgebra, they are mastering Tacitus, Sophocles, and conic sections. Measured all round,\nthey will be found to have accomplished at fifteen what he does not accomplish before\nseventeen. (See a widely read article by Professor Goodwin, in the Nation.) Coming\nto the university proper, to professional or technical studies, at twenty-one instead of\nnineteen, no wonder he complains, is often impatient, and seeks for short-cuts, and would\nflank the college curriculum by devious maneuvers. The regular college-bred youth has\na real grievance, which it is vain to ignore, disguise, or minimize. The present system\namerces him of at least two years of his life, and precisely when years count most. This\ngrievance must be frankly recognized and boldly abated, if the college curriculum is to\nmaintain its time-honored place as mid-highway between the common education and the\nhigher professional and technical culture.\nThe proper method of overcoming the difficulty in question is that which nature\neverywhere employs when the continued growth of an organ or organism has rendered it\nunwieldy or ill-adapted to complicated conditions : the method of spontaneous fission.\nDivide and conquer. Out of the present college-university must emerge the college and\nthe university, distinct in aim, method, discipline, organization. The many colleges that\nnowadays are making broad their phylacteries and assuming the functions of universities\nshould abandon such aspirations and content themselves with college work proper —\nwork not less useful, difficult, and honorable. The college class-room calls for a kind of\ntalent different from that demanded in the university lecture-room — different, but not\ninferior. On the other hand, the real universities in our land should lay aside all undergraduate work below junior and senior years, and no little even of those years, and\ndevote their wealth, their equipment, their energies solely to university work proper, to\nresearch, to technical and professional training. Even then they will have all and more\nthan all they can do, for the university supply does not yet equal the demand.\nIt IS only a few years since this same process of spontaneous fission separated finally\nthe college from the academy. Till then the so-called preparatory or sub-freshman\ndepartment was a regular annex to the college. The process of separation was not\nalways painless, and often met with earnest protest, but it has now been very generally\naccomplished. A similar dissociation at the upper end of the college course will free it\nfrom anomalies and bring into independent being the university in America. The college\nwill then enter upon a career of greatly enlarged usefulness. Its function as the especial\norgan of general culture, of intellectual discipline non-professional, but fitting for all\nprofessions, being more clearly defined than ever before, it will receive wider recognition\nand enter more largely than ever into the general mental life of our people. Students\nwill be attracted to it whom now it cannot reach. The age of admission being lowered\nfrom sixteen to fourteen years, the average age of entrance would be about fifteen, from\nwhich to nineteen a uniform and consistent code of discipline may be enforced. But this\nlowering of the minimum age need bring with it no commensurate lowering of conditions for admission. When high schools cease to prepare for the college-university and\nbegin to prepare for the college proper, for pure culture study, not for studies half disciplinary, half professional, they will find it possible to give better training in less time.\nAt present their energies are frittered away on too great a variety of subjects.\nOmnis-\n\n"}
{"page": 730, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n720\n\ncience is their foible, distraction their bane. Non multa sed multum. Let them do [Higher\na few\nthings well. Let them prepare thoroly in English, algebra, geometry, Latin, Greek, with\nGerman, French, and science as alternatives ; let them seek this kingdom of heaven and\nits righteousness, and, in due time, all else will be added. The student will then leave\ncollege at nineteen quite as well prepared for university professional work as he is now\nat twenty-one, knowing, indeed, not so many things, but thoroly knowing the few he\nknows. A great variety of studies is quite as unnecessary to true growth in culture, to\ntrue mental development, as a great variety of foods to the proper nutrition of the body.\nAt present our educational system is chaos, and, thru its lack of consistent organization no less than thru its over-diffusion and lack of accent, it wastes at least two years of\nthe student's life. Everywhere in nature waste is an impressive phenomenon, but\nnowhere more impressive than in American education. The college of the future will\nparallel closely, without imitating, on its classical side the German Gymnasium, and on\nits scientific side the Realschule ; while our university of the future will keep fairly\nabreast with the universities of Germany.\nProfessor A. T. Ormond, Princeton University. — The method of shortening the\ncollege course in years is one which does not commend itself. Such a result is one which\nwe would profoundly regret. Our experience has shown that the four years of college\nare the most important years in the individual's life, and their value is too great, both to\nthe individual and to society, to admit of such a sacrifice. In place of such a reduction,\nthree steps should be taken : first, all studies in the curricula of secondary schools\nwhich are not essential to preparation for college should be eliminated, and the preparatory course be thus reduced ; secondly, the electives of junior and senior years should\nbe so arranged that the student can cover the first year of his professional training while\nin college ; thirdly, the professional course should be reduced to a minimum of time\nrequirement by eliminating all studies which do not have a direct bearing upon professional training.\nPresident J. M. Baker of the University of Colorado emphasized the need of some\nchange in our present system. Young men and young women are continually short-circuiting the college course, in order to get into their life work earlier. It may be necessary to shorten the college course in order to save it. He would not do this, however, if\nit can be avoided, and believed it may be avoided by a reorganization of our whole educational system.\nPresident King of Cornell College, Iowa, dwelt upon the fact that the same difficulty exists with reference to the high-school courses as with reference to the colleges.\nShall they aim at a complete preparation of the pupil for life, or shall they be simply\npreparatory to higher liberal education ? The time required for complete education\nmight be reduced by making the secondary school simply a preparation for college ; also\nby eliminating from the professional course all studies not of professional value.\n\nIS IT POSSIBLE AND DESIRABLE TO FORM A FEDERATION\nOF COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES IN THE UNITED\nSTATES SIMILAR TO THE ASSOCIATION OF AMERICAN\nMEDICAL COLLEGES?\nBY\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nB.\n\nA.\n\nHINSDALE,\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF\n\nMICHIGAN\n\nAs this is a new subject, at least in this form, it will be better, as\nMatthew Arnold might say, to let our intelligence play freely around it\n\n"}
{"page": 731, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department] DESIRABILITY\n\nOF FORMING\n\nFED ERA TION OF COLLEGES\n\n721\n\nand upon it than to advance and maintain a particular thesis. Furthermore, itwill be necessary first to form a clear idea of the organization\nthat is set up as a type of the proposed college federation.\nThe purposes or objects of the Association of American Medical\nColleges, as impliedly stated in sections i and 7 of Article III of the constitution, are two in number. The first of these sections declares that\neach college holding membership in the association shall require of every\nstudent, before admission to its course of study, an examination in a\nprescribed minimum of general studies ; and the second one, that each\ncollege may confer the degree of doctor of medicine during the year 1898\nupon students who have attended three courses of instruction, of six\nmonths' duration each, provided each of these courses has been in a\nseparate calendar year. The studies in which the student is to be\nexamined are English, arithmetic, algebra, physics, and Latin. The\ngeneral conditions of membership, as well as some of the working\nmachinery of the association, are shown in Article II of the constitution,\nas follows :\nSection i. Any medical college conforming to the requirements of the association\nas expressed in this constitution and in the by-laws of the association is eligible to\nmembership.\nSec. 2. Any medical college desiring membership in this association shall make\napplication to the secretary and pay the annual dues of five dollars. This application\nshall be accompanied by evidence that the college applying is conforming to the requirements of this association. The application and all evidence and information in relation\nto the college applying shall then be put into the hands of the judicial council, to be\nreported to the association, favorably or unfavorably, at the annual meeting, at which\ntime the college shall be elected to membership if it receives the favorable recommendation of the judicial council and the favorable ballot of a majority of the colleges represented inthe meeting. The neglect of the judicial council to report on the application\nof a college shall not be a bar to election.\nSec 3. Each college is entitled to one representative at all meetings of the association, and to one vote on all questions. The dean of the college will be its accredited\nrepresentative in the absence of any other delegate.\nSec 4. The dues are five dollars a year, payable in advance.\n\nBesides the representatives of colleges in attendance at the regular\nmeetings, who are termed active members, provision is also made for\nassociate and honorary members. Moreover, it is the duty of the judicial\ncouncil, in addition to passing on applications for membership, to investigate and determine all questions of violation of the rules and regulations\nof the association, and all matters of dispute among the members. The\nassociation is purely voluntary, having no coercive authority whatever.\nInformation as to the working and success of the association does not\nseem to be very accessible to a layman. It is, perhaps, safe to say no\nmore than that it has thus far proved to be measurably useful and successful. Ithas now been in operation some seven or eight years.\nNow, if a similar federation of colleges and universities be formed,\n\n"}
{"page": 732, "printed_page": null, "text": "722\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nwhat shall be its functions ? Obviously, among them would be included\nthe consideration of terms of admission to the institutions that comprise\nthe membership and the conditions of graduation ; or, more definitely,\nthe prescription of minimum entrance requirements and minimum courses\nof study leading up to degrees.\nArgument is hardly called for to show that these are important matters,\nintimately affecting the progress of higher education in the country.\nEntrance requirements condition closely the work that students do in\ncollege, and this again determines the worth, academically speaking, of\nthe bachelor's degree. It is not surprising, therefore, that these subjects\nshould always be up for discussion. In fact, the first topic has had the\nfloor in a pre-eminent sense for some time past, and promises to hold it\nfor some time longer.\nThe low value of much that passes in the United States for higher\neducation is a thrice-told tale. The causes of this state of things are\ndisclosed by a glance into the history of our civilization. The oldest of\nthe nine colleges founded before the Revolutionary War strove to maintain the standards of the university-colleges of England after which they\nhad been modeled, but not with complete success ; while the later\nschools of the same group fell to a still lower level. Existing conditions\nwere not favorable to the preservation undimmed of the ancient ideal.\nA much greater loss came with the colonization of the great West. Here\neducation of all kinds contended with frontier conditions on a grand\nscale ; old traditions were obscured or wholly lost ; the material demands\nof life were as great and pressing as the opportunities for material development were promising ; so-called institutions of higher education multiplied\nfar beyond either the needs or the resources of society, with the inevitable\nresult that, to the popular mind, and, it is feared, to some men styled\neducated, the words \"college\" and \"university\" came to mean little\nmore than schools that held commencements, gave out diplomas, conferred\nhonorary degrees, and solicited subscriptions. Meantime the old\ncolleges of the East, instead of expanding their work and diversifying\ntheir methods, hardened down into \"the precise forms in which they had\nbeen modeled in the first place.\nThe potency of better things came with the educational genius of\nGeorge Ticknor, Thomas Jefferson, and Francis Wayland. The ideas of\nthese great reformers worked slowly in the mass of society, and in the\ncases of Ticknor and Wayland, in the institution where they had been first\npromulgated; so slowly, in truth, that President Eliot could say of certain\nchanges made at Harvard College in 1883-84 that they were the \" practical completion\" of a development which began sixty years before. But\nthey worked nevertheless, and have effected most important changes in\nour higher education. Still more, important changes in the social conditions of the West, as increasing density of population, growth of wealth,\n\n"}
{"page": 733, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department] DESIRABILITY\n\nOF FORMING\n\nFEDERA\n\nTION OF COLLEGES\n\n723\n\nand the slow maturing, of civilization, have rendered the elevation of\nhigher education both necessary and possible. Accordingly we have\nseen in the last twenty-five years a degree of progress in the colleges and\nuniversities of the country fully equal to that made in common and secondary schools. Old standards have been raised still higher, and old ideals\nstill more highly polished, while new standards and new ideals have been\nbrought forward. Admission to college has become a more arduous\nundertaking, and degrees have been made more significant. But, notwithstanding al that has been accomplished in the line of progress, much\nstill remains to be done before it can be truly said that our higher education isfully abreast of the material development of the country ; and,\nwhen this is accomplished, constant effort will still be necessary to maintain that relation.\nManifestly, therefore, if a federation of good colleges and universities\nwould promote this great end, its formation should be eagerly welcomed\nby all friends of liberal culture and of high scientific training.\nStill more may be claimed for the proposed federation. Colleges\nand universities have other common interests than entrance and graduation standards. Intercollegiate ethics will bear further discussion, especially\nin connection with the growth of the new college and university interests.\nThe same may be said of the moral training and welfare of students, a\nsubject that embraces the whole round of college discipline. Particular\nmention may be made of athletics, which has already led to so much\nintercollegiate discussion and legislation, and that certainly has not so far\nbeen put on a satisfactory basis. Then there is the important and comparatively new field of graduate study, in which some institutions that\nare ill-prepared to do graduate work are now groping about rather blindly,\nwhile still others of the same character are looking wistfully thru the gateway, wondering whether they had better enter in or not. For one I see some\ndanger threatening higher education at this point, viz., the danger that\ninstitutions which are not manned and equipped to do graduate work will\nundertake such work nevertheless. It is not at all impossible that graduate\nstudy will be subjected to the same process of dilution that undergraduate\nstudy has undergone ; perhaps some will see evidence that this process\nhas already begun. To be sure, a college federation would furnish no\nforcible means of preventing this result, but it might do something to\ncheck the mischief by striving to limit graduate study to institutions\nthat are able to carry it on. A high standard could be held up, and\nthe lines of study in which different institutions are relatively strong\nmight be made more fully apparent than at present. Possibly, too, something could be done in another direction, which I shall venture to point\nout.\nAs is well known, there is in all well-educated countries a duplication\nof instruction that at first view certainly seems unnecessary and, therefore,.\n\n"}
{"page": 734, "printed_page": null, "text": "724\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Higher\n\nwasteful. Mention may be made of the colleges that comprise the universities of Oxford and Cambridge. In Germany the universities and\npolytechnic institutions claim to emphasize respectively science as science\nand the applications of science ; but the line of demarkation is generally\nvague and shadowy, and is often lost sight of altogether. Now, how far\nthis duplication is actually wasteful is not an easy question to answer ;\nbut certainly one will not lay himself open to the charge of dogmatism\nwho affirms that, in the United States, much good money could be saved,\nand the cause of sound education at the same time be promoted, if some\nreasonable limit could be imposed upon the never-ending process of\nmultiplying colleges and duplicating instruction. Once more, we may\ninquire whether the colleges and universities that really do graduate work\ncould not profitably consider their common relations, with a view of\nregulating more wisely than at present the work that they are respectively\nbest able to do, and so of controlling their respective lines of development. Would it not be a gain if these schools should deepen rather\nthan broaden their work, and then unite in a generous effort to turn the\nattention of students seeking highly specialized instruction in particular\nbranches to the places where what they desire is furnished in fullest\nmeasure ?\nI shall venture to mention another, but a related, topic. Reference is\nmade to the freer passage of graduate students from one institution to\nanother, with a view to receiving the instruction of the ablest men in the\nseveral departments of learning and science. While this is common in\nGermany, it is comparatively rare in the United States ; but if the practice is a good one, as it is believed to be, in the one country, why should\nit not be a good one in the other ?\nAnd now, having looked at the principal arguments that recommend\nthe proposed federation, let us look at some of the objections that might\nbe urged against it.\nPerhaps the first objection will be that the plan is unnecessary and\nwould prove to be useless. How could it promote the ends that have\nbeen described, since it would necessarily be, like the Association of\nAmerican Medical Colleges, a purely voluntary organization and wholly\ndestitute of coercive authority ? As a matter of course, all the authority\nthat it would wield would be moral, arising from argument and persuasion ;but that discussion and voluntary co-operation could not fail to\nexercise a salutary influence will hardly be denied or questioned by those\nwho are fully aware of the part that these agents have played in such\nprogress as has already been made. Good would certainly result from\nholding aloft where all men can see them two educational norms — one\nof college-entrance requirements and one of graduation conditions —\nby an association made up of the leading colleges and universities of the\n\n"}
{"page": 735, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department] DESIRABILITY\n•\n\nOF FORMING\n\nFED ERA TION OF COLLEGES\n\n725\n\n1\n\ncountry. It may be replied that, if the federation is to use discussion\nas its principal instrument, the end can be reached more directly. All\nthe subjects named, it may be said, are now discussed in books and\nperiodicals, in reports of college and university presidents, and in the\nmeetings of existing associations, like the present one. Why, then, the\nquestion will be, should it be necessary to devise such an agency as the\none proposed ? The answer is that the present modes of discussion are\nmore or less circuitous and cumbersome ; that we have no distinct and\nseparate forum for the consideration of these important questions ; and\nthat the establishment of such a forum would give the questions a separateness, and so a consequence, that they cannot otherwise acquire.\nEducation, we all believe, is the very last cause in the world that should\nundervalue full and thoro discussion.\nA second objection is likely to spring out of the facts of geography.\nIn a country of such magnificent distances as ours, it may be asked how\na federation of colleges and universities could be kept alive and active,\neven if it were once created. The difficulty is no doubt a real one, if a\nnational organization is contemplated. But the federation need not be\nnational at the beginning ; it might be better to organize on a smaller\nscale, in the faith that the limited organization would so abundantly\njustify itself as to remove all objections of a geographical nature to a\nlarger one.\nAn objection still more serious, perhaps, is suggested by the unequal\neducational standards of the different parts of the union, as expressed\nin the curricula of their institutions of higher instruction. Such differences, while smaller than once they were, and growing smaller still, have\nnot disappeared. They are still considerable, and promise to remain\nconsiderable for a time at least. The limitation of the federation to\ngood colleges and universities would not prevent a certain range of difference both in entrance requirements and in courses of study. This\nbeing so, some may demand to what practical advantage legislation could\nbe enacted, or discussion be carried on. The objection may be specious,\nbut it is not serious. The institutions interested in the report of the\nCommittee of Ten, and even the institutions represented on the committee that proposed the report, were in no sense equals. The federa-.\ntion would do as the medical association has done — fix minimum entrance\nand graduation requirements, and leaye it to the stronger institutions to\ncarry their own standards as much higher as they might wish. Perhaps\nthe federation would put its standard so high as to exclude a majority of\nthe colleges and universities that make annual reports to the Commissioner of Education. If this were done, the minority might be roughly\ndivided into two classes, a smaller and a larger, that would be separated\nin the character and extent of their work by a certain interval, but not so\n\n"}
{"page": 736, "printed_page": null, "text": "726\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nwidely separated as to preclude their working together harmoniously and\neffectively.\nBesides the advantages accruing to the federation schools, would not\nmany of the schools that were excluded struggle to raise themselves to\nthe level of membership ? Still more, would not the exclusion of those\nthat were excluded draw more plainly than it is now drawn the line separating the real colleges and universities from the pretended ones ? It is\ntrue, of course, that for the most part such exclusion would be effected\nnegatively rather than positively; true, also, that such exclusion would\nhave little weight unless the strongest institutions should enter heartily\ninto the work of the federation; but if that end could be secured, the\npublic would sooner or later find out the reason why some institutions\nwere in the federation, while others were not.\nPerhaps it will be objected that any success which the association of\nmedical colleges may have achieved does not argue that the proposed\norganization would be similarly successful. Medical schools, like law\nschools, are conducted by a numerous and powerful profession, while\nschools of liberal arts and sciences are carried on by professors who not\nonly do not constitute a profession, but who have few practical common\ninterests and small esprit de corps. It would be vain to deny the pertinency of this argument. It may be said, however, that while the lack\nof common interests and esprit de corps on the part of college and university professors would unquestionably retard the formation of the federation, and, for a time, render its maintenance more difficult, the federation\nwould, in the end, prove to be a powerful engine for the development\nof such interests and spirit, both of them objects greatly to be desired.\nIndeed, it is not improbable that some persons will think this consideration the most hopeful sign that would attend the formation of the\norganization.\nSo, balancing the pros and cons, we come finally to these conclusions :\n1. That there is plenty of needed work which a vigorous federation\nof good colleges and universities could do.\n2. That this work would\nbe done thru discussion\nand voluntary\n-co-operation.\nIf nothing more, the federation would constitute a sort of\nclearing-house for the discussion and, it is hoped, practical settlement of\nimportant questions affecting the institutions participating and of higher\neducation thruout the country.\n3. That there are some serious obstacles to be overcome before it\ncould be got into successful operation.\n4. That the subject is one eminently worthy of serious consideration.\n5. That it would be unwise to attempt any practical movement until\nthe way has been well prepared by preliminary discussion.\n\n"}
{"page": 737, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department] DESIRABILITY\n\nOF FORMING\n\nFEDERA\n\nTION OF COLLEGES\n\n727\n\nDISCUSSION\nMrs. Ellen Richards, of the Massachusetts Institute* of Technology, introduced\nthe discussion by an interesting account of the Boston Alumni Association. Membership\nin the association was limited to persons possessing a B.A. degree from some college or\nuniversity of good standing. To determine what colleges and universities possess such\nstanding was a difficult matter, as to which great care has been taken. The association\nhas consequently come to exercise an elevating influence upon the curricula of colleges.\nIn some cases alumni have interested themselves in the elevation of the curricula of their\ncolleges. Occasionally the association has been influential in preventing the granting of\ncharters to colleges which would be a burden to the educational system of the country.\nProfessor Taylor, of the University of New York, spoke on the requirements of\nthe state of New York for admission to the bar. Twelve years of pre-professional academic training are demanded, and it becomes necessary for the board of examiners to\ninquire into the standings of the colleges, universities, and other schools where this preprofessional training has been received. A national federation of colleges and universities would be of great assistance in this matter, and might lead to similar requirements\nin other states.\n\n"}
{"page": 738, "printed_page": null, "text": "NORMAL\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nSECRETARY'S\nFIRST\n\nSESSION.—\n\nMINUTES\n\nFriday, July 8, 1898\n\nThe Department of Normal Schools met in All Souls' Church at 3 p. m., with President H. H. Seerley, Cedar Falls, la., in the chair.\nW. B. Powell, superintendent of schools, Washington, D. C, welcomed the department in a brief address.\nThe subject of the meeting was the preliminary report of the committee appointed\nlast year on the topic :\nThe formulation of a course of study setting forth the minimum requirements for graduation from the\nstate normal schools of the United States.\n\nIn the absence of Dr. A. G. Boyden, of Bridgewater, Mass., his report on \" The New\nEngland State Normal Schools\" was read by Dr. Z. X. Snyder, of Colorado, chairman of\nthe committee.\nMiss Marion Brown, New Orleans, La., reported on \" The Southern State Normal\nSchools.\"\nH. H. Seerley, Cedar Falls, la., gave a report on \" Normal Schools West of the\nMississippi River and East of the Rocky Mountains.\"\nPresident R. G. Boone, Ypsilanti, Mich., read a report on \"The North Central State\nNormal Schools.\"\nPrincipal E. T. Pierce, Los Angeles, Cal., was absent, and his report on \" The\nPacific State Normal Schools \" was read by Dr. Snyder.\nA general discussion followed, after which the following Committee on Nominations\nwas announced by the president.\nW. E. Wilson, Rhode Island ; Roland W. Guss, Massachusetts ; Z. X. Snyder, Colorado.\n\nSECOND\n\nSESSION.— Tuesday, July 12\n\nThe department met at 3 o'clock, with President Seerley in the chair.\nThe preliminary report of the Committee on the Formulation of a Course of Studies\nwas continued.\nDr. N. C. Schaeffer, of Pennsylvania, reported for \" The Middle State Normal Schools.\"\nAs the committee was to be continued for a full report at the next annual meeting,\nthe following additional questions were submitted for inquiry :\n1. How many college graduates enter the normal schools ?\n2. Should the course of study in a normal school differ in preparation for a grammarschool grade from that for a high-school grade ?\nWhat proportion of the teachers are trained ?\nWhat proportion go to rural and what to urban schools ? •\n3. Are not the normal schools requiring unnecessary reviews in the common branches?\nAre we not driving bright young men and women to the universities, who would prefer the state normal schools, by exacting reviews of the common branches ?\n\n"}
{"page": 739, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nNEW\n\nENGLAND\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n729\n\nIs it wise to provide special courses, preparing teachers for the different grades of\nschools, specifying the same in the diplomas ?\nDr. Z. X. Snyder, of Colorado, gave the report on \"The Training School,\" \"The\nModel School,\" \" The Practice School,\" in the United States.\nA general discussion followed.\nThe nominating committee recommended the following as officers for next year :\nFor President — Theodore B. Noss, California, Pa.\nFor Vice-President— M.\\ii Marion Brown, New Orleans, La.\nFor Secretary — J, N. Wilkinson, Emporia, Kan.\n\nIt was moved and unanimously carried that the secretary of the department be\ninstructed to cast a ballot for the officers as named. The ballot was cast and the nominees declared duly elected.\nAfter the introduction of the new officers, the department adjourned.\nF. B. Palmer,\nSecretary.\n\nPAPERS\nPRELIMINARY\n\nTHE\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nREPORT OF COMMITTEE ON THE\nLATION OF A COURSE OF STUDY\n\nNEW\n\nBY PRESIDENT\n\nAND\n\nENGLAND\n\nA. G. BOYDEN,\n\nSTATE\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nFORMU-\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nBRIDGEWATER,\n\nMASS.\n\nThe normal-school syllabus was sent to each normal-school principal\nand to the leading superintendents of New England. Nine of these principals and eleven superintendents have replied. These replies are summarized as follows :\n1. What should be the minimum requirements for entrance to a state\nnormal school ?\nSeventeen reply : \" Graduation from a good four-years' course of highschool studies.\" Two answer: \"The requirements for admission to college.\" One answers : \" Good health, good looks, sterling character, an\nactive mind, a living interest in the world of nature and of human life,\ncommand of the mother-tongue, a love of good literature, and a teachable\nspirit.\"\n2. What should be the minimum academic requirements for graduation in the following subjects : English and literature, mathematics, science, and history ?\nIn ELnglish and literature : \" Mastery of English grammar, ability to\nread and interpret standard English writings, and to know fairly well at\nleast a dozen good books; ability to write correct, terse, vigorous, and idiomatic English.\"\n\nIn mathematics:\n\n\"Algebra and plane\n\ngeometry.\"\n\nIn\n\n"}
{"page": 740, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n73°\n\n[Normal\n\nsciences: \"Appreciation of the scientific attitude of mind, a year's vigorous study of biology, a year of physics and chemistry, and of physiography\nwith laboratory practice.\" In history: \"United States, English, and general history — as full study as possible in a good high-school course.\"\n3. Which of the following subjects should be included in the minimum\nrequirements for graduation from a state normal school : Music, drawing,\nscience for the elementary grades : physical training, history, and literature\nfor the lower elementary grades ?\n\"All of these,\" is the uniform reply.\n4. What should be the minimum of professional work along the lines\nof psychology, pedagogy, history of education, methods in the common\nbranches ?\n\"The fundamentals of each in so definite a manner as to be in daily\nuse, intentionally applied.\" \"From beginning to end of the normalschool courses one or more of these subjects should form a substantial\npart of the current work. Both theory and practice should be taught.\"\n\"The method of teaching should be part of all study of subjects.\" \"Psychology, one year ; pedagogy, one ; history of education, one ; methods,\nthree.\" \"Psychology, pedagogy, methods, each one year; history of education, one-half a year.\"\n5. In the employment of a \"training school,\" how should the actual\nhandling of a class by a practice teacher and the observing of expert\nteaching be proportioned ?\n\"According to the power of the individual normal student.\" \"One\npart of observation to two of practice.\" \"The time should vary with the\ncircumstances. Perhaps one-third should be given to observation, onethird to assisting an experienced teacher, and one-third to practice with\nfull control of the class.\" \" Four times as much observation as practice\nuntil the last term.\"\n6. What proportion of the above requirement in this minimum course\nshould this \" training-school \" work constitute ?\n\"One-fifth to one-tenth.\" \"One-third to one-half.\" Most say : \"Onefourth.\"\n\"At least one half year.\"\n7. If you are a state normal-school president, give length of courses\noffered by your school.\n\"One year, with special course for college graduates.\" \"One year,\nwith special course for teachers of five years' experience.\" \"Two years,\nwith general course.\" \"Three years, including general course with electives.\" \"Four years, including general course with advanced studies.\"\nMost have a course of two to three years, or such time as is needed for\ncompletion, without definite limit in time.\n8. State branches that are required in these several courses and the\ntime assigned to each branch.\n\"The studies of the public-school curriculum.\"\n\n\"The time given to\n\n"}
{"page": 741, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\neach in different\n\nNEW\n\nENGLAND\n\nSTATE\n\nschools varies so\n\nmuch\n\nNORMAL\n\nthat\n\nSCHOOLS\n\none\n\nstatement\n\n731\n\ncannot\n\ncover it.\"\n9. What professional branches are assigned to each course, and what\norder is designated ? Give reasons for preferring this order.\n\"All the work of each course is professional.\" \"The professional\nstudies are put into each course.\" \" Psychology, pedagogy, method, are\ncontemporaneous and continuous in all the courses ; history of education\nlast.\" \" Psychology is a basis for pedagogy and method.\"\n10. What minimum practice in teaching is required to finish the said\ncourses in your normal school ?\nThe reports give a variation in time from six weeks to fourteen weeks\nin the two-years' course ; in the longer course, more than double this\ntime.\n11. Is it a function of the normal school to do distinctively academic\nwork ?\nUnanimously, it is not.\n12. Should all or any of the following subjects be taught formally in\nthe elementary schools or the normal schools : bookkeeping, patriotism,\nethics, art ?\nReports show great diversity of views. Some say : \"Yes, all;\" some,\n\"No\" to all; others say, \"All in the elementary schools;\" others say, \"In\nboth.\"\n13. What criticisms have you to offer on the present state normal\nschool ? What can be done to make it more efficient or more practical ?\n\"The normal school is too often an academy.\" \"jLack of scholarship\nin the graduates. They often have the idea that all pedagogical knowledge is shut in between the covers of their topic-books.\"\n\"Make requirements for admission greater; exact more of personality\nin candidates for graduation ; provide better training for normal-school\nteachers; insist upon their better acquaintance with public schools.\"\n\"Increase the age of entrance to seventeen years; increase the requirements in science ; increase the length of the course to a minimum of three\nyears.\" \" Let superintendents become better acquainted with the normal\nschools, and the normal-school teachers with the public schools.\"\n\" Remove the normal schools from all outside meddling, political or personal, and put into them more thoroly cultured and consecrated teachers.\"\n\" Liberal appropriations for building and equipping practice schools to\nbe controlled entirely by the normal school.\" \" A great deal more practice in the training school is needed.\" \"The practical side of the work,\nobservation of and practice in teaching, should be strengthened in every\nway possible.\" '.'Some scheme of practice teaching where discipline may\nbe tested ; knowledge of how to keep a school register.\" \" I should be\nglad to see teachers returning to the normal school for study after practice. Under strong teachers such classes would prove a power.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 742, "printed_page": null, "text": "732\n\nNATIQNAL\n\nTHE\n\nBY MISS MARION\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nSOUTHERN\n\nBROWN,\n\nSTATE\n\nPRINCIPAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nNORMAL\n\nOF NORMAL\n\n[Normal\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nNEW\n\nORLEANS,\n\nLA.\n\nIn the South, as in other sections of our country, the normal school\nhas been a growth, the private normal school preceding the public institution, the locality or city undertaking the training of teachers before the\nstate. The whole educational system of the South has been subjected to\n\"the usual mistakes of friends within and assaults of foes without;\" in\naddition, there have been the vicissitudes and calamities of war, the\ndesolation and privation that fall upon an invaded land ; but today every\nstate has a complete system of public schools, frequently somewhat\nimperfect and lacking in articulation, hampered occasionally by local\nconditions and traditions, but only in degree, not in kind.\nThomas Jefferson's plans for popular education early found ardent\nsupporters among leading men in the South, but social and industrial\nconditions were against popular education, for practically there was no\nschool population save in the towns till less than half a century ago. A\ngenial climate and inexhaustibly rich soil, in conjunction with the aristocratic customs and prejudices of its early settlers, induced preservation of\nlarge estates cultivated by slave labor, in which muscle was more desirable\nthan intelligence. The whole region was sparsely settled in proportion to\narea, and in many districts, especially in what is now known as the \" Black\nBelt,\" the negro population was, and is today, from three to ten times as\ngreat as the white. The laboring white population, the poorer middle\nclass, was found only in the towns.\nThe wealthy planter had a tutor or governess for his children, sending\nthem north or abroad for finishing touches. Shortly after the revolution,\nVirginia, thru the inspiration of Jefferson, led the van with plans for\na state university, the other states falling into line at varying intervals.\nWith the thirties all the states legislated for public education, providing\nfinancial support, but the public money was appropriated to private institutions with the proviso that each school educate annually a certain\nnumber of indigent children (white). It goes without saying that the\nindigent children, or their parents, generally preferred ignorance to the\nstigma of charity scholar. There were frequent protests against this\nsystem, accompanied by proposals of plans looking to municipal and state\nsystems of schools open to all children, and under the sole management\nof the civil authority. In 1839 Randolph Macon College, a Methodist\ninstitution, by a resolution of its trustees, established a department for\n\"the training of teachers for the common schools.\" From 1845 ^o 1850\nthe cities established school systems, and the states, at the close of the\n\n"}
{"page": 743, "printed_page": null, "text": "Dispartment]\n\nTHE\n\nSOUTHERN\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n733\n\nfifties, had inaugurated some form of state system, excellent on paper,\nbut, from causes already mentioned, halting and ineffective in operation.\nWith the establishment of a state system of education, which had begun\nwith a university and extended itself downward to the elementary schools,\nit became apparent that the state must undertake the training of teachers\nfor its schools. Here again the cities led. New Orleans establishing, in\n1848, the first public normal school in the South, The subject of state\nnormal schools was generally agitated, but with i860 the period closed.\nDuring the five years that followed school questions were of minor\nimportance, invasion and lack of means closing the schools in many\nplaces. In reconstruction times there was much fairly good, and even\nexcellent, school legislation, but the southern voter had had little or no\nvoice in its making, and enormously increased taxation, whereby large\namounts were appropriated to schools, notoriously asylums for political\nfriends, along with attempts to force upon the people mixed schools and\nnegro school officials, had so disgusted the people of these states that the\npublic school inspired, for some years, neither love nor respect. By 1880\nthe South had come to its own again ; new avenues of industry were\nopening enticing vistas ; the strong, sturdy generation that had grown\nup, feeling the Jack of the education they had missed in the storm and\nstress of the last twenty years, had become strong advocates of public\nschools. Experience with imported teachers, who were frequently undesirable, both as teachers and individuals, while inclined \"to point the\nfinger of scorn\" at everything south of the Ohio, added to the need of the\nyoung people of the South for employment, fostered the desire to establish normal schools. The Peabody fund had assisted, in many places, in\nestablishing normal classes, which, usually only thru reviews of common branches, became \" the little light that casts its beams afar.\" The\nPeabody Normal College at Nashville, opened in 1875, became the Mecca\nof aspiring young men and women, and, with its high scholastic standard,\nsent back into every southern state cultivated teachers, many of whom are\ntoday educational leaders. These influences, combined with the realization that the states could raise money to meet increasing demands for\nschool purposes, made the state normal school a certainty, and the early\neighties saw the beginnings in nearly every southern state. Today, as far\nas I can learn, every state, except Arkansas, with a system of one-month\ncountry normals, has at least one state normal for white students;\nmany have, or will soon establish, the same for colored students, with\nindustrial features added.\nNow the conditions under which these state normals work. There are\nfew large cities ; the section is principally agricultural, but discoveries of\ncoal and iron have given an impetus to manufactures ; villages have\nbecome towns. Up to within the last decade the elementary school was\nthe only public school within the reach of a large percentage of the rural\n\n"}
{"page": 744, "printed_page": null, "text": "734\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Norma,\n\npopulation; consequently the state normals had to admit on a bare common-school education ; hence we find a three- or four-years' normal course,\nincluding academic instruction and professional work. Today, in almost\nevery small town there is a high-school department. The majority of\nthese schools, officered by trained and ambitious young men and women,\nin a few years promise to do excellent work; the elementary schools, thru\nthe efforts of the state normals, having improved rapidly.\nIn answer to the series of inquiries sent out by the special committee,\nthe majority of principals and superintendents favored entrance requirements based on a high-school course or its equivalent, but about half of\nthese considered it not yet possible, under present conditions ; hence,\nwhile not regarding academic work as a function of the normal school, or\nonly in so far as might be necessary to methods of teaching subjects, they\nnearly all in turn advocated an academic course corresponding generally\nin amount, time, and order, to that of a good high school, and, in a few\ninstances, to a college course. This question arises : Are we not in danger\nof becoming so hampered and bound by present conditions that they\ncome to seem unchangeable ? It appears to me that, when we cling to a\ngrammar-school preparation for normal training, we deliberately lower\nour standards ; further, these young people are in need of the mental\ndevelopment of a three- or four-years' high-school course ; the normal\noffers an equivalent course combined with one and a half or two years'\nprofessional work, both taking the time of a good high-school course or\na little more. While the South is not alone in these conditions, are we\nnot making the mistake of putting quantity before quality? Granted\nthat the demand for normal graduates exceeds the supply, at the rate we\nare now turning out graduates from a three-quarter high-school course\nwith a normal-school attachment, are we not running the risk of flooding\nthe country with teachers who may have method, but not sufficient matter\nto support the method thru trials of years of teaching ? By doing\nacademic work the state normal militates against the high schools. For\nexample. Miss X is ready to pass to the high school at M — ; instead she\nelects to go to the state normal, in three or four years returning with\na state diploma; her classmates have gone thru the city high school\nand found it hard work, too; have yet to take two years in the city training\nschool besides. Do they draw no conclusions ? Can the state-normal\npeople accuse the city superintendent of high treason if he does not give\nthe preference to their graduates, or if other localities whose superintendents know the conditions prefer other preparation ? You may say that\nthe state normal schools aim particularly to prepare teachers for country\nschools. Then you have declared that the rural schools are not to have\nthe best teachers, and the cities can look elsewhere for trained teachers.\nAnother thing, the normal school is not, like the elementary or the \\\nsecondary school, for all who want to come, but it is established by the\n\n"}
{"page": 745, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nSOUTHERN\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n735\n\nstate for a special purpose, viz., to provide properly equipped teachers\nfor its schools, and its authorities must have the best attainable material\nfor making teachers; consequently, the standard they fix will be the\npreparation to which all applicants for entrance therein will aspire ; thru\nthe state normal the state says to prospective teachers : \" This is what we\ndemand as employer.\nCan you fill the bill ?\"\nIn the South the state-normal-school problem has two distinct phases :\na normal school for white students, modeled as far as possible on the best\nlines, scholastic and professional ; and the normal school for colored\nstudents, where elementary professional training must be combined with\nspecial industrial work. The latter is distinctively a southern problem,\nand must be worked out by the southern people as they come to understand more thoroly the industrial status of the negro and his place in our\neconomic progress. In the former, the problems which the southern\nstate normal school has to confront are essentially the same as the normal\nschools in other states have conquered or are still battling with. Opening\ntheir doors somewhat later than their brethren of the North and East,\nthey have had, in their pioneer work, the example of others to warn them\nof rocks ahead. In attempting to solve the problems that still remain,\nor that have risen of late years, they again have the advantage in working\nwith those more experienced than themselves.\nHow will the solution of the question now before us, \"The formulation of a course of study setting forth the minimum requirements for\ngraduation from the state normal schools of the United States,\" affect\nthe southern schools ? We have acknowledged that they are, in most\ninstances, greatly handicapped by inability to get a sufficient number of\nstudents that have had good secondary instruction, hence feel compelled\nfor some time yet to do more or less academic work j are insufficiently\nsupported financially for the great work they have to do ; yet, in spite of\nall these drawbacks, they are ambitious, feel they must bring the teaching\nforce of their respective states up to the line of march, with the hope some\nday to be in the van. In each section there is one large city that gives\nthe social and educational tone to a considerable area, not always bounded\nby state lines. These cities are far from the great centers of our country;\ntheir teachers can meet professional brethren only in gatherings like the\nNational Educational Association. The discussions and decisions of the\nvarious departments are to our educational public what congressional\nlegislation is to the whole country. Hearing and taking part in them, if\nonly as attentive listeners, they go home and proceed to work their schools\nup to the ideal standard. How ? By first convincing their respective\nschool boards that such is the national educational ideal along this particular line ; then thru the board, their public. No one section can be permitted to lay claims to loftier ideals than another, no one region is willing\nto acknowledge that it canftot or will not measure up to a minimum\n\n"}
{"page": 746, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n736\n[Normal\nStandard ; hence, where there is any educational life — and I assure you the\nSouth is alive and striving toward the goal of educational excellence — there\nwill be a stirring in the camps to meet the call. The stamp of national\napproval means a great deal — much more than one who is not behind\nthe scenes can realize. Those whose work has long been systematized, to\nwhose problems a solution seems in sight, must, of their superior advantages and experiences, show the way to those whose pathway has often to\nbe hewn thru the thick forest of public indifference. Therefore, with a\ndefinite line of minimum work marked out, normal-school faculties can\npresent to their constituencies a mark below which none must fall, beyond\nwhich each community will strive to pass — a common standard which all\nnormal schools will recognize, the first step toward a really national and\nhomogeneous system of public education.\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n' AND\n\nEAST\n\nBY PRESIDENT\n\nWEST\nOF\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nHOMER\n\nTHE\n\nMISSISSIPPI\n\nROCKY\n\nMOUNTAINS\n\nH. SEERLEY,\n\nCEDAR\n\nRIVER\n\nFALLS, lA.\n\nThis report covers a region where the schools are generally less than\nthirty years old, and where most of these are not more than half that age.\nThese schools are in states where institutional life is making great progress, and where populations are sparse and much mixed as to national\norigin and language. The chief problem in some of these states is\nelementary education. The teachers deal with conditions, not theories,\nand the unifying of the people in language, in interest, and in sympathy is\nthe principal educational work attempted. The need of elementary\nteachers in this region is very great. The salaries paid are small, the\nstandard of teachers' certificates, generally, not very high, and the\nattempt to supply a known positive demand is the problem laid at the\ndoor of the normal schools for immediate solution.\nHence the environment has a marked effect upon the conclusions of\nthis study, as obtained from correspondence and investigation. The\nstate normal schools found in this vast territory, while young and few in\nnumber, are yet the best-patronized and the most cordially supported by\nthe general public of any kind of school found in the same field. These\nschools are very sensitive to public demand, are very close to the public\ninterest, are easily touched by public legislation of many kinds, and are\nnaturally responsive to public expectancy as far as possible. Most of\nthese states regulate the qualifications of a public-school teacher by;\nstatute, and determine, therefore, in a way, the minimum requirements oi\\\n\n"}
{"page": 747, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nFROM\n\nIOWA\n\nTO\n\nCOLORADO\n\n737\n\nthe standard course of study to be offered. This has a marked effect\nupon the limitations of the schools of this order, and gives them a hold\nupon the people that is hard to comprehend by those who do not perceive these fundamental conditions. As a consequence there will be no\nfixed course of study, no possible settled adjustment of requirements, no\ncertain and definite agreement, that can be reached, since change must\ngo on, progress must come, modification must follow, and development\nmust continue for many years to come.\nIn making this study, I asked the opinions of three classes of educators : (i) college and university presidents ; (2) superintendents of\nthe larger. and more important cities; (3) the presidents of these several\nschools. Of course, in such a multitude of counsel, many opinions were\nobtainable, but there is, after all, a large unanimity of opinion in the\nentire number consulted.\n1. THE\n\nCOLLEGE\n\nAND\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nVIEW\n\nMost of these opinions show that the normal school ouglit to be a\npart of the educational system of a state, and that a student who enters\na normal school ought not to be prevented from continuing his studies\nafterward in the college or university. It seemed, therefore, that there\nought to be complete unification in the educational system, whereby a\nstudent might turn aside for professional education as a teacher, and yet\nneither lose much time nor be unfitted for taking a higher education,\nshould he conclude that his future promise encouraged it. Most of these\nprominent men report that their experience with normal-school graduates\nwas of such a character that they could state that these became the best\nstudents and developed into superior and influential scholars. Some,\nhowever, thought they were inferior to good high- school graduates, and\nconsidered the turning aside to pursue a normal course first, and afterward taking a university course, as not a good plan. It was also suggested that so much academic instruction should be eliminated from a\nnormal-school course, and the schools be made more professional in\ncharacter and in training. Others also state that the mental equipment\nand the training given by the normal school are frequently too meager\nand too restricted actually to fit a person for the large and broad work\nhe is expected to do. Some of these universities grant two years' full\ncredit upon a college course to normal-school graduates of full four-year\ncourses, and are well satisfied with the results of the experiment, while\nothers say that they are not more than fitted to enter upon freshman\ncollege work after graduation from a full normal-school course. These\nuniversities assume that the province of the normal school is alone to\nfurnish teachers for the elementary grades of public schools, and that it\nhas no suitable preparation for high-school work.\n\n"}
{"page": 748, "printed_page": null, "text": "738\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nII. THE CITY superintendents'\n\n[Normal\n\nVIEW\n\nThis second class of educators see the normal school chiefly from\nthe work done by its graduates in the schoolroom under their supervision. They are quite willing to say that students are too generally\nadmitted to the normal schools before they are properly prepared in\nscholarship or in experience in life to enter upon professional studies.\nThey assert that persons graduate frequently from normal schools who are\nnot fitted by nature to govern or instruct the young, and that the normalschool managers knowingly permit this practice to continue. They\nfurther object to the elementary courses at all, as the reputation of the\nschool is generally dependent upon these less prepared and less thoroly\ninstructed graduates. Protection to the public would require that a\ndifference be made, and that this needless confusion in what constitutes\ngraduation should not be allowed to continue to mislead the public and\nincrease the number of those who are frequently incompetent without\nknowing it themselves. Not a few think the normal school should\ndemand an entrance scholarship equivalent to that demanded by the\ncollege, while they just as strongly recommend that methodology and\ndevices should not be considered as a substitute for careful instruction in\nthe principles and doctrines of education. There is a tendency, they\nthink, to make teaching a trade, rather than a profession, and they place\nmost of the cause for this growing evil at the door of the normal school\nwhich tries to instruct its students in the mechanism of management and\nteaching before they are prepared in scholarship, age, or experience in life\nto view educational ideas and methods from the true and proper standpoint,\n\nIII.\n\nTHE NORMAL-SCHOOL\n\nVIEW\n\nThe presidents of these normal schools are reasonably a unit on most\nquestions sent out by the committee, tho varying in many important\nparticulars. They think the entrance requirements of these schools cannot be regulated by faculty enactment, but by the conditions that exist in\nthe state where they are located. In the most of these schools two standards\nof entrance prevail: (i) high-school graduate scholarship; (2) the actual\nteacher scholarship, determined by the license requirements, established\nby law. They take it that a legal teacher ought by right to be able to\nenter a teacher's professional school and get the instruction he needs to\nprepare him to do better and more remunerative work.\nThe academic requirements for graduation involve about the same\namount of matter as regards kind and degree. Most of the schools offer\nfour-year courses beginning with the standard set by the customary\nteachers' license, and abridging this time for high-school graduates,\naccording to their scholastic qualifications. The lines offered permit some\ndifferentiation in language, in science, and in history.\nThere is, usually,\n\n"}
{"page": 749, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nFROM\n\nIOWA\n\nTO\n\nCOLORADO\n\n739\n\na Latin course, an English course, and, at times, other courses, like science\ncourses, etc., where variations are allowed to suit the individual tastes of\nstudents, the assumption being that either one of these courses is a\nreasonable preparation for public-school work. All of these schools\nregard vocal music, drawing, physical training, science, history, and\nliterature for the lower grades essentials to graduate from any course, tho\nthey differ very much in the way courses should be worked out and the\ninstruction accomplished. \" The professional work assigned has more or\nless variation. Psychology, pedagogy, history of education, methodology,\nare all. recognized as having place, but the attention given to each separate\ntopic has wide divergence, all the way from formal definite lessons to\nincidental instruction in the training-school conferences. The general\ntheory that prevails is to make some professional study required every\nterm in the four-years' course; tho at least one school has almost all the\nprofessional study in the final year of the course.\nThe practice school is found in every school but one in this region,\nand that one will establish it as soon as circumstances permit. The use of\nthe practice school varies according to the province of the school individually. Where the need of scholarship in teachers being trained is the\nchief function now demanding attention, practice is at a minimum.\nWhere the demand for competent teachers takes the form of the carefully\ntrained teacher, there practice is more emphasized. The limits are from\nsixteen weeks' to two years' practice, according to opportunity and apparent necessity. Some have no specific limit, except such as is necessary to\nsatisfy the practice department, the same as students are required to\nsatisfy other departments of the school, they being allowed to pass as soon\nas their work shows creditable status and good promise. This seems to be\nthe coming plan, as there must be much variation in individual needs where\nthe students are of all classes — college graduates, high-school graduates,\nteachers with well-known and successful experience, and beginners in the\nelementary principles of the business. The quantity of practice and\nobservation is likewise variable, some making much of observation and\nsome very little. All quite generally regard practice as more important\nthan observation, but some consider them as of equivalent value in the\nwork of training a teacher.\nThe majority of the schools seem to regret that so much of the time\nand strength of the work must be given to academic instruction, but it is\napparent that they also believe that the kind of academic work absolutely\nnecessary to a teacher is not yet done by other kinds of schools, particularly in the elementary branches. At present they think it is useless to\nhope that this work will be done elsewhere. Some of the most experienced and most thoughtful evidently believe that the time will never\ncome when academic instruction will not be the proper function of a\nnormal school established and maintained by the state.\nBut the spirit of\n\n"}
{"page": 750, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n740\n\n[Normal\n\nthese schools is favorable to a higher standard of entrance, to a dispensing\nwith the briefer courses now offered, to giving less academic instruction if\nit can be done elsewhere, to catering less to a low conception in the public\nmind of what an elementary teacher may be in scholarship and skill. In\naddition, they suggest that the training school is the vital point to be\nimproved, that the teaching of devices and methods as a substitute for\nprinciples and developmental ideas should be dropped, that today too\nmany weaklings and inferior persons are graduated as representatives of\nnormal -school work, that the scholarship obtained is frequently so lacking\nin necessary thoroness that the graduate seems incapable of meeting the\npublic demand. They advise, also, that the normal school should naturally\nbecome a part of the general educational system by giving proper recognition to the high schools for their academic work, and, at the same time,\nobtain such recognition from the universities as acknowledges the importance and the value of teachers' professional studies as a fair substitute for\nan equivalent amount of work exacted for the standard bachelor degrees.\n\nBY\n\nTHE\n\nNORTH\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nR.\n\nG.\n\nCENTRAL\n\nBOONE,\n\nSTATE\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nNORMAL\n\nCOLLEGE,\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nYPSILANTI,\n\nMICH.\n\nAbout the middle of April there came to my office a circular letter\nfrom our president, H. H. Seerley, calling attention to the meeting of\nthe Normal Department and the contemplated report of the committee,\nof which President Snyder is chairman, and which was appointed at the\nMilwaukee meeting, upon .the \" formulation of a course of study setting\nforth the minimum requirements for graduation from the state normal\nschools of the United States.\"\nA little earlier a communication from the chairman. Dr. Snyder, was\nreceived, assigning as my field the states of Michigan, Ohio, Indiana,\nWisconsin, and Illinois.\nMy instructions were to \"get out whatever form of syllabus I wished,\nin order to obtain the desired information,\" and formulate it for a preliminary report.\nImmediately the following questions were sent out to twelve normal\nschools, supported by the states assigned to me, to the five state superintendents, tofifty city superintendents, and to nine other persons prominent in educational matters. Here follow the questions of this circular\nletter :\n1. What should be the minimum\n\nacademic requirements in the following subjects:\n\nEnglish, history, mathematics, and sciences ?\n2. What and how much work in psychology and pedagogy ?\n\n"}
{"page": 751, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nNORTH\n\nCENTRAL\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n3. What should be included in the way of method in the common\nbranches ?\n\n741\n\nelementary\n\n4. Of the following subjects which should be included in such minimum requirements: (i) music, (2) drawing, (3) science for the elementary grades, (4) history for\nthe elementary grades, (5) physical training ?\n5. Should the course include also the method of presenting any or all of the subjects\nenumerated in the last paragraph ?\n6. What and how much attention should be given to the history of education ?\n7. In the employment of a \"training school,\" how should (i) the actual handling\nof a class by a \"practice teacher\" and (2) the observing of expert teaching be proportioned ?\n8. What proportion of the total requirement in this minimum course should the\n\" training-school \" work constitute ?\n9. What professional work, if any, in secondary branches should the state norma\nschool attempt ?\n\nSoon after the circular letter had gone to seventy-eight persons,\nanother letter came from the chairman, followed by a package of syllabi,\nwhich all members of the committee alike were asked to use. This outline consists of the thirteen questions that have already been presented\nto you by those who have preceded me in this discussion. Immediately\nthese questions were mailed to the names of the list noted above. Of\nthis syllabus five of the thirteen questions are the same as the corresponding ones in the earlier circular sent out.\nTo the first request eleven replies were received ; to the printed syllabus seven returns were made. Altogether there were eight responses\nfrom seven normal schools, six from city or county superintendents, one\nfrom a college president, and one from a retired educator; a total of\neighteen returns in all out of an aggregate of seventy-eight requests.\nAll this is recounted, not at all by way of criticism upon anyone,\neither members of the committee interested or those who were asked to\nlend the committee their wisdom. It is not presented as any explanation\nof the meagerness of the comparison offered. It certainly is not offered\nas a body of facts from which to draw reliable conclusions concerning\nminimum normal-school courses in Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin,\nand Michigan ; much less, conclusions concerning such courses in general.\nThe brief preliminary statement can serve at best as a text only or pretext for saying some things about minimum courses and elementary professional training, and conditions of admission and requirements for\ngraduation, that need to be said, I conclude, whether they be borne out\nin all their detaiJs by the experience of the institutions comprised\nin these five states or not. You will not, therefore, hold the schoolmen\nof this section responsible for all I shall say, tho I shall try to speak\nwhat I conceive to be their sentiment touching this question, as I have\nbeen able to discover it.\nBesides the answers to the syllabus questions, I have examined somewhat carefully the catalogs of the two schools of Illinois; of Oshkosh,\n\n"}
{"page": 752, "printed_page": null, "text": "742\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nRiver Falls, Whitewater, and Stevens Point, and the prospectus of the\nWest Superior school, Wisconsin ; and a catalog of the Indiana school.\nWhat I here say you will understand, therefore, is gathered from the two\nsources.\n1. Of eight who answered the first question six would make graduation from a reputable high school the requirement for entrance to the\nproposed minimum normal-school course. One of these thought that\nto have completed the second year of a high-school course might possibly\nbe sufificient; and one said, \"eventually\" graduation from a high school.\nOf the other two, one would require the holding of a third-grade license\nto teach, and the pther would make the condition of entrance to this\nminimum course the same as is required for admission to a high school.\nThe tendency of most schools is so • to raise the standard of entrance\nas practically to prepare no teachers for the low-salaried places of village\nand rural schools. Of course, the question is raised at once whether it is\nwise to attempt to give the technical training — even its rudiments — to\napplicants who have had no more than an elementary-school training. I\ncan only raise the question and leave it.\n2. Concerning the requirements for graduation in English, mathematics, and history, there were but four answers received, and these show\ngreat difference of opinion. One would require two years in each of the\nfour subjects ; one would have twice as much mathematics as of each of\nthe other three ; and one would apportion the four groups in the ratio of\nnine parts of science and mathematics to four of English and history.\nThe average preference, as gathered from courses of study as well as the\ndirect answers to questions, is for the dominance of the sciences over the\nhumanities, so far as these four groups are concerned.\n3. The question as to the use that should be made of music, drawing,\nscience, physical training, and history in the elementary grades was\nanswered by thirteen. All the writers would include all of these branches\nin even a minimum training course, except in a single instance where history for the grades was omitted explicitly. One regards physical training\nas standing first in importance, the order of the others remaining as given\nabove. Two would make the normal-school work in elementary science\nand history for the elementary grades as method work only.\nThruout the answers, and in most published courses of study, there\nseems to be what to me stands for a painful lack of appreciation of the\n•value of history, and story and literature, and art in its various forms, as\na means of child training. What is there in our own nation's past, or in\nthat of the race ; in human achievement and thinking and living ; in fine\narts and industrial skill, that may further the civilizing and socializing\nprocess in the child and make him fit for high-grade living as a man in\nthe complex social life about him ? Is there a neglect of the humanities\nby teachers in fitting for work with children and youth ?\n\n"}
{"page": 753, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nNORTH\n\nCENTRAL\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n743\n\n4. About professional work — psychology, pedagogy, history of education, and method exercises in the elementary branches — there is shown\nthe greatest diversity of opinion. . Here again thirteen answers were\nreceived — five from persons connected with normal schools, six from those\nactively engaged in school supervision, and two from educators of large\nexperience, but not now connected with elementary or secondary schools.\nSix do not mention history of education, and one would have none of it,\nregarding it as greatly overrated as an aid to right teaching. Another\nconsiders a knowledge of three or four leading reformers as sufficient for\nthis kind of professional training. The average time set for the subject\nis a half year.\nAll would have psychology taught even in the most elementary courses.\nThe amount varies greatly, however, as does the importance attached to it as\na guide to instruction. One would include in a minimum course the\ngeneral steps in pedagogy only, leaving psychology to later and longer\ncourses. One would have of psychology such works studied as those of\nJames, Sully, and Dewey — for their general and not specific value, however— not mentioning pedagogy in this course at all. The average time\nput upon psychology, pedagogy, and the history of education, together,\nis one year. The average time given to all professional subjects, including the method work in elementary branches, and excluding the training\nin practice and observation schools, is two years, or about one-fourth of\nthe total course. Most actual courses, as published, show less than this,\nand the shorter courses considerably less. Probably for these courses it\nshould be less; right habits of thinking and respectable scholastic attainments are very important for any grade of preparation. There is always\ndanger in giving technical knowledge a setting in mediocre attainment.\n<And nowhere is the danger greater than in the teaching process.\n5. Concerning the relations and proportions of teaching and observation in the training school, answers were received from fourteen persons —\nseven of these from normals schools. Of the fourteen, four give no\nfigures. The average of the estimates of the other ten would make two\nparts of the training work teaching and one part observation. Three of\nthe four answering indefinitely would have the work \" mainly practice ; \"\nand one \" almost altogether practice\" — experts \" inspecting the work once\nin two weeks.\" Two would have the time given to practice four times\nthat allowed for observation.\nWhile in the midst of this writing a letter comes to my table whose\nspirit was just the reverse of that shown by these statistics. The writer,\na normal-school man and a president, says : \"I am planning a rescue of\nthe model department of our school from the steady encroachment of\npractice work upon it, as a school of observation during the recent years\nof rapid growth.\" \"Formerly,\" he said, \"one-third of the classes were\nconducted by student teachers ; then I yielded to one-half ; now more\n\n"}
{"page": 754, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n744\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Normal\n\nthan three-fourths of the classes are in the hands of student teachers.\"\n*\n*\n*\n*\n\n\" I purpose to restore some due balance in the department, so that there\nshall be a fair proportion of the work done by grade teachers in every\ngrade.\" What that fair proportion is the writer does not attempt to fix\nin figures. My own estimate would put the value of expert teaching and\nobservation much higher than most reports show. The' practice, thru the\nactual handling of classes, the being personally responsible for the behavior\nand thinking and interest of pupils thru several successive days in the\nworking out of some lesson, must not be valued lightly ; but it should\nfollow and be conditioned by the most careful planning, and observation\nby pupil teachers, and a sound insight of the ends to be attained, and the\nrelative worthiness of the several possible ends, the value of available\nmeans, and the conditions of their right using. Following upon accurate\nknowledge of what is to be done, and how it has been well done, less\npractice is requisite. To put a young practice teacher in charge of a\nclass whose work is inspected and criticised not oftener than once in\ntwo weeks, or once a week, is scarcely better than the process by which\nsome of us learned to teach, altogether without inspection. The normal school should save the intending teacher from the necessity of\nblundering.\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nSUBCOMMITTEE\nSCHOOLS\nOF THE\n\n[compiled\n\nBY\n\nDR.\n\nEDWARD\n\nfrom\n\nanswers\n\nT.\n\nPIERCE,\nLOS\n\nON\nTHE STATE\nPACIFIC COAST\n\nto questions\n\nin circular\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nSTATE\n\nANGELES,\n\nNORMAL\n\nNORMAL\n\nletter]\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nCAL.\n\nSeventy-five circulars were sent out on the Pacific coast. But twenty\nanswers were received. These, however, were from some of the most\nprominent educators. Answers to the questions were as follows, so i^x\nas the differences of opinion can be noted :\nI. The general consensus of opinion is that the requirements for\nentrance should be a full high-school education.\nOne says : \" An ability to write accurate, clear English, knowledge of\nmain facts in United States history, power to read intelligently and to\nuse books intelligently, with an understanding of the various essentials\nof the whole.\"\n\nOne thinks that the requirements should be \" entirely\n\ndependent on the school and the student-producing community.\" One\nthinks that nine years of school work will make a good preparation for\n\n"}
{"page": 755, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nOF THE\n\nPACIFIC\n\nSLOPE\n\n745\n\nthose who enter the normal school.\nOne says that the preparation is\nimmaterial so long as the school holds students long enough.\n2. The mininoum standards for graduation are indicated as follows :\nIn English and literature, one says, \" as high as possible.\"\nIn mathematics, \"completion of plane and solid geometry.\"\nThere are, however, the' following scattering answers : \" Should be\nable to compose and write good English and know something of the\nbest authors;\" \"definite knowledge of science of language — critical\nstudy of masterpieces in poetry and prose ;\" \" eighty weeks plus reviews\nfor methods ;\" \" acquaintance with American authors and such as are\nstudied in a first-class high school.\"\nIn science', some of the answers are : \"Three years' work ;\" \" eighty\nweeks and reviews, with special reference to methods ;\" \" twenty weeks\neach in botany, zoology, physiology, and chemistry, and forty weeks in\nphysics, with careful laboratory work in those subjects.\"\nIn mathematics : \" The amount required by the best high schools ;\"\n\" three years' work ;\" \"one year each in algebra and geometry and twenty\nweeks in arithmetic ;\" \" thru quadratics and plane geometry.\"\nIn United States history : \" High-school requirements ;\" \" at least\ntwo years' work in modern European history and one year in American\nhistory and economics.\"\n3. ^Vith one or two exceptions, there is a consensus of opinion that\nall of the subjects under this head should find a place in the normalschool curriculum.\n4. The most who answered this question as to the minimum requirement for professional studies said : \" One year for psychology, one year\nfor pedagogy and history of education, and one year for methods.\"\nOne said, \"twenty weeks in each;\" another, \"at least one-fourth of\nthe time devoted to the whole course.\" One superintendent says : \" Not\ntoo much of it ; a good, general education, common sense, love of work,\n♦ and some experience are necessary qualifications of a good teacher, and\nare not wholly supplied by these studies.\"\n5. The consensus of opinion seems to be that one-fourth of the time\ndevoted to the work of the training school should be given to observation of expert teachers and three-fourths to actual teaching. The opinion seems to prevail that, instead of devoting one hour per day for a\npart or the whole of a year to teaching a class, the student teacher\nshould have charge of a room and teach the entire time for a number\nof weeks.\n6. As to the amount of training-school work that should be required\nin a minimum course, the answers range from one period per day for\nhalf a year to one-fourth of the time for the entire course. In its relation to the whole of the professional work, the opinion prevails that onethird of such work should be actual practice.\nIt should be not less\n\n"}
{"page": 756, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n6\n4\n7\n[Normal\nthan ten weeks with entire charge of a room or forty weeks of one period\neach day.\n7. Three answers from California normal schools say : \" Four years\nfor graduates of grammar schools and two years for graduates of high\nschools.\" The Washington state normal schools give three courses of\ntwo, three, and four years.\n*\n8. The course of study for the California state normal schools is :\nEnglish, from 120 to 140 weeks.\nSubjects : grammar, composition,\nword analysis, literature, reading, rhetoric.\nScience, 160 weeks. Subjects : botany and microscopy, zoology and\nmicroscopy, physics, geography, chemistry, physiology, geology, and\nastronomy optional in place of chemistry.\nMathematics, no weeks. Subjects : arithmetic, algebra, geometry,\nand bookkeeping.\nProfessional studies, 120 to 130 weeks. Subjects: psychology, history of education, practice teaching, pedagogy, school law, and school\neconomy.\nMiscellaneous, 100 to 140 weeks. Subjects : drawing, sloyd, clay\nmodeling, penmanship, music, physical culture, history, and civics.\n10. The minimum amount of practice in teaching as required in the\nseveral schools is twenty weeks, one period per day, in the San Jos^\nschool; forty weeks in the Los Angeles and Chico schools.\n11. In answer to the question, \"Should normal schools do academic\nwork ? \" most say : \" Yes, until the supply from secondary schools is large\nenough to make the school purely professional.\"\n12. Most answers approve the teaching of bookkeeping, patriotism,\nethics, art.\n13. The following criticisms and suggestions are offered for the\nimprovement of normal schools : \" Need of wider and more thoro culture\ntraining as basis of professional training.\" \"Raise requirements for\nadmission.\" \"Raise standards for admission; receive mature material ^^\nwith culture basis, and make them strictly professional schools.\" \" Pupils\nnot fitted to be teachers should be dismissed peremptorily.\" \" Not all\ngraduates are good teachers — such as are not fitted for the work should\nnot be granted a diploma.\" \"None; I think the requirements will be\nincreased.\" \" Should be open all the year ; should have advanced course\nfor its own and college graduates ; should give degree for both courses.\"\n\" Do away with all other modes of certification of teachers.\" \" Higher\nstandards and right to prune.\" \" Higher scholarship for matriculation\nand graduation.\" \" They take pupils without sufficient literary education ;\ntoo much politics in selection of teachers.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 757, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nDISCUSSION\n\n747\n\nDISCUSSION\nPresident John W. Cook, of Illinois, urged that requirements for admission should\nnot be allowed to bar country pupils from entrance to normal schools. He said they are\nmore likely to return to those schools, and better fitted to teach and manage, than others\nare. He gave it as his experience that the class of pupils coming from the country, on\naccount of greater maturity and the different environments of childhood, are fully equal\nto high-school graduates in power to master the most difficult parts of the normal curriculum.\nDr. F. J. Cheney, Cortland, N. Y., asked if the investigations of the committee\nled it to believe in the practicability of uniformity in all the normal schools. To this\nquestion no good reasons could be shown for an affirmative answer. He believed that in\nhis school the strongest pupils were not high-school graduates, and he could name examples to sustain his position.\nMiss Bosworth, of Oklahoma, said that country pupils would have an experience\nof such practical and varied character as to fit them to meet the different requirements of\nlife better than those brought up in the city.\nDr. J. M. Green, Trenton, N. J., thought we ought to put ourselves into the attitude of those whom we seek to serve, that we might better appreciate their demands and\ncriticisms. He believed there ought to be two distinct courses for the two classes of\npupils that sought admission. High-school graduates and pupils from the country\nschools ought to be admitted, but, not having the same preparation, they ought not to be\nrequired to follow the same course.\nDr. Z. X. Snyder, Greeley, Colo., did not believe the normal school ought to be\nclosed to any persons who would make real teachers, but we ought to exact something of\nthem when they begin with us. He believed, tfto, that the great mass of educational men\ndemand that pupils should not be called from the high school to enter a normal school\nuntil they have finished their course.\nWill S. Monroe, Westfield, Mass., said that he thought all persons should have a\nhigh-school course, or its equivalent, before entering a normal school, and thai there should\nbe but two courses for the different classes.\n'\nPresident H. H. Seerley said that he had the two courses demanded, and they\nsatisfactorily met the requirements.\nThe question of allowances by the colleges for work done in the normal schools was\nlargely discussed. President Seerley and Dr. Snyder believed that affiliation with colleges would solve all difficulties that arise in this respect. President A. R. Taylor and\nothers who had had experience in this arrangement believed the opinion well founded,\nand urged the normal schools and colleges to complete such arrangements, so far as possible.\nIn continuing the discussion, a speaker from West Virginia said he thought a thoro\npreparation to teach requires a longer time and more settled habits of thought than the\nnormal schools can require. He proposed that the normal school prepare its graduates\nfor college, and that they be given there a course leading to a pedagogical degree.\nMr. Bryan, of Pennsylvania, thought the committee had been troubled by the\ndiversity of practice which it had found ; he thought that, instead of seeking for that\nwhich seems to be most common, we should seek for that which is best. He believed\nthere should be but one course, and high-school graduation should be required for admission. The normal school should then be followed by a university course.\n\n"}
{"page": 758, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n748\n\n[Normal\n\nTHE\n\nBY\n\nN.\n\nC.\n\nMIDDLE\n\nSCHAEFFER,\n\nSTATE\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\nHARRISBURG,\nPA.\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nPUBLIC\n\nINSTRUCTION,\n\n\" Life is not worth living during the month of June,\" was the exclamation of a superintendent engaged in the state examinations which\nmark the close of the school year. Either for this reason or because the\nsyllabus of questions was unsatisfactory, not half the letters of inquiry\nwere answered. Whenever there is educational progress, the leading\nminds cherish ideals which lure them forward and upward, but which at\nthe time cannot be realized. Some of the replies indicate that an ideal\nstate of things was floating before the minds of those who wrote them.\nOthers indicate that the replies were based upon existing conditions.\nThe former came mainly from those who are engaged in supervision ; the\nlatter from those engaged in actual normal-school work. The replies\nindicate that most of the answers were prepared with the haste which\nresults from the necessity of getting thru a large mass of official details ;\nhence there is danger of attaching too much value to the conclusions\nwhich may be drawn from these replies. Evidently it would be a mistake to publish any results at this stage of the investigation. A historical\ninvestigation of the courses of study, as they now exist, would be helpful\nin showing why the standard of academic and professional qualifications\nhas not been more rapidly advanced by the most efficient of our state\nnormal schools. The normal-school problem in the middle states has\nbeen solved according to the peculiar needs of each state and of the several localities in which the normal schools are situated. In Philadelphia\nit has become possible to insist on a course of four years in the high\nschool before the candidates for the vocation of teaching are admitted\ninto the normal school's two-years' course of professional work. Many\nsections of the Keystone State are not supplied with high schools ; the\nprivate schools do not furnish the required preparatory instruction in the\ncommon branches ; hence every one of the thirteen state normal schools\nin Pennsylvania maintains a course preparatory to the regular professional courses, which are two, three, and four years in length. The\nreplies to the questions sent out agree in demanding such a knowledge\nof the common branches as will fit the student for professional studies.\nIn the state of New York the admissions are limited to persons recommended by the school commissioners. In New Jersey a satisfactory\nexamination is required for entrance to the normal schools. In Pennsylvania the doors are open to everybody, yet many teachers never see the\ninside of a normal school.\nIt is assumed that the normal schools exist\n\n"}
{"page": 759, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department 1\n\nTHE\n\nMIDDLE\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n749\n\nfor the greatest good of the greatest number. I find that the number of\nschools which a state maintains has some effect upon the curriculum of\nstudy. Maryland and New Jersey sustain but one normal school each.\nIt is natural for the authorities to place the standard, high enough to\nsecure, as far as possible, the preparation of the teachers who will occupy\nthe best-paid positions. The larger the emoluments in sight, the more\nthoro is the preparation which can be demanded of those who are candidates for a profession. As a necessary result the rural schools in sparsely\nsettled districts seldom get a teacher who has graduated from the normal\nschool. In New York, where the training classes supplement the work\nof the regular normal schools, and in Pennsylvania, where the entrance\nexaminations are held for purposes of classification, there is more prospect of reaching the rural schools in sparsely settled communities.\nFrom one point of view, training in pedagogy should be made possible\nfor everybody. Herbert Spencer claims that the science of education\nshould form a part of the training of every youth, because the duty of rearing and training children sooner or later devolves upon nearly all of them.\nThe facilities possible for this kind of study is the limit to the good\nwhich can be done by the policy of admitting everybody into the normal\nschool. The accommodations in Philadelphia have compelled the authorities to limit the admissions to about four hundred, because the city feels\nunwilling to bear the expense of training teachers for schools outside of\nthe city. Only those who graduate from the high school with the best\nstanding are now admitted ; the others are excluded. A bright girl\ntrained for school work, and understanding the science of pedagogy, is\nan attractive personality ; and when a worthy young man says to her,\n\"Come, let us establish a home,\" she replies in the affirmative. The\nvocation of teaching loses a member, but the nation gets an addition to\nits cultured homes ; the loss is more than made up by the gain. A\nformer opponent of normal schools explained his conversion by exclaiming: \" I have noticed that, if a rich man's daughter spends a session or\ntwo at a normal school, she returns home believing that teaching school\nis the most honorable vocation on earth ; there must be something in the\natmosphere of a normal school to work this change of sentiment in the\ngirl who formerly imagined that school-teaching was a convenient way of\npensioning needy spinsters.\" This enthusiasm for education, which Cavour\non his deathbed wished for Italy, is one of the factors that has helped to\nmake us victorious by land and by sea, in the workshop and in the marts\nof trade. Hence our contemplated report should fully discuss the policy\nof one state normal school with a high grade, and many normal schools\nwith an approach to facilities for all who seek admission. I have not\nreceived sufficient information to speak with confidence about the views\nof educators outside of my own state, but there is greater unanimity\namong Pennsylvania educators than I had expected.\n\n"}
{"page": 760, "printed_page": null, "text": "750\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nIn the mathematical requirements for graduation there is practical\nunanimity upon arithmetic, algebra, and plane geometry. A few add\nsolid geometry and trigonometry. In the sciences there is almost unanimity in favor of requiring botany, zoology, chemistry, and physics. Several add descriptive astronomy. The knowledge of English literature is.\nmade to embrace the study of several, if not all, the classics demanded by\nthe Association of Colleges in the Middle States. Dr. Brooks says : \" In\nEnglish there should be ability to write an article with correctness, showing a good command of language, with correct spelling, punctuation,\ncapitalization. In literature a fair knowledge of different great writers,\nincluding principal works.\" Most of the replies are in favor of requiring\nmore or less instruction in music, drawing, science, history, and literature.\nThere is a divided opinion on physical training.\nI have found it difficult to sum up the views in regard to minimum\nrequirements in psychology, pedagogy, history of education, and methods\nof teaching the common branches. Some replies use the year, others the\nhour, as a unit of measure. The amount of work in these branches which\nthe pupil is required to do, outside of the recitation, varies in different\nschools belonging to the same state system. One professor teaches by\nlectures chiefly ; another employs the printed page. I doubt the policy\nof trying to fix a minimum. The student will always seek short-cuts to\nthe castle in which he is forever fortified against the attacks of the examiner. It is specially vicious to measure by weeks the requirements in\nobservation of good teaching and in the practice which should follow.\nThe weaker schools are apt to allow this requirement to supplant the\nstandard of excellence which should form the basis of graduation from\nthe normal school. We here encounter the trouble which confronts all\nprofessional schools. Wherever the reputation or the income or the\nsuccess of a school in any way depends upon the number of students who\nattend and graduate, there is a temptation to lower the bars at the two\nends of the course of study. In schools which have a fixed income fsom\nstate revenues or annual appropriations this temptation is reduced to a\nminimum. It afflicts the colleges quite as much as the normal schools.\nThe necessity of getting endowment compels the authorities to let down\nthe bars for the admission of rich men's sons, and finally to let down the\nbars at the end of the course so as to get rid honorably of these scions of\nwealth. The information which I have been able to gather is very far\nfrom being satisfactory. The supply of printed questions reached me at\na time when the duties of a state superintendent in Pennsylvania oblige\nhim to live all over the commonwealth. I have reported in this fragmentary way, in the hope that suggestions and corrections would enable\nme to complete my task. It is the truth I am seeking ; hence I shall\nwelcome criticisms, corrections, and suggestions from every quarter.\n\n"}
{"page": 761, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\nBY\n\nTHE\n\n\"TRAINING\n\n\"TRAINING\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nSCHOOL\"\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOL'-' IN THE\n\nZ. X. SNYDER,\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nUNITED\n\nSTATES\n\nUNITED\nSCHOOL,\n\n75 ^\n\nSTATES\n\nGREELEY,\n\nCOLO.\n\nOpinions are very divergent and diversified on this Department of\nthe Normal School. Some contend that it should be a model school\nexclusively — a school in which the pupil teacher should see nothing but\nexpert work. These same persons think it is vicious to have this pupil\nteacher teach under the severe strain occasioned by the critic teacher —\nwhich strain, it is claimed, disqualifies her from putting forth her best\neffort. Others think it should be a school in which the pupil teacher\nwould have entire charge of a room full of children for a large portion\nof a year, only to be interfered with when serious blunders are being\nmade.\nBetween these two extremes diversified views are held, no two having\njust the same; yet a majority of the schools have about the same line of\nwork.\nThere is a difference between a model and a practice school. In this\ndiscussion, training school is used to comprehend both model and practice school, or model and practice work.\nA training school may have model work and not a model school.\nUsing the word model in the etymological sense, it means a measure — a\nunit of measure of a good school, or unit of measure of good work.\nWherever there is expert work done there is model work.\nThe ideal training school is one in which there are both a model and a\npractice department. The model is where they have reached the highest\nefficiency — where the management of the school, the training of the\nchildren, the results, and the teacher are everything that is to be desired.\nThe practice department is where the pupil teachers are to do their work\nunder proper criticism and supervision, and where they will all aim to\nrealize the ideals formed in the model ; and, while they will not reach\nthem in the practice school, they will leave with ideals that will have a\nhigh potential for realization. The practice school, then, is a place\nwhere the pupil teacher energizes her ideals of a school, in her efforts of\nrealization.\nNow, to have these two distinct departments in the same building is\na very difficult matter; but it can be carried out where a normal school\nhas an opportunity to use the schools of the town in which it is located.\nThe next best thing to this is to have the model and practice departments\nas one. This means to have some model classes taught only by experts,\nand have the expert teachers do work with the classes necessary to demonstrate good work.\n\n"}
{"page": 762, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n2\n5\n7\n[Normal\nTo carry out either of these plans a good organization is necessary.\nOrganization is an arrangement of parts for a common purpose. The\npurpose in the training school is : (i) the preservation of the thing\norganized ; (2) to give an opportunity to the pupil teachers to prepare\nfor teaching ; (3) to take care of the children in the school.\nThe parts involved are the superintendent, the critic teachers, the\npupil teachers, and the children.\nThe superintendent should be a man of very ripe practical and theoretical experience. He should be practical in that he can teach ideally\nchildren of all grades ; he should be practical in that he has a keen insight\ninto child nature in its various stages of development, and that in his\npractice he recognizes these stages ; he should be practical in that he has\nan abiding and loving sympathy for children in their various activities,\nand that he personally knows how to direct these activities; he should be\npractical in that he is full of child life. He should be so constituted as\nto look upon a child as a blessing in this world ; he should see it in the\nsense that it is the stuff out of which are to be made men and women,\nand that the mission of the teacher is to live with children. He should\nbe professional in that he is conversant with the various systems of education that have developed at various times in the movement of civilization ;\nhe should be professional in that he should be familiar with and have a\nbroad grasp of the history of philosophy and its bearing upon the philosophy of education; he should be professional in that he can wind out of\nthese educational and philosophical systems the stream of educational development as it flowed down thru the ages ; in short, he should be a witness\nof all time ; he should see all knowledge and effort as a unit and a unifying process. Out of this preparation will come his power to organize, to\nmanage, and to develop a useful training school. Out of this preparation\nwill come his power to make and inspire teachers with energized ideals,\nthe realization of which will be the development of the truest character\nof the children whom they teach. This will be their success — their\nreward. I believe in this kind of man being at the head of a training\nschool. A strong man inspires and begets confidence and respect. A\nstrong mind, a large heart, a gentle spirit, and the unified expression of\nall these are a tremendous influence in shaping the course of young persons, in inspiring them with high ideals, in begetting within them respect\nfor what they are going to do, and impressing them that they should put\ntheir life and soul in what they do. The people, the profession, the children, all demand this man at the head of the training school. In this\nday of intense and profound training for the work in hand, nothing else\nwill do. Nothing else will make the people and the profession respect\nthe school.\nNothing else will eliminate just criticism.\nThe critic teacher should be a scholar. Scholarship commands respect.\nNothing can take its place.\nIt is the reserve power of every great teacher.\n\n"}
{"page": 763, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department] THE\n\n\"TRAINING\n\nSCHOOL\"\n\nIN THE\n\nUNITED\n\nSTATES\n\n7^3\n\nGo to history ; observe the educational activities about us, and wherever\nyou find a great teacher you will find a scholar. She should have wide\nprofessional training. The history, the philosophy, the science, and the\nart of education should be at her command.\nShe should be a student of children. A little child should be sacred\nto her. She should see it as a thought of God — his most sublime\nthought, yet expressed in flesh and blood. She should know how and\nlove to live with children. The tenderest feelings of respect and love\nshould exist between her and the children and pupil teachers.\nShe should know and love nature. She should see in it divinity. She\nshould have the subtle ability to have the pupil teacher and the children\nsee in it truth, beauty, and good, arid to lead them to love and enjoy these\ngraces. A soul grows to its ripest fruition when in the forum of truth,\nthe gallery of beauty, and the temple of good.\n•\nShe should be a lover of the best literature. Literature is soul. It is\nthe life blood of the race spirit. It makes soul. It represents the history of humanity. She should be able to adapt it to the hungry, growing\nchild. It should be an intellectual and moral feast. She should be able\nto present it hot and steaming. The best sentiments gotten from it should\nbe manifest in the child's activities. To accomplish this is rare skill. A\ncritic teacher must be able to do it.\nThe critic teacher should be a lover of art. Art is the effort of the\nhuman mind to preserve the record of the sentiments. The art sentiment\nshould be strong in the training school. All must be interested in it.\nThe superintendent, the pupil teacher, the children, and the critic\nteacher must all be interested. The critic teacher must be the moving\nspirit in her room. An appreciation of art in nature, art in literature,\nart in poetry, art in pictures, art in painting, art in architecture, art in\nsculpture, should all be cultivated. The pupil teachers should be led to\ncarry this art spirit with them into their schools. It should be seen in\nthe schoolroom decorations, in the dress, in recitation, and everywhere.\nOne of the very essential characteristics of the critic teacher is the\npower to give severe criticism and have the pupil teacher receive it in the\nstudent spirit, to have her feel that it is a great privilege to have the\nopportunity to have the critic present. The life of the training school\nshould be that the pupil teacher is sorry when she has finished her work.\nGreat teaching power, gentleness, firmness, simplicity, sympathy, and the\nconsciousness that in all she knows just what she is doing, are the elements that beget the proper spirit in the practice school.\nThe pupil teacher should have a thoro training in the common\nbranches — common-school subjects — together with good general training\nin the subjects of the secondary schools. She should have had sufficient\nobservation in the model department of the training school or of model\nwork to gain a fairly clear insight into good teaching and the prope r\n\n"}
{"page": 764, "printed_page": null, "text": "754\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Normal\n\nmanagement of children. She should have had the opportunity of\nobserving some work in the practice department, and of taking part in\nthe critic conferences made up of those practice teachers whom she\nobserves teaching and of the observers, and conducted by the critic teacher\nin whose room the work has been done. There should be a seminar in\nwhich the superintendent gives pedagogical meaning to the observation\nwork and to the theoretical professional work, as psychology and general\npedagogy. A keen insight into the nature of children should also be\nacquired. The entire life in the normal school should be such as to put\nthe pupil teacher in sympathy with the child life. With this preliminary\npreparation the pupil teacher is ready to enter upon her work in the practice department.\nHere she enters into active teaching. She should, at least, teach one\nhour \"k day, five days in the week, for one full school year, together with\nan opportunity to have charge of an entire room for a sufficient length\nof time to prove her ability to manage a school. During this time conferences with critic teachers and seminars with the superintendent are\nheld regularly.\nThe critic work has to do with the immediate work of the class from\nall standpoints — those of management, preparation, recitation, and the\napplication of pedagogical principles. The work of the seminar will have\nto do with the discussions of all pedagogical questions arising in connection with the work in the training school. It is here where all the work\nof the institution is correlated and concentrated so as to be available for\nactual practice. It is here where general method finds a place. It deals\nwith the courses of work for the different grades — the development, correlation, concentration, and arrangement of the same.\nAnother feature of the seminar is that it is a center of stimulation for the\nstudy. of the children. More real, helpful, systematic child-study grows out\nof this seminar than out of any other center of activity in the institution.\nThe children are a very important part in the organization of a training school. • It should contain the kindergarten and all the grades below\nthe high school. The kindergarten should be an integral part of it. It\nshould not be something unique in itself. The work should be so gradually developed that there would be no break. In short, where the one\nends and the other begins should not be capable of being discerned. All\npupil teachers should be required to study this training school as an\norganic whole. They should be required to study the philosophy of it\nfrom the beginning to the end — should by all means go out with the\nkindergarten spirit as the spirit that characterizes and permeates all true\neducation.\nThe arrangement and organization of the children should be of interest. The organization of the child is the first consideration. Nothing\nshould take the place of its interests.\n\n"}
{"page": 765, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department] THE\n\n\"TRAINING\n\nSCHOOL''\n\nIN THE\n\nUNITED\n\nSTATES\n\n755\n\nThe kindergarten children should be arranged in groups based upon\ntheir development. These groups preserve their identity thru the\ntraining school, but vary in individuals. The criterion of the group\nshould, as a rule, be equality of development.\nAs these groups move into the primary department and onward, they\nwill integrate into classes — two classes constituting a room. The pupil\nteachers work with groups, classes, and with rooms of children. To be\nable to manage a room of two classes is the best criterion of the ability of a\npupil teacher to manage a school. To be able to conduct a recitation\nwell with one class while the other is preparing a lesson, and doing it\nwell, is good evidence of success.\nA school conducted on this plan brings out and develops the two\nkinds of attention — active upon the part of those reciting, and passive\nupon the part of those preparing. It is under this sort of regime that\nthe teacher develops a kind of omnipresent influence. Some have this to\na marked degree. Their influence is everywhere without effort — in the\nrecitation, in the preparation, and on the grounds. Without an opportunity to develop this power there is no certainty in the product you\nsend out.\nIn the organization of the training school, as in any other organization, harmony is the binding element of success.\nSuperintendent, critics, pupil teachers, children, and all the institution should be in complete harmony. The center of life in the institution\nshould be the training school. It should be the center from which emanates the professional life and toward which it gravitates.\nTo this end the professors in the normal department proper must be\nin sympathy with the spirit of the training school. They should have\nan opportunity to do work in it. This is the surest way of developing\nthe right spirit.\nAnother way to centralize the interest and efforts of the entire institution is to constitute the faculty of a seminar, in which the most vital\nquestions pertaining to the training of the child, and the relation of this\ntraining to their respective departments, are discussed. This will lead\neach department to show the relation of its work to teaching, to the training school, and to the unification of the work of the normal school.\n\nDISCUSSION\n\nPresident T. B. Noss, California, Pa., approved the ideas of Dr. Snyder's paper,\nand thought no teacher was fit for his place in a normal school who could not prepare\nhis pupils to go out and do correct work from the beginning.\nPrincipal W. E. Wilson, Providence, R. I., thought he had never seen a complete\n\n"}
{"page": 766, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n756\n[Nonna\npractice school, but said the Oswego, N. Y., school came nearest to his idea. He thought\nthere should be two separate schools, one a school for observation, the other a school for\npractice. These should be entirely separate. The pupil should first make observations\nunder favorable circumstances, and take notes which should be afterward discussed.\nAfter this, practice under a qualified training teacher. The observation school should\nnot be called a model school, but a school of good, tho varied, practice, so that the\nobserver shall not be led to imitate any one individual.\nDr. Snyder said, in answer to a question, that his paper was designed to represent\nwhat schoolmen want. It was not so much his own thought as a setting forth of what\nhe had gathered.\nProfessor J. N. Wilkinson, Emporia, Kan., questioned whether we could get over\nall the inherent difficulties of the situation. For instance, the teacher of a normal class\nmay go into the practice school and criticise the amount of work done in his department,\nand the manner of doing it, from his own point of view, not making allowance for the difference of circumstances, nor of the other requirements of the school.\nA. S. Downing, Albany, N. Y., said that it is the function of a normal school to prepare a pupil for successful teaching, but not every teacher is prepared for all teaching.\nHe asked the question if it is not possible to give practice work of different grades to\ndifferent pupils.\n\nMisS Lucy E. Moten, M.D., Washington, D. C, said : \"In our medical school the\npupils have to use the scalpel and do the dissecting themselves.\" She thought the practice school should be like the dissecting room — pupils should first learn what is to be\ndone in a theoretical and observational way, and then do the work for themselves.\nA. R. Taylor, Emporia, Kan., said he could not certify to the success of graduates\nuntil his school came nearer to the ideal. He sometimes recommended a teacher for one\nposition, and a little experience would show that a different place would be better for her.\nIt is a difficult problem to fit teachers to their places.\nDr. F. J. Cheney, Cortland, N. Y., said that an experience of seven years in placing\nteachers had taught him that the point made by Mr. Downing could be met, and that\ngraduates could be classified by the normal schools when they are sent out. He thought\nDr. Snyder's paper one of very great value.\nAlexander M. Rowe, Little Falls, Minn., said he could not make of all his pupils\nsuch teachers as he could recommend. He would reduce the teaching of the poorer\nteachers to a minimum and give the better teachers a maximum. In this way the poorer\nteachers will be discouraged and take up some other work.\nDr. John W. Cook, of Illinois, thought that often a pupil will make a failure at first and\nafterward become distinguished. He would reverse the order of minimum. He also\nbelieved in imitating, especially in the beginning of a teacher's work. He did not\nbelieve in laying down such hard and fast rules as some had advocated. He said there\nwas nothing that we should say we would never do.\n\n"}
{"page": 767, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL\nEDUCATION\n\nSECRETARY'S\nINTRODUCTORY\n\nMINUTES\nNOTE\n\nInasmuch as among the officers and leading members of the American Manual Training Teachers\nAssociation a desire has been gaining strength for a union of that organization with this department of the\nNational Educational Association, arrangements were effected for holding the sessions of the two organizations\nin Washington on alternate days in the same room, and invitations to attend one another's exercises were\nexchanged. Following a well-established procedure, and as the result of the able and devoted labors of the\nofficers of the visiting organization (Professor C. R. Richards, of New York, president; H. G. Bryant, of\nNewport, R. I. .vice-president, and W. E. Roberts, of Cleveland, O., secretary and treasurer) , assisted by Professor J.A. Chamberlain, director of manual training, Washington, D. C, a very valuable and quite extensive exhibit of pupils' work in manual training had been installed in the room in the Masonic Temple where the\nmeetings were held.\n\nFIRST\n\nSESSION.— Monday, July ii, 1898\n\nThe session of the department was called to order at 3 P. M. by President E. O. Sisson, of Peoria, 111. Owing to some changes which made the session's program unexpectedly full, the president, refraining from reading the address which he had prepared,\noccupied time only for a few remarks, bearing upon the program and business of the\nmeeting, in which he expressed especial gratification at the presence of the American\nManual Training Teachers' Association, and recognized the valuable services rendered\nby it to the cause of manual training in the few years of its separate existence.\nThe committee on nominations was appointed as follows :\nProfessor C. R. Richards, Teachers' College, New York, N. V.\nProfessor Charles A. Bennett, Bradley Polytechnic Institute, Peoria, 111.\nProfessor W. R. Lazenby, State University, Columbus, O.\n\nThe first paper was presented by President J. L. Snyder, Agricultural College, Mich.,\non the subject \" Education for the Industrial Classes.\" It was discussed by Superintendent E. Mackey, of Reading, Pa.\nMrs. Ellen H. Richards, of the Institute of Technology, Boston, Mass., read a paper\non \" Domestic Science as a Synthetic Study for Girls.\" Written discussion was presented\nby Miss Perla G. Bowman, professor of domestic arts, Ohio State University.\nThe subject \" Manual Training in Horticulture \" was treated in a paper by Professor\nWilliam R. Lazenby, of the State University, Columbus, O., and discussed by Professor\nGeorge T. Fairchild, Berea College, Ky.\nThe report of the committee which was appointed at the Milwaukee meeting, pursuant to a resolution by Professor George A. Robbins, providing for an inquiry into the\ncauses which help or hinder the introduction of manual training into schools, was read by\nProfessor Robbins, chairman, who has borne almost unaided the labor of the investigation, and to whom credit for so valuable a report is chiefly due. This report is presented\nfor publicatfon.in^full.\n757\n\n"}
{"page": 768, "printed_page": null, "text": "758\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Industrial\n\nThe department adjourned at 5 p. M., to meet at 2 : 30 the next day for the transaction\nof business.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION.— Tuesday, July 12\n\nThe meeting was called to order by Vice-President W. R. Lazenby, at 2 : 30 P. M.\nThe Committee on Nominations presented the following names for officers for the\ncoming year :\nFor President — Superintendent Judson E, Hoyt, Menomonie, Wis.\nFor Vice-President — Miss Perla G. Bowman, Columbus, O.\nFor Secretary — Professor Charles A. Bennett, Peoria, 111.\n\nOn motion, the chairman of the committee was instructed to cast the ballot of the\nassociation for the persons named. This having been done, the chair declared the nominees duly elected.\nProfessor C. R. Richards in a brief speech presented the desirability of a union in a\nnational organization of all the forces that are working for the establishment of manualtraining instruction in elementary and secondary schools, named some objections to the\npresent organization of this department which has led to a separate organization by the\nmanual-training instructors, and pointed out how these might be removed. Thereupon\nhe moved the following resolution :\nWhereas, It is believed that the interests of both manual-training and industrial education will be better\nserved by the bringing together of all workers in both fields at the annual meetings of the National Educational\nAssociation; and\nWhereas, These two fields have come to have distinctive character and interests which are widely difterent, the clear and sufficient presentation of which is greatly impeded under the present single organization and\nprogram; and\nWhereas, A separation could be made without disparagement to either, but with obvious and considerable advantages to both ; therefore be it\nResolved, That the officers of this department be, and are hereby, instructed to present to the Board of\nDirectors the request of this department for separation into two departments, to be known respectively as the\nDepartment of Manual Training and Domestic Arts, and the Department of Industrial Education, and, further,\nto take all steps necessary to the establishment of said separate departments, and preliminary to the next\nmeeting of this department, to which they will make report of their acts with recommendations.\n\nThe resolution was seconded by F. W. Wilde, of Baltimore Polytechnic Institute\nand passed by the meeting by unanimous vote.\nOn motion, the department adjourned.\nJ. E. Hoyt,\nSecretary.\n\nPAPERS\nEDUCATION\n\nBY\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nFOR\n\nJ. L. SNYDER\n\nOF\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nTHE\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nTHE\n\nAGRICULTURAL\n\nCLASSES\n\nCOLLEGE\n\nOF\n\nMICHIGAN\n\nSpeaking in general terms, the industrial classes include farmers,\nmechanics, and all other persons who work with their hands for a living.\nDuring the earlier history of this country they composed nearly the entire\npopulation ; but, as the country grows older, wealth increases, educational\nadvantages multiply, the demand for trained men in the professions and\n\n"}
{"page": 769, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nCLASSES\n\n759\n\nOther callings necessarily lessens the proportion of those engaged in\nindustrial pursuits. While it is not an easy matter to draw a line separating the industrial classes from those who might also be properly registered in other classes, yet it is not difficult to conceive that the great body\nof humanity, perhaps not less than 75 per cent, of the entire population\nof this country, do now, and will continue in the future to, \"earn their\nbread by the sweat of their brow,\" and therefore must belong to the class\nof citizens now under consideration.\nThe great success and rapid development of this country have been due\nvery largely to the integrity and energy of the industrial classes. Gathered from the best countries of northern Europe and sifted over and\nover again, the first settlers of this country were an exceptionally worthy\nclass of citizens. This sturdy stock, and those who still follow like occupations, have been and still are the bone and sinew — the stay of the\nnation. They are the court of last appeal in times of peace, and settle all\ngreat questions at the ballot box. In times of war they carry the muskets\nand charge on the ramparts of the enemy. Their courage and patriotism\nhave never been questioned. They have made this country what it is.\nThey felled the forests, cleared the land, opened up the great mineral\nwealth, built the railroads, and made the cities. More than this, they\nhave produced much of the energy and brains that have brought success\nto the learned professions and other callings. But they have not always\ngotten their own. Others have reaped where they have sown, and garnered the products of their labor. Much of the wealth which they have\nproduced has been gathered in by the few who have had the time and\nskill to lay schemes, corner markets, and corral legislatures.\nThe future of this country depends more largely upon the industrial\nclasses than upon all other classes combined. If they are intelligent,\nindustrious, and contented, the country is safe. They are in the majority;\nthey hold the ballots and will vote them when the proper time comes.\nIn the past the rural population has not had much sympathy with its\nfellow-laborers of the cities, but within recent date indications are not\nwanting which go to show that tht conservatism of the farmer will not\nhold him in line in the future as it has done in the past. The perpetuity\nand continued progress of this republic demand that what are termed\nthe common people be contented and intelligent. Their contentment\nwill depend largely upon their intelligence, and their intelligence will\ndepend upon the facilities afforded them for acquiring an education.\nHappiness, of course, does not always depend upon knowledge, but the\nartisan must have an intelligent appreciation of his work, or he will not\nenjoy it.\nThe industrial classes are living under conditions very different from\nthose under which their forefathers lived. The discoveries in science, and\nthe rapid development of machinery and other labor-saving devices, make\n\n"}
{"page": 770, "printed_page": null, "text": "760\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[industrial\n\nthe labor of the ordinary workman much more complicated and difficult\nthan was the work of his father on the same farm or in the same shop.\nThe position of the man who can simply work with his hands is steadily\ngrowing worse in this country. In the cities his associates in labor are\nusually foreigners of the lowest class. But for the man of intelligence,\nwho is able to put brains into his work, there were never brighter prospects than at the present time. The world is moving on very rapidly, and\nthe industrial classes must keep pace with this progress. If they do not,\nin the course of a few decades they will occupy the same position relatively\nas that now occupied by the peasants and other industrial classes of\nEurope.\nI know of no other means by which they can keep abreast of the\ntimes and maintain the high position of influence and honor which has\nalways been accorded them than by more and better education. In this\ncountry, including those who attend secondary schools, the average school\nlife of the child is but a small fraction over four years. The children\nbelonging to our working classes receive, on the average, but a little over\nthree years of school training. This must mean that about 75 per cent,\nof these children never get beyond the third reader; 50 percent, of them,\nperhaps, never reach it. But one child in eight, including all classes,\nattends school after the age of fourteen ; one in thirty-one after the age\nof eighteen; and but'iive of each one thousand enter college.\nThe great problem to be solved is how to keep the great body of children in school for a longer period. Fine school buildings, elaborate\ncourses of study, psychological laboratories, child-study clubs, and great\neducational conventions will not save the children who are in the streets\nand in the shops. Higher education has many friends, and our secondary\nschools have had a wonderful development within the last quarter of a\ncentury. They are both in good hands, and are not likely to suffer in\nthe future. But the nation is interested particularly in this great body of\nchildren who receive so little and who in a few years will be carrying all\nthe responsibilities of self-government. Are our schools, as at present\norganized and conducted, doing all that is possible for them to do for the\nchildren belonging to the industrial classes ?\nOur public-school system, formed at a time when an education was\nscarcely thought necessary for the man who toiled for a living, has constantly led young people away from industrial pursuits. It is organized\nfor the special advantage of the few who expect to enter a higher insti'tution of learning, and perhaps later on one of the learned professions.\nIt makes no pretense to meet the special demands of the industrial\nclasses. The object' is not to train students from the ordinary walks of\nlife for the vocation to which they naturally belong, but it rather seeks to\nstimulate them to break away from present environments and seek a calling\nfree from manual labor.\n\nThis is shown in many ways, but very emphatic-\n\n"}
{"page": 771, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nCLASSES\n\n761\n\nally by the very few high-school graduates who return to industrial pursuits. Their school training seems to have unfitted them for work with\ntheir hands. Most of them are led to believe that there is really some\neasier way of getting a living than to work for it, and their manner often\nindicates that they believe the chief object of an education is to enable\nthe recipient to obtain a living without manual labor. They have forced\nthemselves into the professions, until all the learned callings are overcrowded. They crowd every village and city, willing to work for little\nmore than enough to pay board, provided the work is such that they can\nwear clean clothes and have a good time. Young men leave good farms\nand shops, where success and happiness are assured, to work their way\ninto a profession or business career, where success only comes, if it comes\nat all, after many years of anxious toil and waiting. It never occurs to\nthis class of young men that it would be possible for an educated man to\nremain on the farm or at the bench. They are taught to regard such a\nlife, from an educational standard, as a failure. Education to many of\nthem means fine clothes, clean linen, and soft hands.\nFrom the industrial classes come many bright minds, but, if they seek an\neducation, they are at once alienated from the classes to which they belong ;\nand, instead of being an uplifting force and a benefit to their respective\nclasses, they are educated for another calling, and, while the profession or\ncalling which they enter is benefited, the industrial class loses. No fault\ncan be found with the young man who strives to reach a higher plane of\nliving and a more noble and influential sphere in life than the one in\nwhich he was born. We are proud that in this country such opportunities have been offered the ambitious young man and woman ; but, while\nthis is true, it should not be a function of public education to lead young\npeople away from the vocations to which they naturally belong. It should\nrather endeavor to make them intelligent, skillful, and happy in these\noccupations.\nWhile our public-school system has developed rapidly, it has not\nadapted itself to the industrial changes which have taken place in this\ncountry within the last half century. The system is admirable for pupils\nwho can spend from ten to twelve years in school, and who do not expect\nto follow one of the industrial pursuits; but for the great majority of\nchildren, who will remain in school for a short time and who will then be\ncompelled to toil for a living, it could certainly be made much more helpful.\nShould not pupils in school, if possible, be given instruction which will fit\nthem for taking up the work of life — something which will be of practical\nvalue to them ? If practical subjects were introduced into the courses of\nstudy, two results would follow : first, pupils would be induced to remain in\nschool longer, and, second, the knowledge and training given would better\nprepare the student for his future calling. Most pupils, when they begin\nto plan for the future, drop out of school, unless they can find something\n\n"}
{"page": 772, "printed_page": null, "text": "762\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Industrial\n\nin their school work which will be of use to them in after-life. The argument that the study of Latin is a splendid training for the mind does not\nusually have much influence with the thirteen-year-old boy or girl. The\ngreat majority of children drop out of school on the slightest pretext.\nVery few are compelled to drop out from sheer necessity. It is safe to\nsay that in nine cases out of every ten the cause is a lack of interest, both\non the part of the pupil and on the part of the parent. It is predicted\nthat, instead of only one' out of every eight attending school after the\nage of fourteen, at least six out of every eight would remain after reaching\nthis age, if they could find in their school work something which they and\ntheir parents could feel would be of special help to them after leaving\nschool. This statement is substantiated by the history of those schools\nhaving a manual-training department. The son of the mechanic does not\ndrop out of school when a mere youth, if he is given, in connection with\nhis other studies, mechanical drawing, shop work, and such a knowledge\nof machinery and mechanics as he will need in the occupation which he\nintends to follow. Both he and his parents, tho perhaps ignorant, can see\nhow this will help him in earning a living. While' learning these practical things, he is at the same time drinking in knowledge from his\nbooks. Two or three years of systematic school work will change the\nignorant, uncouth boy into a pretty fair type of citizen, and if he could\ntake a high-school course, designed primarily to fit him for one of the\nmechanical pursuits, what a power he would be among his fellow- workmen,\nand what a useful man he would be to himself and to his employer !\nThe farmer boy would remain in school much longer if, in connection\nwith his other studies, he were given instruction in those subjects which\nwould aid him in his work on the farm. A simple treatise on the different breeds of live stock would interest him at once. There are many other\nsubjects relating to rural life which would be of equal interest to him.\nSome of the Prussian schools have connected therewith gardens, in which\nthe pupils are taught elementary botany and horticulture. If in his highschool course he could be given soil physics, agricultural chemistry, meteorology, entomology, and other subjects which would aid him as a farmer,\nhe would return to the farm a cultured, educated husbandman. If such\ncourses of study were offered in our high schools, many more would\ntake advantage of them. Parents who now discourage their children from\ntaking a high-school course, for fear they will become dissatisfied and\neave the farm, or the occupation in which the father is engaged, would\nembrace the opportunity to prepare them to follow intelligently their\nchosen calling.\nWhat is true of young men is also true of young women. Their education should, in some measure at least, fit them for the work which they\nwill follow in life. No one, perhaps, questions what the natural and true\nfunction of woman is. She is the queen of the home.\nWhy should not her\n\n"}
{"page": 773, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nCLASSES\n\n7^3\n\neducation, above all other things, fit her for taking charge of a home ? If\ninstruction in cooking and sewing were given in our elementary and\ngrammar grades, girls would remain in school longer, and, while receiving this useful instruction, they would at the same time be acquiring an\neducation along literary and scientific lines.\nWith both boys and girls this industrial work should begin as soon as\npossible in their school course ; not later than at the age of eleven or\ntwelve. If placed in the high school, it reaches but 5 percent, of the\npupils, and these 5 per cent, are the very ones who can afford best of all\nto get along without it. The educational value of this practical work is\nconceded by all, or nearly all, progressive educators. But the practical\nvalue of such work has not, it seems, been fully appreciated. The public\nschools are charged with the responsibility of preparing pupils to live\nsuccessful, happy lives, and to become intelligent, patriotic citizens. A\nman who cannot earn a comfortable living will not make a good citizen,\neven if he has the ability to read Cicero's orations and scan Virgil.\nWithout sacrificing the intellectual, it comes within the province of publicschool education to give such a training to pupils as will enable them to\napproach the duties of life on the practical side.\nBut the best results of all following the adoption of manual-training\nand other practice work is the tendency of pupils to remain in school\nlonger.\nThe design of this paper is to show that, while the industrial classes\nare the backbone of this nation, the public-school system does not recognize this fact, and does not give to them the encouragement and help\nthat it should. Instead of giving instruction along industrial lines, it\nleads pupils away from these pursuits. A plea is made for industrial and\npractical work in all grades, to the end chiefly that pupils may be induced\nto remain in school longer, and in the end be better fitted to live useful\nlives after their school days are over.\n\nDISCUSSION\nSuperintendent E. Mackey, Reading, Pa. — When the subject of this paper was\nannounced, I anticipated a discussion of methods of educating working men and working\nwomen, such as university extension, college settlements, evening schools, and lectures.\nTo this field there is a call for missionaries. Every teacher can bring a gospel of good\ntidings to some of the slaves of toil. If it were mine to spend my days in manufacturing\nthe two-hundredth part of a watch or to \" stitch, stitch in poverty, hunger, and dirt,\" I\nwould hail with threefold blessings that teacher that would lead me to feel that \"my\nmind to me a kingdom is,\" or lead me to rejoice in the \" wages of going on and not to\ndie.\"The paper, however, is a plea for the introduction of manual training and technical\n\n"}
{"page": 774, "printed_page": null, "text": "764\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Industrial\n\nstudies as a means to keep the children of the industrial classes longer in school. We\nmay take it for granted that the end sought, a longer period in school, is desirable, both\nfor the sake of the child and of society.\nThe paper claims that \" the educational system of today does not meet with the\nneeds of the industrial classes.\" What are the special needs of the industrial classes?\nAre they more in need of a technical or of a liberal education ? Shall we carry coals\nor bread to Newcastle ? We cannot claim that our educational system meets all the\nneeds of any class. It is not a perfect system. It is not the mission of the public school\nto meet all the educational needs of any class. But is there not evidence that the desires\nof the industrial classes largely dominate, not only the courses of study, but the spirit of\nthe instruction in many of our schools ? What an array of \" brick \" questions, \" paperhanging \" questions, and the like, in many arithmetics ! True, the bankers and merchants seem to have the advantage of the laboring classes there. But in the readers,\nwhat a great quantity of \" information \" lessons ! Surely the trades have been considered\nthere. History and geography give special prominence to industrial achievements.\nManual training is very commonly advocated and supported for purely industrial ends.\nAlmost every course of study shows detailed efforts to appeal to the desires of the industrial classes. There is a constant clamor for the \" practical;\" a generally prevalent election of studies with reference to a prospective trade or profession ; there are teachers\neverywhere impressively telling how it \"pays \" to study this branch or the other. \" Money\nis the principal thing, therefore get money ; yea, with all thou hast gotten, get money,\"\nseems to be the popular version of the old proverb. In fact, there is no slight provocation for Sam Jones' caustic remark that \" the trail of the trade-mark is over us all.\"\nI believe that the public school should do much to prepare a young man or a young\nwoman to earn a living, should call forth and intensify the spirit of industry and selfdependence in every pupil ; but I have grave misgivings when wage-earning is made the\ngoal of instruction in the common schools, when a course of study is so constituted or\nmodified that its graduates can the more quickly find a job or get into the rut of some\nparticular trade or profession. I know that Dr. Snyder puts his plea for technical studies\nand industrial training upon a higher plane than that I have just now presented.\nHis plan is attractive and his line of argument strong. The most of what he says and\nrecommends I can indorse. And yet, is it after all advisable to require the common\nschools to give to the son of the mechanic, or even to the prospective mechanic, a course\nin \"mechanical drawing,\" \"shop work,\" and \"mechanics,\" and the country boy a course\nin stock breeding, \" horticulture,\" \" soil physics,\" \" meteorology,\" \" entomology,\" and\n\"agricultural chemistry,\" and, hence, to each of the other occupations of men a commonschool curriculum suited to its peculiar demands? There are few teachers capable\nof giving the varied instruction such a plan would require. To do such work effectively, it would be necessary to begin specialization at a far earlier period than is now\ncommon.\nWould not this plan eventually involve separate special schools for each class of\npupils, according to the occupation- of the parent, or, if determined, the prospective occupation of the child ? It is certainly impracticable and unwise to send all the country\nboys at the age of ten or eleven years to a special school, with special agricultural courses,\nand all the mechanics' sons at an equally early age to special school shops, and so on\nthruout the long list of industries.\nIs it advisable to keep all the farmers' sons on the farm, or all the merchants' boys at\nthe counter? What of the spontaneity of growth, what of the versatility of childhood,\nwhat of the emancipation of the spirit ? Would not \" the shades of the prison house \"\nstill earlier shut in the growing boy ? Is it the mission of the common schools to perpetuate caste ?\nIs it the fault of the subject-matter of our elementary-school courses of study, or even\nof the high-school courses, that some of its graduates leave the occupation of their fathers ?\n\n"}
{"page": 775, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nCLASSES\n\n7^5\n\nDo our schools necessarily unfit tH^ils \" for work with their hands \" ? There are profound economic reasons that have had more to do in recent years with proclaiming farm\nlife a failure than the public schools have had.\nIt seems to me that Dr. Snyder's plan leads in the wrong direction ; that it lays too\nmuch stress upon the lower motives ; that it really narrows education, while apparently\nbroadening the course of study; and that it is hostile to that education that makes for\nthe best development and the complete emancipation of the individual and of the race.\nThe defects are apparent, but the remedy proposed does not strike at the source of the\ndisease.\nIt deals with the symptoms rather than with the causes.\nI believe in nature study, and that not for the farmers' sons alone, but for every\npupil, and not in that study of nature that sees only a truck farm, but in that which means\na true communion \"with all her visible forms.\" I believe in experimental physics in the\nelementary schools, but not for the purpose of making juvenile electricians or plumbers.\nI believe in manual training in the elementary schools, not for the industrial classes alone,\nbut for every boy and for every girl. I need not rehearse the benefit nor the purpose of\nmanual training to this audience, nor do I need to discuss for you the radical difference\nin method and aim between manual training and industrial training. It is certainly evident that manual trainmg, in the best educational sense of the term, is not the industrial\neducation that the gentleman prescribes for and advocates in behalf of the industrial\nclasses. Industrial training, to appeal to the desires of the industrial classes which are\nleaving the schools and entering the factories and shops, must be in the order of trade\nschools ; it must take the place of an apprenticeship, and enhance the immediate chances\nfor remunerative employment. The manual-training school is not a trade school. The\naim of the one is culture, of the other, business ; the one educates the whole mental and\nmoral nature of man, the other trains the spinal cord and efferent nerves. The one is\naltruistic, the other egoistic ; the one social and co-operative, the other selfish and competitive.\nI believe in industrial education in special schools for the industrial arts, but not as\npart of the elementary -school system. The outlook for ultimate supremacy of this nation\nin the industrial world is just now especially promising. Already have the products of\nour industries surpassed all, even the native, competitors in many of the foreign markets,\nnotwithstanding the higher price paid to American labor. A recent editorial in the London/(yMrMa/* <7/ ^^wraAow says: \"It seems an undoubted fact that in many quarters\nEnglish manufactures are being driven out of the market ; and the opinion is very widespread that this state of affairs is due very largely to the want of any general organized\ninstruction — we do not say education — after the standards have been passed.\" The\nphenomenal advance of Germany in every line of manufacturing is clearly due to the\nestablishment of numerous institutions for technical and industrial pursuits. The success\nof French art industry is attributed not only to the talent of French workmen, but\nespecially to their \"very thorough and appropriate schooling in designing and manual\nlabor.\" The success of our industries, I believe, has been commonly and rightfully\nattributed to the superior intelligence of American workmen.\nThe horizon of the nation is being widened by recent events, its spirit wonderfully\nquickened, and to meet new conditions, to meet the vastly larger opportunities that await\nus in the industrial lines, and to keep at least equal pace with the industrial advance of\nother nations, will demand a still more advanced training and equipment of American\nworkmen in the highest type of schools for the industrial arts.\nTo recapitulate this discussion roughly, I may say that :\nI. As far as the paper recommends that the public elementary schools be required to\nprepare a boy for his father's trade, or to provide special industrial courses of study for\nthe industrial classes, I must dissent. I believe that there should be only one course of\nstudy in an elementary school. It should be adapted to local conditions. It should lead,\nhowever, not to some particular trade or profession, but to the most complete and har-\n\n"}
{"page": 776, "printed_page": null, "text": "766\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n—\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n#\n\n[Industrial\n\n\\\n\nmonious development of the pupil's best gifts. It should give the rudiments common to\nall trades, but the special training of none.\n2. I cannot indorse the statement that the needs of the industrial classes are not\nprovided for in all good modern courses of study in the comition schools as well as the\nneeds of any other class. The industrial classes need the education of the common\nEnglish branches, and they need culture as much as any class does. In my opinion,\nwhat is most needed by pupils of every class is that instruction which will make\ntenderness and truth forever regnant in their souls. In revealing the truth that makes men\nfree, and in arousing the love that makes all men brothers, good literature can do more\nthan the best treatise on agriculture or mechanics, and one noble song, thoroly appreciated, more than a specimen of soil well analyzed.\n3. I cannot assent to a proposition to prescribe a special course of study in elementary schools to meet the especial needs of each class of laborers. I believe in individualism\nin instruction, but the most imperative needs of the individual pupil in the elementary\nschool should be met by the teacher by special method in teaching, and by choice of\nappropriate illustrations of general principles, not by elective courses of study.\n4. I believe that to prescribe one course of study for the country boy, another for the\nmechanic's son, in the elementary or in the high school, as suggested by the paper, is\nneither wise nor, under present conditions, practicable. I believe, however, that, in\nview of the new national era upon which we are entering, with its possible incentives to\ncommerce and manufactures, there is a most urgent call for the establishment of a complete system of industrial and technical schools. These schools should be elementary and\nadvanced, corresponding in grade, and somewhat in relative function, to elementary\nschool, high school, college, and university, with special academies for original investigations and inventions in this line of industrial arts. These schools might have day and\nevening sessions. They should fit the pupil for efficient service in the trade or art of his\nchoice, and be a potent factor in advancing the standard of skilled labor and the character of its products. Their curricula should be adjusted to the course of study of elementary public schools, but not a substitute for it, nor, in an exact sense, a continuation\nof it.\n5. However important it is to keep children from quitting school so young in years\nand so low in grade, I cannot indorse the remedy proposed in the paper, nor approve of\nits appeal to what seems to me the wrong motive for education. I believe that, to increase\nthe length of the school life of the children of the laboring classes, the minds of the\nparents must be liberalized and their consciences quickened ; there must be more work\nand better wages ; economic conditions must be changed to favor adult labor rather than\nchild labor, intelligent rather than ignorant laborers ; the pulpit and the press must continue and increase their influence upon the education of the masses, and the schools\nmust more effectively win and hold the individual pupils for the highest and best things.\nWe have reason to believe that many other factors of civilization are also working for\nthis end.\n\nDOMESTIC\n\nSCIENCE\n\nBY MRS. ELLEN\n\nAS A SYNTHETIC\n\nH. RICHARDS,\n\nINSTITUTE\n\nSTUDY\n\nOF TECHNOLOGY,\n\nFOR\n\nGIRLS\n\nBOSTON,\n\nMASS.\n\nIf \" the youth must always begin again at the beginning, and as an\nindividual make his way through the epochs of the world's civilization,\" '\n' Goethe.\n\n"}
{"page": 777, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department J\n\nDOMESTIC\n\nSCIENCE\n\nAS A SYNTHETIC\n\nSTUDY\n\n1^1\n\nand if \" the aim of education is to have the pupil reach the highest\nintellectual and moral standpoint of the race in the briefest time and\nwith the greatest economy of effort,\"' it is evident that the recapitulation of the experimental knowledge which the race has slowly accumulated thru one or two hundred centuries must be condensed into ten or\ntwenty years of the pupil's existence — a thousand years of race development into one year of the child's life. It, therefore, behooves all who\nhave to do with the education of children to search for the fundamental\nideas of each race epoch, those which lifted the race highest, and not to\nwaste time on mere survivals. Certain short-cuts must be found which\nwill lessen the time and effort required.\nMorgan gives as the fundamental ideas which have induced invention\nand discovery, and resulted in civilization: (i) subsistence, (2) government, (3) language, (4) the family, (5) religion, (6) house life and architecture, (7)property.\nFor the purposes of this argument, the epochs may be provisionally\nstated as animal, savage, earlier and later barbarian, earlier and later civilized.\nAccording to Romanes, \"the highest development of the animal\nmode of thought is reached by the child in the first part of its second\nyear.\" The long period of savagery is shortened for the modern child\ninto two or three years by the circumstances of family life. He does not\nneed to search for subsistence, or to provide shelter, or to invent a language. His environment offers this, and he needs only to correlate himself with it to discover himself as an individual.\nThe early barbarian age comes to the average child at about three to\nfive years. Characteristic of this epoch are picture writing, symbolic of\ndawning ideas of a religious character ; the making of rude implements ;\nthe beginning of ownership. The later barbarian age may correspond to\nthe age of five to eight years. The use of sharp tools, the ornamentation of clothes and of articles for ceremonial observance, the excessive\nuse of cOlor, the acquisition of property, the beginnings of government\nand community life, belong to this period.\nThe epoch of early civilization includes a control of the newly discovered forces of nature, namely science, and, as a result, the beginning of\narts and manufactures, the extension of industrial processes, the consequent evolution of house life and architecture. It is this epoch which\nhas been neglected in most schemes of education, and for which I wish\nto plead as an educational force.\nTo make the point clear, let us review the ruling impulses of the\nepochs : The savage seeks food and shelter, such as nature offers him.\nHis whole life is bound up in the preservation of the race. The barbarian feels the thrill of conquest, is fired by ambition for the future power\n' Vincent.\n\n"}
{"page": 778, "printed_page": null, "text": "768\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Industrial\n\nof his family, and he begins to accumulate. Civilization, being more or\nless permanent, looks to perpetuate its victories in stone and in song ; to\nplease itself with creating, from the bountiful gifts of nature, things for\nits own pleasure which are not necessary for daily life as mere existence.\nIt creates wants and then supplies them. A new breath of life has been\nbreathed into the race. \"Free ideas,\" the \"creative instinct\" — call it\nwhat you will — it expresses itself in the effort to make something, a constant activity, instead of basking in the sun when hunger is satisfied.\nThere is now a hunger of the soul which is never satisfied. Underneath\nchild-study is the' study of the race stages which influence the child's\nmental development. What do our schools offer to our children to foster\ntheir mental growth by utilizing this race impulse ? What do we not do\nto kill this yearning ? We put young children on hard seats, in cramped\npositions — barbarians, nay savages, that we are — force into their hands\na dead book, which must not be crumpled or torn, and exclaim, \" Study !\nstudy ! recite ! \" and this when the race instinct demands things, objects\nto be handled, to be put together, built up into something which pleases\nand gratifies. The pulling into pieces of flowers and animals has no place\nin the curriculum at this age, and the length of time required for seeds\nto grow and eggs to hatch precludes much of this work as an educational factor in the lives of those to whom an hour is as long to wait for\nresults as is a year to the adult. Constructive is the keynote of the education of the child between the ages of eight and fourteen years, synthesis in distinction from analysis.\nIs it safe to ignore this fundamental phase of race development ? If\nwe have neglected it at its proper time, is it safe to count upon the survival of the creative force after the pupil has passed thru the fiery ordeal\nof study from books and examination for promotion ? There is an economic conservatism in all nature's apparent lavishness, and there are\nfundamental economic principles under all advance in science, in art, in\naesthetic ideals. What is the \"economic function\" of woman in this\nrace progress ? According to Edward Devine, the home, made possible by the mother's love for and care of the family, in which the higher\nof economic functions, that of determining how wealth shall be used\nin order to secure the highest enjoyment, is the center of interest in\nany study of present social and economic progress.\nProsperity depends quite as much upon the choice of the various\ncommodities and their combination, in order to secure the greatest pleasure and satisfaction, as upon their production. In fact, production is\nlimited by choice; manufacture ceases when demand ceases; \"hence, in\norder to influence production, choice must be wisely directed. Production has been stimulated by combination and competition ; many thoughts\nof many minds have gone into the perfection of a machine, into the\ndesign of a beautiful building.\nWhatever may be said from the artistic\n\n"}
{"page": 779, "printed_page": null, "text": "DcpartmentJ\n\nDOMESTIC\n\nSCIENCE\n\nAS A SYNTHETIC\n\nSTUDY\n\n769\n\nstandpoint, from the economic, collective industry alone has made possible the rapid advance of the nineteenth century.\nBut the home is still an individualistic industry, protected from competition, hedged about by tradition, and nearly smothered by the dust\nfrom the wheels of progress now far ahead ; it seems to be no longer the\ncenter of enjoyment for the products of wealth, because the woman has\nlost her grip, and the cable travels only the faster without her ; because, in\nher struggle to become an active producer, she has lost sight of the science\nof consumption — that destruction of wealth which gives the highest\nsatisfaction. It is her privilege to stand on a higher level and say what\nshall be produced, and in what combination materials shall be used in\norder to give that greatest satisfaction which is the end of all effort. It\nis for her, with dainty touch and artistic insight, to transform the crude\nproducts of the factory and the workshop into things of joy. It is for\nher to make her labor more in demand by that refinement of taste which,\nwhen educated rightly, she is best fitted to give.\nThat the home is not fulfilling this function is evident from the\ndecadence of true home life and the loss of industrial skill. One of the\nseverest arraignments of even the college women of today, who are aiming at higher professional work, is that, when compared with men in\ntheir classes, they cannot think, judge, and decide — that is, they cannot\nuse to advantage the knowledge they have confessedly gained. Just as\nin domestic affairs women have not yet availed themselves of the opportunities which the scientific progress of the time has placed in their\nhands. And this in the face of the fact that in early civilization the\nwomen were the manufacturers, and that nearly all industries were in their\nhands. Why has everything slipped from them ? Why is it that, altho\nthis last hundred years has seen the greatest advance ever known in\nmechanical device, has seen the greatest feats of constructive invention,\nwomen have allowed all the arts relating to house and home to pass\nfrom their hands into those of the hotel clerk and the janitor of the apartment house ? Why do they buy fabrics, furniture, and utensils on the\nrecommendation of the salesman at the bargain counter, and not because\nof their intrinsic value? I believe it is the fault of the school education,\nwhich has taken no account of the value of the constructive arts as a\nstimulus to original thought; which has neglected to cultivate that sense\nof power over things and over environment which the study of arithmetic does not seem to give to girls.\nThe time to encourage this original thought is in the early years of\nchildhood, before any question of copying anyone else can arrive.\nFrom the earliest years the child's thought should be expressed in its\nown way, and what it will learn naturally should not form the major part\nof its tasks, but rather that which must be placed systematically before it,\nin order that it may miss none of the stimulating incentives which have\n\n"}
{"page": 780, "printed_page": null, "text": "770\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Industrial\n\nproved such factors in the past. It has been said that responsibility is\nan inspiration, not a burden, in the evolution of the race ; our schools\nhave taken the responsibility, and the pupils have lost the inspiration.\nThe child should have his or her mind quickened, as the race was\nstimulated, oy the pleasure of producing results by his or her own labor,\nand these results should be judged by his or her own standards, and not\nby those of the adult. That is, instead of requiring fine stitches in sewing, the effect of color and form and ideal should be reached in coarser\nmaterial and with more rapid action. A large doll might be most\neffectively dressed in barbarian fashion in the time taken by the child in\npainfully toiling over the fine stitches of a sample patch. Neither\nsavage nor barbarian woman felled her seams. The fundamental ideas\nof early civilization were invention and conquest. The fact that all values\nare created by human labor, that the hand-made article owes its higher\nprice to the fact that human brain has guided human hand in its production, should be impressed upon the child's mind.\nSince \"abundant food hastens maturity, namely, abbreviates the\nrecapitulation process,\" advantage may be gained by placing the child in\nenvironment rich in suggestion, by furnishing the materials for discovery\nand invention, so that he will find himself possessor of a rich and varied\nexperience, not by mere information, but by personal acquisition.\nThe growth of the body follows an even line of gradual increase\nfrom five to eleven, and at about eleven and a half makes a decided\nupward rise of rapid increase; and, since all energy is one, it follows that\nin the periods when less is required for the body more may be given to\nthe mind. Hence the years from five to eleven are the school years in\nthe sense that the child may be abundantly fed with the facts accumulated\nby the race, in order that he may have the richer store to draw upon in\nthe next period, from eleven to fourteen, when the stirring forces within\nneed outlets for their race instincts, in order that the fancies may not be\nturned within and so become mere morbid phantoms, instead of realized\nvisions. The imagination should be cultivated thru the use of materials\nin building up real forms. Creative industry is essential to a lasting\ngrowth of true imagination, not that sentimental revery which too often\npasses under that name.\nBy the age of eleven, girls are ready to consider the care-taking which\nis to be their work in the world. They love responsibility and are\ninspired by it. They enjoy work, even what the fine lady calls menial\nwork. They are still in the race epoch when work was a pleasure because\nof the results obtained; there is then a delight in the mere doing, when\nthe end is not far off, and it is nothing short of a wicked waste of nature's\nforces to deprive girls of this unreplaceable stimulus to mental effort.\nGive to the girls, then, an opportunity to develop normally, to care\nfor things, to handle things, to build up, according to their own devices\n\n"}
{"page": 781, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nDOMESTIC\n\nSCIENCE\n\nAS A SYNTHETIC\n\nSTUDY\n\n77 '\n\nout of materials furnished, certain creations of their owii fancy. Expression of ideas is not confined to painting pictures. A bonnet or a dress\ncan and should express the individual's thought.\nIf brain development is a consequence of bodily activity, then the\nchild should be encouraged to use his bodily powers. Because the newsboy by his varied activity has learned much of the evil of the world, along\nwith its wisdom, shall we keep back our children from competing with\nhim in sharpness of wit and keenness of intellect? If children have no\nhomes, or if children are taken from their homes, where they should learn\nall arts of daily life under the best conditions, the foster home, i. e., the\nschool, must make up to them for their loss, and it can, if it will, do even\nbetter and with more intelligence in certain directions, because of a\nbroader outlook over race conditions.\nOnce again let us ask : What does the young savage need in order\nto make him a civilized man ? He needs, in addition to food for the\nanimal, clothes and shelter. He needs to keep these and himself clean.\nHe needs pleasant surroundings — color, form, flowers, music — to\nexpress his ideas and yearnings. All these stimulate him to imaginative\nthoughts looking forward to the future. He needs a mastery of the\nforces of nature, in order to minister to his wants and to give him that\nsense of power, that oneness with the creative faculty, which is man's distinguishing characteristic. There must be awakened early this sense of\npower, of mastery over environment, while yet no fear of consequences is\nknown, and before cold calculation destroys spontaneity.\nWhat can give this sense of power except the early knowledge of, and\ncontrol over, matter ? The child who makes a boat or a steam engine,\nwho puts up a telephone, has a greater sense of power than one who\nonly does what he is told to do, because he is told to do it. Book\nlearning and obedient manners are all right and suitable, but they are not\nall, and they do not, in the child, advance civilization, because they are\nnot the expression of the child himself, but are added from without.\nI envy the child who rides a bicycle without learning ; he just jumps on\nand rides. We should give young children a chance to do things. They\ndo not require much teaching. We teach too much. The child is far\nquicker than the adult to grasp what is suited to him. We present to\nhim something which he cannot grasp, the large end, and he wisely\nrefuses it. We call him stubborn, when he is only wise. We forget that\nthe abstract is arrived at after much experience with the concrete. We\nmust not deprive the young intelligence of the satisfaction of seeing the\nwork which is the joint product of his hand and brain.\nA most suggestive series of experiments on animal intelligence has\nrecently been made, which indicates that the animal learns by doing, by\nhis own discovery of how to do, and that this individual discovery makes\na brain groove which is persistent and permits the action to be repeated\n\n"}
{"page": 782, "printed_page": null, "text": "772\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Industrial\n\nwithout effort ; also that no amount of teaching can replace this sense of\nindividual discovery. Pascal, wiser than his time, says : \" We are more\neasily persuaded by the reasons we ourselves discover than by those which\nhave been suggested to us by others.\"\nHere, then, is a lesson as to the manner of taking the child thru the\nrace stages. He must be allowed to make these useful grooves early, so\nthat his later conscious effort may be available for higher endeavors.\nApparent failures may be the most productive experiments.\nIf the habit of care-taking, of responsibility for the welfare of the\nhousehold, of the daily doings of the thousand and one things which\ninsure the well-being of the family, is essential to women ; if the race is not\nonly to be preserved, but advanced, then these grooves of habit should be\nmade early, while the child, girl as well as boy, is one bundle of activities,\nonly eager to be used, which may just as easily fall into the lines of constructive as of destructive application.\nIt is contrary to all laws of race development to allow the child to\npull to -pieces without putting together again. The kindergarten teaches\nwisely in this, but later, unfortunately, botany and zoology are often chiefly\ntaught by dissection, involving the destruction of the life which has built\nup the delicate structure. The productive ideal in education should keep\nthe constructive forces to the front, until sufficient progress has been made\nto understand the necessity for some analytical work before a further constructive action can follow. Not until the age is reached when a clear comprehension isacquired of abstraction and of a connected line between the\nconcrete and the abstract idea, when the cycle so evident in all nature can\nbe understood in its entirety, should this analytic habit be formed.\nIt is claimed by many that women cannot observe, are not good scientific experimenters ; that as medical students, for instance, they cannot use\neither eyes or hands as they should ; in short, that they are merely imitative, not mventive, and, therefore, that they are in a less advanced state of\ncivilization than men. I believe that this is a true indictment, and that it\nis true in the college laboratories and uuiversity class-rooms because it is\ntrue in the daily life of the household, and that this household life is the\nplace to begin a reform, if the higher intellectual life of women is to be\ninfluenced. The lack of sympathy with the great industrial progress of the\ncentury is apparent in every house, the lack of original thought is apparent in every woman's dress. Blind bondage to custom is shown by the\nviews women take of all new and larger questions. I do not believe this\nis because of any inherent inability to advance with the race, but is solely\na matter of education and of habit — \"that purgatory in which we suffer\nfor our past sins.\"\nIt is, perhaps, not too much to say that women are — today — the\nstumbling-blocks in the way of higher industrial, social, and ethical prog\nress, and that they remain so because the leaders of educational thought\n\n"}
{"page": 783, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nDOMESTIC\n\nSCIENCE\n\nAS A SYNTHETIC\n\nSTUDY\n\n111\n\nneglect the path by which advance would be rapid, and refuse to see the\nvalue of a study of the history of industry as a synthetic element now\nlacking in the education of girls. -\n\nDISCUSSION\nPerla G. Bowman, Ohio State University. — The proper education for girls and\nyoung women has long been a mooted question, and, while various half-hearted attempts\nhave been made to solve the problem, there has been little apparent success.\nToday, however, those of us who are actively engaged in school work realize that a\nnew element has entered into their training, since in many institutions some small amount\nof time is being devoted to what may properly be called homely subjects. Into the\npublic schools have crept sewing and cooking classes ; young women's Christian associations have prepared courses for working girls ; women's clubs are discussing home\ntopics ; and the highest educational institutions, as Chicago, Leland Stanford, our state\nuniversities, Vassar, Smith, and many others, have introduced lecture or laboratory work\nplanned particularly to train girls for the home.\nThe opening of college doors to young women made it possible for them to broaden\nand deepen intellectually, and to take an unchallenged place in the world ; but, after a\ntrial of almost a quarter of a century, there still seems something lacking.\nFollowing hard upon the recent struggle by English women for equal rights and\nprivileges with men in their universities, Oscar Browning, professor of history in Cambridge, published in the Forum the following : \" The advantages of joint education as\nthey concern women and men are of two kinds. We have shown with regard to the first\nthat what is an ideal education for women has never been worked out, and the proposition that it should be identical with man's is a mere assumption. A perfect woman is\ndistinct in type from a perfect man. It will, I suppose, be admitted that women are\nconstitutionally different from men ; that they have peculiar gifts, and that the moral and\nintellectual powers which they have in common are, for the most part, combined in them\nin different proportions and tend to form different characters.\"\nIt will also be admitted that education is designed to train the whole person and\nnot any one part, and to give as natural, complete, and harmonious expression as possible\nto the sum of the student's powers. If, then, the Cambridge courses have been carefully\ndesigned to meet the special powers and needs of men, they must so far fail to meet the\nspecial powers and needs of women. If a woman is forced to submit to conditions which\nhave been laid down, not only without consideration of her requirements, but in view of\nother requirements, she must suffer. I gratefully recognize the gain which women have\nfound in the Cambridge courses, but I believe that it has been secured at high cost and\nnot without loss.\nWe who have watched young women step from the college into the home are dimly\nconscious that in the step is often an element of tragedy, and that the ignorance of new\nconditions frequently gives rise to complications, the memory of which years will hardly\nobliterate. In this country the appeal, not for less, but for a broader education, has come\nfrom women themselves ; and mothers, after trying experiences, beg for their daughters a\nmore absolute knowledge of wise living than that which they in their training received.\nIt is this demand which has forced practical home training into our educational institutions ;it is the groping after the lacking element of power in women which is now making\nitself felt, and which, undoubtedly, will in a few years have made permanent a science\nand art of its own.\n\n"}
{"page": 784, "printed_page": null, "text": "774\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Industrial\n\nAt present the problem is working itself out in many ways, and in many places, and,\nwith increasing knowledge of the needs and remedies, the study of domestic science must\nbroaden and strengthen. The courses in home training now being introduced into the\npublic schools will in future years exert a powerful influence over our land, and people\nwill come to realize that they furnish not simply amusement and transitory training for\nchildren, but that they are among the greatest of the sociological factors for good.\nProperly directed, the laboratory periods in the public schools should be not only\nperiods of relaxation, but should contribute to a store of the most valuable information.\nAmong the poorer children are numbers who never reach the college nor, indeed, the high\nschool ; who are loaded up with household duties before they are twelve years old ; who\ncare for younger brothers and sisters, cook for them, darn for them, watch over them as\ntheir mothers might were they free from the wash tub, the shop, or the factory ; who,\nbefore they are fourteen, are compelled to leave school, that they may assume even more\nof the burdens of life. If these children are not provided for before this time, the state\nhas no hold upon them, and in a few years they are the mothers of another neglected\ngeneration. Could they be interested in a better living during the formative period,\nwhat a different influence might go forth into the world, for we each and all must recognize the power of environment. The poorest waifs love pretty, dainty things. They are\nsensitive to their clothes and surroundings, and the interest which may be awakened in\nthe sewing class in personal appearance and hygiene is greatly undervalued.\nBut domestic science is not designed for the poor alone. It is the consensus of\nopinion, after much observation, that mothers have little opportunity or time to train\ndaughters and sons for home duties ; and, moreover, children have little inclination to be\nso trained. In the schoolroom there is the element of novelty, the delight of change\nfrom purely literary to laboratory work, the incentive of competition, and the anticipation of repeating their efforts in the home. There is aroused in the child a more healthful\nsentiment concerning home work, and class contact develops the elements of helpfulness\nand humanity. Those who will be served are brought more closely into contact with\nthose who will serve, and many of the difficulties arising in later years concerning the\nrelations existing between mistress and maid will be solved for these children. They shall\nhave worked side by side, will recognize the same hard places, and shall have learned\nthat by being faithful to the most homely duty they are helping to make life happier and\nmore wholesome to all men.\nThe intrinsic value of education to any individual depends, not upon the acquirement\nof an infinite number of facts, but upon the development in that individual of power to\nmake use of those facts.\nThe aim of domestic science should be to point out the connecting link between\ntheoretical knowledge, already so well perfected in our schools, and practical home life\nas it must be met.\nThe difficulty with college education for women lies in the fact, as recognized by\nProfessor Browning, that the curricula were originally and fundamentally planned for men,\nand, when women have chosen to enter university walls, it has been to select from what\nwas already provided. The result has been trained and broadened intellects, but intellects\ntrained almost entirely from a man's point of view. The woman graduate finds herself\npossessed of a general culture, with a possible foundation for the professional world, but\nwith no special preparation for the position in which she most often places herself.\nNevertheless, the possibility of university training was the most important step in her\nemancipation, the step which enabled her to stand as a companion and helpmeet for\nman, the step which carried her forever beyond her old position and gave her power to\ndirect her own development.\nEducation, if it means anything, means an all-round development, the perfection of\nbody, mind, and soul. The proper care of humanity is beneath the notice of no one.\nA strong and attractive body and a charming personality are among the greatest of gifts.\n\n"}
{"page": 785, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nDOMESTIC\n\nSCIENCE\n\nAS A SYNTHETIC\n\nSTUDY\n\n775\n\nand can be retained only by a knowledge of the laws of health and obedience to thein.\nHow largely the possibilities of mind and soul depend upon physical conditions is not\nyet clearly recognized, but, if domestic science can train young women to more healthful,\nmore economic, broader, and more appreciative living, it certainly has its place, and a\nhigh place, among the sciences of the day.\nIt is not possible to isolate this work from regular studies. To be successful it must\ngo hand in hand with the sciences, languages, and arts. What could be more reasonable\nthan that the study of art should lead one, not only to the appreciation of master paintings, sculpture, carving, architecture, but also to the masterful creation of beautiful\nhomes, gowns, and other material surroundings ? There is no effort on the part of domestic science to teach trades ; its whole aim is to make more capable and more charming\nhome women.\nIt has been said that one of the difficulties of the present college education is the\nhelpless attitude in which graduates face the world. They are often excellent students,\nunder the inspiration of some fine intellect, but, without this guiding influence, are uncertain and insecure. There has been a failure to make the student original and independent, to mark clearly the bearing of study upon living. Surely there can be no education\ntoo broad or too comprehensive for the preparation for home life ; yet the connecting link\nbetween the school and the family seems to have been lost, or, better perhaps, is just being\nforged. It is this link that domestic science seeks to put in place. It is believed that such\na training for young women will not only make all life fuller and more useful, but will help\nto bridge the time between college and the serious assumption of responsibility. The\nreturn of a young woman from college ought not to be, as is now so often the case, the\nentrance into a strange realm ; but the new environment should appeal to her at once,\nurging her to activity because she is already interested, not alone in political economy,\nbut in domestic science — not alone in the history of the past, but in making the home\nhistory of the present and future. Her college life should have placed firm stepping-stones\nfor future work, making it possible that she advance along a path already tried. There is,\nundoubtedly, much wrong in an education which assiduously guides and directs a girl thru\nyears, but which graduates her into a life for which there has been no definite preparation.\nOur brightest, most capable, most brainy and hearty women are those who are educated both in books and in practical things ; who have intellect to perceive what is good,\nand the technical skill to secure it. Domestic science claims more than that it can make\ndeft fingers. It aims to cultivate memory by awakening interest ; to build up scientific\nminds, minds which will reason and plan ; to develop artistic instincts which will appreciate, beautify, and elevate ; to care for and train the body, that it may respond to the\nwill ; to awaken a feeling for humanity which shall be far-reaching and ennobling. It\nmay not accomplish all this at once, but questions have been raised which must be answered,\na dissatisfaction is apparent which must be met, and out of these attempts some good\nshall come. When these first efforts have had time to bring forth results, it is hoped that\nit may mean much for the broadening of women's lives in the home, that it may prove an\ninspiration to earnest and higher study outside of college, not for the sake of degrees, or\nthat one may boast of her text-book lore, but that she may understand life better, by so\ndoing appreciate the living more tlioroly, and be better able to bring beauty, health, and\nhappiness to those about her.\nOne of the social problems of the times is the fact that wages are meager and positions\nscarce, because of the competition of young women with young men in the ordinary\nbusiness avenues. For this the education of our girls is largely to blame. The college\ngraduate may not take her broadened intellect and rare knowledge to a home without\nfeeling that she is wasting her time. The high-school graduate has possibly much to\nkeep her at home, but she is unaccustomed to it all, it is irksome, and, according to her\ntraining, to be ignored ; so she drifts into teaching, or into the business college, ultimately\nto make a success or a failure, as the case may be, but nevertheless crowding by one more\n\n"}
{"page": 786, "printed_page": null, "text": "776\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Industrial\n\nthe ranks of wage-earners, living always at high tension, and in the weariness of a few\nbusiness years knowing almost nothing of the charm of home life. If either young woman\nmarries, her training is thoroly inadequate ; but, when it becomes necessary to establish\nsome sort of abode which may serve the purpose of a home, with consummate confidence\nshe attempts to master in a few weeks what should have been the gradual and delightful\nacquirement of years, and heartache, discouragement, and waste follow in her wake.\nUntil some agency outside of the home takes the matter into consideration and treats\nit, not as a weak sentiment, but as a condition worthy of scientific economic study, there\nis little chance of a change for the better, or that the drift of young women will be\nother than toward the business world. The public schools, colleges, seminaries, and universities, ithey\nf\nfulfill their mission, must offer training adequate for the responsibilities\nof life, as most women ought to meet them and must meet them — a training which shall be\nbroad, which shall supplement and not antagonize established principles, which shall\nsend women to their work cultivated in soul, mind, and body, and prepared to make life\nbrighter and better for all with whom they come in contact.\nWomen are realizing that a satisfactory life is not all in the home nor all in the,\nworld ; that knowledge is valuable only in so far as it makes them more competent, more\nwomanly, better prepared to aid humanity, whether it be in the family, the city, the state,\nor the country. If woman is to be so prepared, it means a knowledge of life and all that\ngoes to make it worth having ; it includes an appreciation of all that is beautiful and\ngood, all that is homely but useful, all that is necessary and healthful. For this knowledge no course is complete which ignores the bearing of all sciences and arts upon the\nproblems of living.\nThere is an unlimited amount of sentiment written and recognized concerning home\nlife, which in the best form is to be cherished ; but, when women fully awaken to their\nresponsibility, they must admit that there is more than sentiment required to make an\nideal family life. There are laws of health and harmony as inexorable as any other of\nthe laws of nature.\nHome, with all it implies, is equally sacred to men and to women, and of every rank\nof life. Why, then, should women deem its work ignoble and its study something which\nshall be met with a smile and a shrug ? While woman must plan and furnish the home,\nbe in it in some capacity of wife, mother, sister, or daughter ; while to her look all its\ninmates for comfort, food, recreation, and nursing ; while upon her depends so largely the\nwise management and expenditure of income, is it unreasonable that she should receive\nsome special training for her duties ?\nRather is there reason and justice that to the present eflficient courses of study in our\nschools should be added some of the home sciences and arts.\nThe girl in the chrysalis state today is the woman tomorrow. If her mission in the\nworld be truly fulfilled, she must be more than the beautiful butterfly, not less. To mind\nculture, charm of personality and soul, and the desire for noble living should be added\npower. She should not only wish to be useful, she should be able to be useful, and, when\neducation has provided a perfect course, the demands of life shall no longer find her\nwanting ; she will be prepared, and within herself shall be the ability to rise to any\nresponsibility.\n\nMANUAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nby professor\n\nwilliam\n\nIN HORTICULTURE\nr. lazenby,\n\ncolumbus,\n\no.\n\n[abstract]\n\nIt is generally conceded that there are three quite distinct factors in\nany well-rounded system of education.\n\n"}
{"page": 787, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department\n\nAfANUAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nIN\n\nHORTICULTURE\n\n77 7\n\nThese are knowledge, training, and culture ; or the development of\nthe mental, physical, and moral forces, so that man shall be fitted for his\nmost perfect work. In other words, to know something, to do something,\nand to be something comprises a\" large part of the duty of man.\nThe age demands a system of education which recognizes the truth\nthat man is by nature a worker, a molder, and ruler of matter. It believes\nthat daily physical, as well as intellectual, effort is one of the conditions\nof a healthful and happy existence.\nThere is too much teaching and too little training. Our present\nnational crisis has demonstrated that the manual as well as mental training that is given by our military and naval schools is just what best fits\nour youth for eminence and renown as military or naval commanders.\nIf this is true for the art of war, can it be any the less true for the peaceful arts and great industries of our times ?\nIn order to maintain a full measure of bodily strength and intellectual vigor, at least four things are needful. These are: pure air, nutritious food, unbroken sleep, and muscular exercise. Horticulture supplies\nthese, besides offering unequaled opportunities for nature study and the\napplication of the principles of science. Horticulture offers signal\nadvantages in the way of manual training. The small amount of land\nrequired for this purpose could be easily secured, and the necessary equipment in the way of tools, etc., would not be expensive.\nFor winter and to use during the inclement weather of other seasons,\na glass structure, having the external form of an economical commercial\ngreenhouse, should be necessary.\nThe work undertaken in these horticultural-training departments\nshould embrace the various operations of propagating plants by seeds,\ncuttings, layers, budding, grafting, etc. Transplanting, pruning, and\ntraining, cultivation, drainage, irrigation, and similar operations could be\nperformed on a small scale ; the making of lawns and flower beds in\nminiature, the laying out of a model kitchen garden, and work of like\ncharacter might form a part of the instruction and training.\nThe hammer and the saw should be supplemented by the hoe and the\nrake. The budding-knife and the pruning-shears, as well as the plane\nand chisel, should be used to educate the hand and eye.\nWe need a system of education which recognizes the fact that men\nand women were placed on this earth that they may work. That is certainly adefective, if not radically false, system of education which leaves\nits subject no better qualified for any useful calling, with no more\nstrength to wrestle with adversity, with no more power to maintain a\nhealthful, independent existence, than tho he were unlettered.\nThe great problem of educational reform is the proper blending of\nlabor with study so as to develop skill of body as well as activity of\nmind.\n\n"}
{"page": 788, "printed_page": null, "text": "778\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Industrial\n\nIt is only thru an education like this that the great masses of our\npeople can ever attain the position and develop that self-respect which\nthe genius of our age predicts and requires for them. And this education, for the most part, has yet its schools to modify and its teachers to\ntrain or discover.\n\nDISCUSSION\nGeorge T. Fairchild, Berea College, Berea, Ky. — I know of no reason other than\ngeneral interest in the subject for which I, who know so little about horticulture and\npractically almost nothing of it, should be chosen to discuss this interesting paper. It\nwould, indeed, be presumption in me to consent, did not Professor Lazenby himself\nstand as one who knows all about horticulture and practically almost everything of it.\nFrom the standpoint of supreme interest in this means of enlarged ideas for all youth,\nand especially for youth in rural neighborhoods, I am willing to contribute a word to the\nsubject before us.\nI believe in education thru the handling of things about us, and horticulture affords\nthe surest way of arousing and maintaining the interest in things so essential to development of power over them. Let me epitomize the essential aims of education, that we\nmay see how Professor Lazenby's ideas fit into any true scheme.\nAll can agree, I believe, that the universal aim of education is to give, first, control\nover things about us, i. e., over external nature ; second, control by influence over fellowmen ; and, third, control over self in all relations. These secured, whatever the road by\nwhich we are led to them, we have the largest life, the truest culture, the most thoro education. For control of things about us there is no possible method outside of handling\nthose very things. We all recognize the truth of Lord Bacon's statement : \" All that man\ncan do is to move natural objects to and from each other ; nature working within\naccomplishes the rest.\" Any control of external nature depends on moving the right\nthings at the right time to the right place, and for this we need to have direct contact with\nnature itself. As Tennyson says, we must learn to \"rule by obeying Nature's powers.\"\nThere is no control without strictest obedience to the facts as given by Nature herself in\nour efforts to handle nature. This is the secret of success in all manual training ; it\nreveals the physics, the chemistry, the physiology of nature in true relations, and makes\nus act accordingly — makes us obedient to nature's powers.\nNow, horticulture affords a most interesting field of activity along this very line of\ndevelopment. None of nature's activities lend themselves more easily to the handling of\nnovices, and none are more suggestive of thoughtful inquiry. Even tho we do not come\nwith Tennyson, holding the little plant, plucked root and all from the crannies, to know\n\" what God and man is,\" we cannot but grow obedient to nature's powers, and so make\nprogress toward control of nature the first requisite in education. The little tot who\npulls up his beans to discover their growth quickly learns how to combine soil, moisture,\nair, and light with the life in his bean for growth.\nSo I believe in the manipulation of plants in horticulture, as Professor Lazenby has\nproposed, because it lends itself so readily to the problems of nature. It is most\nnaturally correlated with botany, extending acquaintance to the whole of the vegetable\nkingdom. It stands close to the gieat facts of zoology thru insects that help or hinder\nthe horticulturist. It leads thru necessary qualities of soils into the wide range of geology, even dynamic geology, that prepares and distributes materials and controls climatic\nconditions.\nIt especially furnishes a basis for geographical study, illustrating in vivid\n\n"}
{"page": 789, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHINDRANCES\n\nAND\n\nHELPS\n\nTO MANUAL\n\nTRAINING\n\n779\n\nways the reasons why bananas come from Florida or the West Indies, apples from\nMichigan and New York, and peaches from the tempered belts of northern lakes or the\nsheltered hills of Maryland and Kentucky. It helps to a study of those great and growing\ncommercial interests that will soon make nations less exclusive, and every boy and girl\na citizen of the world, with world-wide interests.\nI favor manual training in horticulture for schools, especially rural schools, because\nit is so easily adapted to the various ages of pupils and the various circumstances of the\nschools. Given the interested teacher, there is no school of any grade where the experimental garden, the model kitchen garden, the children's garden beds, may not afford\nmost excellent training in the very essentials of understanding things, books, and people,\nand the elements of wisdom. The immediate fad of our generation may be nature\nteaching, but it will be a genuine advance, if thru the school garden the children can\nlearn to study by handling the nature which teaches them. It can be saved from being\na mere hearsay about nature thru training the hands of the children in manipulation of\nplants.\nFinally, I am a believer in horticultural training, because of its direct utility. The\ntrue end of all genuine education is usefulness, after all, and the man whose training\nenables him to be most useful, wherever he may be, is best equipped for this life and any\nother. Horticultural training has an almost universal application. A physician of my\nacquaintance gained the confidence of a whole region in country practice as much by his\nadvice in horticulture, free to all, as by his skill in medicine. Many a minister could\nserve both himself and his people better by closer contact thru common interest in gardens, orchards, front yards, and parks. Let us not disparage any education which makes\na human being more useful to self, to his neighbors, to his race. The chances are all in\nfavor of any genuine discipline which adds an ability in things which concern the world\nof people among whom we live.\n\nREPORT\n\nOF COMMITTEE\nON HINDRANCES AND\nTO MANUAL TRAINING AND INDUSTRIAL\nEDUCATION\n\nHELPS\n\nA circular letter which was sent to two hundred and twenty-five educators associated with twelve classes of educational institutions located\nin thirty-nine subdivisions of the United States, asking, \" What influences retard and what promote the interests of manual training and\nindustrial education in educational institutions ?\" was very generally\nanswered.\nOf the retarding influences there are mentioned :\nINEFFICIENT\n\nSUPERVISION\n\nBoards of education do not appreciate the educational value of\nmanual training. Wishing to be considered as standing in the forefront\nof educational progress, ambition and pride spur them to install this\nfeature of school work. Too often there is a degree of indifference as\nto whether or not the returns justify the expense incurred.\nOne board\n\n"}
{"page": 790, "printed_page": null, "text": "78o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Industrial\n\naccepts the gift of an expensively equipped building for manual-training\npurposes, to find that its maintenance is a burden almost unbearable.\nAnother board permitted the organization of an independent manualtraining school, thereby crippling the established high school. Its failure\nruined the prospects of such schools in that vicinity. The superintendent\nof schools of a small city concluded that, since the purpose of manual\ntraining is not trade teaching, his power of ethical insight would enable\nhim to teach the classes. Failure attended the effort. A manual-training committee appoints an inefficient director of manual training, who\nfollows the methods of the shop regardless of educational principles.\nNarrowness of purpose, misdirected zeal, system deformed to the \"lifeless level of uniformity,\" high regard for non-essentials, and disregard\nfor educational practices are too frequently manifested.\nENGAGING\n\nMECHANICS\n\nFOR\n\nTEACHERS\n\nThis is a serious impediment to the progress of manual training.\nThe possessor of mere skill in handling tools who lacks the culture of\nthe trained teacher may be quite successful in imparting to youth a knowledge of the use and care of tools, and of the manipulation of material.\nThis, however, is the limit of his very narrow field of labor. Very rarly\ndo we find the qualifications of the teacher innate in the mechanic. He\nis enthralled by mechanical habit from which he is unable to free himself. If, by chance, he yields to instruction designed to lead him into\nthe pedagogical highway, his yielding is but temporary, for such is the\nforce of habit that he unconsciously returns to those economic views and\ntrade practices which have dominated him so long. The mechanic\ngenerally does much of the work for his pupil, especially in those critical\nand highly valuable points which require extreme accuracy of measurement and great skill of hand. By so doing he unconsciously weakens\nhis charge in more than one direction. The contrast between the culture\nof the professional teacher and the awkwardness of the mechanic posing\nas teacher depreciates the latter in the pupil's regard. His language is\nfrequently a travesty of English and neutralizes the effect of the language\nteaching of others. \" His (the mechanic's) skill is in handling dead\nmaterial,\" not living, growing mind.\nUNTRAINED\n\nTEACHERS\n\nOf manual-training teachers it is safe to say that fewer than 5 per\ncent, have received professional training prior to engaging as teachers.\n\"Very few untrained teachers make earnest effort to improve themselves\nafter once receiving an appointment. They ignore teachers' meetings\nand educational associations as far as possible ; possess no educational\nlibrary; and, being unfamiliar with educational principles, do not secure\nthe desired ends.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 791, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nHINDRANCES\n\nAND\nITS\n\nHELPS\n\nTO MANUAL\n\nADVOCATES\n\nTRAINING\n\n78 1\n\nRETARD\n\n\"Perhaps the progress of manual training has not been so rapid as it\nwould have been had the introducers of the subject been very clear as to\nits proper place in the school course, the definite ends it would accomplish, and its scope. In our section of the country undoubtedly too\nmuch was claimed for it. Naturally this shook confidence at first, but\nwith the steady reduction of the subject to its true claims has gone on a\nsteady advance in the number of its friends.\"\n\" One of the difficulties which has stood in the way of the more satisfactory advance of manual-training interest in the public-school system\nhas been the common and entirely erroneous idea that a manual-training\nshop for pupils of the high-school grade is about all that is necessary.\nVery desirable results will not flow from manual-training work until that\nwork is continuous from the kindergarten up to and through the highschool period, and it seems imperative that educationists should so\nunderstand it.\"\nCONSERVATISM\n\nOF\n\nTEACHERS\n\nTeachers are averse to radical changes. \"This peculiarity is not by\nany means an unfortunate one, as it prevents too hasty adoption of illconsidered measures ; but this spirit makes it next to impossible to introduce any new and radical changes until they have been under consideration for a long time.\"\nConservatism is manifested by \"the slowness with which those connected with educational institutions, especially the older members of the\nfaculties, take on new work and new educational thought. In their own\ndepartments these gentlemen are educational experts, and in the great\nmajority of cases advance with the times. But outside of their departments they know but little of educational movements; they have but little\ntime to give to consideration of such movements. It is especially true\nthat most of them have but little time for the careful, philosophic consideration of pedagogy, and of relative educational values.\"\n\"If there is a retarding influence that is particularly marked, it is the\ninfluence of the old educational tradition that has descended to us from\nour fathers.\n•\n\nThis tradition has to a great extent been broken down.\"\nDISRESPECT\n\nFOR\n\nMANUAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nManual training is degraded, in a measure, by relegating it to a\ncellar, basement, or attic of a school building, parts which do not command the respect of school board, teachers, or pupils. Very frequently\nthey are so dark that artificial light must be used during the class period,\nthus adding to expenses, and, worse still, injuring the pupils' eyes by\ncausing strain.\n\n"}
{"page": 792, "printed_page": null, "text": "782\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Industrial\n\nYet we see many of the best schools of the land locate a manual\"\ntraining class-room in a dark basement or a cellar — schools which are well\nendowed and cities which* are amply able to place it on an equal footing\nwith other branches. It is justly claimed that manual training ranks\nbeside mathematics and science in the benefits it confers upon the pupil;\nbut its greatest influence will not be commanded until its friends and\nadvocates demand and secure for it a position in the school building as\nfavorable to success as are the laboratories of science or the recitation\nrooms of mathematics.\nSHORT\n\nWORKING\n\nPERIODS\n\nAND\n\nTHEIR\n\nINFREQUENCY\n\nPupils who meet their teacher but once per week for a period of from\nsixty to ninety minutes in length lose much during the interim between\nlessons. Sometimes interest waxes less, especially when a pupil spoils his\nwork thru loss of skill and must begin again. Ninety minutes per\nweek is sufficient time for the lower grammar grades, if the work could be\ndone by the regular teacher in the class-room \\ the teacher who meets the\npupils every day and becomes more intimately acquainted with their\naspirations, environments, ability, and disposition could do more than he\nwho meets them so infrequently. Ninety minutes per week for forty\nweeks gives only sixty hours, or seven and one-half days of eight hours\neach, which time is reduced by necessity of receiving and dismissing\nclasses, by sickness, occasional absence, examinations in other branches,\nand holidays.\nLACK\n\nOF\n\nFUNDS\n\n\" Most institutions are constantly and seriously crippled for want of\nfunds to do well the work which they have undertaken, and therefore\ndislike to take on new work at the expense of departments already established.\"\n\" Lack of means to introduce it in the proper places and in the proper\nway\" has hindered the progress of manual training. \"I know of no\ninstance where the work has been dropped after it has been thoroughly\ntried, except under stress of low treasury.\"\nEXTRAVAGANT\n\nEXPENDITURE\n\nExtravagance of expenditure, such as may be seen in some manualtraining high schools, which are equipped with a great variety of tools and\nmuch machinery, very frequently impedes the establishment of manualtraining schools in small cities, by causing the impression upon the minds\nof visiting committees that such a luxury cannot be indulged in by the\ncommunity for which they are investigating. Extravagance by means,of\nwasteful use of high-priced material also adds greatly to the expenses and\nhelps to intensify the impression just mentioned.\n\n"}
{"page": 793, "printed_page": null, "text": "department]\n\nHINDRANCES\n\nAND\n\nHELPS\n\nTO MANUAL\n\nTRAINING\n\n783\n\nConcerning the influences which have promoted manual training in\nthe past, the following are mentioned :\nSTATE\n\nAND\n\nNATIONAL\n\nAID\n\nThe state has given aid to manual training in various ways. In one\ninstance, at great expense, a world-wide investigation resulted in a most\nvaluable report which has been helpful to many. It has been necessary,\nin some instances, to secure legislation permitting the subject to be introduced into the curriculum of the school, thus authorizing the use of school\nfunds for the purpose. State aid duplicates sums raised by local taxation\nor subscription for manual-training purposes. The adoption of industrial\neducation as a means of arousing and strengthening the moral nature of\nthe inmates of state reform schools is quite a valuable factor in promoting\nthe cause of educational tool work. If its reformative influence is\nremarkable, how much more valuable is it as a formative influence in the\npublic school ! A few state normal schools have aided the cause of manual\ntraining by adopting it in the course of study, yet but little has been done\nto train teachers in that line.\nCongress, in passing the well-known land-grant act, by which agricultural and mechanical colleges were permitted and enabled \" to teach such\nbranches of learning as are related to agriculture and mechanic arts, without\nexcluding other scientific and classical studies, including military tactics,\"\ngreatly helped to promote the industrial-training idea. It established for\nthe first time in the history of the United States a number of institutions\nin which special applications of science and mathematics were to be\ntaught. Many persons were set to teaching mechanic arts, thus popularizing modern science. From these colleges came some of the present\nmanual-training teachers of the public schools. If investigation were to\nbe made, it might be discovered that the influence of the agricultural and\nmechanical colleges has extended not only to public-school education, but\nalso to the older classical colleges, and that the late modifications of\nmethods and the introduction of scientific studies in the older colleges are\nlargely attributable to that influence.\nPRIVATE\n\nENTERPRISE\n\nIt is a notable fact that private enterprise has been quite as effective\nin promoting the interests of manual-training and industrial education as\nany other agency. It seems strange that such a valuable factor in educational effort should be neglected by educators and legislators until individual effort called attention to its usefulness. This has been the case in\nmany of our large cities as well as in the smaller ones. Philanthropists\nhave been quick to recognize this value, and to respond to the public\nneed by establishing such schools much earlier than would otherwise have\nbeen done.\n\n"}
{"page": 794, "printed_page": null, "text": "784\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Industrial\n\nASSOCIATIONS\n\nIndustrial educational associations, the educational committees of\nwomen's clubs, and other assemblages of earnest, helpful citizens have\nshared the honors attending the introduction of educational handwork\nwith the private individuals who pioneered the cause. Vacation schools,\ncharity schools, Indian schools, street waifs' homes, and various other\ninstitutions in nearly every city of our land bear witness to the value of\nintelligent associated effort. The experimentation has been carried on\nby private enterprise and associated effort in order to show school\nauthorities that they are justified in adopting the manual-training school\nand in using public money for its support. These associations act as\ncenters of information and sources of inspiration for the public, as well as\ncenters of influence in securing the adoption of the study by initiating\nrational experiments of a very practical nature.\nTRAINED\n\nTEACHERS\n\n\"A good teacher must be expert in his knowledge of human nature;\nhe must know about the developing processes of the human mind ; he\nmust understand the philosophy of education ; he must not only be\nfamiliar with the best methods of transmitting knowledge, but he must\ndiscriminate between methods, and be able to employ the best at the right\ntime.\"\n\"What\n\nis most needed is teachers who possess sympathetic understanding of human nature, and who will not fail to provide for human\ninterests in the processes they employ. I do want to see teachers (manual\ntraining) unite in the attempt to carry out vital educational principles in\nthe processes they employ, principles set forth by all great educators.\"\nTo the securing of trained teachers \" there can be no more useful nor\nmore effective agency than the state normal schools, and their full duty\nto public education, will not be met until they are aggressive factors in\nthe further development and complete application of industrial training.\"\nComplete success of manual and industrial training in the future will\ndepend very largely upon the independent, enthusiastic, self-directed\ninvestigations of professionally trained teachers.\nPUBLIC\n\nEXHIBITIONS\n\nExpositions of manual-training work have aided the cause very\nmaterially by exciting the interest and by gaining the moral support of\nthe public, and more especially of those educators and other persons who\nare familiar with tools. Such exhibitions show very clearly the possibility\nof handwork for developing orderly, logical methods of procedure. The\nchief value of educational handwork, the effect upon the pupil, is not,\nnor can be, an element of a public exhibition, except that the product\n\n"}
{"page": 795, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHINDRANCES\n\nAND\n\nHELPS\n\nTO MANUAL\n\nTRAINING\n\n785\n\nshown partially expresses the value of the mental effort of the pupil.\n.This partial expression is read by him only who can interpret it aright.\nWe all know that a valuable residue always succeeds rational effort and\nconditions higher effort. \"An immediate return, either pleasurable or\nprofitable, is the stimulant for the child's willing action, therefore it\ndampens the ardor of the pupil somewhat to keep his work for an educational exhibit. Were a finished product carried home upon its completion, itwould be seen by many who do not attend school exhibitions, and\nwould result in securing rational moral support from whence it is slowest\nto come.\"\nCORRELATION\n\nWITH\n\nOTHER\n\nSTUDIES\n\nIf a rational correlation of manual training with other studies were an\naccomplished fact, its value as an educational factor would be greatly\nenhanced in the minds of educators and patrons of the schools. Such\ncorrelation is at present dependent upon the effort of the professionally\ntrained manual-training teacher. His effort alone is not sufificient to the\nsatisfactory accomplishment of this end. To perfect the correlation, the\naid of the teachers of other branches will be essential. This will necessarily require a better understanding of the value of manual training by\nthose teachers, and the intelligent co-operation of both classes of teachers.\nThe conservative spirit existing among teachers of grammar and high\nschool grades will hinder this correlation for a 'long time to come.\nIndeed, it may become necessary to require grade and high-school\nteachers to pass an examination in manual training in both its theoretical\nand practical aspects, just as it has been necessary to do in regard to\ndrawing and music, before they will be willing or able to join forces with\nmanual-training teachers.\nSuch examination is not yet required of manual-training teachers.\nBefore this can be demanded as a requirement, there must be some previous preparation on the part of the teacher, which preparation must be\npreceded by ability on the part of educational authorities to arrange a\ncourse of instruction for teachers with that end in view. Such ability is\nnot yet manifested in the action of educational authorities, and the whole\nmatter of establishing manual training is left to its teachers, whether they\nbe trained or untrained.\nThe mutual relation existing between history and geography is quite\ngenerally understood, and teachers use the one to aid in teaching the\nother. There exists as intimate a relationship between manual training\nand mathematics or science as between history and geography. It is also\npossible to correlate manual training with language study more closely\nthan has yet been attempted by its advocates.\nThe teacher is expected to know the relation of the subject-matter\nwhich it is his special province to teach with that which precedes and\n\n"}
{"page": 796, "printed_page": null, "text": "786\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Industria\n\nthat which follows. A school course is a whole, with its parts arranged\nand adapted to the stages of development of the child. Manual training\nis held aloof from the unity of the school course ; it is only nominally a\npart of the course. Its present status will continue until an intelligent,\npersistent effort is made to place it on an equal footing with other\nbranches. When correlated with those branches it will command the\nrespect which is its due, because it will then be able to accomplish those\nrational ends which, at present, it only approximates.\nGeorge A. Robbins, Graham School, Chicago,\nChairman.\nJ. L. Snyder, President Agricultural College, Michigan.\nA. J. Rogers, Principal High School, Milwaukee, Wis.\nJ. E. HoYT, Superintendent of Schools, Menomonie, Wis.\nNote. — There are many other points on both sides of this question which are worthy\nof consideration, but which could not be brought within the limits of this paper. Among\nthem are the influence of the sloyd and polytechnic schools ; of the college and the university the\n;\nmiscomprehension of the subject by the general public ; the influence of freehand drawing and art studies ; of the National Educational Association ; of the kindergarten ;of industrial education of the freedmen of the South ; and of child-study.\n\n"}
{"page": 797, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF ART EDUCATION\n\nSECRETARY'S\nFIRST\n\nMINUTES\n\nSESSION.— Friday, July 8, 1898\n\nThe department met in Luther Place Memorial Church, and was called to order by\nthe president, Miss Harriet Cecil Magee, of Oshkosh, Wis., at 3 P. M.\nProfessor Howard Helmick, of Georgetown University, welcomed the members of\nthe department. The president responded, and followed with her address on \" Nationality in Art.\"\nA paper was read by Mr. Fred H. Daniels, of Buffalo, on \" The Supervisor of Drawing\nin the Public Schools.\" It was discussed by Mrs. S. E. W. Fuller, supervisor of drawing,\nWashington, D. C, and Miss Gertrude Stoker, supervisor of drawing, St. Paul, Minn.\nProfessor M. V. O'Shea, of the University of Wisconsin, read a paper entitled\n\" Some Pedagogical Principles which should Govern the Teaching of Drawing,\" which\nwas discussed by Mr, Ernest L. Major, Normal Art School, Boston, Mass., and Dr.\nLangdon S. Thompson, Jersey City, N. J.\nThe report of the committee appointed to consider the relation of the library to art\neducation, consisting of W. M. R. French, director of the Art Institute, Chicago, 111.; Professor W. H. Goodyear, New York, N. Y.; Miss Ruth J. Warner, Brooklyn, N. Y., and Miss\nEmily J. Miles, Denver, Colo., was read by Miss Miles.\nDr. Thompson, of Jersey City, proposed the following resolution :\nResolved, That a committee of ten shall be appointed by the president of the Art Department of the\nNational Educational Association, the president herself being a member thereof, for two purposes :\nX. To determine, in the light of psychology, environment, and experience, a proper basis for a course of\nstudy in elementary art education, including form study, manual training, drawing, and the study of art works.\n3. To outline in a general way such a course of study for the commmon schools.\n\nAfter considerable discussion, the resolution was adopted, and the president\nannounced that a committee of ten would be appointed at the next meeting.\nIt was then moved and carried that a committee be appointed by the president to\ncarry out the suggestion made in her address concerning the co-operation of the various\nstate and sectional art associations with the Art Department of the National Educational\nAssociation.\nThe following committee was appointed for this purpose :\nMiss Myra Jones, Miss Emily H. Miles, Walter S. Goodnough, Charles F. Wheelock, and William\nA. Mason.\n\nThe following nominating committee was appointed :\nCharles M. Carter, Denver, Colo. ; A. S. Downing, Albany, N. Y., and Miss Mary A. Woodmansee,\nDayton, O.\n\nThe meeting was then adjourned.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION.— Monday, July ii\n\nThe meeting was called to order by the president at 3 P. M.\nThe first paper presented was entitled \" The Function of Art in the Education of the\nAmerican Citizen,\" by William Ordway Partridge, sculptor, Milton, Mass.\nIn the\n787\n\n"}
{"page": 798, "printed_page": null, "text": "788\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nArt\n\nabsence of the author the paper was read by Colonel Clark, of the Bureau of Education,\nWashington, D. C.\nBefore the discussion of this paper the following resolution was offered by Walter S.\nGoodnough, of New York :\nResolved, That from this date, July ii, 1898, the affairs of the Art Department of the National Bklucational Association be administered by the following officers: a president, vice-president, and secretary, each\nto be elected annually, and three additional members, who, with the foregoing-named officers, shall constitute an executive committee.\nThe term of office of each of the three additional members shall be three years, unless sooner terminated by failure to continue active membership in the National Educational Association.\nThe first year one member shall be elected to serve one year, one member to serve two years, and one to\nserve three years, and thereafter one member shall be elected annually to serve three years.\n\nThe resolution was adopted.\nThe following resolution was also offered by Mr. Goodnough, of New York :\nResolved, That the nominating committee nominate at this meeting a president, a vice-president, a secretary, and three additional members, to form with the three officers named an executive committee, one\nmember to serve for one year, one to serve two years, and one to serve three years.\n\nThe resolution was adopted.\nThe discussion of Mr. Partridge's paper was taken up by E. C. Messer, of Washington, D, C, and John S. Clark, of Boston, Mass.\nThe writer of the second paper, Miss Roda E. Selleck, of Indianapolis, Ind., being\nabsent, it was voted that her paper be printed in the report, but not read in the meeting.\nThe subject of her paper, \"The Province of Art in the High School,\" was discussed byJ. S. Ankeney, supervisor of drawing, Carthage, Mo.\nUnder the head of miscellaneous business, the report of the Committee on Representation ofState and Sectional Art Education Organizations in the Art Department of\nthe National Educational Association was read by Miss Myra Jones, as follows :\nResolved, That in pursuance of the suggestions of the president, which recommend that steps be taken\nto secure the active co -operation of the various art educational associations of the country, to the end that the\nArt Department of the National Educational Association may extend its sphere of influence, and secure concerted effort in the cause of art education, this committee recommends :\n1. That the officers of this department correspond with the various state and sectional art educational\nassociations, inviting such associations to secure membership as a body in the National Educational Association, thru a delegate who shall officially represent his association in the Art Department.\n2. That such delegates may act in an advisory capacity, suggesting measures for consideration, aiding\nin the preparation of the program, and promoting the interest in and extending the influence of the Art Department of the National Educational Association.\nMvKA Jones,\nEmily H. Miles,\nWalter S. Goodnough,\nWilliam A. Mason,\nCharles F. Wheelock,\nCoTnmittee.\n\nThe report was adopted.\nThe report of the nominating committee was then called for, and was as follows :\nYoT President — William A. Mason, Philadelphia, Pa.\nFor Vice-President — Charles F. Wheelock, Albany, N. Y.\nFor Secretary — Miss M. A. Woodmansee, Dayton, O.\nFor the Executive Committee:\nFor one year — Miss Harriet Cecil Magee, Oshkosh, Wis.\nFor two years — Miss Gertrude M. Edmund, Lowell, Mass.\nFor three years — Dr. Langdon S. Thompson, Jersey City, N. J.\n\nThe report was received, and it was voted that the secretary be instructed to cast\nthe unanimous ballot of the department for its adoption, which was accordingly done,\nand the nominees declared elected as officers of the department for the ensuing year.\nThe committee on the course of study was appointed by the president as follows :\nLangdon S. Thompson, Jersey City, N. J.\nJohn S. Clark, Boston, Mass.\n\n•\n\n"}
{"page": 799, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nADDRESS\n\nOF\n\nWELCOME\n\n789\n\nHenry T. Bailey, Boston. Mass.\nCharles M. Carter, Denver, Colo.\nMiss Josephine C. Locke, Chicago, III.\nM. V. O'Shea, Madison, Wis.\nMiss Gratia L. Rice, Buffalo, N. Y.\nHerman T. Lukens, California, Pa.\nDouglas Volk, New York, N. Y.\nMiss Harriet Cecil Magee, Oshkosh, Wis.\n\nA motion was made that this committee be instructed to make a report at the next\nmeeting.\nAn amendment was offered that this be a preliminary report, which was carried.\nThe original motion, with amendment, was then carried.\nThe meeting was then declared adjourned.\nFlorence Browning Himes,\nSecretary.\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nADDRESS\nBY\n\nHOWARD\nART,\n\nDISCUSSIONS\nOF WELCOME\n\nHELMICK,\nPROFESSOR\nOF\nPAINTING\nAND\nGEORGETOWN\nUNIVERSITY,\nWASHINGTON,\n\nTHE\nD.\n\nHISTORY\nC.\n\nOF\n\nIn the name of the art teachers of Washington, I bid you welcome —\nI will not say to our city, because it is your city as well, the common\nproperty of every American, in which we all feel an honest pride. No\nwords are needed to make us friends; if one' touch of nature makes the\nwhole world kin, how much more readily should it unite us who are the\npriests of nature, ordained to make her visible truths more clear and comprehensible !\nPerhaps for many of you this is a first visit to Washington. When\nan American visits Washington for the first time, he is like the heir to a\nvast estate to whom his steward shows some of his undreamt-of wealth.\nEvery great and admirable thing he looks upon represents the achievements of his ancestors ; it symbolizes the glories of the nation which\nhas been built up for him and to which he is heir. He sees the forum\nwherein our forefathers have grappled with and overcome some of the\ngreatest problems of civilization. Surely every American feels his heirship\nto the glories symbolized here and reverently acknowledges the responsibilities itentails. Upon the teachers of this country rests the larger share\nof the responsibility of training our rising millions to the duties of\nAmerican citizenship. And how great is the part of the art teacher in this\ntask ! Let us remember the words of Schiller :\nO, artist with this consigned :\nThe liberal culture of the human mind ;\nWith thee to rise — O. listen and revere !—\nWith thee to rise, with thee to disappear !\n\n"}
{"page": 800, "printed_page": null, "text": "790\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\nThe oldest of us can remember when the art teachers of America\nrepresented a forlorn hope, tho I am glad to see that few among you have\nyour memories burdened with so sad a recollection ; but now we find our\nwork acknowledged as an important aid in human establishment — nay, we\nforesee great and enduring achievements from a national art whose beginnings are humble, in our case, since to create a national art we must educate\nthe people whose knowledge and sympathies shall foster and encourage it,\nas well as the genius who finds life and strength in that encouragement.\nIt is our aim to give every boy and girl a wider enjoyment and understanding of what they see in nature and art ; we are diminishing the\nnecessity of submitting the gleanings of our eyes to an artist before we\ndare to enjoy its fruits. Not many years ago few people ventured to form\nan opinion of a landscape or a picture without referring to a professional\nartist, as if we were to withhold the thrills inspired by beautiful music until\nthe sanction of a skilled musician was obtained. Are you not, I ask,\nimmeasurably enriching the lives of your pupils when you enable them\nto distinguish the true from the false in visible nature, the beautiful from\nthe ugly ?\nEducation in art, as well as in all other branches, is in an experimental stage with us. The old, rigidly defined lines of class education\nare no longer suitable to the broader civilization of our democracy. It is\nadmitted that art education is an important factor in the progress of our\ncountry. But the methods of teaching art are still misunderstood and\nconfused.\nIt seems to me, indeed, that this conference is invaluable to you. You\ncome here with varied experiences from different fields of labor, albeit the\naim of your work is the same ; and, by comparing your difficulties and interchanging your ideas as to the solution of them, you enrich each other and\nform a concrete idea for the good of all.\nIn the intermissions from your more serious occupations you will find\npleasure in visiting the National Library (that munificent foundation, the\nCorcoran Gallery and Art School, is unfortunately closed pending repairs),\nthe treasures of the Smithsonian and National Museum ; while in your\nexcursions in search of the picturesque, altho you will not find on the\nPotomac and in the surrounding landscape that alternation of rolling hills\nand fruitful valleys, nor the mountain grandeur, nor the wild coasts and\nsurrounding seas, nor the tropical luxuriance familiar to one or another of\nyou, still you will find a quiet charm hereabout — a negation in the way\nof any sectional extreme of scenery — a middle ground of scenery, as it\nwere, eminently fit to characterize the capital of a country so vast and\ndiversified as our own. But it rests with the teachers of America that the\nintellectual aspects of our capital shall not be mediocre, for this capital\nis made of the thoughts and aims of every man and woman in this wide\nland.\nLet us strive that in future ages it may nobly fulfill its mission.\n\n"}
{"page": 801, "printed_page": null, "text": "PRESIDENT'S\n\nDepartment]\n\nADDRESS\n\n79 ^\n\nLadies and gentlemen, in the name of the art teachers of Washington,\nI bid you welcome.\n\nPRESIDENT'S\nBY\n\nMISS\n\nHARRIET\n\nCECIL\n\nMAGEE,\n\nSTATE\n\nADDRESS\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nOSHKOSH,\n\nWIS.\n\nMembers of the Art Department of the National Educational Association,\nLadies and Gentlemen:\n\" We are all here of one accord\" to consider for a brief period one of\nthe elements of happiness — one of the elements of true education. \"The\nbase of all artistic genius,\" it has been well said, \"is the power of conceiving humanity in a new, striking, rejoicing way, of putting a happy\nworld of its own creation in the place of a meaner world of common days ;\nand the artist is an inventor of beauty.\" When an artist represents his personal vision of nature, he reflects into the artistic representation something\nof his own soul and something of the soul of his country. Hence we\nhave what may be called individuality or personality in art, but which,\nwhen it pertains to a nation, may be designated nationality in art.\nGathered here, as we are today, in the great capital of a great nation, it\nseems fitting that for a moment, at least, we consider this subject, \"Nationality in Art.\" It is eminently fitting that we should consider this subject here in Washington, which has for so many years been a national art\ncenter. We are apt, perhaps, to think too much of New York city as our\ngreat art center ; and I cannot refrain from quoting a certain art critic, who\nmade this remark a few weeks ago, and was so quoted in the Washington\nPost: \"Washington is one of the best markets in the country for really\ngood paintings. Washingtonians are more artistic than New Yorkers.\nNew York is still in the Bouguereau stage, while Washington has advanced\nto the sheep stage of artistic development.\"\nBe that as it may, ladies and gentlemen, we may congratulate ourselves\non our being here ; and in this atmosphere naturally turn to the element\nof national distinction in the art world of which we are, at least, a fractional part.\nNationality in the art of a country is plainly visible in any national\ncollection of art works. No one can visit the famous art galleries of\nEurope without noticing the distinguishing characteristics of the several\nnations represented. The French he finds distinguished for their technique\nrather than for their depth of thought and profound reflection ; the Germans display great strength of color and composition ; and the English are\nnoted for the literary element making English art somewhat illustrative of\nEngland's time-honored history and literature. But nowhere is nationality in art exhibited more strongly than in a Spanish gallery.\nOne critic\n\n"}
{"page": 802, "printed_page": null, "text": "792\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\nhas truly said that a visit to a Spanish art gallery is in some respects like an\neighteenth-century visit to a chamber of horrors.\nHowever, the highest art is not national. It does not delineate the\nman Spanish or the man Greek, but the man natural, the man universal.\n\"It. is,\" says Voltaire, \"the representation of these permanent, general\nprinciples of expression which characterizes the works of the great Italian\nmasters, and which is found in such perfection in Grecian art.\"\nIt is this great, leading principle of universality upon which all works\nof genius are considered. It particularly distinguishes all true poets.\nSee how it marks every page of Shakespeare. His lago is not an Italian,\nhis Othello a Moor, his Lear an Englishman, or his Hamlet a Dane.\nThey are citizens of the world ; the masterpieces of universal feeling, of\nuniversal sentiment. To illustrate still further that the highest art is the\nexpression of universal feeling and sentiment, take a portrait of a mother\nand child painted by Van Dyck, now in the Louvre. It is said that nearly\neveryone who looks at this picture thinks that .he discovers in the child's\nface some resemblance to a child of his acquaintance. The picture is,\nin fact, an exact portrait of a beautiful young English girl. Whence,\nthen, this discovered resemblance ? Simply because it is true to nature in\nits attitude and expression. Unaffected, universal childhood is here represented as it exists in every child until driven out by false education.\nStanding here in the nation's capital, may we not ask : What of our own\nart ? Is it national or universal ?\nThe United States has been called the \" omnium gatherum of diverse\npeoples.\" The art exhibit of the United States of America at the Columbian exposition bore a closer resemblance to the American loan collection\nthan it did to itself. This was due to the fact that as yet there is no great\nschool of American painting, because American painters study abroad and,\nalmost without exception, work abroad part of the time. Hence, when\nthey exhibit their paintings in America, we see the artist's interpretation\nof a European scene, with European costume and details. There is\nnothing American about it.\nYet, in its. very lack of national characteristics, may it not be that\nAmerican art is the more truly a universal art, made so by the mixed\nnature of our people? There is one thing that may be said of American art : that America breathes thru her pictures a frank atmosphere of\nhappiness, a ringing affirmative answer to the question : Is life worth\nliving ? America is decidedly optimistic, and this national characteristic\nis revealed in its art, whether the subject is European or Asiatic. In one\nphase of its art work the United States leads the world ; and that is in\nlandscape painting. Even European artists have acceded this honor to\nAmerica. It must, moreover, be remembered that American art is but\nin the secondary stage. The first stage was one of sentiment and feeling\nstruggling for expression.\nThis age is an age of technique.\nMen, aside\n\n"}
{"page": 803, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPRESIDENT'S\n\nADDRESS.\n\n793\n\nfrom artists, are not interested in technique. The first age of American\nart corresponds to Greek art. In the early age of a nation the ideas are\nstrong and vigorous, but the methods of expression are limited. At a\nlater date, when the means and methods of expression are multiplied, the\nideas are not, in many instances, so strong and vigorous. We are still in\nthe secondary stage. As William Walton says: \"If we have not yet\nreached the Umbrian or Venetian school, we may be considered to\nhave passed the primitives and Giotto's O.\" Benjamin West may be\ncounted typical of the first period of American painting. . He reflected the\ngood and bad of his age. .\nThe second stage of American art may be considered as beginning in\nthe revival of general interest in art in this country in the year of the centennial exposition of 1876. One writer on this subject moves it back forty\nyears from that date to the occasion of a little social gathering of the\npainters of New York city in 1825. The American Academy of Fine\nArts was founded in 1802. But in 1805 the aged Trumbull, as its president, was not in sympathy with the younger and more progressive artists,\nand hence the organization of the National Academy of Design, with\nMorse as its president. In 1841 the elder institution expired. Its effects\nwere purchased for the sum of $400. The first exhibition of the new\nacademy was held the year previous, and from that time on annual exhibitions have been held in America.\nThe Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts was founded in 1805. The\nPhiladelphia School of Design for Women was founded in 1853. The\nfirst exhibition of the American Society of Painters in Water Colors was\nheld in 1867. In 1854 Peter Cooper laid the foundation of the Cooper\nInstitute. In the following year the Boston Art Club was organized. The\nplans for the Corcoran Gallery of Fine Art were made in 1859. The\nBrooklyn Art Association was organized in 1861 ; and in the same year\nwas founded the School of Art in connection with Vale College. The San\nFrancisco Art Association was organized in 187 1, the Art Students' League\nof New York in 1875, the Society of American Artists in 1877, the Central\nArt Association in 1894; and many other organizations, too numerous to\nmention, are now doing a good work in the development of art feeling\nand the growth of American art.\nThese organizations are the great art organizations of the country.\nBut these have been founded for art's sake, and carried on by artists of\ngreat power and genius, who have devoted heart and soul to their work.\nThe work thus accomplished has been great and far-reaching, until it has\npermeated society and even percolated the somewhat unyielding soil of the\npublic-school system, until the public-school system of the United States\nof America, surpassed by that of no other nation, has for twenty — thirty\n— years considered seriously the problem of art education. And now in\nalmost every town and hamlet in this broad land some attention is given\n\n"}
{"page": 804, "printed_page": null, "text": "794\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\nto drawing in the public schools, to schoolroom decoration, to art experiments in the child-study problem, and to the training and development of\nthe higher and aesthetic nature of the American child ; until today we\nfind all over this broad land many organizations of a purely art educational character, such as the New York State Art Teachers' Association,\nthe Massachusetts, or New England, Art Teachers' Association, the Western Drawing Teachers' Association, and the California State Art Teachers'\nAssociation. All of these are working along the line of art education in\nthe public schools; but each of these is more or less sectional. While each\nis doing a great and good work in its state or states, there is not the combined effort that there should be ; and the Art Department of the National\nEducational Association finds itself but another isolated organization,\nwhile some of our able educators feel that it is limited by too much\nmachinery. One art educator wrote me in reply to a request to participate\nin the program of this meeting : \" I have long since given up the hope of\naccomplishing anything through such a great machine as the National\nEducational Association.\"\nLadies and gentlemen, is not the work of the world, small and great,\nin this the last decade of the century done by the great machine ? But what\nof the directing force back of the great machine ? Is it not brain power ?\nAnd is there not enough brain force in the educational machine to turn\nthe wheels and manipulate intelligently the art movement of the times ?\nIs it not our duty here at this meeting to set in motion a movement that\nshall be far-reaching and truly national ? Are we not here for a purpose ? We, the members of this department, are too busy and too hardworked to come here for play. We are here for a purpose. We are not\ngathered for naught. What may we not accomplish if we occupy ourselves with earnest, living questions, and work to a purpose? This department should be national in the true sense of the word. It should not be\nmerely another art educational association ; it should be the art educational\nassociation. By this I do not mean that the other organizations should\ncease in their efforts to advance art interests in sectional districts, but\nthat they should work together with this department for a national art\nmovement.\nIt has been my privilege to know intimately the workings of the Western Drawing Teachers' Association since its organization in 1894. It has,\ndone, and is doing, a great work in the middle West. Its honored president is here today, a member of this department. I understand that there\nis a movement to form an eastern association of a similar nature. As I\nhave already enumerated, there are many art educational societies all over\nthis land, which should, it seems to me, work with more concerted effort,\nand they would so work if a plan were formed whereby they might be\nrepresented in a general committee on national work. Inasmuch, therefore, as nothing of this kind has been attempted, and inasmuch as a need\n\n"}
{"page": 805, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nSUPERVISOR\n\nOF DRAWING\n\nIN PUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n795\n\nof such co-operation is felt on the part of the Art Department of the\nNational Educational Association, I now, at this the first session of our\ndepartment meeting, wish to appoint a committee to consider the question\nand report at our next session. I would suggest that such committee\nrecommend that each existing art organization in connection with the\npublic-school system of any state, or states, be requested to appoint\none person to act in conjunction with the president of this department in\nthe formation of a program for its next annual meeting, and as an advisory\nboard to be consulted upon all points of general interest to the department.\nDoes such a suggestion meet your approval ?\nThis, I believe, will do more toward bringing the Art Department of\nthe National Educational Association into proper relations with these\nvarious strong art movements, and into just relations with the association\nof which it is a department, than anything else possible at this time in our\nhistory. This will bring into the department the wisdom and strength of\nthe East, West, North, and South, until we shall feel that the department\nis truly national — national in its breadth and purpose, national in its\nstrength and unison.\nFurthermore, it has been suggested to me during the year that greater\nattention should be paid to the unification of art instruction ; and that for\nthis purpose an able committee of ten prominent art educators, from different sections of the country and of varied lines of thought, be appointed\nto render a report to this department at some future time.\n\nTHE\n\nBY\n\nSUPERVISOR\n\nOF DRAWING\n\nFRED\n\nSUPERVISOR\n\nH. DANIELS,\n\nOF\n\nIN PUBLIC\n\nDRAWING,\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nBUFFALO,\n\nN. V.\n\nThe supervisor must be a teacher of far more than ordinary ability.\nAs a rule it is the business of the supervisor to teach when visiting a classroom, rather than to listen to the grade teacher. She needs concrete help\nand suggestion, not criticism and fault-finding. Teaching is a profession\ninvolving so many side issues that it is especially open to criticism. It\nwould be folly to assume for a moment that the teaching of the supervisor\nis exempt from discussion among the many grade teachers in whose room\nhe gives lessons. But I am convinced that the true supervisor has the\nnecessary faith in and enthusiasm for his work to throw aside all personalities. Working only for the good of the pupils in each class, no capable supervisor will attempt to build up a teacher's work by complaint and\ngrumbling. Instead, he will earnestly try to do with her class what she\nhas failed to do.\nIf his lesson is a success, he will have helped the\n\n"}
{"page": 806, "printed_page": null, "text": "79^\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\nteacher in these two ways : he has shown her how to teach one lesson,\nand he has left the class eager for the next drawing period. If his lesson\nis not a success, I believe we can find a reason for the failure.\nWe will take it for granted that the supervisor knows his subject ; this\nfeature of the lesson will not be criticised by the grade teacher. Because\nof- this specific knowledge of some specialty, which frequently places the\ngrade teacher in the attitude of a learner, it is a common belief that the\nsupervisor is a mine of instruction in applied pedagogics. Thus any\ndefect in presenting the lesson weakens his influence with his teachers\nalong all lines.\nWho has not heard the specialist who presents his subject in numerous words, none of which have any meaning to the class ? Presupposing\nan equal knowledge of subject-matter, why is the lesson given by A\nbetter than that taught by B ? I believe the success of A is due to\nhis comprehension of the object-matter, i. e., the child. He watches the\neffect of each question, of every gesture and blackboard sketch, and soon\nlearns that some methods appeal to the child. He learns that the child\nis alive and enjoys, and even demands, a part in the program. He understands that a lifeless manner will produce a lifeless class, that enthusiasm is\nthe most contagious disease of the schoolroom. This manner of teacher\nleaves a trail of interest in his subject which will aid in making it a joy\nrather than a burden to teacher and class. If teachers and pupils do not\ngladly welcome the special teacher, his work may not be an entire failure,\nbut assuredly it is not a complete success. He is in an exalted position\nwhich everyone, excepting himself a,lone, knows he does not satisfactorily\nfill. We all understand that the drawing teacher should have had the\nbest training in drawing. Next to that, and of almost equal importance,\nis it that he have exceptional teaching power. The supervisor who has\nthese two great qualifications for his profession will seldom be found wanting in lesser matters.\nIn the large cities it is practically impossible for the supervisor to\nteach in every schoolroom. Assistants are provided for that purpose who\nregularly visit stated rooms. These assistants, if capable, are of great aid\nto the supervisor; in fact, each is practically supervisor of drawing in several buildings. There is, however, a feeling among teachers that they are\nresponsible to a higher authority in drawing than the assistants. Hence\nit becomes a necessary part of the supervisor's work to visit each room in\nthe city to look over the drawings. Inasmuch as the work in the same\ngrades is more or less uniform, this is the most monotonous phase of\nsupervising. Yet, if each teacher can be made to feel that what she is\ndoing is of as much importance as that of any other teacher, that her\nco-operation is essential, and that the supervisor appreciates all her efforts\nand is more than willing to aid her in any way, then is the spirit of his\nwork made manifest to the thousands of children in the schools.\n\n"}
{"page": 807, "printed_page": null, "text": "Dcpartmentl\n\nTHE\n\nSUPERVISOR\n\nOF DRAWING\n\nIN PUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n797\n\nA second work of the supervisor in the schoolroom is to ascertain\nwhat ought to constitute a course in drawing, and in what order the various subdivisions of art education ought to be presented.\nThe past history of drawing can be briefly stated as a progression from\ncopying thru stick laying, paper cutting, clay modeling, and type\nsolids to pose drawing. Up to a recent date this history is a record of\nfailures, because all courses have been planned for adults. None, until\nwithin a year or two, have recognized the evolution of the child as a factor\nof any importance in the work. These courses formed excellent and\napparently logical printed outlines and drawing books. The school committee could read therein the complete process of teaching a child to\ndraw. A supervisor was engaged to teach this or that system. Superintendent, committee, and teachers swallowed the whole thing without question, and yet have any of these systems withstood the test of a few years'\ntrial without many changes ? They have been prepared by logicians,\nartists, and teachers dealing with older pupils. Modern methods have\nbeen ^fiercely contested, and, when finally adopted, have been entirely\noverworked. Has this not been true of copying, stick laying, paper cutting, modeling, and the type-solid idea ? Is it not true today of pose\ndrawing ? Psychologists tell us that the human figure should be the basis\nof all primary drawing. Philosophers urge that the type solids are the\nfundamental elements of all art. The gradgrinds say that art is a science.\nOthers sing the song of correlation. Amid all these theories, what is the\nsupervisor to do ? There is but one right answer to this question : Go into\nthe schoolroom and teach children in all grades, watch them • at work,\nstudy their likes and dislikes, see what is being done in other studies,\n\"prove all things, hold fast that which is good.\"\nThus far we have considered the supervisor as a schoolmaster. The\nwork in the schoolroom forms but a minor part of his daily program. I\ncan imagine no profession which demands more continuous outside preparation. The supervisor is expected to be an artist, an art critic, and lecturer. He must be informed regarding all art, past and present. He is\nsupposed to know all about the history, science, and art of school-teaching. Two things he must do whenever possible — work for greater power\nin artistic creation and expression in form and color, and study along\npedagogical lines. \" Not a day without a line,\" and not a line without a\nthought of its connection with his great work as a teacher. Every new\npedagogical idea should incite a corresponding specific thought applicable to his subject. Furthermore, he should seek the most interesting\nmethod of applying this idea in his teaching and teachers' meetings.\nThat method always involves a blackboard sketch. Thus these two great\nfactors in the supervisor's work, art and pedagogy, are interdependent.\nOne of the most important duties of the supervisor is conducting\nteachers' meetings.\n\nBefore attempting to decide upon the plan of these\n\n"}
{"page": 808, "printed_page": null, "text": "798\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\nmeetings, we must recognize several factors which confront most of us in\nour towns and cities : (i) In many places only the mechanical phases of\ndrawing are thought to be of sterling worth. (2) The average teacher\ncan present a lesson efficiently, oftentimes better than the supervisor,\nproviding she knows the subject-matter. (3) Interest is the best incentive to effective work. We are not interested in doing anything the\nvalue of which is not apparent. We do not enthusiastically teach a subject which we but half understand. (4) A very small proportion of our\nteachers can draw. Some have had no opportunity to learn. Others\nhave had state courses, which are often so mechanical and far behind the\ntimes that, aside from giving the student teacher almost nothing of real\nvalue for her future teaching, they are especially well adapted to crush\nout any love for art that the student may have. Ruskin criticised these\nstate courses when he wrote : \" All things that ar-e worth doing in art are\ninteresting and attractive when they are done. There is no law of right\nwhich consecrates dullness. The proof of a thing's being right is that it\nhas power over the heart ; that it excites us, wins us, or helps us — and\nthere is no goodness in art which is independent of the power of pleasing.\"\nWhile the best literature teachers are telling us that the right way to\ncreate a literary taste is to give the student good literature to read,\nrather than to teach the facts about literature ; and while our science\nteachers are telling us that the way to arouse in the pupil a sympathetic\nattitude toward nature is to have him study nature rather than text-book\nfacts about nature, it is depressing to know that some supervisors still\ninsist upon teaching the rules and facts about drawing to pupils and\nteachers who have never had very much practice in free-hand drawing.\nIn our optional classes teachers should work in the most interesting\nmedium in the most direct and vital way, to aid them in learning to see\nand to express and to teach others to do the same. Teach them to draw,\npaint, and design as they are to teach their pupils. If you have any love\nfor art education in your schools, any desire to foster enthusiasm in the\nteachers' efforts, throw aside all the dry bones of drawing which are not\npositively necessary for use in the schoolroom. When you hear anyone\nsay that art is a science, you may be pretty sure that the speaker is a\nscientist and has no knowledge or love of art. Drawing — one medium\nof art expression —is a matter of seeing, combined with the ability to use\nthe hand as the will dictates. Teachers and pupils have been made to\nfeel that drawing is a science, and that they cannot draw because they do\nnot know the correct rule for the given object. When we get rid of\nthis theory business and in all work for several years rely only on the eye\nand hand, we shall have more satisfactory results in drawing. The theory\nof drawing should be regarded as a dictionary of reference by teachers\nand pupils who are sufficiently advanced to use such aid intelligently.\n\n"}
{"page": 809, "printed_page": null, "text": "DeparunenO\n\nTHE\n\nSUPERVISOR\n\nOF DRAWING\n\nIN PUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n799\n\nIt has been used as a crutch to such an extent that reasoning has usurped\nthe place of the sense of sight.\nOne element in particular 'we must encourage at these meetings.\nBecause creative activity, individuality, has been so largely neglected in\nprevious school-teaching, it is sometimes rather difficult to obtain original\nwork from the teachers. But no amount of talk from the supervisor will\nproduce the best final results in the class-room when the teacher gives the\nlesson. The actual illustrative sketching, making of designs, etc., by\nthe teacher is what is needed. In his essay on Spiritual Law, Emerson\nhas said : \" The same reality pervades all teaching. The man may teach\nby doing, and not otherwise. If he can communicate himself, he can\nteach, but not by words. He teaches who gives, and he learns who\nreceives. There is no teaching until the pupil is brought into the same\nstate in which you are ; a transfusion takes place ; he is you and you are\nhe ; then there is teaching, and by no unfriendly chance or bad company\ncan he ever quite lose the benefit.\"\nI am sure that we all feel the need of general culture, so that we may\nappreciate and act in unison with the best thought in all trades, professions, and arts. This suggests an unlimited field of work for the supervisor. Ihave endeavored to bring to your notice only what seem to me\nto form the absolutely essential requirements for successful supervision.\nPermit me to summarize : The supervisor should have a thoro art training. He must be a strong teacher, a student of childhood, and an\nhonestly independent thinker and worker. He should draw and paint\nat every opportunity, study pedagogics, hold helpful grade meetings,\nendeavor to become an effective speaker, apply his knowledge of art to\nhis personal appearance and surroundings, and strive for general culture,\nboth mental and physical.\nSurely the supervisor has no time for idleness.\n\nDISCUSSION\nMrs. S. E. W. Fuller, director of drawing, Washington, D. C. — The first thought\nthat presented itself to my mind on learning the subject assigned to me in this discussion\nwas of the varied conditions to which supervisors are subjected and the consequent futility of anything I could say in regard to details.\nNo capable supervisor desires that anyone not familiar with his field of work should\nadvise him as to his special duties in the schoolroom.\nUnity requires that every supervisor shall adopt a plan by which he can insure and\nknow that each teacher carries out the program assigned to his grade, and that he shall\nendeavor, by his superior knowledge and love of the subject, to infuse into the work of\neach that life without which the best course of instruction becomes a skeleton of dry bones.\nWhether his way of doing this will be mainly by giving lessons in school, examining\nwork, by helpful criticism of methods, or by a judicious use of all these means as\n\n"}
{"page": 810, "printed_page": null, "text": "8oo\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\noccasion seems to demand, will probably depend not only on the local conditions, but\nvery largely upon which weapon he can wield most effectually. If he is wise, he will\nalso be influenced by the capabilities and disposition of the teacher he attempts to guide.\nHere I would add to the qualifications of a supervisor, as summed up in the paper to\nwhich we have just listened, one other : a knowledge of teacher nature. Child study is,\nindeed, an important factor and should be diligently pursued, not only in the scho«lroom»\nbut in the home, on the playground, and in the street ; but, after all, it is the teacher thru\nwhom we reach the child. Teachers have some traits in common, but they need to be\nindividually studied.\nThe best help for one may not be the best for another.\nOne problem faces every supervisor : he can never ignore the fact that, altho art\ninstruction is so extended in its application that it seems to its lovers a world in itself, it\nis still but a part of a whole.\nWhatever may be our individual views of correlation or co-ordination, co-operation\nis something we cannot ignore, and I hope it is a subject upon which the light of some\nreal schoolroom experience may be thrown during these meetings.\nBut in the formative period, thru Which the organization of this great work has\nbeen and is still passing, supervisors have been called upon to do more than this : to\norganize and direct.\nThey have been chosen for their ability to do this.\nSome have arranged courses of study after their own ideas. When a published system of text-books and manuals has been adopted, the supervisor has usually had a very\ndecided voice in its selection ; also freedom in adapting it to conditions and in the introduction of such new features as he may have thought desirable.\nThe experience gained by the freedom thus accorded has reacted upon the published\ncourses, so that at present they are largely the product of that experience.\nThis individual work in the schoolroom, which my experience leads me to consider\na past and present condition, is referred to in the paper to which we have listened as a\nhopeful one for the future.\nIt is and always has been hopeful ; moreover, it is just this which has caused the evolution of motives and methods : the changes referred to in the paper as failures. I\nobject to the word failure. If we are to call these features failures, then must we designate all the steps by means of which we have reached our present status in every department of education and science failures. Where, then, is evolution ? Are we, as individuals,\nfailures because we are soon to pass away, leaving our work to be continued in ways\nadapted to the increasing wisdom of future generations ? No I All this only shows that\nwe are and have been alive and subject to the laws of growth. The stream is deep, the\ncurrent strong. It will not be turned aside because a few sticks, tablets, and even, in some\nplaces, a superabundance of type solids, as they float on the surface of the. stream, are\nwashed ashore or become tangled in the driftwood.\nIt is our duty, as supervisors, ever to seek for the best methods of doing our work ;\nbut we should not belittle it or be discouraged because of changes. We must even have\npatience with that most trying of all experiences, the overworking and indiscreet applications of new suggestions. It is the tendency of our people to go to extremes. If, in the\nreaction which always follows this excess, we can retain the vital good that lies at the\nroot of all these movements, we shall be in the lint of progress.\nThere is also a good to be evolved from the intensity of interest aroused in certain\nsubjects during this period of excess ; a real good, because it is based upon a psychological principle that no true teacher will ignore, namely, that the time to impart information\nis when the mind, thru aroused interest, demands it, as impressions made at such times\nare most likely to be indelible. For example, the present interest in regard to subjects\npertaining to the war is invaluable as working material, but we cannot base a system of\ndrawing upon the subjects involved, nor upon a ^y other subject. Subjects are only\nopportunities.\nWe must dig deeper for our foundations.\nWhen we are sure that we\n\n"}
{"page": 811, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nSUPERVISOR\n\nOF DRAWING\n\nIN PUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n. 80 1\n\nhave a true psychology to guide us, and are wise enough to frame upon it our pedagogics,\nwe shall be able to base our superintendence upon a system strong but elastic, an art\nproduct with the essentials of unity and variety ; unity of principles, variety of subjects ;\nthe strength of eternal law, and its elastic quality of adaptation to states and conditions.\nMiss Gertrude A, Stoker, supervisor of drawing, St. Paul, Minn. — In discussing\nMr. Daniels' paper, all that I can do is to indorse most heartily his sentiments, and perhaps emphasize some of the points which seem vital.\nWhat he says about the preparation necessary for a supervisor is true. The reason\nwhy for so many years drawing has been considered a fad is that the supervisor lacks\nartistic, pedagogical, and psychological education.\nBut where shall the supervisor receive his training ? Where is there a school today\nthat unites the kindergarten, the university, and the art school ? Unfortunately none such\nexists. Drawing is degraded in the university, or, rather, has never received that proper\nrecognition which it must and will in time obtain. The experimental psychologist of the\nuniversity considers his investigations too profound for the comprehension of the kindergartner ; art schools aspire to produce artists, disdaining to create pedagogs.\nNot until our universities recognize the importance of drawing in education, and\nmake a thoro preparation necessary for admission to their courses, and not until our\nartist teachers understand kindergarten methods, will drawing assume its proper place in\neducation. Our universities must graduate kindergartners and supervisors of drawing.\nThe artist must become the educator or psychologist ; to draw is not enough ; to be\nlearned is not enough ; the supervisor must study the development of the child.\nThus far the training of the average supervisor has been left to the tender mercies of\nsome book concern, interested in placing before the public a system of a patent-medicine\nnature sure to kill or cure.\nThat the love of drawing still exists in the hearts of some children is no fault of these\nsystems which try to force all to think and act alike,^ treating originality of thought and\nexpression as a crime.\nMost supervisors are mere followers or imitators of others, looking askance at the\nperson who dare be independent in thought and action. It is much easier to let others\nthink for us, but the person who tries to express someone else, and not himself, never\nleaves much of an impression upon the world.\nAn examination of the courses of study in drawing thruout the United States will\nprove to any student of children that as yet the supervisor has very little pedagogical\ntraining. In all these courses, with the exception of three or four, the mechanical phases\nof drawing are of vital importance, with little attention paid to thought expression and\noriginality. Technique is worshiped to the extent that all individuality is lost, drill upon\nrules of perspective is made prominent, little attention is paid to correlation, and each\nteacher is obliged to draw a certain thing upon a certain day, which forces her to be\na mechanical follower of the supervisor. That the average teacher can present a lesson\nbetter than the supervisor is proved by this examination of the courses of study in drawing.\nAs to teachers' meetings, I was pleased to hear Mr. Daniels' ideas upon this subject.\nIf we follow his suggestions, and at our meetings teach our teachers to draw, to paint, to\nmodel, to design, giving to them model lessons full of suggestive help ; and if in our\ncourses of study we give them liberty to plan their daily lessons according to their\nmaterial, instead of one drawing teacher we shall have a city full of enthusiastic drawing\nteachers who will love their work, and who will assume all responsibility of results. Let\nus give our teachers liberty, but be sure that our lessons are worthy of imitation.\nIn my judgment there is but one way to make drawing a success in the public schools,\nand that is to teach the teachers as we would the children.\nLet the results for which we struggle be mental development, not pictures. Let us\nteach our teachers to see, to express thought, to judge, to manage, to originate.\nLet us\n\n"}
{"page": 812, "printed_page": null, "text": "8o2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\ngive them paint boxes and flowers, and lead them by experiment to select and mix the\nproper colors. Don't burden them with theory; it would take a lifetime to learn all\nthere is to know about the theory of color. Let them paint something in the first lesson.\nThey can do it and do it well. Let us give them clay and something interesting to\nmodel ; don't bind them with method of how to model. What we desire is something\nmodeled which shows observation, study of proportion, etc. Let us tell them a story to\nillustrate in color, and if, thru their efforts to express the thoughts, they have visualized\nthe story, their memories have been strengthened, and the lesson is a success. Let them\npaint a landscape, and if thru the effort they learn to observe skies, we have accomplished\nmuch,\nThe supervisor is one of the hardest of workers, but much responsibility is assumed\nwhich would gladly be borne by the grade teacher, if liberty were allowed her. Let us\nwork with our teachers, and the time saved may then be spent preparing talks which of\nnecessity the supervisor must make. In these talks let us show the educational side of\ndrawing tp our listeners ; but first we must know this side ourselves. To speak effectively,\none must speak with authority.\n\nSOME\n\nEDUCA\n\nBY\n\nTIONAL PRINCIPLES WHICH SHOULD\nTHE TEACHING OE DRAWING\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nM.\n\nV.\n\nO SHEA,\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF\n\nGO VERN\n\nWISCONSIN\n\nIn a discussion of the teaching of drawing it is well to recognize at the\noutset that the method of procedure is not distinct in all respects from that\nof other subjects. It may be wise, then, to point out at the beginning\nseveral principles of universal validity in teaching, and to indicate their\nbearing in this particular instance. In the first place, the logical or\nformal arrangement of the facts or principles of any branch of instruction\nis not ordinarily, if ever, the proper teaching order. An excellent illustration of this is afforded in the case of reading. The logical development of the subject requires that the pupil first learn the letters of the\nalphabet, then combine these into words, the words into sentences, the\nsentences into paragraphs, and finally the paragraphs into discourse.\nBut in the teaching of this subject now no competent person follows this\nmethod. Psychology declared some time ago, and experience has since\nproven, that greater success may be attained by beginning at once with\nthe word or sentence, coming only gradually to their most elementary\nparts, letters. This illustration is typical of others — as in the case of\nwriting, for instance. Logically the most elemental forms involved in\nletters should precede the letters themselves, which in turn should precede\nwords. But pupils learn to write at the present time most successfully\nby starting at the outset with the words which are employed to express\nthoughts gained in their studies in various fields. The distinction between\nthe logical and the teaching order which is thus seen to exist in the case\n\n"}
{"page": 813, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPRINCIPLES\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHING\n\nOF DRAWING\n\n803\n\nof reading and writing could be shown to exist also in spelling, geography,\nscience, and other branches.\nIt is not difficult to see why there should be this distinction between\na logical and a teaching order in the arrangement of the facts and principles of any study. The former is dependent upon a survey of all the\ndata of the study in their relations to each other, some being discerned\nto be structurally more simple than others. But structural simplicity is\nvery different from psychological simplicity, and is usually contrasted\nwith it; that which is most simple anatomically being generally of greatest difficulty to be grasped by the mind. In order that a thing be readily\nand surely comprehended, it must have numerous characteristics which will\nfurnish hooks for one's apperceiving ideas to clutch hold of. On the\nother hand, the psychological, and so the pedagogical, ordering of the\nfacts of a study is determined by what is already in the mind of the pupil\nat any point which gives him an interpreting basis or apperceiving mass,\nand which, as a consequence, determines his interests. Thus in the study\nof botany the pupil would best begin with flowers and plants as a whole\nwith which he is somewhat familiar, rather than with an examination of\nthe structure of seeds or the learning of definitions which, while com\nparatively simple physically considered, are yet relatively unfamiliar to\nhim, and in which he has little or no interest.\nThe recognition of this important educational law in the teaching of\ndrawing suggests that a formal arrangement of topics, beginning with the\nmost simple structurally, as the drawing of lines or reproducing flat copy,\nis not the best method of procedure. That which is nearest to the child\nand which appeals most to his interests should constitute the point of\ndeparture ; and this is certainly not imitating flat copy, drawing lines,\nlearning definitions, or studying forms, unless all these contribute directly\nto the expression of the pupil's thoughts while employing them. Before\nthe child enters school he has used drawing as a means of conveying his\nthoughts and feelings to others, and his interest in it is determined wholly\nby the use to which he is thus able to put it. So that, considered from\nthis point of view alone, drawing should at the beginning and thruout be\ntaught in connection with, and as instrumental to, the expression of thoughts\nwhich originate in the child's creative imagination, or which are gained\nfrom the study of objects, artistic or natural. Only gradually should\nattention be called to the logical and formal elements involved in drawing ;\njust as in reading one should learn the letters only after he has actuallv\nbegun to read, or should not acquire the definitions in geography before\nhe has concretely gained the ideas embodied therein^\nA second educational principle is of equal universality and importance\nwith this first, and is not wholly different from it. It is an unprofitable\nexpenditure of time and energy to attempt to acquire the motor, manual,\nor expressive counterpart of an idea apart from the mental element thereof.\n\n"}
{"page": 814, "printed_page": null, "text": "8o4\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\nIn other words, the mechanical or formal part of any study may be\nbest gained in immediate connection with the content of that study.\nThis principle is based upon the intimate, almost identical, relationship of\nmotor and ideational centers in the brain. It is satisfactorily shown by\nneurology that ideas originating in any of the sensory, or, I may say,\nintellectual, areas of the brain are accompanied by the awakening of an\nimpulse which tends to arouse motor brain centers ; and these in turn\nexcite given muscles to characteristic activities. When any idea has thus\nbeen accompanied by a certain motor expression for a number of times,\nthere tends to be established such a connection that, whenever the idea is\nrepresented in consciousness, the appropriate action follows automatically;\nand conversely the reproduction of the movement tends to revive the\nsensory impression. Ideas then, as Wundt says, really acquire a motor\naspect. This general law is well illustrated in the case of the pianist : by\ncontinual practice he has connected ideas aroused by the sight of musical\nsigns, as notes, staff, etc., with certain modes of physical action, and now,\nwhen he sees these signs, the appropriate expression follows unconsciously,\nor automatically, as we say. It is illustrated further in the case of language,\noral and written. The average adult has so fused his ideas with their vocal\nexpression, at any rate, that, when the ideas are present, the vocal apparatus\nfaithfully portrays them without conscious effort or direction. Again, in\nball playing an expert will so co-ordinate all the muscles of the body in\nresponse to a certain visual stimulus that, at the vital moment when the\nimage of the ball falls upon the retina, he will automatically make the\nappropriate movements to strike it. Examples might be multiplied aa\ninfinitum illustrating the principle, that naturally and normally one's ideas\ntend to become connected with characteristic motor expressions in such\nmanner as to form automatic series, so that, when a given idea is present\nin consciousness, the rest of the series rolls off as a matter of necessity.\nIn order that such a connection may be secured, it is essential that\nthe motor impulse be directly associated with the idea or ideas of which\nit is the expression, else cerebral paths binding the two together can be\nestablished only with comparative difificulty. It would manifestly be a\npoor method of cultivating the art of speech to require the infant to\nimitate the sounds of words without associating them with their meaning, that is, with ideas ; or, speaking neurologically, and thus also psychologically, without opening up paths between the speech and ideation\ncenters in the brain. Every boy knows that in training for skill upon the\nball field it would be a relatively fruitless proceeding to practice movements- of co-ordinating the muscles of the body in any other way than\nby actually playing ball. However superior he became in the exercises\nof the gymnasium, he would yet be disappointed in his ability upon the\nfield, when he came to test it at the crucial moment. His visual perceptions and muscular co-ordinations have not become so related with\n\n"}
{"page": 815, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPRINCIPLES\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHING\n\nOF DRAWING\n\n805\n\neference to ball playing that the one may follow the other as a matterr of\ncertainty and necessity.\nThe bearing of this law upon the acquisition of skill in drawing must\nbe quite evident. Whatever more the artist may be, he is at least one who,\nwhen he desires to represent, has the motor centers automatically stimulated\nso that they will guide his muscles aright in expressing what he sees, either\nobjectively when viewing things external to the mind, or subjectively when\nbeholding the products of imagination. In acquiring this power he must\nhave had experiences similar in principle to those of the pianist or the\nball man or the bicyclist. In the teaching of children to draw it should be\none object — not the only one by any means, but yet an important one —\nto lead them to express their conceptions automatically as they do in language, and this can never be accomplished by striving to acquire a body of\nmotor ideas or expressions independent of the mental things which they are\ndesigned to portray. That is, all mechanical work carried on apart from\nits use in the expression of thoughts is, relatively speaking, a waste of time\nand energy, to say nothing of its inability to touch the vital interests of\nchildhood, which in itself is a most important consideration. We are\nappreciating today more fully than ever that the child must acquire these\narts, so slowly elaborated by the race, in response to such motive as the\nrace had in developing them, viz., the necessity of using them in communicating his mental life to his fellows. The appreciation of a vital\nneed of a mode of expression can alone invest the acquisition of its technique with genuine interest, which is essential in order to weld together\nthings in the brain. This does not imply, however, that there should be\nno special attention given to the motor element in drawing, as will be\nshown farther along.\nA third educational principle of general utility should be mentioned\nin this connection. The mind of the child at first apprehends things in\nits environment as wholes, with the quality of use predominating, and it\ncomes only slowly, following upon the growth in knowledge, to regard\nobjects as composed of distinct parts which contribute in definite ways to\nthe unity and function of the whole. Where the adult may be absorbed\nin details, seeking to discover their office in constituting the individuality\nof a larger whole, the child will be concerned only with the function of\nthe whole, little mindful of what factors that function is the outcome or\nproduct. In the contemplation of nature, to illustrate, he is most conscious of what the animals he knows can do, and least of the parts of\nwhich any one of them may be constituted — their anatomy, that is. In\nj-eading, he grasps the word as a whole, being for the greater part unconscious of the discrete form elements of which it is composed. So\nin writing, and so it should be in drawing. While it is obvious that any\nwhole may be regarded as comprised of parts which in themselves are\nwholes, still, as the child meets such things in daily life as, for instance.\n\n"}
{"page": 816, "printed_page": null, "text": "8o6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\na man, a horse, or a tree, he regards these entireties as wholes, where\narms, hoofs, and leaves would be parts. In drawing, the young child\nmay properly deal with these wholes, and he will not be seriously troubled\nby the intricacy of their construction, when it would be otherwise with\nthe adult. In the same way he can draw a landscape without experiencing confusion by the multiplicity of details ; and he will be more interested in this at the outset than in drawing a leaf or a blade of grass. But\nas the mind expands it grows continually in analytic power and interest,\nand in drawing, as in other studies, the pupil should from year to year\ngive increasing attention to the detailed mechanism of things — that is,\nto analysis. This suggests that pictorial representation, by which is meant\na free rendering of things so as to throw emphasis upon some quality or\nuse, no special regai-d being paid to literal accuracy of detail, should have\nmost prominent place in the early work, and mechanical drawing, study\nof design, etc., should be left, in the main, until later. We shall have\nattained more in the end if by the way we make our demands conform to\nthe natural order of unfoldment of the child's interests and capacities.\nSo much for general educational principles which proffer advice\nrespecting the teaching of drawing. The particular processes involved in\nthis form of expression, asi'de from apprehending or creating the scene, or\nthought, or motif to be portrayed, are two : first, visual perception, both\nexternal and internal ; and, second, the fusion of truthful and skillful\nmotor expression with this perception.\nIt should here be pointed out that drawing, like language, is a medium\nfor externalizing the soul within, and when you speak of the medium you\ndo not at the same time refer to the thing conveyed. In one sense, drawing, like language or writing, is spiritual, when you think of the spirit\nwhich is objectified thru it; in another sense, it is more or less formal,\nwhen one considers its mechanics as a mode of conveyance. These two\naspects are sometimes confounded, much to the confusion of clearness in\ndiscussion ; for there are those who feel that the spiritual side of drawing\nwill be lost sight of if it be regarded, like language, as a form of expression. But the soul, the real life, the spirit, which is revealed thru\ndrawing should not be confused with the drawing itself; no more than\nthe mind of Shakespeare should be thought to be simply the language\nhe used. In this sense, then, drawing is concerned with the portrayal of\nthoughts, not with their creation ; this latter is the result of all the educative influences that act upon the individual. Shakespeare's language only\nafforded a means for conveying his thoughts and clarifying them ; it did\nnot originate them. So all the pupil's training must develop within him\nthoughts and feelings to be conveyed thru drawing, which is thus a means*\nnot an end. It may now be apparent why drawing is said to involve only\nprocesses of visualization and reproduction, since the spirit to be conveyed,\nwhich originates in the depths of the soul, must first be translated into\n\n"}
{"page": 817, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPRINCIPLES\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHING\n\nOF DRAWING\n\n807\n\nvisual terms before it can ever find embodiment in graphic representation. No matter how abstruse the thought, or how delicate the feeling,\nit must for all time remain unexpressed in this especial way, unless it\nfirst appear in visual symbols, and then, in turn, be put into appropriate\nmotor expressions.\nIn the teaching of drawing, then, two questions must be asked at the\noutset : First, how may the pupil be led to see, objectively and subjectively,\nwith accuracy and keenness? And again, how may he acquire the art of\nexpressing what he thus discerns truthfully and skillfully? A distinction\nis made between truthful and skillful expression, since the latter depends\nupon delicate muscular control and co-ordination, while the former refers\nrather to faithful, tho not necessarily graceful, portrayal of the visual\naspects of form, and goes back ultimately to the connections existing\nbetween the visual and motor areas of the brain.\nT.et us look first at the question : How may the pupil be led to see\naccurately and keenly? We shall be aided in discussing this by inquiring\ninto the cause of the peculiar difficulty which one experiences in learning\nto see critically. Modern psychology has shown that the knowledge given\nby each sense is localized in distinct areas of the brain, but these areas\nare most intimately connected with each other by association fibers or\ntracts. Knowledge acquired thru one sense, then, readily becomes\nattached to that gained thru every other sense ; and the result is that,\ninstead of having sight-knowledge separated from muscular-knowledge,\nfeeling-knowledge, and taste-knowledge, we have it bound into the closest\nunity with these knowledges — so much so, indeed, that one does not distinguish between his sight-knowledge of a thing and his other knowledges.\nProbably everyone who has not given special attention to the subject\nwill say, on first thought, that he gains all possible knowledge of a thing\nthru the eye; so, when he feels of an object in the dark, he will have a\npicture of it, and he will be apt to say that his picture comes directly\nthru his sense of feeling, little realizing the absurdity of such a statement. The truth is that the knowledge we get thru sight becomes\nassociated with the knowledge we get thru feeling and thru every other\nsense, and then, when the sight-knowledge is present again, it arouses\ninstantly all the other knowledges, and the mind fuses them into a unity\nwithout attempting to single out the knowledge gained thru any one\nsense. The principle here involved is equally true of visual impressions\noriginating subjectively and those gained from external perception.\nAlike in both cases the visual data revive data at first obtained thru\nother senses, and these latter acquire pre-eminence in consciousness,\nobscuring the purely sight-knowledge.\nThe result of this is that when the child looks at an object, or summons it forth in imagination, he thinks about its size, which he has gained\n\n"}
{"page": 818, "printed_page": null, "text": "8o8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\nthru the muscular sense ; its taste, which he has gained thru the gustatory\nsense ; and, in addition, he has all sorts of memories associated with the\nvisual impression of the thing, and these crowd forward into consciousness, and entirely monopolize attention. He thinks he sees these qualities in the thing, but of course he only infers them from certain\nvisual aspects. Nature has wisely ordained that he should be able\nto infer them unconsciously, because these are the qualities of things\nwith which he needs to be familiar, for upon their right comprehension depends his' well-being. Nature has given human beings eyes,\nprimarily for the purpose of inferring qualities of taste, form, resistance,\nand the like of the things in the environment, rather than for attaining\nexplicit sight-knowledge respecting them. Upon the pupil entering\nschool, then, and setting about to learn to draw, he encounters the great\nobstacle that he can see scarcely at all for purposes of representation,\naltho he may be exceedingly keen in his visual perceptions for purposes\nof inference.\nBut how shall the artistically blind be made to see? There is only\none answer. They must acquire the power of giving conscious attention\nto the color values in things, and thus gain in ability to inhibit associated\nknowledges from taking complete possession of the mind and obscuring\nsight-knowledge. The eye must, by exalting its own importance, separate\nitself from other senses, for the time being, and carefully scrutinize the\nmodifications of color which objects present to the eye or to the imagination. It must hold in abeyance old associations and wonted companionships, and dwell upon the visual appearances of things before it. But this\nis not an easy task, as every teacher of drawifig knows, and as everyone\nwho has tried to school himself appreciates better still. But there is no\nother way known to man by which one may learn to draw. There can be\nlittle value in imitating flat copy, except after the pupil has tried to represent the reality, when seeing how it has been represented may help to\nconstrain his attention upon the visual aspects of the thing he is trying to\ndraw. The inspiration and encouragement of seeing anything well done,\nafter one has essayed to do it himself, are of no mean value in any phase\nof educational work, and, perhaps, especially in this. But copying from\nthe flat at the very outset is useless, if nothing worse, for it does not give the\npupil in any degree the power to give attention to the color values of the\nreal objects when they are before him. The drawing of realities, then,\nwhich includes the realities of the imagination as well as those external to\nthe mind, is the primary requisite in order to cultivate the power to draw,\nbecause in no other way can a pupil learn to give conscious attention to\nthe visual aspects of things.\nIn the choice of objects for objective representation there is some\nreason why the conventional or type forms should be chosen at the\n\n"}
{"page": 819, "printed_page": null, "text": "DcpartmentJ\n\nPRINCIPLES\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHING\n\nOF DRAWING\n\n809\n\noutset. It is easier for the pupil to concentrate attention upon the appearances of a conventional than of a natural form, since there is associated\nwith the latter many experiences which the sight of it revives and so\nobscures its correct visual appreciation. But, while the conventional form\nis thus simpler in a way, it is doubtless also less interesting to the child,\nand has, in addition, some dangers attending its too early or exclusive\nuse, the most important of which is that, if the pupil gets well established\nin his mind certain ideal or conventional forms, he in time loses the ability\ncorrectly to comprehend natural forms when he sees them, for the reason\nthat, when he beholds the natural form, the one which has typified it constantly will be instantly dragged up by it, and will attain supremacy in\nconsciousness. A too great use, then, of the type at the outset prejudices\nand corrupts the eye. Besides, a skillful teacher may lead the pupil's\nattention to the form of a natural object, and away from associated and\ninferred characteristics ; just as in any phase of teaching she has to keep\nthe attention headed, as it were, in certain directions and prevented froAi\nescaping into by-paths. The proper use of the type evidently is as a\nstandard to follow upon the employment of natural forms, rather than to\nprecede or supplant them.\nStudies of children's drawings show that at first they represent what\nthey know of an object rather than what they see, even when the object\nis directly before them. A young child's drawings, in other words, are\nimaginative, even when he is supposed to draw from the object. It is\nevident, then, that one of the most important means of leading the pupil\nto clearer seeing will be thru his imaginative or illustrative drawings,\nwherein he reveals how he conceives the various objects which he represents. By proper questioning, the instructor may lead the pupil to see\nwherein his representation differs from what he could really see in looking\nat the things which he represents. In this way, by correction and extension of mental images, the pupil is led to view more accurately external\nobjects ; for the character of his image of a horse, for instance, always\ndetermines how he will see that horse when he views it objectively. The\nlaw of apperception explains this fully, and shows that the mind must\nnecessarily proceed in this manner in the interpretation of its visual or\nother perceptions.\nImaginative or illustrative drawing, then, must form a considerable\nproportion of the work of the primary grades, occupying gradually a\nmore subordinate place as the pupil attains more skill in the appreciation\nof form. A danger must be pointed out here, however. If a pupil continues to represent imaginatively, producing very imperfect representations and repeating them often, they tend to pass into fixed habits, and so\nlimit his growth toward more perfect forms. At any stage in his development in the primary grades every child must be expected to do imperfect\n\n"}
{"page": 820, "printed_page": null, "text": "8io\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\nwork, but he should not be permitted to repeat his imperfections over and\nover again ; but, rather, he should continually pass on to a higher plane\nunder the judicious criticism of the teacher. If, then, in this imaginative\nwork there is not constant criticism, only harm is liable to ensue ; just as, if\na child should be allowed to mispronounce a word and repeat it, his\ndevelopment would be arrested along this line, because the nervous mechanism would adjust itself in the nature of a habit to this particular act.\nAnd the formation of habit in any direction betokens cessation of growth\nalong that line. But as, in the case of language, a child at first talks\nimperfectly, because nature has not developed the physiological mechanism\nrequired for perfect speech; and further as, in the process of natural\ngrowth, the child outgrows his early limitations ; so, in respect of drawing,\nwe should expect great imperfections at the outset ; but these will, in part\nat least, disappear in the course of normal growth.\nNow our second question : How may we establish automatic connections between visual perceptions and their appropriate motor expressions ?\nIt has already been pointed out that, by virtue of the structure of the\nbrain, no such relationship may be established between a visual and a\nmotor idea, unless the one is directly connected with the other many times,\nin the nature of a series. The only way to cultivate the motor element in\ndrawing, then, is by associating it always with actual representation. It\nmight be possible to develop by formal drill the power to perform in an\nexcellent manner all the motor activities necessary to represent a tree, but\nyet, when the tree was presented to the eye of the pupil, he could not\nreadily make the connections between what he saw and the motor impulse\nnecessary to portray it. But after the pupil has endeavored to portray his\nthoughts, he may become conscious of a lack of muscular skill to do so\nartistically and precisely. He will then appreciate the value of drilling to\nsecure this skill, and this drill will be seen to have a direct relation to the\nexpression of his thoughts, and not appear to be something entirely\nremote therefrom. In all the arts involving delicate co-ordination of\nmuscles there is need for special training to develop skill in the highest\ndegree, but such training should not come until the pupil realizes its\nnecessity.\nFinally, it may be said, in closing, that all the principles herein\nexpounded may really, without violence to any, be summarized into one,\nviz.: Thruout the work in drawing the pupil must have a wealth of vigorous, rich, lively thoughts and feelings to express, and the technique\ninvolved in expression must be gained always as means to an end, never\nas an end in itself. In this way the interest of the child will be reached,\nhe will acquire the power of artistic sight, and will attain motor skill which\nwill be alike graceful and serviceable.\n\n"}
{"page": 821, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPRINCIPLES\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHING\n\nOF DRAWING\n\n8ll\n\nDISCUSSION\nErnest L. Major, Normal Art School, Boston, Mass. — Drawing is the employment of tones that range from white to black, on a flat surface, so as to give an impression\nof objects as they appear in the round. The instructor, to be able to teach drawing, must\nthoroly appreciate the means of expression. On a given flat surface, with masses of tones,\nwe are to produce an illusion. Now, to produce this illusion the mind must be trained to\ndistinguish what are the shapes of the masses of light and shade, and their relative proportions. All objects are seen only as they are relieved against a background ; so that, to be\nable' to give a representation of objects, we must use the tone of the background with the\nmasses of the lights and darks that constitute their shape. Any representation that does\nnot do this only gives a partial or conventional expression. As the masses or silhouettes\nare never the shape of the real object, so any method that forces the pupil to draw anything but the appearance of these masses only retards his perceptions and confuses his\nexpression. Consequently the pure outline should never be allowed, as the pupil will use\nthe line only to express where the object meets the background, and by sO doing devisualizes himself of the appearance of reality. Also the use of the outline tends to dull his\nsense for proportion and for the more subtle aspects of nature. In fact, the outline is\nthe last word in drawing, and only a few of the master minds have been able to use it to\nexpress form.\nThe mediums that have usually been employed, such as the pen and pencil, are\ntotally unfit for the easy expression of impressions received, and the amount of attention\nthat the student has been forced to give to the employment of these difficult mediums\nhas prevented him from acquiring the power to visualize, which is the fundamental\nnecessity. The stick charcoal has been found in all great art schools the best medium\nfor drawing, as it is easily handled and can be easily erased, and, with the ordinary white\ncharcoal paper and bread or kneaded rubber as an eraser, is very convenient. Drawings\ncan be made more rapidly with this medium than with any other. Charcoal and white\nchalk on tinted paper can also bC recommended for quick, rapid sketches, especially for\nthose sketches made from life in the class-room.\nNo great detail should be expected in the drawings in the lower grades, but particular attention should be paid to the masses di light and shade that represent the large\nproportions. Make the background always just as it appears in nature, and be careful\nthat the object is distinctly silhouetted for the pupil of the lower grades. Effective and\nquick drawings can be made if the background is first indicated over the whole surface\nof the paper, and then the masses of light wiped out and the darks put in that compose\nthe object to be represented. This method is especially good where strong effects of\nlight and shade are to be produced, and I have also found it to interest pupils who, showing\nno particular talent at first, after a brief period of instruction were able to produce very\ncreditable drawings.\nAfter the student has \" painted in charcoal,\" as this method is called, and has acquired\na knowledge of tone and values, then pastels or colored chalks should be allowed. I\nrecommend pastel as the first colored medium to be used, because of the similarity of\nits nature to the charcoal ; and experience has shown me that students will produce with\nit in a short time much better color than with either water color or oils. In the latter two\nmediums the technical difficulties are so great that, while trying to use them, the students'\nvisual impression becomes confused and is eventually lost.\nA judicious amount of copying from examples of the best masters can also be\nrecommended, but great care must be exercised that the examples chosen are suited to\n\n"}
{"page": 822, "printed_page": null, "text": "8i2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\nthe students' individual needs. The Japanese direct the attention of the young to nature\nby making close imitations of their masterpieces. So, 1 think, we might likewise establish\n9in appreciation of standard works, thus creating at an early age a more tangible ideal\nthan I believe now exists. In order to accomplish this, make the schoolroom as beautiful\nas possible, introduce anything that has an aesthetic value. Casts and reproductions\nfrom the best works of the past and present are so easy to acquire now that there is no\nexcuse for their absence from the schoolroom. Show taste in everything over which you\nhave any control, and especially be careful that your own personality is an evidence of\nthe art you are teaching. Above all things, infuse the young with an appreciation of the\nbeautiful, because the mature individual is greatly controlled by the impressions derived\nat an early age. Then, when the pupil has acquired the power of expression and possesses\na high ideal, he will realize the unlimited possibilities of our art. This question is by all\nmeans the most important, as the expression becomes a simple matter when the mind has\na fixed, definite ideal.\nDr. Langdon S. Thompson, Jersey City, N. J.— In order to draw an object in one's\nsight, knowingly and intelligently, one must be able to distinguish clearly between two\nthings: (i) the real, inherent, tangible shape of an object; and (2) its infinite number of\napparent or accidental shapes.\nBoth of these things are generally called the form of the object, and hence there\narises great confusion in discussion as well as in thought. Therefore, in this discussion,\nlet us call the first form and the second appearance.\nThen, when one is called on to draw an object, he is expected to draw one of its\ninfinite number of appearances ; that is, he is expected to draw a visual percept. We may\nhave many percepts of an object, but the learner must reject all of them, however fascinating, and record only the particular visible percept he has obtained from one position.\nThis is very difficult for a learner to do. The world rightly regards judgment concepts as far more valuable than appearances, or visual percepts, and the child at first does\nnot know there is any difference. Hence, when he is asked to draw an object, he puts\ndown what he and the world regard as the most important, a judgment concept, instead\nof a visual percept.\nIt is not wise, therefore, to try to force the child to make this psychological distinction\ntoo early. It took the world a long time to make it. For the world this distinction has\nonly been made in historical times. Why not wait on the child until he is ready in his\nevolutionary growth to make this great step of separating his visual percepts from his\njudgment concepts ? When this period arrives, the pupil can be taught more genuine\nobject drawing in six months than in two* years at an earlier age.\n\nREPORT\n\nOF THE\nCOMMITTEE\nON THE\nRELATION\nTHE LIBRARY TO ART EDUCATION\n\nOF\n\nAlmost any subject of human activity may be viewed in the three\naspects of practice, history, and theory. In art education practice is the\npredominating element, since manipulation and technique play so important a part in all art production.\nIt has been remarked that, when you have a good subj'ect, a good light,\nand a good teacher, you have all the advantages for an art education that\nthe world affords.\nLike other brief and striking expressions, this saying\n\n"}
{"page": 823, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nRELATION\n\nOF THE\n\nLIBRARY\n\nTO ART\n\nEDUCATION\n\n813\n\nembodies a half-truth. These things being provided, the essential elements of art practice are present. But the stimulus of numbers and competition, the atmosphere of the subject, the means of studying special\napplications, the examples of what has been done by others, even the theories of active minds, are worthy of consideration in anything like a liberal\nart education.\nThe library naturally concerns art education more on the side of theory\nand history than of practice, altho it is not without great practical utility\nalso.\nIt will, perhaps, be useful to define our terms at the beginning. When\nwe speak of art education, we usually mean, first of all, instruction in drawing and painting. The best schools prefer the term \" school of drawing,\npainting, etc.,\" to \"art school,\" as being more precise and less open to\nquestion. Art in a high sense, perhaps, cannot be directly taught, but the\nelements of art practice may be.\nIn the old controversies in Massachusetts concerning the Walter Smith\nsystem of art education, much trouble would have been saved by a clear\nstatement of the distinction between art education and instruction in drawing and painting. Some of the higher critics, especially of the Ruskinian\nschool, denounced the whole attempt as hopeless, because art could not\nbe taught by stated methods. If the term art education had been dropped,\nnobody could have questioned that simple drawing both could and ought\nto be taught in public schools.\nWe shall take the liberty in the present report to include both the\nhigher and the lower meanings of art education.\nIt is, perhaps, necessary to consider separately the cases of the special\nschools of art practice, comparatively few in number, and of the public\nand private schools of general education in which some branches of art\npractice are taught.\nWith regard to the art schools proper, the library can hardly be too\nlarge and comprehensive, so long as the books and collections relate\ndirectly to art. We include collections, because engravings, photographs,\nand reproductions of pictures in general find their proper repository in\nthe library. And in sonle cases it has been thru the library that the community has made its acquaintance with other forms of art. One does not\nneed to be old to remember when the Boston Athenaeum, now solely a\nlibrary, maintained the only public picture gallery in Boston, and kept on\nexhibition a few casts of classic sculpture whereby it was revealed to\nyouth what that form of art meant. A similar thing has happened in\nthe library at Topeka, Kan., and no doubt in many other places.\nThe more comprehensive art schools include departments of architecture and of decorative design, as well as of drawing, painting, and\nsculi)ture. Probably nobody would propose to teach these former studies\nwithout reference books, from which materials of designs might be drawn,\n\n"}
{"page": 824, "printed_page": null, "text": "8l4\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\nand acquaintance with what the architects and designers of all nations\nhave done might be formed. From the practical point of view, it is the\nstudents of architecture and design who stand most in need of a library,\nand it is they who, in fact, most frequent the libraries of the art institutions. Each student sets up from the beginning of his course a scrap of\ntracings of subjects which commend themselves to him, which gradually\nforms a reservoir of useful designs selected by the student himself. It\nseems superfluous to discuss the usefulness of the library to students of this\nclass, for it is one of their main dependencies, without which they could\nscarcely progress far in their studies.\nIt is in the other departments, commonly known as the academic study\nof drawing, painting, and sculpture, that the utility of the library might,\nindeed sometimes is, called in question. Yet we believe such question\ncan only be raised by ignorance. No student of art would miss, if he\ncould help it, an opportunity to hear a really great painter or sculptor talk\nupon the practice of his art. Indeed, some of the most stimulating hours\nin the art school are the familiar talks to students by distinguished artists.\nIs there such a difference between the spoken and the written word that\nthe Discourses of Sir Joshua Reynolds or the Conversations of Couture are\nof no value when printed and read ? Handbooks of art practice, altho\nthey may be of value to the solitary student, are, perhaps, of little value to\nthe student under regular tuition, but there are certain special studies in\nwhich much that relates to practice may be derived from books. Such are\nartistic anatomy, perspective, and the construction of the human figure.\nIt is true that these studies must be pursued with much of practical demonstration, but it is also true that they have been investigated by accomplished\nmasters, who have embodied their observations in books ; so that there is\na whole literature of the subject with which the student may profitably\nbecome acquainted. In these subjects, as in all others, there are a few vital\nbooks, soon discovered by the student, which treat directly of the subject,\nwhile all others are derived, for the most part, from these central works, and\nonly treat about the subject. Connected closely, also, with the practice\nof art are the collections of reproductions of works of masters by photographic processes, with which the good art library is supplied. The Art\nInstitute of Chicago has in its library sixteen thousand autotypes (large,\npermanent photographs known as the Braun carbon prints) of works of\nthe masters in the public and private galleries of Europe. These include\nseveral thousand reproductions of drawings of the most eminent artists,\nwhich are scarcely distinguishable from the originals. They are conveniently arranged in cases, and are accessible to students at all times.\nDoes anybody doubt the practical utility of such examples to advanced\nstudents who are practicing composition, or to conscientious students of\nfigure drawing, at any stage ?\nI have thus far spoken only of the relation of the library to the prac-\n\n"}
{"page": 825, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nRELATION\n\nOF THE\n\nLIBRARY\n\nTO ART\n\nEDUCATION\n\n815\n\ntice of art. It is the misfortune of some of our schools that they entertain\nonly the idea of actual practice or handicraft, the result, perhaps, of too\nclose imitation of the private schools of Paris, which are known to have\nproduced some excellent artists, and which are assumed, therefore, to\nbe perfect. But it is well known that these schools are conducted for\nthe private enrichment of the managers, and not with the idea of giving a\nliberal education. The government school, the Ecole des Beaux-Arts,\nfollows altogether a different plan, and surrounds the student with all the\nmaterial of study. Let it be assumed that the chief strength of the student is to go into actual practice several steady hours a day for a long\ncourse of years; nevertheless, the fact remains that the more he knows of\nthe theory and history of his art (and, it may be added, of other subjects),\nthe better he is off. The best basis for the study of the history of art is,\nof course, such a collection of photographs as is described above. The\nhistory of art without examples and illustrations is no more interesting\nthan the history of the printing press or any other human concern. But\nwith such examples as may reveal the influences of different artists and\ncountries and schools upon each other, it becomes of the greatest interest\nto the student of art ; and with the examples must be used the written histories and biographies of which there is an abundance.\nTheoretical treatises are of less importance, and usually of less interest,\nto persons of artistic impulses, but theories of color, or even of aesthetics,\nought to be within reach.\nArt students will use these various privileges in very different degrees ;\nsome fully, some scarcely at all. In fact, art students are very much like\nother people. It is probably true, as Ruskin says, that artists are chiefly\nseeing and feeling creatures, not reflective and philosophical personages.\nIt is certain that artistic and literary tastes are quite distinct, and that\nsome distinguished artists know as little of literature as most distinguished\nliterary men do of art ; but I think it will be found that most of\nthe permanently successful practitioners of art are men of considerable\ngeneral attainments. I believe this is true of the leading American artists\nof today.\n,\nTHE\n\nFUNCTION\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nLIBRARY\nIN\nPUBLIC-SCHOOL\n\nTHE\nRELATION\nINSTRUCTION\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nLIBRARY\n\nTO\n\nArt education should be regarded in two ways, namely : practice in\nexecution, and culture which teaches the appreciation of the works of\nothers.\nFrom both standpoints the library can be of the greatest service.\nReference books are needed in the upper grades by teachers and pupils,\nboth in regard to designing and to the study of artistic things. If historic\nornament be taught, reference books are very necessary. Collections of\nplates reproducing good examples of design are essential where an\nattempt is made to teach design.\nMounted designs, so arranged that\n\n"}
{"page": 826, "printed_page": null, "text": "8l6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\nthey may be loaned in sets of twenty-five or fifty sjieets, have been\nmade a valuable aid in class work. These designs may be collected from\nmagazines, catalogs, etc. If the simplest, most concise books on these\nsubjects could be obtained in sufficient numbers, so that several classes\nmight have access to the same book at the same time, the helpfulness\nof the library would be materially increased, as the different schools often\nreach the same subjects at the same time. Duplicates of a few standard\nbooks of this character would prove of greater practical use than a more\nextensive library.\nIf the beautiful magazine pictures coming to the library could be\nclassified in sets and mounted, to be loaned to schools, they would form\na practical picture library for the schools. The classification should be\nmade by artists, and also by the character of work. Placed in portfolios\nor large envelopes, they could be used for systematic study in the schools,\nas they could be hung in the rooms or passed about among the pupils at\nwill. Magazine illustration affords one of the most suitable fields for art\nstudy in the public schools, because the material is available in almost\nevery school district ; but the work could be aided materially by public\nlibraries.\nThe binding of art articles from the current magazines, or carefully\ncataloging them from month to month, would also aid those in search of\ninformation in regard to current art matters. The great libraries of Washington and Boston, the work of modern artists, and oftentimes that of\nthe old masters, as well as many times the records of exhibitions, etc.,\ncould in this way be studied by those who did not have access to the\ngalleries and museums.\nFor kindergartens and primary schools a pleasant and profitable\nmethod of art study might be that of illustrated picture books. It would\nseem that the work of Kate Greenaway, Walter Crane, Randolph C'aldicott,\nA. B. Frost, and others of equal attainments, would be a beginning in the\ndirection of the appreciation of good things. For older pupils, such books\nas those of Boutet de Monvel and other illustrators who understand child\nlife, and who also are worthy draftsmen, would be, in connection with other\npictures, material for art training. Libraries could furnish enough of\nthese, so that those who entered into the spirit of the artist and could\ndirect children to learn to enjoy them should have such books loaned to\ntheir schools for a sufficient time, so that they could be hung on the\nwalls, opened each day to new pictures until the entire class had seen all.\nThe arrangement of the library rooms themselves should be made a\nconstant lesson in art for the community at large. An especially\nplanned children's room would help to educate the children who visit the\nlibrary, and would often suggest suitable decorations for home, while it\ncould be made a standing exhibition to teachers who were studying the\nbeautifying of their schoolrooms.\n\n"}
{"page": 827, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nRELATION\n\nOF THE\n\nLIBRARY\n\nTO ART\n\nEDUCATION\n\n817\n\nThe donation to teachers of large magazine cuts, posters, and decorations made for special numbers of the magazines would often furnish\npictures worthy of framing for the room. This would, of course, involve\nwise selection, but as so much help is needed in the matter of selection\nof pictures, and also so many are trying to solve the problem of economical fitting up of rooms, the libraries could often raise the standard\nin selection, and at the same time help to make the money raised for\nbeautifying the schools place two pictures where otherwise only one could\nbe afforded.\n1\nThis all involves a knowledge of the choice of good and evil in\nartistic things on the part of the library staff, but all art training means\nthat some people must take pains to inform themselves about the subject\nin hand before undertaking to help others.\nFinally, no more practical aid to art work in the schools is possible\nthan a library that is willing to undertake the great work, and to do it\nwisely and well.\nSUPPLEMENT\n\nTO REPORT\n\nOF COMMITTEE\n\nA list of about two hundred books bearing on art education suited to a small public\nlibrary, prepared by Miss J. L. Forrester, librarian of the Art Institute of Chicago, 1898.\nThe prices are furnished by A. C. McClurg & Co., booksellers, Chicago. This list does not\ninclude books which are rare, expensive, or out of print. It includes about 215 volumes,\nand the total cost at retail is about $600 :\nENCYCLOPAEDIC\n\nBryan : Dictionary\n\nWORKS\n\nof Painters and Engravers.\n\nTwo\n\nvolumes.\n\nMacmillan\n\n&\n\nCp.\n\n^22.50.\n\nChamplin : Cyclopedia of Painters and Painting. Four volumes. Scribner's Sons. $20.\nClements : Sculptors, Painters, Architects, and Engravers.\nHoughton, Mifflin & Co. $3.\nArtists of the Nineteenth Century.\nHoughton, Mifflin & Co. $3.\nCook, Clarence : Art and Artists of Our Time.\nThree volumes.\nSelmer, Hess & Co.\n125.50.\nRedgrave, Richard : A Century of Painters of the English School.\nSampson Low.\nI OS. 6d.\nHISTORY\n\nAND\n\nBIOGRAPHY\n\nLUBKE : History of Art. Two volumes.\nDodd, Mead & Co. ^$7.50.\nWiNCKELMANN : History of Ancient Art.\nTwo volumes.\nHoughton, Mifflin & Co. $9.\nMitchell : History of Ancient Art.\nTwo volumes.\nDodd, Mead & Co.\n$7.50.\nWOLTMANN AND Woermann: History of Painting. Two volumes. Dodd, Mead & Co.\n«7.50.\nKUGLER : Italian, German, Flemish, and Dutch Schools of Painting. Four volumes.\nJohn Murray.\n$20.\nVasari : Lives of Seventy of the Most Eminent Painters, Sculptors and Architects.\nEdited and annotated by E. H. and E. W. Blashfield and A. A. Hopkins. Four volumes. Scribner's Sons.\n$%.\nLives of the Most Eminent Painters, Sculptors and Architects. Five volumes, George\nBell & Sons.\nLondon.\n— .\nJameson, Mrs.: Legends of the Madonna.\nHoughton, Mifflin & Co. I3.\nLegends of the Monastic Orders.\nHoughton, Mifflin & Co. JI3.\n\n"}
{"page": 828, "printed_page": null, "text": "8l8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nJameson, Mrs.: Sacred and Legendary Art.\n\nHoughton, Mifflin & Co.\n\n$6.\n\nStranahan : History of French Painting.\nVan Dyke, John C: History of Painting.\n\nScribner's Sons.\n;?3.\nLongmans, Green & Co.\n\n$1.50.\n\nHarrison, Jane : Greek Art.\nMacmillan & Co.\nGoodyear : History of Art.\nA. S. Barnes & Co.\nRadcliffe\n\n: Schools and Masters of Painting.\n\n[Art\n\n$^.^'i.\n^2.80.\nD. Appleton & Co.\n\n$3.\n\nSchools and Masters of Sculpture.\nD. Appleton & Co.\n$■},.\nCllY.%ii^K\\J : English Schools of Painting.\nCassell.\n$2.\nSymonds: Renaissance in Italy.\nSeven volumes.\nHenry Holt & Co.\nMOLLETT : Painters of the Barbizon School.\nSampson Low.\ni?l.25.\nRm^kK: History of Ancient Art.\nHarper.\n^^3.50.\n\n$1/^.\n\nPerrott\n\nand Chipiez : History of Ancient Egyptian Art. Two volumes. W. Armstrong. ^15.50.\n1l KKB^i.1., ¥. ^.i History of Greek Art.\nChautauqua Century Press.\n$l.\nPattison, Mrs. Mark : Renaissance of Art in France. Two volumes. C. Kegan Paul\n& Co.\n$i^.TO.\nMuTHER, Richard\nCo.\n;g20.\n\n: History of Modern\n\nPainting.\n\nTwo\n\nvolumes.\n\nIllustrated Short Biographies of the Great Artists. Published by Sampson\none volumes at $1.25 each, $2)^.TS \\ two volumes at $1, $2.\nSensier : Life of Millet.\nHoughton, Mifflin & Co.\n^3.\n\nMacmillan\nLow.\n\n&\n\nThirty-\n\nSymonds : Life of Benvenuto Cellini.\nScribner's Sons.\n^2.50.\nLife of Michelangelo Buonarroti.\nTwo volumes.\nScribner's Sons.\n$7.50.\nCoRRADO Ricci : Correggio, His Life, His Friends, and His Time.\nScribner's Sons.\nMichel : Rembrandt.\nHeineman.\n£2 5s.\n\n;jSi2.\n\n«\n\nPRACTICE\n\nChapman : American Drawing Book.\nHunt : Talks on Art.\nTwo volumes.\n\nOF\n\nART\n\nA. S. Barnes & Co.\n$3.50.\nHoughton, Mifflin & Co.\n$2.\n\nM.ooX)Y,¥.'Vi.: Lectures and Lessons on Art.\nMacmillan Co.\nDuval, Mathias : Artistic Anatomy.\nCassell & Co.\n;?i.6o.\n\n$1.2^.\n\n'Wai.ker,Wii.i.iau: Handbook of Drawing.\nScribner's Sons.\nThompson, Arthur : Handbook of Anatomy for Art Students.\n\nS1.35.\nMacmillan Co.\n\n$— .\n\n'&E\\A.,?i\\RQ,Yi.KR\\.E'S,: Anatomy of Expression.\nBohn Library.\nMacmillan Co. $1.50.\nDarwin, Charles : Expression of the Emotions in Men and Animals.\nD. Appleton &\nCo.\n^3.50.\nMiller:\nPennell\n\nEssentials of Perspective.\nScribner's Sons.\n$1.50.\n: Pen Drawing and Pen Draughtsmen.\nMacmillan Co.\n\nVarious. — Many little handbooks\n\non artistic subjects,\n\n$\\^.\n\npublished by Winsor & New-\n\nton, sold by all dealers in artists' materials at about 40 cents each.\nARCHITECTURE\n\nFergusson : History of Architecture.\nRosengarten : Architectural Styles.\n\n,\n\nP'our volumes.\nDodd, Mead & Co.\nChatte & Windus.\n7s. 6d.\n\nHamlin : History of Architecture.\nLongmans, Green & Co.\n$2.\nViollet le Due : Discourses on Architecture.\nTwo volumes.\nCo.\n$1$.\nVan Rensselaer, Mrs.: English Cathedrals.\nParker : Gothic Architecture.\n5s.\nGlossary to Gothic Architecture.\n\nCentury Co.\n\n$15.\n\nHoughton, Mifflin &\n\n^6.\n\nJs. 6d.\n\nSmith and Slater : Classic and Early Christian Architecture.\nViGNOLA : Five Oi^ders of Architecture.\nComstock.\n$^.\n\nScribner's Sons.\n\n$2.\n\n"}
{"page": 829, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nTHE\n\nFUNCTION\n\nOF ART\n\nDECORATIVE\n\nMeyer : Handbook of Ornament.\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n819\n\nART\n\nLembke & Buechner.\n\n%},.t>o.\n\nYiK\\ : Anatomy of Pattern.\nScribner's Sons.\n$1.25.\nNature in Ornament.\nScribner's Sons.\n^(4.50.\nJones, Owen : Grammar of Ornament.\nQuartich.\n$\\%.\nTHEORY,\n\ncriticism,\n\nETC.\n\nRvsKlti : Aratri Penteltci.\nMerril & Baker.\n$1.\nModern Painters.\nFive volumes.\nMerril & Baker.\n$7.50.\nSeven Lamps of Architecture.\nMerril & Baker.\n%\\.\nLectures on Art.\nMerril & Baker.\n%\\.\nStones of Venice.\nThree volumes.\nMerril & Baker.\n^^4.50.\nThe Two Paths.\nMerril & Baker.\n$\\.\nPre-Raphaelitism.\nMerril & Baker.\n$0.75.\nHamerton, P. G.: Graphic Arts.\nRoberts.\n$z.\nEtching and Etchers.\nRoberts.\n$5.\nContemporary French Painting,\nRoberts.\n$3.\nThe Painter's Camp.\nRoberts.\n$z.\nThoughts about Art.\nRoberts.\n$2..\nPainting in France After the Decline of Classicism.\nRoberts.\nTaine : Lectures on Art.\nTwo volumes.\nHenry Holt & Co.\n$S.\nLessing : Laocoon.\nRoberts.\n;S!o.50.\n\n$3.60.\n\n'RKOViHt.l.l.: French Art.\nScribner's Sons.\n;?i.25.\nMoore, George : Modern Painting.\nScribner's Sons.\n$2.\nCh^vk^vi.,U^. Its.: Laws of Contrast of Color.\nMacmillan & Co.\n;?i.50.\nBlanc, Charles : Grammar of Painting.\nScott, Forseman & Co.\n$3.\n\\ AH Y>yK^, ].C: Art for Art's Sake.\nScribner's Sons.\n51-50.\nChild, Theodore : Art and Criticism.\nHarper & Bros.\n$t.\nmiscellaneous\nSouth Kensington Handbooks upon various subjects.\nChapman & Hall.\n$30.\nBaedeker : Guide Books, France, Germany, Italy, etc. About fifteen volumes.\nHare, Augustus : Walks in Rome, Walks in London, and other works. $37.50.\nMoRiN, Louis : French Illustrators.\n\nScribner's Sons.\n\n$35.\n\n$15.\n\nAnd as many photographic reproductions of works of art as possible, the Braun\nautotypes and Berlin photographs preferred.\n\nW. M. R. French.\nMiss Emily H. Miles.\nMiss Ruth J. Warren.\n\nTHE\n\nFUNCTION\n\nOF ART IN\nAMERICAN\n\nBY WILLIAM\n\nORDWAY\n\nTHE EDUCATION\nCITIZEN\n\nPARTRIDGE,\n\nBOSTON,\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nMASS.\n\nArt is no longer a mere vehicle for pleasure, and one can scarcely have\npatience with the hue and cry of art for art's sake. We recognize that it\nmust today help man to realize in the most profound way the conscious-\n\n"}
{"page": 830, "printed_page": null, "text": "&20\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\nness of his own soul. John Morley has said : \" The truth is that nothing\ncan be more powerfully efficacious from the moral point of view than the\nexercise of an exalted creative art ; at once enlarging and elevating the\nrange of his reflections on mankind, even kindling his sympathies into\nthe warm and continuous glow which glorifies and strengthens nature, and\nfills men with that love of humanity which is the best inspirer of virtue.\"\nI have an artist's dread of pointing a moral ; let me then speak of art\nin its relation to all education and culture — what art has done for past\ncivilizations, and what, with the help of science, it may do for the present.\nLet me speak of the relation of art to character and national destiny, and\nyou shall draw your own moral and conclusion.\nArt, as someone has wisely said, is not a substitute for life, but a key\nto it.\n\"Life is greater than art.\" I have no patience with the egotistical\npersons who use their art for purely selfish ends ; who, in other words,\nwould make art greater than life — in fact, substitute art for life ; who will\nuse up, not only paint and brushes and marble, but the enslaved human\nbeing himselfj in order to create some piece of work that shall astound\nand startle their world. These men, like Nero, with his plentiful posterity,\nmay fiddle while Rome burns. Such men are the offscourings of the\ndecadent school, the products of a useless, inferior order of living. Simple,\nhonest men, who love their fellows, and who are willing to live and let live,\nmust always feel contempt for the parasite.\nLet this, then, be our platform and point of departure.\nI believe that art holds a precious boon for this hurrying people. It\npresents lofty types for their contemplation ; it keeps before the mind of\nthe many figures and faces of our national heroes. We come suddenly\nupon a statue in the jar and confusion of the market place, and, for a\nmoment, the buying and selling are hushed, and the soul is refreshed in\nbeholding some heroic type who has sacrificed life for his country and\ntruth. We are confronted by inspiring faces in bronze, that show the\nillumination of God-like lives. The spiritual side of life is nourished by\nsuch memorials. One cannot escape them. Their mission is to uplift,\nand their influence upon character, while a silent one, is as potent as that\nof nature, working her wonders without noise, but unfailingly. Truly\nMichael Angelo wrote : \" The might of one fair face sublimes my love.\"\n*^et us carry our statues and our pictures into the homes, and then into\nthe hospitals, to comfort and cheer the sick and dying, and to give to the\nimagination fruitful suggestions. Let us carry our pictures and statues\ninto the prisons, so that those who are morally sick may be healed by\nlooking upon the faces of the good and great. Crime cannot live with\nspiritual beauty. Beauty, as Emerson truly says, is a creator. It sings\nto us of that new life where beauty walks hand in hand with work and\nduty.\n\n"}
{"page": 831, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nFUNCTION\n\nOF ART\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n82 1\n\nI fancy some one of my hearers may say that all this is the vision of\nthe dreamer, and not the practical man. To him I would reply that art\nis greatly practical, and for two unanswerable reasons : the first is that it\nmakes for manhood, and the second that it nourishes the most conservative and practical idea man has ever cherished, namely, the love of\nimmortality. It makes for manhood by stimulating our ideas of patriotism and liberty.\nSo art, by presenting high ideals to the imagination, lifts man above\nhis material possessings and desires, into the realm of eternal truth and\nspirit. It works constantly for our happiness. Art, then, is grandly,\ndemocratically practical, because it makes great and true men.\nModern art deals pre-eminently with humanity in its most humble\naspects. It teaches us that the meanest life has something in it worthy\nof all reverence, greater, even in its rags, than all physical nature. It not\nonly is the molder of idealism, but it teaches the citizen to live sanely\nand quietly, furnishes a healthful and inspiring order of amusement, and\nso conserves the national life. It holds something for all conditions of\nmen ; it reveals to the rude peasant the beauty that he walks upon, unwit. tingly, and he listens with new ears to the songs that nature sings.\nPhillips Brooks writes : \" Art and poetry and music and deeper\nthought are helping men to the sense that this new world which science\nfinds, where the old faiths lie captive and lamenting, is not a world all\nalien and terrible ; but that our human lives can rise into harmony with\nits glorious order ; that the heavens are vaster and the earth holier than\nwhat our fathers knew.\"\nThus science opens new purposes to art, and art records the achievements of science ; there is no antagonism between the two. Indeed, there\ncan be no great art without a great science. The men who placed the\npyramids in their everlasting stations, and who handled easily masses of\nstone as large as a small house, wedding one to another with a nicety that\nbaffles our artisans ; Ictonos, who planned the Parthenon, and Phidias, who\ndesigned its sculpture, were masters of scientific laws that make us appear\nlike tyros and children. Let us welcome all truth and science ; science\nmakes a great art possible for the American people. But let us remember\nthat, as Whitman says.\nYour facts are useful, but yet they are not my dwelling,\nI but enter by'them to an area of my dwelling.\n*\n\ni|c\n\ni|c\n\n:(:\n\n*\n\n*\n\n*\n\nI know I am deathless,\nI know this orbit of mine cannot be swept by a carpenter's compass.\n\nIt behooves us to remember, however, that art is, and must be inevitably, a reflection of life. The art of the landscape painter is, to define it\npoetically, the reflection in the river: treeand cloud form and blue sky softened and arranged in some harmonious grouping by the intelligent artist.\n\n"}
{"page": 832, "printed_page": null, "text": "82 2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nArt, where it deals with human\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\nnature, is no more or less than Bacon\n\ndefined it, namely, \"man added to nature.\" It seems almost idle to be\ntalking of art when nature is making it on every side, on days like these,\nwhen bud and blossom crowd and jostle one another for the first peep of\nthe blue sky. The fact is that we talk art too much and love it too little.\nPraxiteles is said to have permeated the marble with moods of his own\nsoul.\nAnd to Ameil every landscape appeared to be a state of the soul.\nWhen a great inspired preacher returned from the far West, he spoke\nof the scenery as being wonderful, yet lacking an all-comforting human\ninterest ; it had no human history. His meaning is clear ; no man has\nyet adequately gathered up the mighty fragments of human life and given\nthem back to his fellows in such terms of beauty that our world could appropriate them with satisfaction to the heart and soul, as well as to the understanding. The notes of human pathos, suffering, and joy were scattered\non a disordered scale, waiting for some Beethoven to arrange them into\ndivine harmony.\nBacon, with his peculiar astuteness, has then justly defined art to be\n\"man added to nature.\" This quality, then, the modern man, asks to be\nadded to the physical side of the universe. We have no terms as yet to\nexpress it. We may call it human sympathy or feeling. Terms will not\nbe wanting when the thing itself exists more generally. It is this precious\nquality which is to make our art different from the arts of Egypt and\nGreece and Rome, and which is to make American art grander than that\nof any nation in the past. The Greeks scarcely dreamed of this thing,\nthis delineation of character — the writing of life upon the human face.\nWhat a fascinating study ! It is the difference between the Venus of\nMilo .and the Sistine Madonna — and something more, which I shall\nattempt to make clear. The spiritual import of the subject is to be\nwrought out, not necessarily by the accessories of crucifix and sackcloth,\nbut told in the execution of the work, by the model selected, by the hand\nthat works, and judged by the feeling inspired in the spectator, who is\npart of the whole plan.\nArt is the child of nature,\nHer darling child, in whom we trace\nThe features of the mother's face,\nChastened and softened and subdued\nInto a more attractive mood.\nAnd with a human sense inbued.\n\nThis little verse of Longfellow gives us the philosophy of art in a\nnutshell. The kind of art we produce depends upon the character of the\nhuman sense with which it is imbued. Men do not produce figs of\nthistles. We see, then, the vital relationship between character and the\nart product. It determines it. This is a tremendous thought ; we are\nwriting, day by day, history in poetry and bronze that shall\n\nmake\n\npos-\n\n"}
{"page": 833, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nFUNCTION\n\nOF ART\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n823\n\nterity glad that we have lived and blessed the earth, or make the men who\ncome after us think of us as mere soulless clods, having no ideals worthy\nof perpetuation, no life higher than the beasts of the field.\nNow, let us bring this question of art directly home. We do not belittle\nit by considering it in relation to the most simple talent or appreciation\nwhich we may possess. If it is sincere, that is all that is necessary.\nAmerican art is the result of every degree of talent and appreciation\nwhich the country may afford.\nHistory teaches that Greece gave something to this world beyond all\nits natural beauty, and that Greece did this inevitably ; that she added the\nglory of human thought and feeling to mere physical and animal beauty.\nThere are many who think that Greece told the whole story for all time,\nbut those who study history in the sympathetic and searching light of\ntoday, and who live with and study their fellow-men, know that this is not\nso. They are conscious that America has a sublime contribution to make\nto the art of the world ; a new chapter to write in the history of human\nachievement. What is it to be ? We shall understand it better, perhaps,\nby considering first what it is not to be. It is not to be the imitation of\nany foreign schools, be they Greek, Florentine, or French. We are to give\nthese schools and nations their meed of appreciation and reverence, and.\nthen to say with Michael Angelo : \"I go my way alone.\" It is for this,\nI take it, that America was called into existence. Let no criticism daunt\nus and no past fetter us. The veriest wretch who feeds some benumbing\npiece of machinery in the noisy hall of a manufacturing town has something to give the world. It may be only that drop of his hopeless prison\nexperience ; but, no matter what it is, there are two rights which must be\nserved before we can be spiritually free or actually just. The one right is\nto let every individual express himself ; and the other right .is the world's\nclaim to that expression. Each must give his moral quota, or something\nis lacking in the balance. What can an artist give ? Himself — no more\nnor less. Otherwise he is forever in debt to the world's art. He is worth\nin the actual balance only the moral count of that self or soul. This is\nthe least and the most that he can contribute. If you be without character, you stand helpless before a defeated obligation.\nLittle did men dream, years ago, that the poor, wretched, crippled\nslave Epictetus had something to say of greater import than all the\npatricians in the land. We have not yet done with slavery ; we have only\nadvanced a plane higher in the scale of civilized living.\nShall we not find out what education in art means, if we can discover\nwhat it is in life? If I can but make you feel that each one of us has\nwithin him something so sacred, so precious, so well worth striving to\ndevelop, and to die for, if need be, that he may press forward unfalteringly, and with that high faith that belongs to the youth of a great\npeople.\n\n"}
{"page": 834, "printed_page": null, "text": "§24\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[An\n\nWe are confronted with new problems that call upon us for independent solution. We are the heirs of all the ages, and surely we are not\nwilling to accept tamely and supinely the opinions and achievements of\nthe peoples who had a different light and a different social environment,\nand who were good and great according to their interpretation of their\nage.\n\nRemember that art is not to be borrowed, or stolen, or invented. It\ncomes only by evolution. Each flower is beautiful after its kind. The\nviolet is not forever seeking to become a rose ; nor is the rose envious of\nthe violet. The commingling of the two would not produce anything more\nbeautiful. Each beautiful thing after its kind, and in the natural order of\ndevelopment. The evolution of art and the artist works according to\nuniversal, unchangeable law. Suppose, in physical nature, a tree should\ntake it into its head to grow downward, and so cast its tortured roots into\nthe air — would its life be any more satisfactory ? The simile is not unlike\nthe man or the artist, or people, who are forever attempting something\nnew, something strange. Sanity should be our watchword. The flower\nof a man's genius and a nation's should develop according to the law of\ntheir life principle.\nIt expands or contracts with their soul.\n\" Strength ever veiled with grace ;\nThe mind's anatomy implied, not shown,\nNo grasping for the vague, no fruitless fires,\nBut heard 'neath all the tone\nOf that far world to which the soul aspires.\"\n\nIt is this absolute sincerity alone which shall make for us a great art.\nWhy was Athens great ? Because she educated her world. The men were\nnot merely trained, but they were educated — that means something more.\nWe must Jiave done, then, with copying foreign models. \" Miracles,\" as\nLowell well says, \"cannot be encored.\" We must stand on our own\nground, make our own fight, and like men beat out a solution to our own\nproblems. Without this order of independent patriotism which, as Coleridge well remarks, is the begetter of the true cosmopolitan, we can have\nno great order of living, and, consequently, no great order of art. What\nmade Greek art supremely great under Pericles ? Nothing so much as\nLeonidas and his heroic band who stood like a wall against the Persian\nhordes. The soul of Greece against the bulk of Persia, but the conquering soul. To the Greek the line of beauty was not only the line of grace,\nbut especially the line of strength. Are we not still surrounded by barbarian influences ? Is it not the old problem, the soul of truth against\nthe bulk of error? Does not luxury beget indolence, and indolence\ndepravity ? Do not many of the selfish, money-making instincts of the\nday point to a return to the law of the jungle ? Alas ! who can gainsay\nit ? And opposed to this is art, an influence which stands for the higher\ninterpretation of life — the assertion of the soul.\n\n"}
{"page": 835, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nFUNCTION\n\nOF ART\n\nTN EDUCATION\n\n825\n\nWho dares to say that the soul is not still oracular, and that all revelation is of the past ? Is not every stroke of genius a revelation of the\ndivine power in man striving for expression, the voice that will not be\nstilled and that cannot be hushed ?\nWe know today that the vision of beauty belongs to all mankind, and\nnot to any clique or coterie, priest-craft, or royalty. The poorest among\nus has the same right to enjoyment as the richest : character alone, not\nrank, determines the right to enjoy. The clearest and the most ecstatic\nvision belongs inevitably to the pure in heart.\nFrom the moment we open our eyes upon this world we begin to\nselect and choose the things that are beautiful or ugly ; what we select\ndepends upon our education and the character it develops. And this is\na most important matter to be considered. Man is so much the result of\nhis environments that but few are able to escape from its thraldom and\nto grapple with the evil star of circumstances. Let us beautify first the\nhome, then the school, and then the great university of the street, where\nall men receive their life education.\nIn America there is a danger of overtravel and undigested data\njumbled together from the seeing of many art manifestations in many\ncountries ; this is a poor makeshift for true education. There is a time\nto travel and a time to stay at home and think and read, and live.\nThere is much truth in the old saying of the rolling stone. It is an\nuntraveled Shakespeare that becomes the articulate voice of England, and\nDante finds a voice for ten silent centuries without traveling as far as from\nNew York to Washington. Travel is an accident of greatness, rather than\nits essential.\nArt is a personal matter ; it is like the atmosphere all about us. We\nmake or mar it unwittingly every day and hour. All honor to men like\nInnis and Gibson and Emerson, who have brought art from the chilling\natmosphere of Olympus to the kindly warmth of the hearthstone. Let us\nnot be looking forever at the stars, expecting some new planet to swim\nbefore our eyes, while we forget the beauty of the field flower at our feet.\nLook upon every child that comes before you as a possible Shakespeare or\nBeethoven or Lincoln.\n\" That is great which lies nearest,\nCarve from this thy work of art.\"\n\nOnce you have entered the realm of the beautiful, you never will be\nable to leave it or exhaust it. There is enough work for any of our artists\nin any quarter of this great city for a thousand years. The trouble is\nwith the eyes that do not see.\n\" The poem hangs on the berry bush,\nWhen comes the poet's eye ;\nAnd the whole street is one masquerade,\nWhen Shakespeare passes by.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 836, "printed_page": null, "text": "826\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nAs Minot Savage remarked not long ago : \" The man that finds anything but the keenest interest in the life and atmosphere of today has\nexhausted, not this world, but himself.\" As long as there is one human\n[Art\nface to look upon, as long as there is one human heart, with its loves and\nambitions, its hidden tragedy and its secret aspiration, so long will there\nbe art and artists, and lovers of the beautiful.\nThere is a heaven which, as Wordsworth says, lies about us from our\ninfancy — the world of vision; and at its well-springs life renews itself;\nthe world of the real, and that world of the ideal which comprehends the\nreal, and of which we are so often cheated by the sterile and vapid life of\nthe hour. \" There is a heaven,\" as Wordsworth truly puts it, \" near us\nfrom our childhood.\" It is not that we have too much life today, but,\nalas, that we have too little. It is the mission of art to enrich our lives,\nand to stimulate every aspiration. It is the artist's mission to reveal the\nworlds that are now hidden, and which are our own by every divine right.\nThe institution teaches the beauty of holiness. Art teaches the holiness\nof beauty.\nNotwithstanding all the wonderful beauty of this world, the conviction isthrust upon us that we are framed for something vaster and more satisfying— something more complete. We are filled with a noble discontent ;\nwith a thirst for something which knowledge does not allay, and to which\nreligion ministers with the consolations of art, her handmaiden. As\nboys we sigh to be men and conquer the world, and gather in its poor\nhonors, which are not unlike the seashells we bring home to our study,\nbeautiful as we see them beneath the wave, but dry and colorless when\nonce acquired and tabulated. As men we look back to the careless boyhood, lying like an oasis in the waste of the desert, and we would give\nall the world's trifling honors for a day of clear-eyed, untroubled boyhood. It is the undiscovered country that always fascinates us. Art\nstimulates the imagination and cheers us on, helping us to meet the\nunknown future without fear and with all faith.\nRobertson once said: \"What\n\nwe want is not so much, not half so\n\nmuch, light for the intellect as dew upon the heart.\" And the love of\nart is like a roseleaf pressed against the world's scarred cheek. It is full\nof consolations for the desolate and the oppressed. It admits them to a\nworld of ideal relationships where the poorest may own all that he can\nsee with beauty's eyes. It lifts man above the desire for material possessionsit\n; feeds his spiritual nature. There is somewhere a picture of\nan ideal female figure riding the tempest, and touching softly a lyre which\nis pressed to her side. The artist has called it \" Stilling the Storm.\" He\nhas attempted to depict the mission of art, which is, indeed, to still the\nstorms of life, to dissipate doubt, and to keep in tune with the celestial\nharmonies. The shadow of doubt cannot be dispersed always by intellectual effort, no matter how searching and exhaustive.\nBut it is rarely\n\n"}
{"page": 837, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nFUNCTION\n\nOF ART\n\nIN\n\nEDUCATION\n\n827\n\nthat one appeals to the ministration of art without receiving divine consolations. Truly has Robertson understood it ; it is dew laid upon the heart.\nAs to character, the lamp of independent light, of isolation, if need\nbe, must be kept steadily burning on the altar of sacrifice, if character is\nto grow. We cannot adequately measure in our own day success or\nfailure ; it must be often as Lowell has written :\nTruth forever on the scaffold,\nWrong forever on the throne,\nBut that scaffold sways the future.\nAnd behind the dim unknown\nStandeth God within the shadow,\nKeeping watch above His own.\n\nWe must not measure success by any tangible accomplishment; this,\nto be sure, is the world's standard of success ; but the poets of today find\na new and sublimer key in which to chant their epic praise. To Keats'\nfinely tuned ear the sweetest ditties were those of no tone ; to Browning,\nthe unaccomplished,\nAll that the world's coarse thumb\nAnd finger fail to plumb,\n\nwas worthy of the highest praise. Life is forever greater than any manifestation or reflection of it in art ; there is only one thing that can make\nus great, and that is living greatly. Noble natures, as Schiller aptly puts\nit, \"pay by what they are, and not by what they do.\" So I would say to\nyou, many who are gathered here today, and who must swell the ranks of\nthe great army of appreciation, that loving sympathy is more than mere\ntangible accomplishment, and that living well is the first and greatest\nconsideration. \"Unto each man his handicraft, unto each his crown,\nthat just Fate gives.\"\nMay I then appeal today for the responsibility laid upon each one of\nus in the creating or appreciating of beauty ? You cannot escape this\nresponsibility by claiming lack of inherited talent or culture. Science\nteaches us that man is what he thinks. A man may rise upon the stepping-stones ofhis ancestral self to higher things, notwithstanding Dr.\nHolmes to the contrary, and bravely support the weak steps of a new\nand untried thought.\nI should be glad if 1 could dispel the idea that art means luxury or\nluxurious surroundings ; this is often the abuse of the best, which is the\nworst phase of art. Art thrives greatly only amid manly and simple surroundings. Perfervid living and luxury are the sure forerunners of\ndecadence. Art teaches us to appreciate the beauty of the lowly ; the\n\" flower in the crannied wall; \" to consider the lilies. The greatest painter\nof this century, Millet, lived a homely life among the peasants of Barbizon. The accident of wealth or poverty has little to do with it; sincerity\nof purpose is the only touchstone.\n\n"}
{"page": 838, "printed_page": null, "text": "828\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\n\" Beauty is truth, truth is beauty.\"\n\nThere are many who say: \"We know nothing about art.\" This implies\nthat they know little about life, that is, in its rounded sense. Then let\nus advise such to use the eyes God has given them, to look about them,\nto look at the first mother and child they meet on the daily round, and\nthen at a photograph of the Dresden Madonna, and see how art interprets that first and tender relationship. Let me ask them to look with\nsympathy at the first woman's face upturned in the ecstasy of power, and\nthen at the face of the Madonna or the \" Assumption,\" and see how Titian\ninterprets the relation of man to God.\nMany of us, born in cities, learn to love beautiful nature thru beautiful pictures, and to understand the beauty of the human form only thru\nthe sculptor's loving appreciation of it. Do not consider too curiously,\nor trouble yourselves with the cults or isms of art, but use your common\nsense, and assume bravely your responsibility in this matter. If you find\nin the Dresden Madonna something more than paint and bristles, accept\nart as an interpreter of all true religion. The fault is in ourselves, and\nnot in our stars, if we are not receiving the consolations and inspirations\nof art. I would advise everyone present to live constantly in the light\nof some great masterpiece — let it be but a small photograph of the\nDresden Madonna or the \"Assumption\" — and try its effect upon his life.\nYou will find in this companionship something greater than all nature\naffords, namely, man's interpretation of the universal in the terms of\nbeauty.\nArt is a great safeguard in these days, when the physical sciences\nthreaten to sweep away all traces of man's relationship to the divine. It\nestablishes the fact that every race in every clime has cherished some\nideal of immortality and a protecting God. Colonel Clarke, of the\nBureau of Education, shows us that the crude totem pole of the Alaskan\nsavage, representing at its summit a frog escaping from the mouth of a\ncrudely carved face, was meant to convey the idea of the soul's escape\nfrom the body, and which the Greek embodied so beautifully in his\nlarger culture in his sculptures of Psyche and the butterfly, and love and\nPsyche.\n• The Greek believed that art works steadily to perfection, and that,\ntherefore, it makes a man fit to become the friend of God, and so establishes his immortality. The love of art inculcates an appreciation of\nobedience. No man can create a work of art without being, in a degree,\na master himself ; nor can anyone truly appreciate it without some order\nof self-mastery. Art tends to check our unbridled desires. It works for\ntemperance and balance, and so accomplishes silently the freedom of the\nspirit.\nKeats truly says of it :\nThou silent form dost tease us out of thought\nAs doth eternity.\n\n"}
{"page": 839, "printed_page": null, "text": "DepartmentJ\n\nTHE\n\nFUNCTION\n\nOF ART\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n829\n\nBut there is another way of looking at thi^ subject, which I may call\nthe aspect of the humanitarian, and that is this : that we can claim to be\nneither free nor just until we have given every man, woman, and child\nin the world the right to express the beauty that is within them, and to\nenjoy the loveliness of the world that is without them.\nSome interesting experiments have been made in East London and\nin the slums of New York and Boston, in the way of presenting to the\npeople their fine works of art hung upon the walls of church and hall,\nand the result for good has been beyond all expectation. The expressions of the poor and miserable outcasts haVe made us believe truly that\nman does not live by bread alone, but that, to uplift him, we must furnish\nfood for the spiritual side of his nature, as well as the purely physical.\nLet us call upon everyone present to encourage and carry forward this\nwork of regeneration. Is it not the truest political economy to do so ?\nBy crowding in the good, as Drummond says, you leave no place for evil\nthought or deed.\nThen, again, art works for American unity, because it wars constantly\nwith the desire of any one section unduly to exalt itself, by making our\nforefathers and present heroes national examples of virtue and courage.\nIt tends to knit more closely together the hearts of all true Americans.\nHomer made the Greek people great, iji spite of their defects, by keeping before their minds the mighty Achilles. And an indolent race\nbecame heroic in listening to the story of a character that existed mainly\nin the mind of the artist poet.\nI pray you, then, keep a corner in your study for some statuette of\nheroic manhood, or of appealing womanhood. I pray you, keep a place\nin the quiet of your own thought for growth along the lines of beauty.\nDo not be ashamed of the ideals you have cherished in your ingenious\nyouth ; stand by them thru life, and believe that art will help you to\ndo so, and that character is the resultant of this order of devotion. You\nwill find that the most brutal natures uncover in the presence of the man\nor woman who carries the love of beauty in the face. We must have a\nplatform and a purpose, not borrow or beg our arts. No circumstance\ncan deter the man or woman of character and resolution.\n\" Thou hast but to resolve, and lo ! God's whole\nGreat universe shall fortify thy soul.\"\n\nOne of the saddest sights in life is to see a man or a nation drifting away from purpose and at the mercy of the wind and tide ; a helpless derelict on the great ocean of life. The universe is against such a\none.\n^\n\" Beneath this starry arch\nNought resteth or is still,\nBut all things hold their march\nAs if by one great will.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 840, "printed_page": null, "text": "830\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\nThe Christian world, as someone has said, has added the minor\nnotes to the gamut of poesy and art. This charge certainly is true.\n\" Our sweetest songs are those which tell of saddest thought.\"\n\nBut Steadman, the poet, remarks with feeling that it is better to suffer than to lose the power of suffering. While a wide field has been lost\nto us where the pagan reveled in pure sensuous enjoyment, a vastly\nmore interesting country has been discovered ; it is the writing of character upon the human face that arrests our attention and claims the quick\nsympathy of the modern world. The ancient world concerned itself but\nlittle with this. Disease and death and old age and pam were thrust\naside and quickly forgotten. We have Christianity to thank largely for\nthe development of this sympathetic relationship of man to his fellows,\nwith the thousand, and one rainbow tints that overhang this relationship.\nLife has taken on a tremendous seriousness, and we have lost the naive\npagan forgetfulness of responsibility. The world is rounding out its\ncharacter; working toward the millennium. Do I make the function of\nart in education clear ?\nMrs. Ward, in her last book, Helbeck of Bannisdale, says : \" The\ntransformation is enormous ! The mass of men who read and think\nand lead straight lives today are on the whole conscious of a dignity in\nrange their fathers never knew.\" The spiritual stature of civilized man\nhas risen — like his physical stature. We walk today a nobler earth.\nWe come — not as outcasts, but as sons and freemen into the house of\nGod. But all the secret? and formulae of a new mystical union have to\nbe worked out.\"\nAnd art is to help us in these processes.\nNeed one call upon you at this crucial time to be faithful to your\ncountry to cherish the patriotic idea in art ? The names of Hobson,\nDewey, and Bagley have made the present heroic, and silence the mutterings of those ancient mariners who would make us believe that all\ngreatness lay in the past. The world has a new record of moral courage,\nand America has suddenly taken a foremost place among the nations. A\ntide-water mark has been cut upon the vast shores of human endeavor.\nIf, indeed, character is destiny, we must predict for this people an\nevolution so magnificent that one trembles in picturing it. Love well\nyour country. Without .patriotism there can be no more heroic order of\nliving ; no high ideals, and no great art. A feeble, flaccid people can\nproduce no enduring arts, and soon becomes the slave of Greek or\nRoman.\nEmerson truly wrote :\nWhat avail the plow or sail,\nOr land or life, if freedom fail ?\n\nWitness the Greek, Roman, and Florentine civilization ; remember\nthat Pericles, Caesar, and Dante were soldiers. Someone laments that\nthe cannon must speak in the teacher's place.\n\nAre there not times in\n\n"}
{"page": 841, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nFUNCTION\n\nOF ART\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n83 1\n\nthe history of a people when the cannon is the best and most effective\nteacher ? You step upon the stage at a critical period in the history of\nthe world. Only by loving this land can you make it great or produce\ngreat art.\nLet us believe in the arts of peace, but not when they are purchased\nat the expense of freedom. We all love peace, but not at the price of\ncharacter and honor. Life on a high plane is worth all peaceful arts on\na low plane. How dearly our freedom has been bought ! The value of\nthe lives that paid for it cannot be computed here or now. It is our\nprecious heritage, for is not humanity, with all its hopes and with all its\nfears, hanging upon its destiny ?\n\n"}
{"page": 842, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF MUSIC EDUCATION\n\nSECRETARY'S\nFIRST\n\nMINUTES\n\nSESSION.— Friday, July 8, 1898\n\nThe department met at 3 P. M. in the Gunton Temple Memorial Church.\nE. W. I'earson, supervisor of music, Philadelphia, Pa., read a paper on \" Fads in\nPublic-School Music.\"\nMiss Mari Ruef Hofer, Chicago, 111., read a paper on \"What Is Music and How can\nWe Help Children to Become Musical ?\"\nC. H. Congdon, supervisor of music, St. Paul, Minn., spoke on \" Individual Singing.\"\nThe president appointed as nominating committee :\nF. E. Howard, Bridgeport, Conn.\nMiss Linn Marie Hawn, East Orange, N. J.\nMiss S. Lillian Byington, Moline, 111.\n\nSECOND\n\nSESSION.— Tuesday, July 12\n\nThe session was opened with a song by classes from the city schools of Washington,\nconducted by Miss Anna E. Scammel, supervisor of music.\nA. E. Winship, editor of Journal of Education, Boston, Mass., gave an address on\n\"School Music in Character-Making.\"\nMrs. Carrie B. Adams, Terre Haute, Ind., read a paper on \"The Next Step — What\nshall It Be ? \"\nThe paper was discussed by Miss Sarah L. Arnold, supervisor of primary schools,\nBoston, Mass.\nThe report of the Committee on School Songs was given by P. C. Hayden, supervisor of music, Quincy, 111.\nThe chorus singing by the children, under the direction of Miss Pearson, was a most\ninteresting feature of the meeting. They sang with a clearness and purity of tone, and\nan exquisite expression, seldom heard from pupils of any age.\nThe piano solos by Mr. John Porter, and the vocal solos by Mrs. Nellie Wilson ShirCliff and Mr. George B. Cooper, were greatly enjoyed.\nA vote of thanks was tendered Miss Scammel and Miss Stetson for the perfection of\narrangements and beautiful souvenir programs of the meeting.\nThe nominating committee reported as follows :\nFor President— Mr. P. C. Hayden, Quincy, 111.\nFor Vice-President — Miss Mary A. Grandy, Springfield, Mass.\nFor Secretary — Miss Lucy Robinson, Wheeling, W. Va.\n\nThe report was accepted, and they were unanimously elected.\nThe meeting adjourned at 5 : 30 P. M.\nS. Lillian Byington,\nSecretary.\n832\n\n"}
{"page": 843, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nWHAT\n\n^OIV\n\nTO HELP\n\nCHILDREN\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nTO BECOME\n\nRUEF\n\n»33\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nIS MUSIC, AND HOW CAN WE HELP\nBECOME MUSICAL ?\n\nBY MISS MARI\n\nMUSICAL\n\nHOFER,\n\nCHICAGO,\n\nCHILDREN\n\n20\n\nILL.\n\nWhether the study of music as an art will ever obtain in the public\nschools, or whether the schools are the place for artistic cultivation, it is\nnot the object of this paper to discuss. Has not much of the objection\nto music in the schools, and the difficulty of teaching it, arisen from a\nmisunderstanding of its nature and place in the work, rather than in the\nimpossibility of doing it artistic justice in the schoolroom ?\nThe work of the modern psychologist has done so much toward\njustifying art and relating it to the whole of the educational scheme that\nthe music teacher need no longer make empirical and dogmatic statements to convince the unmusical of its reason for being.\nNot the least battle fought by the new education has been that against\nthe intellectualization of art in schools, and thru this the stunting and\nperverting of its first uses in primary education. But in the great reversal\nof opinion which has taken place in these matters old truths which have\nlong lain buried beneath the educational structure have at last been thrown\nto the surface.\nWith the better understanding of the methods and principles of\neducation, thru the deeper study of the child and its development, the\nemotive power, so long at a discount with the educator, now bids fair to\nbecome the chief stone of the corner.\nThus the pedagog now stands as middleman and high priest, the\nminister at the shrine of incipient genius. In the light of the new truth\nwe are discovering that the so-called \"divine spark\" is the inheritance of\nall, that artists are not only born, but that we teachers can readily help\nmake them by properly understanding the material, both human and\ntheoretical, with which we deal ; that many a gem of genius \" of purest\nray serene \" lies hidden under a heap of mere rubbish of accumulated\nignorance ; that this spark, tho feebly glimmering in some, in contrast with\nthe brilliant sparkling of others, and tho never found alike in two individuals, may often be fanned into a divine fiame, and man reclaimed\nfrom the slavery of imitation to the dignity of creator and artist thru right\neducation.\nIn the art of music, of whose mission the musician has always been so\ncertainly and luminously sure, we are particularly grateful for the\n\n"}
{"page": 844, "printed_page": null, "text": "§34\n\nNATlOt^AL EDVCATIOMaL\n\nASSOcIAT/ON\n\n[Music\n\nreinstatement of the creative principle as the basis of development. We\nfeel to thank the psychologist for stealing our thunder, inasmuch as its\naccompanying lightning flash has revealed to us a wider vision of the\nusefulness of our art, and awakened us to the fact that the musician and\nthe music teacher have a great work to do. Not that the rational educator and parent will forthwith desire to make Mozarts and Beethovens of\nall the children, but that we will strive to give music its right use and\nproper place and part in their education.\nIn the treatment of \"What is music?\" it might be well to begin by\nsaying that it is not comprehended in notation, nor should its first study\nconsist in the learning of notes. Even the book company is beginning\nto recognize that it is not for the special benefit of exploiting some\nelaborated human system of teaching, but that it must offer us an advance\nin musical culture as well.\nIn order to approach the question of \"What is music ?\" we need to go\nfar back of that which at the present time it stands for. As far as human\nexpression is concerned, music is our first art. Song is as old as humanity. The music of today is but an elaboration of the primitive emotive\nutterances of the race thousands of years ago.\nThe poet tells us that :\nSince ever the world was fashioned,\nWater, and air, and sod,\nA music of divers meaning\nHas flowed from the hand of God.\nIn valley, and gorge, and upland,\nOn stormy mountain height,\nHe makes Him a harp of the forest.\nHe sweeps the chords with might.\nHe puts forth His hand to the ocean,\nHe speaks, and the waters flow,\nNow in a chorus of thunder.\nNow in cadence low.\nHe touches the waving flower-bells,\nHe plays on the woodland streams,\nA tender song, like a mother\nSings to her child in dreams.\nBut the music divinest and dearest,\nSince ever the years began.\nIs the manifold passionate music\nHe draws from the heart of man.\n\nWhere nature leaves off, there man begins. As a link between the\nnatural and the divine man stands a self-conscious and interpretative\nbeing, and to the earliest beginnings of these interpretations we trace the\nbirth of art. We are told how, little by little, as the external and visible\nsigns of the world about him left their clear images in his mind, \"nature\nplus human imaginings, mixed in the alchemy of men's souls, became\nmusic.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 845, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHOiV\n\nTO HELP\n\nCHILDREN\n\nTO BECOME\n\nMUSICAL\n\n835\n\nWhen primitive man was thru with the hunt or war with his enemies,\nin his hours of ease he would reflect upon his experiences of either\nvictory or defeat, or the excitement of the chase, and then re-enact these\nincidents for his own pleasure and the pleasure of his friends. Primitive\nman, when possessed by an idea, moved by feeling — an emotion —\nsprang up and danced and sang it out. Thus were born dramatic art,\nmusic, and dancing, as represented in the choral dance.\nAs living and loving and warring grew more complex, so also grew\nthe moods and content of emotional experience. That which began as a\nrude cry and exclamation gradually assumed form and order. As man's\nconsciousness and appreciation of the world about him increased, his\nvision expanded, and he gained the power of abstracting and reproducing\nat will his impressions.\nIn this simple story we find our whole problem in a nutshell — the\nstatement of the creative principle in man, a psychology of art, and a\nphilosophy of teaching identical with the best methods of today. What\nthe child of the race did a thousand years ago is the process of development of the child of today.\nIt was not until the Christian era that our present color and music\nwere born, which are the immediate material with which we deal. With the\nnew message to mankind love for your brother, new thought and feeling\narose and brought a richer emotional experience than had been known\nbefore. With a new content for life came the new content for art. All\nthe old things were remodeled after the new idea. Barbaric strains were\ntransformed into the Christian hymn.\nThen we come to the time when music was recorded and perpetuated\nin language form. The scholar, gathering up the thread of the people's\nthought, carried it to the monastery, where he elaborated and perfected\nwhat has since become a scientific form of music.\nHere it is well to note a point. In elaborating the form of music,\ncontent was lost. The mind engaged in mathematical ordering and\ncalculation had not time to experience or the disposition to feel. Music\nbecame formal and conventionalized. Thus we might say that in musicmaking music-creating was lost. When the relation of music to life\nceased, the vital element was lost. Have we not here the key to a double\nsituation which throws light at once upon the condition of art as well as\nthe need of returning to its simple, natural beginnings with children ?\nHas not one of our great difficulties in teaching been the elaboration of\nthe technical side of music at the expense of the natural and emotional\napproach which leads so directly to the cultivation of its ideals ?\nPrevious to the period of its formulation music figured as a natural\nlanguage and expression of the people. This music we have preserved to\nus in the form of the folk song, which, vitalized by the living touch of\ndaily experience, has given us some of the best themes of our musical\n\n"}
{"page": 846, "printed_page": null, "text": "836\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nliterature, and forms the basis of the romantic school, in contrast with\nthe classical of pure form, which again finds ascendency in the music\ndevelopment of today.\nWith the experience of all the past and present gathered up in our\nmusic, it is history, biography, poetry, and philosophy.\nHow best to bring the great musical inheritance at our command to\nthe children, how to help children into early musical appreciation,\nhow to open the door thru simple songs and elementary training, is a\nsubject worthy of the study of the best musicians and teachers that we\nhave, and one destined to influence most strongly the quality of the art\nas well as of the artists of the future.\nThe easy lending of tone to the expression of idea makes of music a\nnatural picture language. Aside from pure music writing, the picturing\nof ideas thru tone and rhythm images, the attempt to tell stories, even to\nexpress definite ideas, thru combinations of musical sounds, has been common from the earliest period. To the child, the word, its meaning, and\nthe thing itself are identical. In the teaching of singing the nearer we\nget to natural primitive expression, the more we get the tone of pure feeling, such as ejaculation of surprise, fear, anger, sorrow. Utter a succession of tones as exclamation, vary the pitch, and you have the essentials of\na song. Yet the farther we get away from personal experience into the\nreproducing of ideas outside ourselves, the more we enter into the imaginative and descriptive, and here we rise to the intellectual higher forms\nof melody and rhythm which complement the varying ideas expressed in\nthe picture. As with the savage, with very young children the interpretation\nof a song rests upon vital experiences as the basis of the mental image\nwhich makes it an art production instead of mere imitative chatter. We\ncan get tone, color, and proper interpretation only from the emotional\nbackground or meaning of the song. Why not teach a song as intelligently as a literature lesson ? Why not sing a song as intelligently as\nwe would read a poem ?\nThe recipe for interpretative singing, with children as with artists, is\nvital and intelligent singing. Why we have made such difificult work of\ninterpreting, when music is only intelligence expressing itself thru a tone\nchannel instead of a verbal one, it is difficult to say. Every master in\nmusic speaks to us directly, without circumlocution, and we intuitionally\nand naturally understand him and respond to his moods. It is only when\nwe approach him from the standpoint of technical difficulties that our\ncourage fails and we fall into confusion and uncertainty.\nA beautiful song and its correct interpretation embody all the elements of music teaching, even in the most advanced stages of study. I\nwould make the statement now — and this may arouse some discussion later\n— that I believe that all musical difficulties may be reached and solved\nthru the needs of interpretation, and that without a loss of interest to the\n\n"}
{"page": 847, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHOiV\n\nTO HELP\n\nCHILDREN\n\nTO BECOME\n\nMUSICAL\n\n837\n\nchild or a necessity of much musical drudgery. We are learning that the\ndivorcement of the study of music from expression sets the mind adrift\nlike a traveler trying to accomplish the impossible feat of traveling upon\ntwo roads at the same time. As a consequence the vital energy is spent\nin vibrating between the two interests instead of reaching the final goal\nof interpretation thru the solution of the musical difficulty.\nIn helping children to become musical, the work is poorly begun if the\nteacher who stands before her class insists upon breaking every law of\nthe musical decalog by her very presence. With a voice unmusical and\nunsympathetic, unrhythmic in body and in mind, she is apt to destroy\nthe first great, and, I will say, the most important, music lesson which can\nbe brought to the child, that of artistic example and presentation. I have\nin mind a teacher who receives several thousand dollars a year for making her children wholly unrhythmical and unmusical. Bad habits and bad\ntaste emphasized in these early years become fixed and almost ineradicable faults. I would then place at the head of our work artistic presentation. In this should be comprehended all the details of good\nsinging on the part of the teacher — good breathing, well-placed and\nmodulated voice, rhythmic and musical singing.\nThe next consideration, of equal importance, is the song itself ; we have\nalways had good ones, and we are continually increasing their number. By\na good song I do not mean the merely pretty and fanciful creation, with\nwhich we are being deluged with the increasing interest in music for\nchildren. Even with very little children the song chosen should be worth\nteaching and singing.\nIn the choice of material, first of all we must have a story — a something to tell. Fortunately for us, the song with a moral is a thing \"of the\npast. A good poem from the child's standpoint, as well as a literary one,\nis necessary to our work — one of description or conversation; an episode\nor dramatic plot, will serve our purpose. In a song the text is of the\nfirst importance, and the music should complement and lend itself to the\ndevelopment of its moods.\nAfter establishing its general characteristics and giving it a reason for\nbeing, we can next take up its musical treatment. Is it a melody song, a\nrhythm or harmony song ? Is tone or movement the leading feature, or\ndoes its harmony fascinate the ear with many voices, or complementary\nstory-telling? The limitations of the class quickly decide the point of\nemphasis. If the voices are bad, we need sweet tones and pure melody ;\nif the children are passive, we need the activity and life of a rhythmical\nsong. If their ears are defective, we can cultivate their listening capacities to good effect. The story keeps the interest alive, and the treatment\nof the musical element offers opportunities for a good music lesson. In\ninterpreting a song it is well to remember that its idea is cause, and the\npicture obtained is effect. Sometimes our pictures tell tales out of school.\n\n"}
{"page": 848, "printed_page": null, "text": "838\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nYou cannot expect a child to express what he does not feel or understand. Develop your song and gain your results as far as possible thru\nthe interpretation of its idea.\nBy following this method, the imagery of pure form and pure tone,\nand the feeling for rhythm, the appreciation of a chord, the sense of balance in the borrowing and the lending of a phrase, in the building of a\nclimax, soon become musical first principles, which are easily accomplished\nin ordinary school work. In learning either to sing or play, thru repeated\nsensation there is gradually established a motor, auditory, visual, or tactile\nimagery, and when this is accomplished we may truly say that the word\nhas become flesh and right doing unconscious habit.\nIn teaching music from a musical standpoint it is necessary to keep\nin mind the musical side of development and to bend all other issues to\nthis end. One of the evils of past music teaching was the tendency to\nforce the abstractions of music — its symbolism and technique — upon\nyoung children, instead of its vital and emotive uses. In connection with\nthis was the encouragement of the visual over the auditory appreciation\nof music, the eye over the ear. To get a beautiful tone we must hear\ntone, feel tone, think tone, and finally, with a perfect mental concept, will\ncome the understanding and the power to reproduce. Also the trying to\nfinish our work too much from the so-called artistic standpoint, and the\ndesire to obtain musical effects, rob the child of much of the broadening\nnature experience which song life might otherwise bring to him.\nFollowing the order of natural development, the study of music lends\nitself naturally to the culture-epoch periods of child development. These\nare most interesting to trace, and with careful study quite possible to meet\nwith related song material.\nIn the kindergarten we have represented the primitive emotive period,\nwhere song is spontaneous expression, a part of real life vitally lived out.\nThis phase extends itself into the next higher, the imaginative or representative period, where nature appreciation begins, and the life of bird and bee\nand tree and flower is dramatically reinterpreted by the child. Next follow\nthe occupations of man in the pastoral and industrial experiences ; myth\nand fairy tales ; the arithmetical, where the teaching of the intricacies\nof musical notation best finds its place; then follow the legendary, historical, and literary, represented in folk songs, ballads, and the larger\nmusical forms of opera and oratorio. All these phases are represented in\na most valuable and beautiful song literature at our command. Of the\nmaking of books there is no end, and, as someone has said, we may have\nto resort to a cremation before we can sift out that which is worthy and\ndesirable.\nIn our advanced civilization we have gone somewhat astray in the\nwriting of pretty tunes for children, instead of giving them musical ideas\nto appreciate.\nHow to provide the child with the largest experience, the\n\n"}
{"page": 849, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHOiV\n\nTO HELP\n\nCHILDREN\n\nTO BECOME\n\nMUSICAL\n\n839\n\nstuff out of which music can be made, should be our deepest concern. In\nthe two-step atmosphere of the nineteenth century it is a little difficult to\ngive him impressions deep and sound, which will lead him finally to grasp\nmusic in its larger meaning. We cannot produce the musician or the\nartist simply by listening to pretty tunes or tones, but by inspiring him\nwith noble ideas and sentiments, which, if he becomes a musician, will\nmake of his music a life work and a ministry to the human race.\nNow that the art of music is corroborated in the science of teaching\nwe need no longer apologize for our work under cover of an arithmetic\nlesson. Let the law of its beauty sink deep into the children's souls.\nFlood them occasionally with harmony, as you would your lawn when\nthe turf gets dry. Let the music speak while the teacher keeps silent. It\nconveys more thru a few moments' simple hearing than volumes of explanation on our part. Subordinate the theory of music to its performance.\nAlways present difficulties, not as abstractions, but as rewards of merit\nand sugar plums. Finally when, thru the ideal conditions presented, we\nnot only get a few facts about music into the child's mind, but arouse his\nwill and the true assertion of himself in song, we gain not only beautiful\nsinging, but the true individuality of the child. We arouse the artist's\npower, and we contribute to the world's work a vital, active factor. If the\nwork of the teacher of this age is well and intelligently done, the making\nof men and women as well as artists and interpreters should follow as a\nnatural result.\nAbove all it is necessary to avoid smartness and mere cleverness in\nthis work which lies so close to the ethical heart of the child. The child\nhas nothing to do with the superficialities of art. He has everything to\ndo with its fundamental values — the actual root experiences from which\nits flower and fruit will grow. We naturally shun the person who knows\nhow all the wires are pulled and pulls them. I have seen a very clever\nteacher \"sketch in a song,\" \"touch up the ethics,\" finish it and tack\ndown the technical corners in the most approved fashion, whilst the stupid\nchildren gazed wonderingly and the smart ones lent themselves to her\nrapid methods, perfectly conscious of the show that was being carried on\nwith them.\nIn these facile days we are learning to honor the perfectly plain-,\nhonest man who indulges in \" no fancy notions,\" and, tho he be a little\nslow, is simple and sincere at heart, and produces earnest and unveneered results in art. Sincere growth is slow, nor can we hasten the\nprocess by mere surface agitation. As music teachers we have a mission\ntoward art besides earning our living and covering ourselves with glory\nin its performance. Are we teachers by the grace of God, or mere\nmenials in the courts of the Most High in the matter of serving art ? The\nmaking of artists is the work of our age; let us see to it that we do not\nmisinterpret the divine message intrusted to our care.\n\n"}
{"page": 850, "printed_page": null, "text": "840\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nINDIVIDUAL\nBY C. H. CONGDON,\n\nSUPERVISOR\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nSINGING\nOF MUSIC,\n\nST. PAUL,\n\nMINN.\n\nMany music teachers are of the opinion that during the first three\nyears of school life, beginning with the kindergarten, the music period\nshould be given up almost entirely to the singing of good, wholesome\nsongs by rote.\nTo be sure, it is possible to teach six-year-old children to read easy\nmusic ; but does it pay to devote the greater portion of the music period\nto this work, when we consider the age of the children and the limitations\nof the school program ?\nChildren gain most of their knowledge thru the perceptive faculties,\nand not by reasoning or reflection. They absorb the strongest influences\nthat surround them, and, by their wonderful power of imitation, grasp the\nthings that are most vividly presented. Their power- of analysis is comparatively weak, and their capacity for serious study and methodical effort\nextremely limited.\nIt is unwise, therefore, to reverse the order of nature by attempting to\nforce these young minds to grasp a subject so abstruse as the technical\nstudy of music.\nA child's first conceptions are of wholes and not of parts. He knows a\nflower long before he can learn to analyze it, and likewise he can remember a complete melody much more easily than he can grasp its constructive elements. I believe, therefore, that it is not best to attempt the study\nof sight-singing to any great extent below the third grade. This is the\ntime when children should acquire the language of music as they have\nlearned their mother-tongue, for the love of song implanted in the human\nheart at this early age will live and grow to bless the coming years.\nThe ability to sing comes to children usually about three years after\nthey have learned to talk.\nIt would naturally follow, therefore, that, if their first efforts in learning to read are made at the age of six, they should not begin the serious\nstudy of sight-singing much before they are nine years old. By this time\nthey will have acquired, thru their song training, correct conceptions of\nmelody and rhythm, and a taste for singing that will be a great incentive\nto all future efforts in the line of technical study. The greater interest\nthey would then take in the new work would more than compensate for\nthe loss of time.\nMany argue that young children delight in singing exercises by syllable, and, therefore, devote most of their singing period to such practice.\nOf course, children take greatjpleasure in doing anything for a successful,\n\n"}
{"page": 851, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nINDIVIDUAL\n\nSINGING\n\n84 1\n\nenthusiastic teacher; they enjoy cleaning blackboards and dusting erasers,\nand enter into such work with great zest, because they love the teacher,\nand her wonderful influence will impel them to vigorous effort along almost\nany line of action. This, however, is no argument in favor of mechanical\ndrill work being made the chief aim of public-school music.\nI believe that song singing should continue thruout all the grades and\ninto the high school, whether the children are able to read music or not.\nWhen the time comes, however, for the introduction of sight-singing, the\ntwo lines of work should be held distinctively apart until the proper\nfoundation has been laid for the latter. It is to be hoped, of course, that\nthese two lines will eventually meet, and that the children will be able by\nthe time they have reached the fifth grade to read the music of their\nsongs.\nIt will be inferred from the title of this paper that a considerable\namount of technical advice in the matter of methods will be forthcoming.\nIn order that the idea may not obtain that I belong to the school of\nmechanical teaching, I beg leave to state, in a general way, my views of\nmusic education.\nThe power to imitate is one of the most valuable faculties with which\nthe human mind is endowed. This faculty is brightest during childhood,\nand without it the young mind could not develop. Children learn songs\nat first by imitation, which is, of course, the natural way.\nThe process of singing by note is decidedly unnatural, and the ability\nto sing at sight is difficult to acquire, but it is a means to a greater end,\nand is therefore a part of one's education. Because children can imitate\nso readily whatever they hear, the process of recalling elementary concepts isexceedingly difficult.\nCalling words is a small part of the mental process of reading, and yet,\nno reading could be done without the ability to call words. The greatest\nvalue of music in the schools lies in its salutary effect upon the children\n— cultivating their emotions and influencing them for good. The best\nresults are reached, however, when the children are taught to read music\nintelligently.\nWithout a correct conception of the relative pitch of sounds, sightsinging is out of the question, and ear-singing must necessarily predominate. Many teachers think their work is satisfactory because a few pupils\nwith strong voices lead, and the rest follow. An examination often\nreveals the fact that a great majority of children sing by ear, and would\nget along about as well if they had nothing to look at but the words.\nWhen concert singing is done exclusively, only the natural leaders acquire\nthe ability to read.\nThe natural leaders are not always the natural singers, for oftentimes\nthe intellect develops more rapidly than the emotions ; and while the\nnatural leaders readily obtain mechanical results, the quality of voice and\n\n"}
{"page": 852, "printed_page": null, "text": "842\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nthe expression are often sadly neglected. On the other hand, many\nnatural singers have beautiful voices and a strong appreciation of the\nemotional side of music, but overlook the mental effort necessary to\ninterpret the printed page. They depend entirely upon their neighbors\nfor the melody.\nExperience shows that it is possible to reach the individual in the\nmatter of tone relation as well as in number relation. We should be on\nour guard, however, against falling into mechanical habits, and remember\nat all times that the development of tone relation is only a necessary\nmeans to a very desirable end, viz.: the intelligent interpretation of the\nprinted page of music and the proper rendition of the school song.\nThe first necessary condition for individual singing is perfect discipline. Each pupil should stand ready to respond instantly to the call of\nthe teacher. He should be willing at least to try to sound the keynote,\nand to do as much more as possible. At first the pupils will laugh at\nslight mistakes, but in a short time this will wear away, and individual\nrecitations in music will be regarded as a part of the daily work.\nThe timid pupil should not be discouraged at the outset with difficult\nproblems. Give him something that he can do, and he will be ready for\nthe next step. The great value of this work is not so much in the actual\ndrill, as in its reflex influence upon pupils. It is an incitement to individual effort, which is the true secret of acquired ability.\nThru the practice of writing music by dictation we have found a\nspeedy way of reaching the individual. The value of written work as an\naid to the memory should not be overlooked. Children will acquire a\nmore definite knowledge of the staff notation by the practice\" of copying\nmusic and writing it by dictation. Scales, signatures, intervals, etc., will\nthus become indelibly fixed in the mind. The songs can be preserved\nfor future use, and the work will thus serve a twofold purpose.\nA plan must now be devised for individual tone drill that will not\nexhaust the time at our command, and thus leave no room for the study\nof songs.\nAs far as possible, teachers should make the following observations\nand keep a careful record of them :\n1. To what extent is the coexistence of the number sense and the tone\nsense found in children ?\n2. Do pupils who think tones readily catch melodies with equal\nfacility, and vice versa ?\n3. After the pitch is sounded, how many pupils can start a familiar\ntune without further aid or suggestion ?\n4. Take a list of pupils who are prompt and alert during the physical\nexercises, and see whether or not this list coincides with any of the\nabove classifications.\nThe work in sight-singing should be conducted on the basis of indi-\n\n"}
{"page": 853, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINDIVIDUAL\n\nSINGING\n\n843\n\nvidual intelligence. It is not intended to dispense with songs until\nevery individual pupil has mastered tone relation; on the contrary, song\nsinging should be continued in\" all grades, notwithstanding the fact that\nthe majority of children sing by ear. A line must be drawn, however,\nbetween the two ways of singing, and a certain amount of time devoted\nto each.\nWe must not deceive ourselves any longer by taking for granted that\na knowledge of the constructive elements of music will come incidentally\nthru song practice. This work should receive the same careful attention that is now given to the number work ; every child should learn to\nthink tones independently, and, in order to accomplish this, individual\neffort should be required.\nThe following classification is suggested for carrying out the work\nof individual singing :\n1. Those who can sing all the sounds of the scale in any order.\n2. Those who can think a few tones, but have not mastered them all.\n3. Those who sing by ear only.\n4. The monotones.\nDrill work is very misleading as to the actual results. Many do not\nstop to consider that in concert singing a large percentage of the children sing by ear, even when they are practicing sight-singing exercises.\nIn my opinion it is even much better that the children acquire a knowledge of tone relation by individual effort, and that the concert work be\ndevoted almost entirely to the study of beautiful songs, adapted, of course,\nto the child as well as to the grade. The impulse of a song thus learned\nwill carry the children to the next effort with greater interest, and they\nwill always be rewarded for their efforts.\nI would suggest, therefore, that, on the basis of a fifteen-minute daily\nlesson, about five minutes each day be devoted to individual singing, and\nthat purely intellectual effort be required. An individual recitation always\nhas a reflex influence. It is not the amount of drill the pupil gets while\nhe .is reciting, but the fact that he has made an individual effort brings\nhim to a personal contemplation of the relative pitch of sounds. Once\nthe child knows that he is expected to think tones as he thinks numbers,\nand to know the scale as he knows the multiplication table, he will grapple the problem outside of the singing, master it, and apply the knowledge thus gained when the class is struggling with the difficulties of a\nnew song.\nLet me close, then, by saying that in my opinion the so-called drill\nwork should be confined principally to individual recitations ; that every\nchild above the third grade who can sing the scale shall be required to\nmaster the elementary principles of tone relation ; that the failure to\naccomplish this shows laxity on the part of the child or incompetence on\nthe part of the teacher; and that at least two-thirds of the singing period\n\n"}
{"page": 854, "printed_page": null, "text": "844\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Musk\n\nin school shall be devoted to the study of beautiful songs adapted to\nchild life. The salutary influence of song will thus predominate in the\nschoolroom, and the children will always look forward to the singing\nlesson with delightful anticipation, and the drudgery and mechanics of\npublic-school music will be relegated to their proper place.\n\nBY\n\nDR.\n\nSCHOOL\n\nMUSIC\n\nIN\n\nCHARACTER-MAKING\n\nA. E. WINSHIP,\n\nEDITOR\n\n\"JOURNAL\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION,\"\n\nBOSTON,\n\nMASS.\n\nMusic rises thru rhythm and melody to harmony and symphony.\nSchool music brings the populace up to the enjoyment of all the comfort, peace, and joy of music, in so far as music has a common interest\nfor mankind. It also brings music as an art into the everyday life of the\nworld\n\"making\nthe the\nhabitual\ncompanion,\ntheir impressionable years,\nof thoseby who\nare toit be\nAmericans\nof the in\nfuture.\nAt large expense we are beginning to beautify schoolrooms with reproductions of works of art, reprints of the masterpieces. Too much cannot\nbe said of the benefit to be derived from placing these where children\ncan see them day by day ; but even this is hardly to be compared with\nthe influence of the daily singing of historic songs, the weaving of selections from masterpieces into the hearts and voices of children, to be taken\nby them into after-life.\nThe problems are how to get the most of music into school, and the\nmost out of the music of the school. Let us have music in every school\nin America. It is almost as absurd to have a school without music as\nto have a schoolroom without sunlight. When music is in the school, it\nshould be so taught as to be a factor in character-making. Sunlight in\nthe schoolroom will not insure health without proper ventilation and\nappropriate exercise ; indeed, it can ruin the eyes if it is directly faced. So\nmusic will not. make character simply by admitting it to the schoolroom.\nThe school has its influence upon the child individually and as a member of the community. The school helps the individual to intellectual\npower, practical force, and personal character. The community influence of the school is focused for good citizenship, for worthy membership\nin society, for the leavening of the universal character of the people.\nThe culmination of both is in character.\nMusic is of service to a greater number of persons than any other art.\nMore appreciate it and execute it ; more are influenced by it and use it\nfor the pleasure and good of others. The poorest get from it comfort\nand enjoyment, and the rich joy and peace. The laborer at his toil, the\nmillionaire at his dinner, the servant and the servantless housewife in the\n\n"}
{"page": 855, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSCHOOL\n\nMUSIC\n\nIN\n\nCHARACTER-MAKING\n\n845\n\nkitchen, and the society queen in the drawing-room, all find music their\ntonic. Music rests the body, balances the mind, and pacifies the soul. It is\nsaid that one cannot be hypnotized when he is singing. The violently\ninsane do not sing. An angry man cools off if he begins to sing. There\nare no angles in a song. The tendency of music is to make one beautiful. If there are discords in the life of musical people, it is not because\nof the music, but in spite of it.\nMusic may be taught in school so as to be a mere glossing of the life,\nor it may reach to the fountains of character. No art can be spread out\nso thin, as none can run so deep.\nA bird that is ill will not sing. Music represents health of body\nand of mind, of disposition and spirit. It represents, also, faith and\nlove, joy and peace.\nThe common school is especially a place for teaching singing, for\ngiving the child the power to get the most out of music, that he may\ngive the world the most thru music. It is something to sing, but singing\nof itself is not enough. One must know how to sing well. When Melba,\nthe queen of entertainers, with a voice of culture as well as of sweetness\nand force, began her training with Marchesi, she would spend twentythree hours and forty-five minutes of exquisite care of body, mind, and\nspirit, in order that she might be in the best possible condition for a lesson of fifteen minutes. If a woman of her genius and power needed the\nmost skillful training at the hands of one of the world's most gifted\nteachers, what shall be said of those who think that it is all-sufficient to\nhave a school sing one hymn or song each morning ?\nSchool music should be taught by a thoroly good system, and by\none competent to train the voice.\nThe school is no more expected to make soloists than to make horseshoers or milliners; but as the school gives the training and education so\nthat one can prepare advantageously for any life work, so it must give that\npreparation for specializing which shall discover to the child his talent for\nmusic. It ought to be expected of every graduate of a public school\nthat he shall he able to do as well with the talent he has in music as he\ndoes with that which he he has for letter writing.\nThere is a tradition that most musicians have but three or four pet\nsongs or \"pieces of music\" that they can render at any time, and that\nthey can play or sing only when they are in practice. This may be the\nprofessional's standard, but it is not the standard of the people in other\nthings. What would be thought of a school that trained the pupils to\nperform but three sample examples, and these only when they were in\npractice, or to read a selection of descriptive, didactic, oratorical, and\npoetic character ? The comparison is not adequate, but it is suggestive.\nThe public school ought to do away with much that seems to the people\nnonsensical in the limited power of trained musicians.\n\n"}
{"page": 856, "printed_page": null, "text": "846\n\n.\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nWhile children should be trained to get out of some masterpiece all\nthat is in it, they should also be taught to get out of every masterpiece\nin music somewhat of its power as readily as they do out of Paradise\nlost or the Merchant of Venice.\nMany of the choice bits of music are as capable of universal appreciation as the most popular lines of Burns or Byron. Music has hallowed\nthe humblest virtues and the homeliest conditions. Who that ever heard\nPatti throw the halo of her genius over \" Coming through the Rye,\" or\nAnnie Louise Gary breathe the inspiration of her soul into \" Down Upon\nthe Suwannee River,\" can ever forget the power of the human voice over\neach individual in a vast audience ?\nOne evening when Jenny Lind was at the height of her power, and the\nlargest auditorium in New York city was packed to the limit, Daniel Webster occupied the box of honor. As she was swaying the audience with\none of her star selections, for the rendering of which she was trained to the\nlimit of her ability, Mr. Webster said to a companion : \"Why doesn't she\nsing some\" ballad of her girlhood days ? \" The gentleman retired, and, as\nthe great singer left the stage amid a deafening applause, he told her of\nthe remark of the great orator. As quick as thought she returned for her\nencore and sang in her native tongue one of the sweet ballads of her childhood ;and as the last note died upon that breathless throng, she turned\nher radiant face and nodded in her charming way her appreciation to Webster, who by instinct had risen, and, with a majesty sublime, bowed his\nrecognition. It is said that in all her career she never had such an ovation\nas that which greeted her when the full significance of the moment burst\nupon the audience.\nNone of us appreciate the beauty, the power, the glory of music. It\nnot only comforts and inspires the needy of earth, but at the dawn of\ncreation the morning stars sang together, and at the advent of Him who\nsaid, \" Come unto me all ye that labor and are heavy laden, and I will\ngive you rest,\" the very heavens echoed the message: \"Peace on earth,\ngood will to men.\"\nRhythm is a combination of very distinct ideas ; it is keeping step\nlike an army, it is flowing like a river. It is measured time, and yet it is\ntime flowing in unbroken movement. The accent gives the continuous\nflow to sharply marked-off measure.\nAll physical life is perfect in proportion to the perfection of its\nrhythm. The faintest touch of life in the crudest, slimiest mold that\ngathers under damp bark in the tannery yard is a little world in which\nrhythm reigns, while, at the other extreme, the latest revelations of brain\nactivity tend to show that there are no currents of force, but rather a reign\nof rhythm, among the brain cells. The movement of these, and not their\ntouch, is the source of mental activity.\nThe essence of the lowest traceable vegetable life is rhythm ; the\n\n"}
{"page": 857, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nDepartment]\n\nSCHOOL\n\nMUSIC\n\nIN\n\nCHARACTER-MAKING\n\n847\n\nhighest flights of poet and orator, the sweetest affection, the loftiest\nreaches of faith, joy, and peace, are rhythmic activities of matter, mind, or\nemotion.\nLack of appreciation of all this has prevented the school from rising\nto the heights it should attain. In mathematics we find rhythm as an\nexact science, as perfect in its way as the movement of the spheres. The\npianist attains the art of touching the keys with rhythmic accuracy without following the hand with eye or mind. There is no satisfaction in\narithmetical work until the pupil knows the fundamental combinations\nand processes as the pianist knows the keys. Every child soon knows\nthe sum of two numbers as the pianist knows how to strike the chord.\nThe pupil who adds by counting with his fingers is lacking in the\n\"ear for numbers\" as much as the child that counts the octave on the\nkeys is lacking in an ear for music. You do not give up with the child\nwho counts his fingers, but you keep him wrestling with the numbers until\nhe has them fairly well in mind. The pupil that does not know the\nchords simply needs a more skillful treatment, because music is higher\nin the realm of art and science than arithmetic.\nThose who have the rhythm of language need neither drill nor grammar, but there are those who must be helped to this rhythm by both.\nSpelling is universally acknowledged to be a matter of rhythm, and we\nmay as well admit that this same is true of the skill for gathering and\nclassifying information in geography, science, or history.\nThe \" new education \" is the dawn of a brighter day. The dawn in the\nnew education seems, however, to have heard the command of Joshua, and\nthe sun is standing still just below the horizon, leaving us in the dawn\nof perpetual promise. The old way was mechanical ; the new has\nactivity, but too often merely mechanical activity. If it has life, it is too\noften a military life, keeping step to the word of the drillmaster, a measured tread that breaks the bridge by its terrible swing, whereas it should\nbe the life of the bird upon tireless wing.\nThe kindergarten of Froebel was a prose poem. Life in the kindergarten issocial rhythm, with the voice as natural as the note of the lark,\nthe language as easy, and the courtesies of life as graceful, as the rhythm\nof nature. All this should be retained in elementary and secondary school,\nin college and university, and it will be when music is appreciated as the\nkeynote of all intellectual activity and social grace.\nWhatever our theological prejudices, we must all admit that the most\nbeautiful conception of the ages is that of the Child of the Manger, whose\nbirth and growth, childhood and manhood, were humanity touched with\nthe melody of heaven.\nIt is a long reach from the child of the slums to the saint in glory,\nbut it is no longer than from the slimes of the pond to the purity and\nsweetness of the unfolding lily. Our faith believes all things possible\n\n"}
{"page": 858, "printed_page": null, "text": "848\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nwith people, but not with persons. Whoever and whatever can give the\nteacher whose life is being worn out by her dull boy faith to believe that\nthere is power in earth or heaven to make of him a pure, agreeable, selfsacrificing, noble man is doing more for the world than he who has\ninvented a battalion of \"the best methods\" in number work or language\nteaching. Music has in it greater possibilities along this line than any\nother subject. And yet there are those who think the value of the multiplication table in business is infinitely more important than music, which\nif taught with half the faithfulness of arithmetic, might be made to transform many a mischievous boy into a glorious character.\nWho shall state the ratio between a boy grinding away on a distasteful\nlesson because the eye of the teacher is upon him, with the truant officer\nat the door, and the boy who is enthusiastic over his school work because\nthe melody of rhythm thrills thru every lesson ?\nDoes some teacher, who has no faith in the possibilities of the bad\nboy, say sneeringly that it is idealizing when we say that a school ought\nto be a pl'ace in which the rhythm of heaven thru music should touch the\nlife of the child of the street, so that his thought and hope and faith shall\neventuate in that character and power for which the Great Teacher came\namong men ?\nIf so, he sneers not at us, but at Him who gave us our ideals ; and it is\nbetter to stand humbly at the feet of the Great Teacher than to be with\nthose who reviled.\n\nTHE\n\nNEXT\n\nSTEP—\n\nBY MRS. CARRIE\n\nWHA T SHALL\n\nB. ADAMS,\n\nTERRE\n\nIT BE ?\n\nHAUTE,\n\nIND.\n\nWe have reached a point in regard to the idea of music as a necessary\nsubject in the school curriculuip where no vociferous agitation or defense\nis called for; in fact, in most quarters we are rapidly taking upon ourselves the relieved, resting air of one who has fought a good fight and\nwon the victory. It has been a hard-fought battle in many instances, but\nthe victory is ours. Public sentiment says it ; patrons say it ; pupils say\nit ; teachers say it ; school boards say it ; educators in every stage of\nenlightenment say that music is necessary to the symmetrical development of the child, for whose sole good the schools exist. There is no\nchance to argue the question here, since we are all on the same side, and\nnot a single reason why we should attempt to justify this state of affairs.\nWe have passed that stage, happily, and may now rest from our labors\nand enjoy the fruits of our years of strenuous effort. Music has at last\ncome into its rightful inheritance — the minds, hearts, voices, and lives\n\n"}
{"page": 859, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmeml\n\nTHE\n\nNEXT\n\nSTEP— WHAT\n\nSHALL\n\nIT BE?\n\n849\n\nof the masses — and perchance we have been instrumental in bringing\nabout such a happy state of affairs in our own particular little corner of\nthe earth, and we may now sit down and behold its progress. May we ?\nWill we ? Dare we think of such a thing, when the very success of former\nefforts places us under a dojible obligation to use all our power and\nstrength that success may not turn into failure ? Ah, no ! Pity the man\nor woman who thinks of rest at this stage in the history of music as an\neducational force. We are weary, perhaps, but the reward is great to\nthose who labor — and there is resting by and by. Put the thought aside,\nand let us look over the field.\nWhat influences have had to do with making music a recognized\nnecessity in every school curriculum that pretends to be up with the\ntimes? As well may we ask what wonderful influences have revolutionized the educational world since some of us learned our a-b, abs.\nPerhaps Mr. McGuffey, of first-reader fame, wherein occurs the question\nand answer, \" Do we go up ? We do go up ! \" may be credited with a\nprophetic eye, since we certainly have \"gone up\" to the very mountain\ntops in comparison with the plane we occupied then. In fact, we are so\nvery much elevated that we have one of three things to do : remain\nplacidly, contentedly, inanely where we are; slide down from the mountain\ntops ; or build us more stately mansions. If build we must, it behooves\nus to look well to the foundation we have laid. Perhaps it is not\nbroad enough for the support of an imposing musical structure ; perhaps\nit is not deep enough to withstand the strain of any but a light, ephemeral\nstyle of architecture, calculated to please the taste of the casual observer;\nperhaps we as builders have not given every stone in the foundation the\nhonest thought the cause deserved, or thru ignorance have used the\nwrong material in constructing our part. At any rate, we might investigate.\nSo much depends upon good teaching, if music is to be the wonderful\npower we confidently hope and expect, that an investigation that does not\ntake the teacher into account, with her opportunities for training and\nher general ability and preparation for the work, would be a remarkable\none indeed. Music is so peculiarly susceptible to the teacher's influence\nthat it would be difificult to overestimate her importance in this field. Of\ncourse, there are innumerable teachers of the infallible type in other\nstates, but the millennium is not yet shedding its beneficent rays abroad\nin Indiana. In fact, the feeling seems quite prevalent among us that\nthere are some things we do not know, and, alas ! may never know.\nTherefore my remarks may be understood to have reference to affairs as\nobserved by an Indianian, where teachers are ordinary flesh-and-blood\nmortals, with days constructed on a sadly limited scale of hours and minutes, considering the amount of work to be done, while a similar discrepancy is noticeable in the nights.\n\n"}
{"page": 860, "printed_page": null, "text": "850\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nEvery teacher present recognizes the fact that a comparatively small\nnumber of schools in any state employ competent supervisors of music,\nand that a comparatively small number of school children outside of the\nlarger cities receive their musical instruction from teachers especially\ntrained for that work. The other fact is alsQ being recognized, that music\nis being taught in three-fourths of the common schools, upon the recommendation ofpatrons, boards of trustees, county and state superintendents\n—all of which indicates a delightful state of affairs. But if specially trained\nteachers are not doing the work, who is doing it ? The regular teacher,\nto be sure. And where does the regular teacher supply herself with the\nnecessary information to carry on this work intelligently? \"Dear me!\"\nsays one teacher, \" I didn't know one had to study music to be able to\nteach it. I thought one simply needed to be able to carry a tune and\nknow something about lines and spaces ! \" The honest truth about the\nwhole matter is that half the music teaching in our public schools is done\nupon the basis of being able to carry a tune and knowing something about\nlines and spaces. Not in the schools where a special music teacher reigns\nsupreme — oh, no! — but in the little red schoolhouse and two-story white\nframe or brick village schoolhouses, where a numerous host of children\nare getting their first long-coveted taste of the divine art.\nOf course we know that every school should have lessons in music\nfrom a special music teacher, but we also know that such an arrangement\nis not possible as yet, and that the regular teacher is supposed to direct\nthis work as she does all other required branches. Where does the common-school teacher get her training for this and other work ? If in the\ncourse of human events she decides to become a teacher — and there\nare many and divers reasons aside from a divine call for such decision —\nshe naturally turns to the school created by law to give her the professional training she requires, the normal school. With what previous\npreparation does she come ? Formerly she came blissfully ignorant of\nmost things a teacher ought to know, and seldom stayed long enough\nto acquire the academic knowledge necessary for a teacher ; and her\nmental condition was such that the small amount of musical training\noffered by the average normal school was all but useless. But now she\nmust hold a two-years' teacher's license in her hand before she is allowed\nto enter — or at least such are the conditions in the Indiana State Normal\nSchool.\nWhat does she bring in the way of previous musical training ? Very\nlittle. Nine-tenths of the students who enter the music classes in a normal school have lived where musical advantages were limited to the Sunday school and an occasional term of singing school. While the average\nSunday school does the best it can with the music and means at its command, as a source of correct ideas of music and singing its influence is\nnot altogether to be desired.\n\nThe singing school (alas for those whose\n\n"}
{"page": 861, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nNEXT\n\nSTEP-\n\nWHA T SHALL\n\nIT BE?\n\n85 1\n\nmain musical dependence it was !) is relegated to that past which is the\nhome of the melodeon and \" Lily Dale,\" \" Fairy Moonlight,\" \" Fairy\nBelle,\" and other old favorites, and nothing has taken its place as yet.\nTaking her, then, with her meager supply of musical knowledge,\nwhat does the average normal school do for her ? Places her in a class\nwith a hundred other similarly equipped students — or perhaps with that\nnumber of students in various stages of development, which is much\nworse — and attempts to administer musical instruction in such heroic\ndoses, as she is ground with the ninety and nine others thru the same\nmill, that she will come out at the end of the one or two terms provided\nin the course fully equipped to direct the music work in her next school !\nOften that grind consists of mere mechanical things, and often the time\nallotted in the course of study to music is so short that there is absolutely\nno time for individual work, and as equally absolute necessity for a\nhurried going over of the many important fundamental things in music\nbefore the term shall end and the student departs forever.\nSome normal schools provide bountifully for the music work, but as a\ngeneral thing the course is limited to two or three terms of twelve weeks\neach. How can a teacher of music be equipped in that length of time,\nunless previous experience and training make it possible ? And why should\nnot those who desire to fit themselves for this line of public-school work\nfind ample provision made for their wants in music, as in mathematics,\nin a normal school ? As a matter of fact, more necessity exists for it,\nsince the average student has had a more active mental experience with\nmathematics than with music. More especially is there a necessity for\nsuperior musical advantages in a normal school now, when so much is\nexpected of the regular teacher, and when music is being experimented\nwith in so many of the smaller schools. The course should be such that,\nwhen the teachers' examination shall include an examination in music,\nthe student will not look upon it as a bugbear to be dreaded, but will be\nable to answer any reasonable set of questions, after having finished the\ncourse in a normal school.\nWhat are some of the essential things in music ? If it is public-school\nmusic, the answer would be one thing, and if it is instrumental music,\nthe answer would be something else. The fact that vocal music is more\nuniversal than instrumental is one reason for its study in the public\nschools, which leads me to say that the making of children's voice habits\nshould receive much more thought from parent and teacher than has ever\nbeen given to it. Why should the teacher's voice stand in the way of the\nprogress of your boy or mine ? The advantage of a soft, low voice is\npreached on every side, and very little attention is given in training\nschools for teachers toward modifying and making melodious the ofttimes sharp, wiry, aggressive voices of those whose peculiarities of tone\nand enunciation will be imitated by a roomful of little ones some day\n\n"}
{"page": 862, "printed_page": null, "text": "852\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nand somewhere. A very large field opens to those who realize the importance of a well-managed voice, whether in speaking or singing, when the\nimitative faculty of even the dullest child is considered.\nHave you ever visited a little country school where eighteen or twenty\nchildren of assorted sizes and ages were being cared for by a faithful\nteacher at so much per month, and not so very much either, for from\nthree to seven months in the year ? And have you heard this willing\nsoul try to give a music lesson ? Or perhaps you have in an unguarded\nmoment asked to hear some of the songs the children have learned. Did\nyou not say in your heart, as you endured to the end, that it were better\nnever to have had singing than to have had it done in so barbarous a\nmanner ? Softly, my friend ! Did not that little teacher do her most\nconscientious best, according to the light she had ? And what more do\nyou, oh ! ye of ten talents ? Let her sing and teach others to sing ; but\nspeed the day when her opportunity to learn how to sing and to teach\nothers to sing may be largely increased.\nEvery normal school can teach its pupils to use the organs of speech\nneatly and accurately, and what accomplishment is more valuable to a\nsinger than this ? Not all souls are capable of the largest expansion any\nmore than all voices are capable of thrilling an audience, but all organs\nof speech and song may be cultivated to a higher degree of usefulness,\nand especially is this culture to be desired in those who are to look after\nthe music work in any school. If, in the coming years, more general exercises of a voice-refining nature are introduced in the normal schools, our\nlittle district-school teacher will be able to dispense with the nasal twang,\nthe uncultivated enunciation and slovenly articulation, or the metallic\ntone, almost unconsciously, since she, too, is possessed of the faculty of\nimitation, and only needs opportunity to use it under advantageous circumstances to make rapid progress.\nWhat an immense stone in the foundation we are laying is the rote\nsong ! And how frequently is it used as a mere physical exercise ! The\nfact that words count is so lamentably ignored by singers of otherwise\nfair intelligence that one is not astonished to find teachers who need\nthe unseeing eye opened in regard to the manner of using songs in\nthe schoolroom. Sacrifice the music if you will, but keep the sentiment\nunderlying the words ever in mind. If there are doubts as to the children's ability to express and appreciate that sentiment, an error in selection has been made, and the song should be laid aside. Where shall\nthe teacher lay the foundation for this discriminating taste and judgment\nin the selection of rote songs ? Her whole training and experience,\nthat make her a success as a teacher of other branches, aid her in this,\nand I see no reason why more definite work may not be done along the\nline of rote songs in a normal training school, when its vast importance\n\n"}
{"page": 863, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE NEX T STEP—WHA T SHALL\n\nIT BE?\n\n853\n\nis considered, and when the fact is recognized that in hundreds of\nschools the so-called music work consists of rote singing entirely.\nEveryone should be intimately acquainted with the tonic, dominant\nand subdominant triads, and their family connections and interrelationship,\nif she would enter more fully into the joys of music. Why not have\nharmony in our foundation, since it is the essential element in our superstructure ? Could not the public schools plant the seeds of harmony, at\nleast, and in some instances even water them, trusting to providence for\nthe increase ? Suppose the boy's voice is changing and he does not care\nto sing, partly because there is no certainty that he will succeed if he\ntries, and partly because he is relegated to the too often tuneless realms of\nalto at the first suspicion of a croak, when he naturally prefers a tune. It\nis as certainly wrong to take all music study away from him at this time\nas it would be to force him to sing, croak or no croak.\nWhy not require less singing, and more study of the scientific and\nhistorical side of the subject, at this particular period in the mental life\nof the boy or girl, thru harmony and biography ? Wouldn't the principal triads and the dominant seventh, with their progressions and resolutions, prove interesting to any mathematically inclined youth ? His ability\nto think tones certainly need not cease with his ability to make tones that\nare satisfactory to himself and others.\nI question the judgment of a supervisor of music who does not call to\nhis aid the unlimited source of interest and inspiration to be found in\nbiography — one of the most important stones in our foundation. I know\na supervisor who doesn't, but he doesn't live in Indiana, and I don't know\nthat he is present. In one schoolroom with which I am familiar a bust\nof Beethoven frowns down upon the children from his pedestal. \"Why\ndoes he look so cross ? \" inquired a small boy. The teacher in charge\nknew just what to say, and within a week every child in the room had\nransacked home and school libraries in search of points of interest in the\nlife of Beethoven. Instead of the disagreeable expression they saw\nbefore they had read of his unhappy life, they found an element of sadness that aroused their sympathies every time their roving eyes rested upon\nhis face.\nAnother stone that our builders are using freely is good music, whether\nwritten by the old masters or by modern composers of skill, and it is a\nmost gratifying thing to note the purity of style and form to be found in\nthe exercises and songs in the various courses in music for use in the\npublic schools. It is not enough that the children sing good music,\nhowever. It isn't the music we ourselves are able to make that influences\nus most ; else music's power would be decidedly limited, in some cases.\nWhy not brighten our structure with bits of color in the form of\nillustrated sketches of various composers, including American writers ?\n\n"}
{"page": 864, "printed_page": null, "text": "854\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nAny of the simpler forms of the classics in an appropriate biographical\nsetting may be invested with great interest for a roomful of children, if\nintelligently interpreted. The- masses will sing and play good music\nwhen they have been shown where to find it in the simplicity adapted to\ntheir needs, and it is thru the door of the little red schoolhouse, or\nthe stately portals of the city school building, or of the yet more dignified\nnormal-training-school entrance, whether controlled by state or private\nmeans, that this artistic touch must come.\nIf we cannot have trained supervisors of music in every school in every\ncounty in every state, then, in all justice, give those who prepare for the\nwork of school-teaching in our normal schools better opportunity to learn\nthe fundamental things in music, before they are expected to comprehend\nthis (to them) almost unknown subject and teach it to their helpless pupils.\nAs well expect a teacher ignorant of Greek to study methods of presenting the subject for a term, and then be able to do successful work with a\nclass of beginners ! Not all students who attend normal schools are\ndestined to become shining lights in the teaching profession, but a large\nnumber will be engaged as teachers, and many of them will be obliged to\nteach with but little time spent in preparation, for financial or other\nreasons. It isn't to be expected that the subject of music will receive the\ntime and attention its newness and importance deserve, but the training\nfor teaching that does not aid in presenting a music lesson is not all it\nshould be. A good teacher is often more successful with the music work\nthan a good musician — and therein lies our hope.\nThe thing most teachers need is an actual working knowledge of the\nsubject-matter of music first, and the ability to use the formal side subjectively next. It is absolutely necessary for a teacher to know about\nthe means of representing tones, else how can she know when not to teach\nsigns ? Even special music teachers need to be reminded occasionally of\nthe fact that music does not consist of notes, bars, lines, spaces, etc., and\nwhat wonder if the regular teacher falls into the rut of sign teaching alone,\nwhen her training includes little more than sign work, frequently? The\nspecial teacher must have the intelligent assistance of the regular teacher,\nif music is to be used to the fullest advantage in the schools; and today, as\nnever before, we look to the fountain head, the normal school, for the\ntraining that will make this possible. The teachers will gladly take all of\nthe instruction in music that the required course of study will permit, and\nI confidently expect to see such changes in the requirements as will give\nthem the opportunity to prepare fully for this work, which is soon to be\na part of every teacher's daily program in the common schools and in the\ngrades.\nOur builders are, in the main, honest. Our architects are planning\naccording to the needs of the masses.\nWe are not standing still, neither\n\n"}
{"page": 865, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nNEXT\n\nSTEP— WHAT\n\nSHALL\n\nIT BE?\n\n855\n\nare we losing ground. We have laid the foundation upon which to erect\nan educational edifice of more varied beauty and usefulness than has ever\nyet been erected, and the strength of the pillars which shall support the\nfinal dome of this intensely, artistically, characteristically American structure will be based upon public-school music work, which shall include\nmind, voice, and soul culture; a knowledge of combinations as well as\nsuccessions of tones ; and an interest in what has gone before, what is, and\nwhat will be, with the regular teacher amply prepared to direct the music\nwork as intelligently as she directs the work in other branches. The next\nstep? Well, what shall it be ?\n\nDISCUSSION\nMiss Sarah L. Arnold, Boston, Mass. — The question asked by Mrs. Adams has\nbeen answered by the singing of the pupils this afternoon.\nThe theory needed to put music in the right place is to make the regular teacher\nbelieve that music is essential. What does it do for children ? One hard task is to\nsecure the habit of attention ; to see the note, to fix its position in pitch and its length,\nrequires intense attention. When things go wrong in school, music brings sympathy and\na willing spirit more readily than scolding. When they sing together, a sweet unity is\nsecured, a forgetting of self, a merging into one under the control of the teacher. This\noneness is higher than unity. Harmony is higher — means a broader musical conception,\na blending in one beautiful whole. The task of the twentieth century is to learn how to\nlive together in peace and happiness, and music is one of the most potent agencies in\nbringing this about.\n\n"}
{"page": 866, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF BUSINESS EDUCATION\n\nSECRETARY'S\nFIRST\n\nMINUTES\n\nSESSION.— Friday, July 8, 1898\n\nThe department convened in the Academy of Music Friday afternoon, July 8, at 3\no'clock, and was called to order by the president, D. W. Springer, of Ann Arbor, Mich.,\nwho gave the annual address.\n. Following this, Hon. Lyman J. Gage, secretary of the treasury, Washington, D. C,\ngave an address on \" Reasonable Expectations in Business Education.\"\nJ. M. Mehan, of Des Moines, la., chairman of the Committee of Nine, presented a\nmodel business-college course.\nProfessor Emory R. Johnson, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, read a paper\non \"{Business Education in the High School.\"\nM. A. Grove, of Harrisburg, Pa., was chosen secretary pro tempore.\nThe department adjourned to meet July 11.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION.— Monday, July II\n\nThe second session of the department convened in the rooms of the Spencerian Business College at 3 o'clock p. M., President Springer in the chair. The meeting was a\nround-table discussion of the papers presented at Friday afternoon's session. Owing to\nthe sickness of Mr. Mehan, most of the meeting was devoted to the consideration of the\ncourse of study as submitted in the president's address.\nThe matter of a uniform course of study for business colleges, which has been in the\nhands of the Committee of Nine, was referred to a committee, consisting of J. M. Mehan,\nDes Moines, la.; J. E. King, Rochester, N. Y., and J. W. Warr, Moline, 111., to prepare\nthe same for publication, and report to the department at the meeting in 1899.\nThe election of officers for the ensuing year resulted as follows :\nPresident — Allan Davis, Washington, D. C.\nFirst Vice-President — I. O. Crissy, Albany, N. Y.\nSecond Vice-President — Court F. Wood, Washington, D. C.\nSecretary — W. C. Stevenson, Emporia, Kan.\nChairman Executive Committee — Carl C. Marshall, Battle Creek, Mich.\n\nA resolution was passed thanking Mrs. Spencer for the use of her rooms for the\nsessions of the section, and the local committee for the efforts made in behalf of the\ndepartment.\nAdjourned to meet July 12.\nTHIRD\n\nSESSION.— Tuesday, July 12\n\nThe third session of the business section convened in the rooms of the Spencerian\nBusiness College, Tuesday afternoon, July 12, at 3 o'clock. George M. Coffin, deputy\ncontroller of the United States treasury, Washington, D. C, gave a paper on the\n\" Administration and Bookkeeping of a National Bank, and the Qualifications and\nTraining of a Bank Accountant.\"\n856\n\n"}
{"page": 867, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nBUSINESS\n\nEDUCATION\n\n857\n\nA. O. Kittredge, editor of Accountics, \"iitvr York city, presented a paper entitled\n\" Bookkeeping and Accounting of the Periodical Publishing Business.\"\nI. O. Crissy, examiner of business schools for the state of New York, read a paper\non \" Business Education in the State of New York.\"\nMr. David Wolfe Brown, chief reporter of the United States House of Representatives, presented a paper on the \" Qualifications and Training of the Congressional\nReporter.\"\nThe president-elect was introduced, and, after he had expressed his thanks to the\nsection, the meeting adjourned.\nM. A. Grove,\nSecretary pro tempore.\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nBUSINESS\nBY\n\nDURAND\n\nW.\n\nDISCUSSIONS\nEDUCATION\n\nSPRINGER,\n\nANN\n\nARBOR,\n\nMICH,\n\nThe public-school system of a Utopian state should enroll the entire\npopulation of the country between the ages of five and eighteen. In the\nUnited States we are confronted with different conditions. In the year\n1870, 61.45 per cent, of the school population was enrolled. This percentage has increased to 69.85 per cent, in the year 1895. Of this enrollment 50.48 per cent, are boys. This total enrollment is divided among\nthe various branches of education as follows : the elementary schools,\n95 per cent.; the secondary schools, 3.6 per cent.; the higher schools,\n1.4 per cent. The secondary schools contain our youth between the\nages of fourteen and eighteen, and it is with this branch of the system\nthat we are particularly interested. Up to the year 1887 private secondary schools enrolled a larger number of students than did the public\nsecondary schools. The growth of enrollment in the private secondary\nschools has been but one-hundredth of i per cent, in the last twenty-five\nyears, whereas the enrollment in the high schools has increased tenfold in the same time. While there has been this marked increase in\nattendance upon the high school, it is a noticeable fact that the boys\nform but 45 per cent, of the secondary enrollment. In addition to the\nstudents found in these distinctive secondary schools, there are one hundred thousand students of the same age pursuing courses in the business\ncolleges of this country. This is a number equal to the total attendance\non all the various higher institutions of learning. This large attendance\nupon business colleges indicates a feeling in the minds of a large number\nof people that the public schools are not furnishing the education they\ndesire for their children. It was this same feeling that caused three students to attend the private secondary schools twenty-five years ago where\n\n"}
{"page": 868, "printed_page": null, "text": "858\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\none attended the high school. When our high schools shall meet the\ndemand for education along business lines, as they did along preparatory\nlines, another corresponding ratio of increase in attendance upon the\npublic schools will be noticed.\nThe public secondary schools were primarily established for the purpose of fitting the student to pursue a higher education. The course of\nstudy was originally a rigid one, but from time to time changes have\nbeen made and new studies added, till now hardly any high school offers\nless than three distinct courses of study. As has been indicated, these\nchanged conditions have greatly increased the attendance. In the high\nschools of the United States the graduating class of 1896 contained but\n12.05 per cent, of the enrolled students for that year. Of those who\ngraduated 29.28 per cent, went to college. But 13.82 per cent, of our\nhigh-school students are preparing for a higher education. The old idea\nthat the secondary school was a preparatory school has been outgrown,\nand the secondary schools have become the finishing schools for over 85\nper cent, of the attendants. The high school, in order to benefit the\nmany, which it should, must be adapted to the needs of those who can\ngo no farther along educational lines. The larger percentage of those\nwho leave school prior to completing their secondary education are boys.\nThe largest number of them drift into various occupations, and yet, of\nthe boys in the United States between the ages of fifteen and nineteen,\nthere were over a million, according to the census of 1890, who could\nnot be located in any of the gainful pursuits or in any of the schools.\nWhat as to the education that has been offered in our secondary\nschools ? It is probably as thoro, as far as it goes, as is any. It has been\nan evolution, and a rapid one at that. It is not in a spirit of fault-finding\nthat the suggestions of this paper are made, but rather with the idea in\nmind that we have now reached a point where we can broaden the work\nand be of benefit to a larger number and a different class of persons than\nhave the schools of the last twenty years. As has been suggested, many\nstudents have left school at about the age of fourteen, because the opportunity was not offered them in the public schools along the lines that\nthey wished to pursue. Being designed as a preparatory education, it\nhas failed to benefit, to as large a degree as it should, the class of children that needed it the most — namely, the children of the poorer classes.\nWhile theoretically the education that is best for those who go to college\nmay be best for those who do not, practically it is hard to convince the\nmasses of the truth of that statement. The tendency of higher general\nor culture courses has been to breathe a spirit of contempt for business\nand labor. This has usually been the outgrowth of the feeling on the\npart of our teachers of largest culture that the ambitions of the average\nbusiness man were purely mercenary, and the impractical methods of\nmany of these same educators have developed in the minds of the busi-\n\n"}
{"page": 869, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nBUSINESS\n\nEDUCATION\n\n859\n\nness community the idea that the predominating education was too\ntheoretical. The modern classical course affords a special as well as a\ngeneral education, and is pursued by a majority of those taking it for\npurely utilitarian reasons. The present classical and Latin courses are\nthe natural preparation for the intellectual, professional vocations; as\nsuch, they have a right to exist.\nSociety needs them.\nThe education of democratic people, provided at public expense,\nshould prepare them for intelligent citizenship. It should aim to adapt\nevery citizen to the civilization of his time. Conditions change, and so\nmust systems of education. The student should be put in touch with\nwhat is taking place, rather than with what has occurred. The past\nshould be studied for the lessons it gives as to how the present should be\nlived. Education has been recognized in our laws as one of the necessities of life. From the standpoint of the individual, it is as valuable to\nthe poor as to the rich; and from the standpoint of the state, much\nmore valuable. It should develop the powers of the individual to their\nfullest state of usefulness, for the individual is the foundation of society.\nThe main purpose of our secondary schools should be to fit the students\nfor honorable and useful lives. Power concerning the everyday events of\nlife is the one thing to be obtained. The most important accomplishment which any person can possess is the ability to support himself and\nthose dependent upon him. His next aim should be to benefit those\nwith whom he comes in contact. What spare energy remains he may\nuse in indulging in those lines of work in which he is especially interested and which minister to his personal gratification. That is the best\neducation which not only disciplines the mind and gives to us pleasure\nin its pursuit, but which at the same time fits us to mingle in society and\nthe business world to its and our own betterment.\nThis is essentially a business age. With twelve million voters in this\ncountry, there are nine million depositors in banks, and over one million\npersons so engaged in business as to have credit ratings in the commercial directories. According to the census of 1890, 47.95 per cent, of our\ntotal population over the age of ten was engaged in some gainful occupation. These were divided as follows : agriculture, fisheries, and mining,\n39.65 per cent.; manufacturing and mechanical industries, 22.39 P^^\" cent.;\ndomestic and personal services, 19.18 per cent.; trade and transportation,\n14.63 percent.; professional classes, 4.15 per cent. Between the years\n1880 and 1890 there was a marked decrease in the percentage of those\nengaged in agriculture, a corresponding increase in the percentages of\nthose engaged in trade and manufacture, while the percentages of the professional and domestic classes remained about stationary. There are\nmore persons engaged as bookkeepers, clerks, and salesmen than in all\nthe professional classes combined. In the professional and domestic\nclasses we find two males employed for every female ; in the manufacturing\n\n"}
{"page": 870, "printed_page": null, "text": "86o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nand mechanical industries the ratio is four to one, while in the agricultural and trade divisions it is nineteen to one. These figures merely\nshow a tendency of the times. Our boys are leaving the public schools to\ngo into some form of business or employment. If by any means they\ncan be held — and we can, in addition to the direct professional training,\nwhich will be the motive for them to stay, give them a certain amount of\ngeneral education — we shall to that extent have succeeded where now we\nentirely fail. If this be done, the successful business man of the future\nwill be one with broader ideas and possessing more culture c.nd refinement\nthan does the business man of today. Business has become the greatest\nprofession of the age. The business man is the controlling element of\nsociety. He needs as complete an equipment as is possible, and the more\ncomplete it is, the better will be the society of the future.\nThe question arises : Ought the public school to give any distinctive\ntraining along professional lines ? Statistics show the truth of the statement,\nmade a few minutes since, that the classical course affords a distinct professional training. Professor Edmund J. James, of the University of Chicago, said in an address before the American Bankers' Association :\n\"The business class is the most important in numbers and influence left\nwithout any provision by government for the professional training of its\nmembers.\" Commercial training should be offered in the public schools\nat two points. In the elementary schools business forms should be studied\nand enough of bookkeeping so that those who leave school may be able\nto keep a private set of books. The value of such instruction to the\ncountry, from an economic standpoint, can hardly be appreciated. In\nthe secondary schools the ideal condition would be that in which no regular courses were offered, but the students were free to elect the studies\ndesired, with the guidance of the teacher and under such general rules as\nshould prevent hit-and-miss courses of study. A diploma should then be\ngiven according to the work that has been done. We are not ready for\nthat in this country, however, and we claim that the people have a right\nto demand a course which shall run parallel with the classical, Latin, and\nscientific, and shall be so framed as to afford an incentive for the youths of\nour country to remain in school for a longer period than they now do,\nbecause the instruction received shall be such as will be valuable to them\nin the business world. We claim the right to a course which shall offer a\ntraining in the commercial vocation equal in value to that which is now\noffered for the several professional vocations. The aim of this course\nshould not be to draw studepts from the others, but rather to enlarge the\nscope of the high school. Neither is it intended that such a course should\nsupersede the business colleges of this country. The high schools have\nnot- driven out the private preparatory schools. They have, however,\nstimulated them to renewed activity, and compelled them constantly to\nincrease the effectiveness of the courses offered. The aim of the commer-\n\n"}
{"page": 871, "printed_page": null, "text": "'Department]\n\nBUSINESS\n\nEDUCATION\n\n86 1\n\ncial course should be to supply that form of a business education which\nthe business colleges cannot. It is not expected that this course will be\nable to make successful business men any more than medical and law\nschools are able to produce successful doctors and lawyers. On the other\nhand, it should not strive to make mere bookkeepers or clerks. While it\nmay not make a finished man, it should give him power. It need not\nnecessarily be narrow merely because it is professional. Its aim should\nbe to train the mind along certain channels which it must take in following a business career. It should not aim to give simply what will be\nof immediate use, but rather principles which will give the possessor a\ngrasp of things that will enable him successfully to master difficulties as\nthey arise. And a special reason for the establishment of such a course is\nto be found in our present foreign relations. The entire policy of our\ncountry may be changed, as a result of the war in which we are now\nengaged, in which case the business man will be more than ever an\nimportant factor.\nThe course outlined- for you today is one which is probably different\nfrom what many of you would select. I am not sure but that a year hence\nI would advocate some changes in minor points, but so far as the general\nprinciples are concerned, it is one which, I think, could be introduced in\nevery high school in our country without danger as to the effect upon the\npresent students, with benefit to the students whom it would attract, and\nwith no detriment to any part of our educational system. I favor, of\ncourse, a commercial course coequal in length, number of studies pursued, and intensity of work with all other courses offered in the same school.\nShort courses weaken the effect in the minds of the students as to their\nvalue, have a tendency to draw the poor students from all other courses,\nand are generally unsatisfactory. The experience in the European schools\nwhere the commercial course has been given side by side with the others is\nthat it has been neglected. If the same is to be true in this country, then\nthe work should be offered in separate commercial high schools. If it can\nbe accorded a place side by side with the others, it would be better for all.\nIt would then be possible for those pursuing other courses to take a small\namount of work along this special line, if they so desired. It is also\nprobable that, by coming in contact with students pursuing other lines of\nwork, the mental horizon of the commercial student would be broadened.\nWith regard to English you will notice that the work is largely that which\nmay be called \"unprepared.\" I believe composition work to be the point\nat which we need to bestir ourselves the most. I should like to see the\nprinciple of \"every teacher a teacher of English\" so emphasized that it\nwill be impossible for a student to receive credit in any subject, no matter\nhow correct may be the paper with regard to that particular topic, if it is\nfaulty in English.\nIn conclusion, I cannot help but express the hope that the work in\n\n"}
{"page": 872, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n862\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Business\n\nhigher commercial education begun at the Wharton School of Finance,\nand now being inaugurated in the universities of Chicago and California,\nwill continue to grow until the time shall come when the completion of\nsome such a course as is presented here today may be considered sufficient\npreparation for admission to any college or university in the land.\nCOURSE\n\nOF STUDY\n\nFOR\n\nA COMMERCIAL\n\nFIRST\nFIRST\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\nYEAR\nSEMESTER\n\nGerman, Spanish, or French .......\nAlgebra •-United States History ........\nEnglish ...\nSECOND\n\nSEMESTER\n\nGerman, Spanish, or French\nCommercial Arithmetic\nModern History\nCorrespondence and Penmanship\nSECOND\nFIRST\n\nYEAR\nSEMESTER\n\nGerman, Spanish, or French\nAlgebra .....\nPhysical, Commercial, and Industrial Geography\nFree-hand and Instrumental Drawing\nEnglish\n.....\nSECOND\n\nSEMESTER\n\nGerman, Spanish, or French\nBookkeeping\nBotany or Biology\nTypewriting\nEnglish\nTHIRD\n\nYEAR\n\nFIRST\n\nSEMESTER\n\nSECOND\n\nSEMESTER\n\nGerman, Spanish, or French\nAccounting\nCivil Government\nChemistry\nEnglish\n\n.---.German, Spanish, or French\nOffice Work, and Customs and Methods of Business\nCommercial Law, and National and Foreign Commercial Legislation\nIndustrial Chemistry _.....\nEnglish ........\nFOURTH\nFIRST\n\nYEAR\nSEMESTER\n\n.\n.\n.\nGerman, Spanish, or French\n........\nPhysics\n\n.\n\n"}
{"page": 873, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nEXPECTATIONS\n\nCONCERNING\n\nBUSINESS\n\nEDUCATION\n\nHistory of Commerce and Industries\nStudy of Products and Fabrics\n...---English Literature\n•\nSECOND\n\n863\n\n-\n\n4\n4\n5\n\nSEMESTER\n\nGerman, Spanish, or French ...---.4\nPhysics --4\nEconomics\n.....---.4\nGeometry .....-----5\nAmerican Literature ......-3\nRemarks. — i. The above outline presupposes a study of business forms in the eighth grade, and enough\nof bookkeeping to enable one to keep a private cash account.\na. The figures to the right indicate the number of recitation periods per week.\n3. Black-faced figures indicate that the lessons should not require extended outside work.\n4. Stenography may be substituted for any ten hours' work. No credit for the study of a foreign language\nshould be given unless it has been pursued at least two years. If, therefore, stenography is substituted for\none year of a language, but one foreign language can be taken.\n5. Each student should be required to devote at least three hours per week to systematic physical development and one hour per week to acquirmg the art of public speaking.\n\nREASONABLE\n\nBY HON. LYMAN\n\nEXPECTATIONS\nCONCERNING\nEDUCATION\nJ. GAGE, SECRETARY OF THE\nSTATES\n\nTREASURY\n\nBUSINESS\n\nOF THE\n\nUNITED\n\nIt is a great honor — one in the present instance dubiously deserved —\nto be called upon to speak to a company as large as this, where nearly\nall of the units composing the group are fully certified to as carefully\neducated persons. One may well fear the exercise of a long-established\nhabit of criticism, which it is the educator's duty to constantly observe\nand fittingly apply.\nI am asked to talk for a few minutes — if I remember correctly, emphasis was placed on the \"few\" — upon the reasonable expectations in business education. Now, there are evidently three important, but welldifferentiated, parties who may entertain \" expectations\" as they relate to\neducation. These parties are the educator, the educated, and the great\npublic to whom both the others are allied. In reflecting on the theme, I\nthought to take these parties seriatim, and consider from the standpoint\nof each what reasonable expectations each might be justified in cherishing. There is a well-used phrase — very sententious — which has sometimes been found in bad company, to this effect : \"What is there in it for\nme?\" and I asked myself this question, as it affects the educator or the\nteacher: What is there in education — business education, or other — for\nthe teacher or the school ? The answer came promptly : Nothing — next\nto nothing — either in a material or financial way. Much of labor; much\nof anxiety ; many chagrins ; much work seen in advance to be compara-\n\n"}
{"page": 874, "printed_page": null, "text": "864\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\ntively hopeless, as is the tilling of barren ground ; much lack of appreciation, both private and public ; many evidences of absolute ingratitude.\nA discouraging catalog, if there were nothing else ; but there is something else. There is the sense of co-operating in a large work ; the\nconsciousness that one is working to make the world wiser and better. A\ngenerous-minded man once said to me : \" I have given money quite freely\nto relieve the distressed, to soften the bitterness of helpless age, and to\nalleviate the condition of the unfortunate; but there was little or no inspiration in it. When, on the other hand, I have helped a bright boy to\nsecure for himself a good education, my imagination has become affected.\nI saw my dollars — won by hard application in sordid ways — transmuted\ninto intellectual agencies powerful to affect the thoughts and feelings of\ngenerations which will live when I am dead.\" This kind of reward it\nmust be that cheers the educator on. This kind of expectation it must\nchiefly be that the instructor my reasonably cherish.\nSo much has been written, so much has been spoken, on the benefits\nand advantages of education that it requires some courage to try to add\nanything to the stock of eloquent words now recorded in the interest of\nthat great theme.\n\nIt was with this fact in mind, it may be, that the pro-\n\ngram maker asked me to speak upon the \"reasonable expectations in\nbusiness education.\" For it is no doubt true that business education, as\ndistinguished from classical or scientific education, has received but scant\ncourtesy. Indeed, until within a recent period \"business\" has been\nclassed among the vulgar callings. ' In England and the court cities of\nEurope the tradesman of every grade is still held as one not quite worthy\nof consideration among the learned and polite. Happily in our more democratic land class distinctions, class prejudices, have less influence. Man\nis here considered for what he is. Does he possess elements of power ?\nIs his character upright, are his ways honorable ? Does he possess genius\nfor useful work ? Can he create or co-ordinate varied forces of production and commerce ? Has he the fair and simple manners of a gentleman ? These are the tests which determine the degree of acceptability to\nAmerican social life. But it is not more than one lifetime since business\neducation, as such, received even here no recognition as education at all.\nThose who ventured to establish schools, with a limited curriculum,\ndesigned especially to train the young for the practical affairs of business\nlife were classed as dangerous innovators. On the contrary, they were\npioneers of progress, and the roads they have opened will never again be\nclosed. The paths of preparation by which the young can now become\nthe better fitted for the world's work are numerous, and happily there be\nmany who walk therein.\nWithout attempting to be very nice or strictly accurate in the\nclassification, education may be considered under at least four subdivisions\n:\n,\n\n"}
{"page": 875, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nEXPECTATIONS\n\nCONCERNING\n\nBUSINESS\n\nEDUCATION\n\n865\n\n1. Manual training, that which relates to the education of the hand\nand eye.\n2. Business education, as represented in our commercial schools and\ncolleges. They deal with the elements of calculation. They inform the\nmind upon systems of industrial exchanges, trade, insurance, transportation, and banking.\n3. Scientific education, which has to do with laws of nature in relation\nto physics, chemistry, etc.\n4. Classical education, which relates to history, art, literature, philosophy.\nNow, these all mark, in their progressive order, the advancement of\nmind and the progress of man in comprehending himself aijd his environment. But if we were to place emphasis on the relative value to the\nhuman family of these four divisions as a whole, that emphasis must be\nplaced in the order stated. It is better that the many should possess\nmoderate intelligence than that the few should be superlatively wise. A\nknowledge of simple mechanics, gained thru manual training, may\ngive useful bent to millions. It kindles in the mind a taste for inquiry,\nand. awakens a profound deference to the moral laws.\nNature is true to herself, exciting in the student an appreciation of a\nstraight line — of a perfect cube, all the sides equal ; teaching him that to\nshape wood or iron, or to make fine tools of steel, he must obey the\nlaws by which all these things are done. He learns that obedience to formula is the condition of achievement. Loving, as I have said, a straight\nline, he cannot love a lie. Perceiving the beauty and power of the physical laws, he is carried over to an admiration of and sympathy for the\nbeauty and power of the moral laws.\nThe influence and effect of a business education are not dissimilar. It\nopens the mind to a comprehension of that distributive system of commerce by which the division of labor is made possible. It shows the\nstudent the interdependence between agriculture and transportation,\nbetween manufacturing and ilisurance. It reveals to him the principles\nand details of the banking system, that great and useful mediator in all\nindustry and commerce. He learns the power and usefulness of credit,\nby whose aid things are produced, transformed, and passed on to the\nconsumer. He becomes familiar with the various instruments of the\nworld's exchanges, such as books of account, promissory notes, bills of\nexchange, ships and railroads. He learns, or ought to learn, the legal\nsanctities which have been thrown around all evidences of claims and\ntitles. If a diligent student in a proper business school, he will acquire\na mental grasp of the simpler principles of political economy, for there\nare axiomatic truths here, as there are in mechanics and mathematics.\nThat the wages paid to labor cannot exceed the value of the product is\nas simple a proposition as that the part cannot be greater than the whole.\n\n"}
{"page": 876, "printed_page": null, "text": "866\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nThat wealth is the surplus of useful things, left over beyond the cost or\nexhaustion of producing them, is equally simple and true. Resting on\nthis satisfying conception, he can no longer be befooled with the idea\nthat wealth can be increased by diminishing the measure by which it is\ncounted, whether that measure be yardsticks, dollars, or weights in avoirdupois.\nThus in the business school, as in manual training, perhaps even to a\nhigher degree, we learn that happiness and success come by observing\nand obeying the truth as it is revealed in the natural relationship of\nnature to man, and of man to his fellows. Over us and beyond our control everywhere and always there exist these relationships. Tho unrecognized, yet, if violated, they bring confusion and misery ; recognized and\nobeyed, they bring harmony and peace. \" To know this is true wisdom\nand manhood, and the ignorance of this is too plainly folly and vice.\"\nWhat, then, are the \"reasonable expectations in business education\" which\nwe are justified in cherishing ? Let us not overestimate this. Without\noverstatement, we have the right to expect from the graduates of business\nschools and colleges a thoro theoretical knowledge of all the machinery,\ntools, and methods by which real business life, in its multiplied forms, is\ncarried on. We have a right to expect that the. young men and women\nwill go out from these schools with their moral perceptions of the true,\nthe beautiful, and the good increased and strengthened. As the\nmechanic must love a straight line, a perfect cube, and that emblem\nof eternity, a perfect circle, so must the student in accounts and business\nrules come to love an exact balance. A balance in accounts artificially\nforced to secure the appearance of a just balance is an unforgivable\noffense, a damning lie. All justice cries out against it, and the educated\nperpetrator of such an offense is self-condemned as a criminal and a\ncoward. The principles of justice and equity which underlie commercial\nlaw, the honorable obligations involved in the relations of debt and\ncredit, these all impress the mind, and are inevitably carried upward with\nmore or less power into all of life's relationships. We have, therefore,\na right to expect from those thus taught a better citizenship, a higher\nmanhood, a purer moral character.\nBut what of business success, of material advancement, of the acquisition of wealth, power, and fame ? For it is these, or the expectation of\nthese, in too large a degree, perhaps, that allures the student along this\nspecial branch of study. Can we confidently expect these as the\nuniform, never-failing result of a thoro business training ? The answer\nmust be in the negative. Such results cannot be guaranteed. The preparation we are considering will be a most helpful factor. This is the\nbest that can be said. The prizes of life do not always come to the most\ndeserving. Many things must co-operate to bring in great results.\nInnate ability, which schools cannot furnish, must find conjunction with\n\n"}
{"page": 877, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nBUSINESS\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n867\n\nconditions, circumstances, opportunities which lie out of individual control. Do you find a man great, distinguished, a business Saul among his\nbrethren ? Do not worship him overmuch. Perchance among the\nhumble and unrecognized are a score or a hundred as worthy as he, to\nwhom circumstances and opportunity did not come.\nThe poet sings of the many pearls obscured in ocean depths, which\nnever grace a gilded coronet ; of flowers perfect in «olor and fragrance,\nbearing witness to their beauty only in the desert air. Such also is the\nnot infrequent fate of modest excellence in all the ways and walks of life.\nTo be prepared, to be ready to meet the requirements of time, place,\nand opportunity — this it is to have really achieved, whether the large\nplace, the large opportunity, comes or not. With business education\nmore general, we may expect a better order of business men in all places,\nboth great and small. We may expect less waste, fewer insolvencies.\nThe world's work is to be better done ; the individual life, dignified and,\nexalted by higher ideals and purer ethics, will tend more and more to\nreach that high plane which we may well believe it to be the purpose of\nGod that we all attain.\n\nBUSINESS\n\nBY PROFESSOR\n\nEDUCATION\n\nEMORY\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nHIGH\n\nR. JOHNSON, UNIVERSITY\nPHILADELPHIA, PA.\n\nSCHOOL\n\nOF PENNSYLVANIA,\n\nA discussion of business education in the high school naturally\ninvolves the consideration of two questions : Ought there to be included\nin the American public high-school system an educational course or curriculum constructed with especial reference to the vocational needs of the\nstudents who are looking forward to a business career ? And, second, if\nbusiness education has a proper place in the public high school, what\nshould be its nature and scope ?\nThe general reasons why definite and adequate provision for business\neducation should be made in the public high school have been so\nfrequently and ably presented by educationists and business men that it\nwould be supererogation for me to repeat them at length on this occasion.\nThe argument for this education rests on a dual basis : the educational\nneeds of the public demand it, and it is requisite to the best development\nof our high-school system.\nThe high school is the institution of last resort for the great majority\nof boys and girls who carry their studies beyond the elementary grades.\nIt is the institution in which are developed the ideals and powers which\nare to control the spirit and efficiency with which they perform the civic\n\n"}
{"page": 878, "printed_page": null, "text": "868\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nand economic duties that their subsequent lives will exact of them.\n\nLife\n\nis complex, and its duties are diversified ; but the high-school instruction,\nas at present organized, requires nearly the same work of all pupils. Altho\nmany schools have two courses, the classical and the scientific, the studies\noffered in each course are usually all required of every boy or girl pursuing the work of the course. Moreover, the contents of both courses are\nsuch as rather to prepare the pupil for the subsequent pursuit of those\n• special studies which fit for entrance into some learned or technical profession, than to give the young person that education which will incline\nhim to business pursuits, and give him the knowledge and mental habits\nthat will help him to become an intelligent and successful business man.\nThe young men or the boys who expect to enter business when their school\ndays are over — and they constitute the majority of the boys to whom the\npursuit of a high-school course is possible — find that no course of study\n,has been provided in our public-school system by means of which that\nsecondary education can be secured which is essential and requisite for\nhim to possess who aspires to become an educated business man.\nThe result of this is that but few boys graduate from the high schools\nbefore entering the business shops, stores, and offices. Indeed, if there be\ndeducted from the high-school graduates those persons who have pursued\nsecondary studies as a preparation for teaching, or for the higher studies\nwhich prepare for admission to the various professions, those remaining\nwill constitute but a small percentage of even the relatively limited number of our youths who complete the work of the high school. The high\nschool is at present not appealing to the boys with business ambitions as\nstrongly as it ought.\nThis statement suggests the other basis upon which the argument for\nbusiness education in the high school rests. In order for the high school\nto attain that measure of development which will enable it to fulfill the\neducational functions which it ought to exercise, it must include within\nits work of instruction those studies which are needed by the boys and\ngirls who are to enter the business callings. As Professor Edmund J.\nJames has said in his well-known report on The Education of Business\nMen in Europe: \"We can conquer the uneducated and half-educated\npeople of this country for secondary and higher education only by offering them courses of study which, while they are of a strictly educational\ncharacter in the best sense of the word, shall also have some bearing on\ntheir future everyday life, shall have some direct relation to the work\nthey are called upon to do in the world.\"\nThe practices and experiences of foreign countries confirm the soundness of these theoretical reasons for including business education in the\nAmerican high schools. It is true that there are few, if any, foreign\ninstitutions which can be bodily and without change successfully transplanted to another country.\nLike most exotics, they will not flourish in\n\n"}
{"page": 879, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nBUSINESS\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n869\n\nthe unnatural environment, but in the case of educational institutions\nthere is seldom any difficulty in one country's adopting the spirit and\nideals which the experience of o'ther nations has shown to be of value.\nIn Austria, France, Germany, Belgium, and Italy, and in Japan,\nbusiness education has come to be recognized as an essential part of the\neducational system of each country. The degree of development varies\nin the different countries, Germany having the most fully organized plan\nof business education, industrial and commercial, of both higher and\nlower grades. Five years ago there were fifty-five schools in the German\nempire of the rank of commercial high schools, with an attendance of\n5,68i pupils. Some of these institutions are supported by merchant\nguilds, some by cities, and others by the state. Besides these schools there\nare commercial classes and commercial courses connected with the real\nschools {Realschulen), and supported by the state and the cities. The\ncommercial high schools of Germany are largely attended by foreigners\nas well as by Germans. The success of these institutions of elementary\nand secondary rank is evidenced by the fact that a state commercial\nschool of an advanced grade, corresponding to our colleges, has just\nrecently been opened in Leipzig. With the increase of these higher\ninstitutions for business education, as the public demand shows the need\nfor them, Germany will cover the entire field of business education in a\nsystematic manner.\nAccording to Professor James' report, already referred to, there are in\nAustria thirteen commercial academies, or high schools, as we would call\nthem, with an attendance, in 1893, of about three thousand pupils. Besides\nthese there were reported to be 104 institutions covering very much the\nsame ground as is occupied by the commercial colleges in this country.\nIn France there are two commercial high schools in Paris, and one in\neach of the six cities, Lyons, Marseilles, Rouen, Rheiius, Havre, and Bordeaux. Besides these so-called superior schools of commerce, there is at\nParis a school of higher commercial studies, in which the more advanced\ngrades of business education are covered. The school at Rheims is now\na state institution ; the Rouen school is controlled by another educational\ninstitution ; the other six schools are controlled by commercial corporations ;all are subsidized by the state. In Belgium there is the well-known\nSuperior Institute of Commerce at Antwerp, supported three-fourths by the\ngovernment of Belgium and one-fourth by the city of Antwerp. This institution has a course covering three years, the latter two of which are made\nup of studies more advanced than those of secondary education. In\nItaly a school of commerce is to be found in Venice, Florence, Turin,\nGenoa, Naples, Rome, and some other smaller cities.\nThe success of these schools abroad shows that there is a real demand\nfor business education of a kind that is not now obtainable in this country.\nThe prevalence of foreign students in these schools — two-fifths of the\n\n"}
{"page": 880, "printed_page": null, "text": "870\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\ntotal enrollment at the Antwerp school consisting of foreigners — shows\nthat the value of their educational work is recognized by the people of\nother countries.\nThe advocates of the inclusion of business education in the public highschool system are supported, not only by the theories of educationists and\nthe educational practice and experience of foreign countries, but also by the\nactive co-operation of many prominent business men who are working to\nfurther business education in America. The views of men like the late\nWilliam H. Rhawn, ex-president of the American Bankers' Association ;\nMr. Theodore C. Search, president of the National Association of Manufacturers ofthe United States, and Mr. John H. Converse, of the Baldwin\nLocomotive Works, and others who might be cited, carry much weight.\nIn a letter recently written, Mr. Converse says : \" I consider it eminently\ndesirable that there should be a commercial high school, or commercial\ncourse in the existing high school ; experience will show which is better.\nIn any event there should be, I think, in connection with our secondary\nschools a commercial course which should be optional, but not obligatory.\nI would go even farther than this and say that there should be in our\nuniversities a commercial course as an elective or supplementary to the\nregular course.\" Tho this last sentence is somewhat foreign to the\nsubject under consideration in this paper, it deserves quotation, because\nit illustrates the liberal views of education held by many successful and\ninfluential business men.\nThe other consideration involved in this discussion is the nature and\nscope which business education in the high school should have. What\nkind of education ought the high-school system to develop, if it is to\nprovide courses framed with reference to the vocational needs of boys\nwho are to go into business ?\nThe first fact to be emphasized in considering this question is that\nbusiness education in the high school should be no less liberal, no less\neducational, than that received by the pupils who pursue the courses now\noffered in the existing high schools. Tho intended to minister to the\nneeds of prospective business men, business education in the high school\nshould not be technical, in the sense of teaching the technique of business. The ideal should not be to train pupils in the arts of business ;\nthe aim should not be to turn out skilled clerks, but young men with an\neducation that will enable them in due time to take their place in the\nranks of educated business men. Before the would-be physician gives\nattention to the art or practice side of his chosen profession, he takes a\ncourse of study whose core is made up of certain natural sciences. He\nstudies the interaction of forces in that large world of life of which man\nis a part, that he may understand the relation of man to that larger world,\nand be able to know and deal intelligently with the forces which control\nman's physical well-being.\n\nSimilarly, the boy who expects to enter some\n\n"}
{"page": 881, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department I\n\nBUSINESS\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n871\n\nparticular field of business needs to study the laws and forces which\nobtain in the larger realm of business, and to analyze the political and\nsocial forces which dominate the social world in which he is to live and\ncarry on the special business of his choice. The technology of business should be given only an incidental place in high-school business\neducation.\nThe core of the instruction given should consist of the social sciences.\nEconomics, the science of business affairs, should rank first in importance,\nand the instruction given should cover the various branches of practical\neconomics as well as the theory of the science. Industrial and commercial\nhistory should form an important part of the instruction in economics.\nPolitical science, or the study of civic society, should rank next to economics. The political organization of society should be studied in all its\nmore important phases. These courses in the social sciences, constituting\nthe core of the instruction given, should, most of them, be required of all\nstudents. The work in English and in accounting should also be required of\nall, and should be comprehensive and practical. If feasible, most of the\nother courses offered should be made elective. The modern languages\nshould be given a prominent place as electives ; courses in general and\napplied mathematics should be available, and the natural sciences, especially physics and chemistry, should be open to election.\nIn introducing busijiess education into our high-school system, the\nprinciple of elective studies and selective courses should be accepted at\nthe outset. The acceptance of this principle does not compel us to disregard the disciplinary value of high-school studies. All high-school\neducation should be disciplinary, and, by making the studies which constitute the core of instruction in each course required work for those\npupils pursuing that particular course, the disciplinary character of the\neducation will not be lost. We have long since abandoned the notion\nthat there is only one combination of studies possessing disciplinary\nvalue. The required studies in the social sciences, as indicated above,\nwould comprise from one-third to one-half of the pupil's work ; the rest\nof his work should be selected by him, aided by the counsel of teachers\nand parents, with reference to the vocation which he intends to follow\nwhen his school days are ended. The vocational needs of the pupils will\nbe varied, and the range of selection should be made as large as the\nschool can afford.\nBusiness education in the high school should be both disciplinary and\nselective. There is no reason why it cannot be both liberal and of vocational value. In a recent address on the \" Scope and Function of\nSecondary Education,\" Professor Nicholas Murray Butler closed with the\nfollowing paragraph :\nA secondary education that is both disciplinary and selective is of unusual importance in this country on both social and political grounds.\nDeniocracy needs intelligent\n\n"}
{"page": 882, "printed_page": null, "text": "872\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nand trained leadership — leadership in public policy, leadership in industry, in commerce,\nin finance, leadership in art and in letters. The basis of training for leadership is laid in\nthe secondary schools, where the directive capacity of the nation is serving its apprenticeship. There the majority of men and women who are to guide the destinies of the\nnext generation are putting forth their powers and testing their strength ; out of a variety\nof intellectual interests, nature and environment lead them to make a selection. Training— persistent, thorough, broad — in the field chosen is the surest guarantee, if one\ncan be given, of future success and of future usefulness.'\n\nIt will doubtless be argued that the scheme here outlined of business\neducation in the high school, whatever may be its merits as an ideal, is\nimpracticable because of the difficulties in the way of securing its adoption and putting it into operation. The argument has force ; it is usually\nmuch easier to secure half than the whole of a desired reform. It is\nnevertheless always of advantage to have a clear concept of the ideal to\nbe ultimately attained; the half-way measures secured will be better if we\nclearly conceive what whole-way measures would be. The advocates of\nbusiness, education in the high school should strive for the proximately\nobtainable; but should not, while doing this, lose sight of the ideal, nor\ncease working for its ultimate attainment. As regards the relative merits\nof selective courses of study as compared with the course of study in which\nthe same work is required of all pupils, I am convinced that it will not\nbe long before the superiority of selective work will have been generally\nacknowledged. The selective system has triumphed in higher education,\nand it will surely win in the field of secondary study.\nA practical question of much importance, and one that ought to be\ngiven careful consideration by American cities, is whether the business\neducation of the secondary schools should be provided for in separate\ninstitutions by establishing business or commercial high schools, or should\nbe inaugurated by adding a commercial or business course to the existing\nliterary high schools. In New York the plan which has been adopted\ncontemplates the establishment of a commercial high school as one of\nthe four high schools with which the city is to be supplied. In Philadelphia the board of education has just recently adopted a course of study\nto be given in a department of commerce connected with the Boys'\nCentral High School. The course will be inaugurated with the opening of the academic year of 1898-99. The experience of foreign countries\nwhere business education has become a successful and permanent feature\nof secondary education is on the side of separate institutions devoted\nentirely to the work of business education. Professor James says concerning the experience of Austria :\nThe same experience has been met in Austria as in other countries, that the\nattempt to develop commercial courses side by side with other courses in the same\ninstitution has not been successful.\nGenerally speaking, such courses have given\n'Cf. the Educational Review, Vol. XVI, No. i, pp. 26, 27.\n\n"}
{"page": 883, "printed_page": null, "text": "Dcpartraent]\n\nBUSINESS\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n873\n\nsatisfaction to no class of people ; they interfere with the healthy development of other\ncourses in the institution, and are uniformly neglected by the authorities of the institution with which they are connected.'\n\nThis discussion of business education in the high school cannot properly be brought to a close without calling attention to the fact that\nbusiness education should not be confined to secondary education. The\nhigh schools of this country should develop the best possible system of\nsecondary business education. Like the work of all high schools, the\nbusiness or commercial high schools should be organized with reference\nto the needs of the community, and not with regard to the demands of\nthe higher institutions of learning. Its courses should be outlined primarily with reference to the educational needs of those who are to\nengage in active business pursuits upon the completion of their highschool studies, for they will always constitute the majority of the pupils.\nBut, however well the high schools may carry on the work of business\neducation, they can no more give the future business man the education\nwhich he needs in order adequately to meet the requirements which his\nstation in life will exact of him than can the literary and scientific courses\nof the existing American high school furnish that liberal culture needed\nby those who are to enter upon studies that prepare for professional\ncareers. Both the business man and the professional man need higher\neducation. As the director of the Leipzig Commercial Institute has\nwell said: \"The large dealer has no less important functions to perform than the educated individuals of other classes, and he can -fulfill\nthem satisfactorily only if he is willing to give as much time and care to\nhis education as the members of other classes are willing to give to\ntheirs.'\"\nThe higher education of business men has made more progress in\nthis country than has secondary. The Wharton School of Finance and\nEconomy of the University of Pennsylvania has been in successful operation for sixteen years, and three other universities have recently established schools similarly organized. The University of Chicago and the\nState University of California will each inaugurate a \"college of commerce\" this autumn, and the authorities of the University of Missouri\nwill open such a college as soon as the legislature appropriates the requisite funds.\nThe necessity for providing, both in secondary and higher institutions\nof learning, educational courses adapted to the vocational needs of prospective business men is fast gaining public recognition. It is the special\nduty and privilege of educators to formulate clearly the ideals which\nshould pervade this new field of education.\n' Cf . Education of Business Men in Europe, p. 52.\n^ Ibid, p. 162.\n\n"}
{"page": 884, "printed_page": null, "text": "874\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n2 HE ADMINISTRATION AND BOOKKEEPING\nNATIONAL BANK\nBY GEORGE\n\nM. COFFIN,\n\nDEPUTY CONTROLLER\nWASHINGTON, D. C.\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\n[Business\n\nOF A\n\nCURRENCY,\n\nBefore entering upon a discussion of the administration and bookkeeping of a national bank, some definite knowledge of the system under\nwhich such banks are operated is essential.\nNATIONAL\n\nBANK\n\nSYSTEM\n\nThe national banking system was evolved in 1863 out of the exigencies of a great civil war. To meet the cost of this war the government\nhad to borrow huge amounts, and needed besides large sums of money to\npay its current expenses. It had already issued directly about 1^450,000,000 of paper money familiarly called \"greenbacks,\" but needed more.\nSo the government made to the banks then operating under state charters, and to any new banks which would organize, this proposition : If a\nbank will buy $100,000 United States bonds, the government will lend the\nbank $90,000 of national bank currency, holding the bonds as security for\nthe currency, which the bank could immediately issue to circulate as\nmoney. The currency is practically a loan to the bank by the government on the collateral security of its bonds, which the bank can regain\nonly by depositing with the government lawful money equal to the currency ithas received.\nThe theory upon which these banks were created is that the issuing of\ncurrency to circulate as money is one of the constitutional powers granted\nto the general government, and that, while the government has not the\npower to create corporations for conducting ordinary business enterprises,\nit could create them for the purpose of performing such governmental\nfunctions as might be delegated to them.\nIn addition to this power to issue currency the banks were permitted\nto do what is known as a commercial banking business, and the system, as\nit stands today after a test of thirty-five years, represents, with some\nexceptions, the very best type of commercial banking on a most widely\nextended scale. Altho the currency now issued by them amounts to\na large sum, being about $200,000,000, this feature is dwarfed in contrast\nwith the business of receiving deposits and lending money; for on May\n5, 1898, the aggregated reports of condition from 3,586 national banks\nthen doing business, with a capital of nearly $900,000,000, show that\nthey held individual deposits amounting to about $2,000,000,000, and at\nthe same time had loaned the enormous sum of $2,097,094,235, besides\n\n"}
{"page": 885, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department J\n\nBANK\n\nADMINISTRATION\n\nAND\n\nBOOKKEEPING\n\n875\n\nhaving on hand about $460,000,000 in cash, held as a reserve against their\ndeposits. The capital was contributed by over 281,000 shareholders and\ndeposits made by about 2,000,000 depositors.\nThere is no mystery about national banking. The shareholders who\ncontribute the required capital stock invest it with the hope of making a\nreasonable profit, and at fhe risk of losing it all and as much more. For\nthe past few years the enormous sum of $900,000,000 capital invested\nin national banks has earned only about 5 per cent, average profit per\nannum.\nPOWERS\n\nOF\n\nA NATIONAL\n\nBANK\n\nA clear idea of the powers and privileges conferred upon a national\nbank is conveyed by the language of paragraph 7, section 5136, of the\nnational bank act, as follows :\n\"To exercise by its board of directors or duly authorized officers or\nagents, subject to law, all such incidental powers as shall be necessary to\ncarry on the business of banking ; by discounting and negotiating promissory notes, drafts, bills of exchange, and other evidences of debt ; by\nreceiving deposits ; by buying and selling exchange, coin and bullion ;\nby loaning money on personal security ; and by obtaining, issuing and\ncirculating notes according to the provisions of this title.\"\nThe chief objects, therefore, for which these banks are organized are:\n1. The receiving of deposits.\n2. The loanitig of money on personal property.\n3. The buying and selling of exchange.\n4. The issuing of circulation secured by pledge of United States bonds.\nThe intent of the law appears to have been to create institutions which,\nhaving a certain amount of cash capital stock actually paid in as a guaranty for the safety of depositors, should act as agents or trustees for the\nsafekeeping of funds deposited with them, subject usually to withdrawal\nupon demand. In order that these banks shall be able to respond\npromptly to such demands, they are required to keep on hand in lawful\nmoney a certain proportion of their deposits, varying between 15 and\n25 per cent. They are permitted to loan out the remainder of their\ndeposits on personal security, upon the assumption that their loans will\nbe made for short periods of time, and so may be quickly convertible into\nfunds wherewith to repay their depositors when necessary.\nAs a further precaution in this direction they are forbidden to make\nloans secured by real estate, or by their own stock, or to purchase the\nstock of other corporations for investment.\nADMINISTRATION\n\nVESTED\n\nIN\n\nDIRECTORS\n\nThe administration of the affairs of a national bank is vested by law in\nthe board of directors, the number of whom in no- cas^ is less than five.\n\n"}
{"page": 886, "printed_page": null, "text": "876\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nThese directors, elected annually by the shareholders of the bank, have\nthe power to appoint all oflficers and clerks, define their duties, require\nbonds of them and fix the penalty thereof; to dismiss any officer or employee\nat pleasure, and appoint another to fill his place ; to prescribe by-laws, not\ninconsistent with law, regulating the manner in which the bank's stock\nshall be transferred, its directors and other officers elected or appointed,\nand its general business conducted.\nEach director, when elected, must take an oath that he will, so far as\nthe duty devolves on him, intelligently and honestly administer the affairs\nof the bank, and will not knowingly or willingly permit to be violated any\nof the provisions of the national bank act, and that he is the owner in\ngood faith of at least ten shares of stock in the bank, which must not in\nany way be pledged as security for any debt.\nADMINISTRATION\n\nAND\n\nBOOKKEEPING\n\nIt is now in order to discuss in detail the administration of a national\nbank, which necessarily includes the bookkeeping.\nBefore a national bank with $100,000 capital stock can commence\nbusiness it must have $50,000 actually paid in, and must buy and deposit\nwith the treasurer United States bonds having $25,000 par or market\nvalue as security for $22,500 currency which it receives as soon as printed\nby the government. The remaining $50,000 of capital must be paid in\nwithin five months after the bank begins business. When the full amount\nof each share ($100) is paid in, a certificate of stock, signed by the president and cashier, is issued to each shareholder, stating the number of\nshares to which he is entitled. A record of all shares issued must be kept\non the stubs from which the certificates are detached, and also in a \"stock\nledger,\" which contains an account with each shareholder, showing date\nof issue, and number and par value of shares held by him. Whenever a\nshareholder transfers his stock by sale to someone else, he must indorse the\ncertificate to the new holder, who surrenders it to the bank and receives a\nnew certificate in his own name. The bank cancels the old certificate,\nattaches it to its stub, and on the stock ledger charges the account of the\nformer holder, and opens an account with the purchaser of the stock.\nDEPOSITS\nAbout the first business a new bank does is to receive deposits. The\ndepositor takes his money or checks to an oflftcer called the receiving\n\"teller,\" which, by derivation, means one who keeps \"tally.\" The amount\nof checks, paper money, gold, silver, or small coin stated on a printed\ndeposit ticket is handed with the deposit to the teller, who, on first deposit,\ngives the depositor a pass-book, in which are entered amount and date of\ndeposit, and usually a book of blank checks with which to draw out his\ndeposit when desired.\nOnly about 10 per cent, of bank deposits are\n\n"}
{"page": 887, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nBANK\n\nADMINISTRATION\n\nAND\n\nBOOKKEEPING\n\n877\n\nmade in actual money, about 90 per cent, being checks and drafts. The\ndepositor writes his signature and address on a card or in a book kept by\nthe bank to prove the genuineness of his signature on the checks he may\ndraw. The teller enters the amount of the deposit in a book, placing the\nticket on file, from which it is taken later by the keeper of the \" individual\nledger,\" in which is kept an account with each depositor, showing in one\ncolumn his deposits, in a second the checks paid, and in a third the balance remaining to his credit. Such a ledger is called the three-column\nor balance ledger.\nWhen the depositor wishes to withdraw any money, he presents his\ncheck, payable to bearer at the bank, to an officer called the \"paying\nteller,\" tho in a small bank the receiving and paying are both done by\nthe same teller. Or he gives his check payable to bearer or order to someone else, who may either draw the money or deposit the check. ' The paying teller being satisfied that the signature is genuine, and that the\ndepositor has the proper amount to his credit, pays the check in such\nmoney as the holder prefers from the supply of currency furnished him\nfor this purpose. Having paid the check, he records the amount in a\nbook, and stamps it \"paid\" across the face, placing it on file, from which it\nis taken later by the individual-ledger bookkeeper, who charges it to the\naccount of. the depositor on his ledger, and changes the amount in the\nbalance column to correspond.\nAt close of the day's business the receiving teller, who commences the\nday with no money on hand, balances his accounts in a book showing the\namount of deposits received on one side and the amount of checks and\nmoney in his possession on the other, which must equal the amount\nreceived, if no error has been made. The paying teller, who begins the\nday with a stated supply of currency, also makes a balance, showing the\namount remaining on hand after deducting total of checks paid during\nthe day. The total of deposits made and of checks paid entered in all\naccounts on the individual ledger must agree with the corresponding totals\non the books of the tellers, if no errors have been made in the postings.\nLOANS\n\nAND\n\nDISCOUNTS\n\nAs the chief profit a bank Uiakes is derived from loaning its capital\nand a portion of its deposits at interest, this feature of the business requires\nthe greatest care and judgment, for if the funds are loaned to borrowers\nwho do not repay them, loss will ensue instead of profit. This department, therefore, calls for the highest display of administrative ability on\nthe part of the directors, whose duty it is to exercise unremitting vigilance and discretion in scrutinizing the financial ability, and, above all,\nthe integrity and punctuality, of borrowers. As a rule, no loans or discounts should be granted by a bank unless approved by the full board of\ndirectors, or at least by a committee of their number specially qualified\n\n"}
{"page": 888, "printed_page": null, "text": "878\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nto be judges of credit. This important duty should never be delegated\nto one director or officer alone. P'rom time to time all the notes and\nobligations upon which loans are made should be carefully examined by\nthe directors, with a view to seeing that accommodations granted are prudent in amount, and that the signatures on the loans and discounts are\ngenuine. Particular attention should be given to paper not paid at\nmaturity, called overdue, in order to collect it or make it secure. Each\nnote, when discounted, should be numbered sequentially, to give it an\nindividuality, and recorded by the discount clerk in a register giving\nproper details as to makers, indorsers, collateral security, and date of\nmaturity. Usually loans granted by national banks are made on promissory notes signed by one party and indorsed by another, called two-name\npaper, or on notes made by one party secured by collateral of stocks or\nbonds made payable to bank by assignment. Sometimes loans are made\non notes made by one party without security of indorsement or collateral ;\nthis is called single-name paper. A list of all loans and discounts, arranged\naccording to the dates when they fall due, should be kept in a book called\n\"discount tickler,\" from which notices reminding borrowers when to pay\nare sent out, and the payment or non-payment of notes at maturity can\nbe conveniently seen. To a large extent national banks collect notes and\ndrafts belonging to their customers, and the same bookkeeping and care\nshould be applied to these as to those which belong to the bank.\nEXCHANGE\n\nAn important branch of business is the buying of checks and drafts\non banks or individuals in other places, and the selling of checks on other\nbanks, called buying and selling exchange. The blank checks are either\nbound in book form, with stubs sequentially numbered, or put up in pads\nwithout stubs, with a book sequentially numbered in place of stubs for\nrecording amount, date, etc. The exchange bought is forwarded by mail\nfor collection to other banks, upon which the bank remitting them draws\nexchange. For each such correspondent bank an account must be kept\nby the bank in a ledger showing amounts remitted in one column,\namounts drawn in another, and the balance due in a third.\nCLEARING-HOUSE\n\nWhere there are several banks in one place, there is usually a very\nimportant and labor-saving arrangement between them called the \"clearing-house.\" Each bank usually receives on deposit or for collection\nchecks or drafts drawn on its neighbors, and the clearing-house is a\nplan for a representative from each bank to meet every day at a stated\nhour and convenient place to make a mutual exchange of checks, paying\nonly the balance due from or to each other in money. This accomplishes\nan immense saving of actual currency.\n\nAs an illustration, the clearing-\n\n"}
{"page": 889, "printed_page": null, "text": "Dcpartmentl\n\nBANK\n\nADMINISTRATION\n\nAND\n\nBOOKKEEPING\n\n879\n\nhouse banks in New York city in 1897 exchanged checks amounting to\nover $31,000,000,000 by paying balances aggregating less than $2,000,000,000, or only about 6 per cent., in actual money.\nGENERAL\n\nLEDGER\n\nThe book in which a general summary of the bank's business is kept is\ncalled the general ledger, with accounts showing all transactions in capital\nstock, profits, deposits due to individuals and banks, circulating notes,\netc., all of which represent \"liabilities,\" or what the bank owes ; and\nsuch accounts as loans and discounts, United States bonds, amounts due\nfrom other banks, and cash, which represent \"resources\" or \"assets,\" or\nwhat a bank owns. A balance of the accounts on this ledger should be\na true statement of the bank's resources and liabilities, and show at a\nglance its actual condition, provided all the books and accounts are\nhonestly and accurately kept.\nQUALIFICATION AND TRAINING OF A BANK ACCOUNTANT\nThe constant verification of all these accounts is a most important\nbranch of bank administration, and this suggests a discussion of the second branch of the subject, viz., the qualifications and training of a bank\naccountant. The essential qualification of any expert accountant is the\nnatural capacity to understand the meaning of figures. The accountant\nis born, not made, for the ability to understand figures is as much a\nnatural talent as that for music, painting, or any other of the fine arts.\nThe best training school for a bank accountant is practical experience\nin all the departments of bank work and bookkeeping, and the clerk\nwho soonest wins success in a bank or any other field is he who, not content to know thoroly only his own duties, is eager to know all he can\nlearn of the duties in all other departments. But the bank accountant\nwho has mastered a knowledge of the work and bookkeeping of the\ntellers, the individual bookkeeper, the discount clerk, the exchange clerk,\nand the general bookkeeper, still has some important things to learn.\nAnd these are how to discover the methods by which books and accounts\nmay be falsified to conceal dishonest acts. A good bank accountant\nshould be able to make a thoro examination of the affairs of a bank, and\nin doing this he should take nothing for granted. In the teller's department every dollar should be actually counted and examined, and every\ncheck and memorandum carefully scrutinized to ascertain that signatures\nare genuine and that the items represent cash value. The only complete\nproof of the correctness of the individual ledger will be the actual comparison of depositors' pass-books with the ledger accounts to see if the\nfigures on both correspond. Thru falsification of depositors' accounts\non the individual ledger the bookkeeper, with the aid of a confederate\noutside, has frequently been able to commit robbery amounting in some\n\n"}
{"page": 890, "printed_page": null, "text": "88o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\ncases to hundreds of thousands of dollars. Robbery has also been committed thru falsification of accounts with correspondent banks, which can\nbe detected only by careful comparison of a transcript of all entries on\nthe books of the correspondent bank with the books of the bank, called\nreconcilement of accounts. In examining loans and discounts, the\naccountant must see that the signatures of makers and indorsers are\ngenuine, and that the aggregate of all items agrees with the balance of\nloans and discounts on the general ledger. He must also examine and\nverify all stocks, bonds, and other collaterals held as security. When\ninterest on loans is not entered until notes mature, defalcations have\noccurred where the discount clerk has collected the correct amounts, but\nentered smaller amounts on the bank's books, appropriating the difference to his own use. In general, the aim of the expert bank accountant\nshould be to find whether the bank's statement of resources and liabilities\ntaken from its general ledger represents the truth, and to do this he must\nhave the capacity to look into every nook and corner of the bank's\nbusiness \"and unearth any fraud which may have been covered up.\nIn conclusion, successful administration depends upon the ability of\nbank directors to guard against dishonesty and incompetency from two\ndirections.\nOn the outside of the bank they must be vigilant to see that the funds\nof the bank are so loaned or invested that they will be repaid with\ninterest, otherwise loss of profit, and even of capital, will result ; and on\nthe inside of the bank they must take such precautions that acts of dishonesty cannot be committed. This can be accomplished only by carefully inquiring into the reputation of every employee before engaging\nhim, and by having the work of every employee checked or verified by\nsomeone else ; this precaution is really a moral duty bank managers\nowe to their employees.\nAfter all, the success of the bank manager, the bank accountant, and\nof the bank's customers and employees as well, will depend upon the\nintelligence, the energy, and the honesty contributed by each and all to\nthe general result. In its last analysis it is a matter of good character —\nthe best capital any business man may possess on earth and the only\ntreasure he can- possibly have with him in heaven.\n\nTHE\n\nBOOKKEEPING\n\nBY A. O. KITTREDGE,\n\nAND ACCOUNTING OF\nICAL PUBLISHING BUSINESS\n\nEDITOR\n\nOF \" ACCOUNTICS,\"\n\nNEW\n\nTHE\n\nYORK\n\nPERIOD-\n\nCITY\n\nMy subject divides into two parts, bookkeeping\nand accounting.\nThese terms are often used to designate the same thing, but in the cor-\n\n"}
{"page": 891, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPERIODICAL\n\nPUBLISHING\n\nBUSINESS— ACCOUNTING\n\n88 1\n\nrect meaning of the words they indicate two separate and distinct functions. Accounting is an element of business, whereas bookkeeping is\nsimply the art of recording the transactions of business. The records of\nevery business, to be accurate, must have at their foundation a scientific\naccounting basis. Upon this the bookkeeping system is to be constructed, but unless it is so fashioned as to show results in the best form\nsuited for stating the condition of the business from time to time, it will\nfail of the greatest possible usefulness. The ideal statement of business\nconditions is the \"going balance sheet,\" and to that we shall lead up.\nThe business under consideration is designated as the periodical publishing business. If I were to be limited to a consideration of the publishing\nbusiness, which ordinarily means the manufacture and sale of bound\nbooks, there would have been ruled out of this discussion some matters\nwhich I venture to believe will be interesting to you. A very considerable\nnumber of those engaged in publishing periodicals own or control their\nprinting plant. In addition to doing their own typesetting, presswork,\nand binding, they do job work for the public. We then have in the\nbusiness before us manufacturing, publishing, and merchandising. It is\na manufacturing business that sells part of its product in the general\nmarket, and delivers another part of its product to one of its departments,\nnamely, the periodical department. The latter distributes the goods thus\ntaken over on the subscription plan, with some payments received in\nadvance of service ; for example, prepaid subscriptions, and some collected after partial or complete delivery of the goods. Its current\nreceipts, therefore, do not necessarily correspond with its output ; or, to\nstate it otherwise, its revenue and earnings are always different quantities.\nFrom what is so far before us it is very evident that a single account of\nthe general character of that usually called the merchandise account\nwould be wholly inadequate for this business. With it alone to depend\nupon, no matter how correctly the personal and general property\naccounts might be kept, the loss and the gain results of the business,\nother than that embraced in a statement in gross at the end of a fiscal\nperiod, would be entirely lacking. It is not enough today to know that\nthe business, taken as a whole, is making money. It is demanded of the\naccountant to show just where money is being made and how much, and\njust where losses are occurring and their rate. It has long appeared to\nme as if there had been a mistake made by someone in the early days of\nthe literature in English of double-entry bookkeeping, and that those\nwriters who have come after have failed to detect the mistakes of their\npredecessors. Consider for a moment, if you please, the merchandise\naccount as one of the several property accounts which double entry\nrecognizes. It is peculiar among the ordinary property accounts that it\nis made up of two sets of values. There are cost prices on the one side\nand selling prices on the other.\nIts balance is a mixed quantity.\nCom-\n\n"}
{"page": 892, "printed_page": null, "text": "882\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\npare it with bills receivable or with cash, which are of a similar nature.\nIn each of them the same values appear on both sides of the account.\nAccordingly, the balance in each of these accounts shows the amount of\nthe property on hand. Not so, however, with merchandise. Its balance\nis an amount which represents goods on hand minus the profit made on\nwhat has been sold, or an amount consisting of the sum of the goods on\nhand plus the loss that has been made on what has been sold. This is\nvery confusing, and it becomes still more so when expense items are\ntaken into consideration. At the beginning of the fiscal period we debit\nthe account with the inventory at cost prices. Next we debit the account\nwith the goods we buy at cost prices. The third step is to credit the\naccount with the goods parted with at selling prices. Some of the goods\nthat we have bought are unsatisfactory to us, and we return them. Merchandise must be credited with them at the cost value. Some of our\ncustomers return part of the goods which we have sold. Now merchandise must be debited, and at the selling price. We, therefore, have\nselling pri-ces and cost prices mixed on both sides of the account. If\nthere is a manufacturing department in the business, the merchandise\naccount is debited, in addition to what we have described, with the cost\nof the materials bought, with the amounts paid out for labor, with the\nsalaries of the superintendent and general manager, with insurance, taxes,\nand all the other expenses of manufacture. What bookkeeper can tell\nfrom the amount appearing as the balance of merchandise account what it\nreally represents ? It is, therefore, very evident that two or more accounts\nshould have been placed where merchandise stands alone at present.\n\nBUSINESS\n\nBY\n\nI.\n\nO.\n\nCRISSY,\n\nEDUCATION\n\nEXAMINER\n\nOF\n\nIN THE\n\nSTATE\n\nOF NEW\n\nYORK\n\nBUSINESS\nNEW\nYORK\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nFOR\n\nSTATE\n\nTHE\n\nOF\n\nI am to speak to you this afternoon on \" Business Education in the\nState of New York,\" but my remarks will be devoted almost entirely to\nthe attitude and the hopes of the University of the State of New York,\nwhich I am here to represent. The University of the State of New\nYork — better known, perhaps, by its older title, Board of Regents — is a\nsupervising and examining and, to a certain extent, legislating body for\nthe institutions of higher education in the state, but is not itself a teaching institution. Its great function is to promote and encourage higher\neducation along all lines, and it is the administrative arm in carrying out\nall enactments dealing with higher education. Some very sweeping\nreforms in the matter of preliminary requirements for professional educa-\n\n"}
{"page": 893, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department] BUSINESS\n\nEDQCATION\n\nIN THE\n\nSTATE\n\nOF NEW\n\nYORK\n\n883\n\ntion have been made within the past few years. It is not necessary to\ndwell upon the tremendous impulse that has come to secondary and\nhigher education in the state of New York as a result of these beneficent\nlaws, or upon the inestimable advantages that have grown out of them.\nThese are so self-evident as to need no elucidation. By chap. 312 of the\nLaws of New York of 1896 the business of accounting was in that state\nraised to the dignity of a profession, with a title for those who qualify\nwhich carries with it all the force and honor of a degree. The law provides that a citizen of the United States over twenty-one years of age, of\ngood moral character, and who is a resident of the state, or has a place\nfor the regular transaction of business therein, shall, on due certification\nof his qualifications by the regents of the university, be known and styled\nas a certified public accountant, and that this title shall not be used by\nany other person. The law empowers the university to make rules for\nthe examination of candidates for the title of C.P.A., and to appoint a\nboard of three examiners who are required to be certified public accountants. The university rules require that the candidate shall have received\na preliminary education equivalent to a full four-year course in a registered high school ; that he shall have had five years' experience in the\nstudy or practice of accounting, and that he shall pass satisfactory test\nexaminations in the following subjects : theory of accounts, practical\naccounting, auditing, commercial law. Examinations are offered in June\nand December of each year in New York and three other cities of the\nstate. Questions in all the papers are framed to cover some of the most\ndifficult problems of the subject under examination, and the candidate\nwho obtains the honor of writing C.P. A. after his name must needs have\na clear knowledge of the subjects involved. The state of New York has\nthus placed itself abreast of England and the more advanced continental\ncountries of Europe in recognizing accounting as a learned profession,\nand it is believed that many other states will speedily follow her example.\nTwo years ago a committee representing the leading business schools\nof the state was appointed to confer with a committee of the university\nwith a view to securing state recognition of business education by providing for registration in the university of such business schools as were\nfound worthy of the confidence of the community and able to meet certain stated requirements. For the purpose of encouraging a higher standard of business education and securing a uniform test therein, it was\nvoted by the regents that a state business diploma should be offered by\nthe university, which should have as its basis graduation from the high\nschool, supplemented by a full course in a registered business school.\nIt was at first the sense of the conference committee that the minimum\nrequirements for registering a business school should be six competent\nteachers giving their full time to the work, a course Si study for the state\nbusiness diploma of not less than two years or one thousand hours of\n\n"}
{"page": 894, "printed_page": null, "text": "884\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nactual instruction, and a school equipment of not less than $5,000 in\nvalue, exclusive of building and heating and lighting apparatus. On\nfurther conference, however, it was decided to reduce the minimum\nlength of the course to one year or five hundred hours of actual instruction. An inspection of the business schools, of which there are something\nover seventy in the state, was begun in April of the present year. It was\nsoon evident to the inspector that there were schools located in smaller\ntowns which could not meet the requirements as to the number of\ninstructors and value of equipment, but which were giving as efficient\ninstruction and turning out as good work as the best in the state. In\nview of these conditions, it was determined by the university to grant to\nsuch schools provisional registration, which gives them all the privileges\nand the standing educationally that regular registration implies. This\naction is strictly in accord with the settled policy of the university, which\nis not only to elevate the standard of education in the state so far as possible, but also to foster and promote such education under all circumstances.\nThe fixing of a minimum does not by any means prevent any school\nfrom making its course as much longer as may seem necessary, and, as a\nmatter of fact, the actual length of the course will doubtless depend upon\nthe individual judgment of the manager of each school as to how much\ninstruction is necessary to meet the requirements of the examinations for\nthe state business diploma, for which a provisional syllabus was published\nlast spring. In the preparation of this provisional syllabus the university has drawn very largely upon the excellent and able report of your\nCommittee of Nine, and has adopted many of the recommendations of\nthe report entire, for which valuable aid I most cordially tender to the\ncommittee the acknowledgment and thanks of the university. It is\nfrankly admitted that the matter of the length of the course is still in a\ntentative stage. The examinations cover the following subjects : bookkeeping, intended as a competent test of both theory and practice ; commercial arithmetic, commercial law, commercial geography, and history\nof commerce. This examination, in so far as it relates to law, demands\na knowledge such as every business man should possess of the laws that\nregulate ordinary relations of life. As to commercial geography, it\ndemands a general knowledge of the geography of the world in its relations to commerce, and this naturally includes a general knowledge of the\nleading products, leading industries, leading commercial cities, and the\nmore important commercial routes, while in respect to our own country\na more intimate knowledge of these matters will be required. In commercial history the candidates should have clearly defined ideas as to how\ncommerce originated, how and why it grew, and what discoveries, inventions, or laws have spfecially affected it. Business and office methods : this\n\n"}
{"page": 895, "printed_page": null, "text": "1\n\nDepartment]\n\nDUTIES\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCONGRESSIONAL\n\nREPORTER\n\n885\n\nexamination — somewhat vague, perhaps, in title — is designed as a test in\nthose minor, but very important, matters which, I believe, are taught in all\ngood business schools, altho not given so much attention in text-books.\nEnglish : this test does not deal at all with the technicalities of grammar ;\nit is simply a practical exercise in English composition along such lines\nas confront the man of business daily. I say most cordially, on behalf\nof the university, that it asks for these examinations and for the criticism\nand suggestions of educators and accountants, and that the question\npapers will be sent on application. A state stenographer's diploma,\nentirely independent of the business diploma, will be granted to graduates of registered schools holding regents' pass cards in the 125-word\ntest in stenography and in the English prescribed for the business\ndiploma, on passing the examination in typewriting and office methods\nprescribed by the syllabus.\nBut what will the University of the State of New York accomplish by this new departure ? The answer rests very largely with the\nbusiness schools of the state. First of all, there will be established a\nuniform credential by which business education can be measured. Second,\nit will elevate the dignity of the business school by the mere fact of the\ninstitution having been found worthy of registration in the university,\nthe state conservator of higher education. Third, it will be a protection\nto the public. The system of registration will sound the death knell of\nthe fake school in the state of New York. The disappearance of the fake\nschool will be speedily followed by the disappearance of the highly lurid\nliterature for which the so-called business college has earned such brilliant\nlaurels.\nFinally, the gain in better general education will be great. The business schools will strive to elevate their own standards. They will not be\nsatisfied with turning out good bookkeepers, good railway clerks, and\ngood stenographers, noble as is that work, but they will aspire to turn\nout also broadly educated and thoroly equipped and polished business\nmen and women.\n\nTHE\n\nBY\n\nDAVID\n\nDUTIES AND QUALIFICATIONS OF THE\nCONGRESSIONAL REPORTER\n\nWOLFE\n\nBROWN,\n\nOFFICIAL\nREPORTER,\nREPRESENTATIVES\n\nUNITED\n\nSTATES\n\nHOUSE\n\nOF\n\nTo conceive vividly the duties and qualifications of the congressional\nreporter, one must conceive vividly his environment. Let us take a glance\nat the scene of his daily labors.\n\n"}
{"page": 896, "printed_page": null, "text": "886\n\nNATIONAL\nTHE\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPERSONAL\n\nMAKE-UP\n\nASSOCIATION\nOF\n\n[Business\n\nCONGRESS\n\nWhat a heterogeneous body in its personal make-up is the American\nHouse of Representatives ! Here are 360 members and delegates, each\nof whom is more or less a representative of the peculiar manners, speech,\nsentiments, ideas, of the section of country from which he comes. Here\nare lawyers, doctors, ministers, merchants, clergymen, teachers, bankers,\nrailroad men, farmers, mechanics — in fact, men from every avenue of\nlife. The topics which engage the attention of the house are treated by\neach of these men in his own unique way, with his own peculiar modes of\nthought, his own characteristic tones and words.\nRANGE\n\nOF\n\nCONGRESSIONAL\n\nTOPICS\n\nAnd how vast the range of these topics ! Glance at the list of congressional committees, with the designation of the subjects intrusted to\nthem: measures of finance; tariff bills, bringing up ever and anon that\ninterminable controversy between free trade and protection ; measures of\ninternal-revenue taxation, affecting the various manufacturing and economic interests of the whole country ; changes of the statute law in all its\nvarious departments, and at times amendments of that great fundamental\nlaw, the constitution of the United States; questions involving the relations, peaceful or warlike, of our own country and foreign nations; the\norganization and reinforcement of our land and naval forces ; the manufacture of artillery and small arms; the building of war vessels; national\nbank legislation ; bankruptcy laws ; internal improvements in all parts of\nthe country, with the discussion of the local and peculiar needs of hundreds of rivers and harbors ; Indian affairs, with the strange-sounding\nand almost unpronounceable names of various aboriginal tribes ; all the\nvarious questions affecting the postal service, such as the free -delivery\nsystem, the subsidized railway service, the pneumatic-tube transmission of\nletters, etc. And then commerce in all its ramifications, interstate and\nforeign ; immigration and naturalization ; civil-service reform ; pensions,\nwith the discussion of the wars out of which the pensions arose ; the law\nof copyrights and patents, etc., etc. — I must take refuge in \"etc.,\" for why\nshould I try to enumerate subjects which are innumerable ? Is there\nindeed, any topic of \"contemporaneous human interest\" that may not\nbecomfe the theme of the representative's voice, and therefore the theme\nof the reporter's pen ?\nHOW\n\nBUSINESS\n\nIS\n\nDONE\n\nAnd how are these subjects discussed ? Not in dry, prolix essays, such\nas might be read from a college professor's desk, but generally in that direct,\nbusiness-like, unceremonious way which might be expected from representatives ofa practical, plain-dealing people.\nThe theoretical ideal of a\n\n"}
{"page": 897, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nDUTIES\n\nOP\n\nTtiE\n\nCONGkESSlONAL\n\nREPORTER\n\n8^7\n\nlegislative body is an assemblage whose members, unless engaged in\nvoting, or in making formal and stately speeches, sit mute \"at their desks\nhour after hour, listening with more than the patience of martyrs to the\nreading of bills or amendments and the utterance of long-winded\nharangues. But the American House of Representatives does not in practice conform — indeed, no body of wide-awake, bustling Americans can be\nmade to conform — to any such schoolboy routine. If the member who\n\" holds the floor \" or the subject which he discusses does not interest his\nfellow-members, no human power can compel them to listen, or even to\nsit silent. When, on the other hand, they are eager to hear, this eagerness cannot be thwarted ; and if from any cause (inaudible utterance, bad\nacoustic arrangements, or anything else) they cannot hear at their desks,\nthey will inevitably drift to some other point in the hall where they can\nhear; and from that point (tho huddled together till they present\nsomewhat the aspect of a \" mob \") they cannot be driven, except for a\nfew moments, even by the stern announcement of the chair (emphasized\nby the hammering of the gavel) : \" The house will come to order, and\nmembers will resume their seats.\"\nDISORDER\n\nIS\n\nA\n\nNORMAL\n\nCONDITION\n\nNecessarily a body like this is, from the ordinary point of view, disorderly. Sometimes it is disorderly because the question before the\nhouse arouses no general interest, and hence the buzz of private conversation competes with the monotonous reading of bills and amendments,\nor the delivery of dull speeches. At other times the body is disorderly,\nnot from lack of interest in the proceedings, but because interest is\nintense; for intense interest 'is very rarely an absolutely silent interest.\nAt times this body is more than disorderly ; it is turbulent. Now and\nagain partisan or personal questions stir it to fever heat. Some angerkindling word or phrase is flung from one side to the other. Perhaps\none infuriated member gives another \" the lie direct.\" A hundred men\nare instantly on their feet. Thirty or forty excited representatives are\nshouting at once. The parliamentary gladiators of the contending sides\nindulge in the bitterest reproaches and retorts. And sometimes the battle\nis more than a battle of words. Frequently the parliamentary storm is\ntoo fierce to be quelled by the voice of the presiding officer. Indeed, his\nvoice is scarcely audible amid the uproar. To allay the tumult, the sergeant-at-arms is appealed to, and, bearing that symbol of the house's\nauthority, the mace (only a symbol at present, but a potent one), he\nrushes into the melee; and order is once more restored.\nThis body, with its heterogeneous membership, its marvelous range\nof subjects, its varied styles of expression and modes of thought, its\nhabitually informal and even disorderly methods of doing business, its\noccasional scenes of turbulence, is the body whose\nproceedings\nthe\n\n"}
{"page": 898, "printed_page": null, "text": "888\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEbUCATiONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[business\n\ncongressional reporter is expected to take down with flawless accuracy.\nThe difficulties of the task stand out in bold relief and need no coloring.\nSTENOGRAPHIC\n\nDIFFICULTIES\n\nFirst, there are the difficulties purely stenographic. As to mere\nrapidity of utterance, it is but reasonable to expect that some of the\nspeediest speakers from different parts of the union should find their way —\nas in fact they do — to the national councils. But the set speech, rapidly\nspoken tho it may be, is not the touchstone of the congressional reporter's\nstenographic skill. A severer test comes in the earnest and often excited\ncolloquies, as rapid as the most rapid colloquies of the courtroom, but\nmore perplexing, because these congressional colloquies are not merely\nbetween lawyer and witness, but are participated in by perhaps a dozen\neager and possibly angry disputants speaking from scattered parts of the\nhall.\nDIFFICULTIES\n\nOF\n\nHEARING\n\nThe congressional reporter's peculiar difficulties of hearing you have\nalready surmised. The confusion on the floor of the Jiouse is often so\ngreat that not only are visitors in the gallery bewildered, but one member\nafter another, often in quick succession, rises to appeal to the speaker for\n\"order,\" on the ground that \"it is impossible to understand.what is going\non.\" There is no one place in the hall, not even the speaker's chair,\nfrom which the debates and proceedings can at all times be clearly understood. How, then, does the official reporter meet and overcome the diffi\nculty of hearing ? He does it only by perambulating the floor of the\nhouse, notebook in hand, writing as he walks or stands — seeking always\nto get as near as possible to the debaters, and for this purpose standing\noften in an aisle, or possibly dropping into some absent member's seat ;\nbut never, when on duty, lingering for even a moment at \"the reporter's\ndesk\" — called so perhaps in irony, because no reporter ever sits there\nwhen actually reporting.\nSuch are the difficulties of hearing when comparative quiet prevails ;\nthe difficulties are aggravated a hundred fold amid scenes of turbulence\nsuch as I have described. On these occasions, when the legislative storm\nis raging most fiercely, accurate note-taking is, of course, more difficult\nthan at any other time, and yet more necessary ; for, in the midst of the\nstorm, some clarion voice, rising above the din, rings out the words\n\"Mr. Speaker, I call the gentleman to order and demand that his words\nbe taken down,\" whereupon the reporter must instantly reproduce from\nhis notes the stinging words just uttered in this almost pandemonium.\nReports taken under these most trying circumstances must, without\nopportunity for pottering or pondering, go at once into cold print, where\nthey are subject to correction in the presence of the house, which means\n\n"}
{"page": 899, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nDUTIES\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCONGRESSIONAL\n\nREPORTER\n\n889\n\nin the presence of the country. The lawyer may bury his mistakes in the\nmusty records of the courtroom ; the physician may bury his beneath\nthe memorial tablets of the graveyard; the congressional reporter's errors\nmeet him face to face in the Congressional Record, with no merciful\n\" recording angel \" to \"drop a tear\" upon the erroneous word or phrase\nand \" blot it out forever.\"\nAN \" untouched\" photograph\nTo make matters worse, absolute stenographic accuracy may be to certain speakers as unwelcome as an \" untouched \" photograph to a person\nwho sits for his picture. The report may be, not incorrect, but too faithfully and painfully true. Said a distinguished member once to the official reporters : \" Gentlemen, I do not doubt your accuracy ; I dread it.\"\nTHE\n\nFACULTY\n\nOF\n\nACCURACY\n\nIf I must undertake to specify, even in a general way, the qualifications of a congressional reporter, let me say, in the first place, that one\nthing which any reporter, and most decidedly the congressional reporter,\nrequires is the desire and capacity to be exact about apparently small\nmatters. This conscientious ambition to do even little things as well as\nthey can be done — to make no slip that the most scrupulous care can\navoid — constitutes what I call \"the faculty of accuracy,\" a faculty absolutely indispensable to the successful reporter. Under the prompting of\nthis faculty, a thoroly accomplished stenographer begrudges no pains\nto get with implicit correctness names, quotations, references, etc., not\ntrusting merely to what his notebook tells him, but verifying his notes, if\nthe occasion requires and allows it, by resort to books of reference or\npersonal inquiry. Mere guess work never satisfies him. Nor does he\ncontent himself with the remark : \" Well, I guess that is near enough.\"\nFor him nothing is \" near enough \" that is not exactly the thing. In the\nstenographic student no characteristic can give better assurance of final\nsuccess than the determination to be faultlessly correct at any cost.\nALERTNESS,\n\nENDURANCE,\n\nAND\n\n\" NERVE\n\n\"\n\nThe congressional reporter should possess, as should all his fellows in\nthe profession, a peculiar combination of mental and manual alertness.\nIt has been remarked of shorthand reporting that \" no other proceeding\nso imperatively demands instantaneous mental comprehension with instantaneous manual execution.\" Agile fingers play their part in the work,\nyet it is absolutely true that to write quickly one must think quickly. I\nbelieve there are many persons (some of them aspiring to be rapid stenographers) who are unable to carry spoken language thru their minds,\nwith clear apprehension of its meaning, at so high a rate as two hundred\nwords a minute.\nI do not say that this deficiency is incurable by study\n\n"}
{"page": 900, "printed_page": null, "text": "890\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nand practice, but it is a deficiency\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nwhich cannot be removed by mere\n\ntraining of the hand or mere shorthand \" cramming.\"\nThe reporter imperatively needs large powers of mental and physical\nendurance. To carry him successfully thru the wearying and worrying\ntasks of his profession, he requires a sound constitution of body and mind,\nwith habits of temperance and moderation. More than this, if he hopes\nto' be equal to every emergency of his profession, he should be a man of\nnerve. Difficulties and dangers which make some men lose their heads\nrouse others to excel their ordinary selves. The man who, under trying\ncircumstances, is not confused and abashed, but stimulated and emboldened, issaid to have nerve ; and this is the sort of nerve which largely\nhelps to make a successful reporter. Especially is it needed on that fierce\nbattlefield, the floor of the House of Representatives. When members lose\ntheir heads, all the more reason is there that the reporter should keep cool,\nwith every faculty alert, that he may prove himself master of the occasion.\nKNOWLEDGE\n\nOF\n\nLAW\n\nINDISPENSABLE\n\nThe congressional reporter should have pre-eminently and specifically\na knowledge of law. The prime business of the body in which he reports\nis the making of laws. Its discussions turn upon the law as it has been\nor is, in order to determine what it should be. Legal rules and maxims\nare glibly quoted. The principles of the common law are constantly\nbrought in review. A frequent topic, too, is that fundamental law, the\nconstitution of the United States — the construction of its various provisions, with their nice qualifications, limitations, and exceptions. How\nblindly and stumblingly must the reporter grope his way thru these discus ions, ifhis mind has not been enlightened by the study of common\nlaw, statute law, constitutional law !\nMore than this, he should be an adept in parliamentary law. Nice\nparliamentary points are topics of daily debate. Shrewd parliamentary\ntactics are the weapons in many a legislative battle. In a body like Congress there arise from day to day, almost from hour to hour, crises in\nwhich the reporter, unless versed in parliamentary law, must find himself\nhopelessly at sea.\nTHE reporter's GENERAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nAs to general education, the reporter should possess such a liberal\nfund of useful information as can come only from a natural love of reading exercised over the broad field of English literature. \" What should\nI study in order to prepare myself as a reporter?\" was asked by an\nambitious student of a veteran stenographer. \" Everything,\" was the concise, but somewhat discouraging, reply. The absolutely perfect reporter,\nif the ideal could be realized in mortal flesh and blood, would be a walking, breathing encyclopaedia.\n\n"}
{"page": 901, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nDUTIES\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCONGRESSIONAL\n\nREPORTER\n\n89 1\n\nNeed I say that .the congressional reporter cannot satisfactorily do his\nwork without a good knowledge of history, especially English and American, and more particularly the history of American politics ? And he\nmust by no means fail to familiarize himself with that text-book of current,\neveryday history, the daily newspaper. If he be not well read on everyday topics, his ignorance will often betray him into sad blunders.\nSome acquaintance, not necessarily profound, with other languages\nthan his own, especially Latin and French, can hardly be dispensed with.\nLITERARY\n\nSKILL\n\nA reporter should be able to write his mother-tongue, not only with\ncorrectness, but with literary skill ; and to attain this he will find it necessary, not merely to study the formal rules of grammar and rhetoric, but\nto learn the language from its concrete illustrations in the writings of\nthose whom the world recognizes as masters of English style. But it\nmay be asked : \" Is it not the business of the reporter to take down and\ntranscribe just what he hears; and, if he faithfully does this, can more be\nasked or expected?\" Yes, more is asked and expected — reasonably\nasked and expected. The reporter is not, and cannot be, a machine*\nWithout breadth of education and intelligence he cannot understand what\nhe writes. Unable without such understanding to attain even verbal\naccuracy, he must inevitably write a great deal of nonsense.\n\"TOUCHING\n\nup\"\n\na\n\nREPORT\n\nBut suppose the reporter's notebook shows every word faithfully\nrecorded. Mere word-taking, however successful, cannot suffice to fill\nthe measure of the best reporter's qualifications. There may be a place\nin the reporting profession (but it cannot be a high one) for men whose\nsole aim is to take down exactly what is said and to write it out without\nvarying a jot or tittle from the uttered words ; but any stenographer who\nwould make creditable reports of public speeches — creditable to himself\nand the speakers — must do more than this. The manual skill necessary\nto take down every uttered word cannot be dispensed with ; but when\nthe exact language has been photographed upon the pages of his notebook, the reporter must know how to \"touch up\" the photograph. He\nmust not' subject himself to such a complaint as that sturdy old Scotchman, Thomas Carlyle, makes against the men who have preserved for us\nthe speeches of Oliver Cromwell. \"The reporters of those days,\" says\nCarlyle, \"seem to have been singularly candid, and to have given the\nprinter precisely what they found on their notebooks.\"\nThere are two kinds of reporting, literal and literary. An absolutely\nverbatim report — one to which the reporter has not by means of his own\neducation and taste imparted literary finish at points where literary finish\nwas needed — is not a good report, and will not be accepted as such even\n\n"}
{"page": 902, "printed_page": null, "text": "892\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nby the man who made the speech. How far the \"touching up\" of the\nstenographic photograph should extend is a question that I cannot now\ngo into at length ; but surely an accomplished stenographer, in transcribing his notes, should be able to correct a slip of the tongue, a misquotation, an error of grammar, a mixed metaphor — faults scarcely avoidable\nby even good speakers, when speaking extempore. Nor is it too much\nto expect that the reporter should be able to exscind surplusage or\nrearrange the clauses of a sentence so as to bring out the sense more\nclearly.\nIS\n\nTHE\n\nSTANDARD\n\nTOO\n\nHIGH ?\n\nIn defining the qualifications of a congressional reporter, have I prescribed too high a standard ? Human nature being, after all, only human\nnature, it may be confessed that the ambitious aspirant to high reporting\nskill, like other aspirants to professional eminence, must often content\nhimself with an approximate attainment of his ideal. And even the\nsemblance of these qualifications, even a working substitute for them,\ncannot be acquired in a short time. Years, not months, of general and\nspecial education are needed. Indeed, the education of the reporter, like\nthe education of any other professional man, is never completed.\nTHE\n\nCONGRESSIONAL\n\nREPORTER'S\n\nREWARD\n\nFor all this elaborateness of preparation, this anxious discharge of\nresponsible and exacting duty, what is the congressional reporter's reward ?\nFirst, a secure and honored place in an honorable profession, with recognition from intelligent minds of the talent and toil that the holding of the\nplace implies. Second, an opportunity for personal association (as close\nand intimate almost as one may choose to make it) with some of the\npicked men of the nation. Third, the breathing, as daily work goes on,\nof a clear, expanded, stimulating intellectual atmosphere. Work that\nbrings one constantly in contact with topics of the highest import, handled\nby some of the brightest men of the country, cannot become mere drudgery.\nFourth, the congressional reporter has the advantage of seeing enacted\nfrom day to day some of the most interesting dramas of real life. In this\nlegislative theater, the play, serious or facetious by turns, involves themes\nof intensest human interest. The actors are three or four hundred men\nin whom human nature is throbbing and thrilling with far more than the\nwarmth and intensity of the mimic stage. The complications of this\ndrama bring into action almost every human faculty and passion. There\nis no monotony ; for each day has its new incidents, as fresh and unique\nas bubbling, wide-awake human nature can make them. Fifth, the daily\nwork of the congressional reporter is a never-ending education. Would\nthat I had better improved the advantages of this academy in which I\nhave been a pupil !\n\n"}
{"page": 903, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF CHILD STUDY\n\nSECRETARY'S\nFIRST\n\nMINUTES\n\nSESSION.— Monday, July ii, 1898\n\nThe Department of Child Study met in the Foundry Church at 3 P. M. In opening\nthe meeting the president, M. V. O'Shea, Madison, Wis., introduced Miss Edith C. Westcott, chairman of the local committee, who welcomed the department, inviting the members to a garden party given at Belmont, the home of Mrs. A. L. Barber, in behalf of this\nsociety.\nThe president followed with introductory remarks.\nProfessor C. H. Thurber, of the University of Chicago, being absent on account of\nsickness, a request was made that his paper on \"The Reading of Children in the Adolescent Period \" be published in the proceedings of the National Educational Association.\nOssian H. Lang, editor of the School Journal, New York city, read a paper on\n\"Some Cautions to be Observed in Child Study.\"\n\"A Year's Study of the Entering Pupils of the Springfield, Mass., High School\" was\npresented by Fred W. Atkinson, principal of the High School, Springfield, Mass.\nEdgar James Swift, Normal School, Stevens' Point, Wis., presented a paper on\n\"Heredity and Environment — a Study in Adolescence.\"\nCharles H. Keyes, principal of the High School, Holyoke, Mass., discussed the paper\nof Ossian H. Lang. H. L. Tolman, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Chicago, 111.,\nspoke upon the paper of Principal Atkinson.\nThe president announced the nominating committee as follows :\n£. A. Kirkpatrick, Fitchburg, Mass.\nGeorge Griffith, Utica, N. Y.\nH. E. Kratz, Sioux City, la.\n\nMeeting adjourned until Tuesday, 2 P. M.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION.— Tuesday, July 12\n\nThe second session of the Child-Study Department convened at 3 p. M., the president, M. V. O'Shea, in the chair.\nA paper entitled \" The Influence of the Weather upon the Activities of Children \"\nwas presented by Edwin G. Dexter, Normal School, Greeley, Colo.\nAn address on \" The Rearing of Children from an Experimental Standpoint \" was\ngiven by Dr. Elmer Gates, Laboratory of Psychology and Psychurgy, Chevy Chase, Md.\nJohn G. Thompson, principal of the Normal School, Fitchburg, Mass., read a paper\non \" Child Study in the Training of Teachers.\"\nWill S. Monroe, Normal School, Westfield, Mass., read a paper on \" The Development of the Social Consciousness in Children.\"\nBrief discussions followed the above papers, at the close of which the nominating\ncommittee presented the following report : 893\nYour Committee on Nominations begs leave to submit the following report :\nFor President— Vfill S. Monroe, Westfield, Mass.\n\n"}
{"page": 904, "printed_page": null, "text": "894\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nFor Vice-President— Vit.\\3!oea. Post Halleck, Louisville, Ky.\nFor Secretary — Mrs. Alice W. Cooley, Minneapolis, Minn.\n\n[Child Study\n\nRespectfully submitted,\nE. A. KiRKPATKICK,\n\n.\n\nGeorge Griffith,\nH, E. Kratz,\nCommitee.\n\nThe report was accepted and the above officers duly elected for the ensuing year.\nThe meeting then adjourned.\nG. W. A. LUCKEY,\nSecretary,\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nPRESIDENT'S\n\nBY PROFESSOR\n\nM. V. O SHEA,\n\nDISCUSSIONS\nADDRESS\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF WISCONSIN\n\nAt the opening of this, our sixth session, ladies and gentlemen, it\nmay be well to recall that, when we were last together, there were many\nwho were inquiring whether the phenomenal enthusiasm in the study of\nchildhood had not reached its climax, and whether we had not already\nentered upon an era of conservatism, or even of reaction. In view of\nthese remembrances it is appropriate to say that during the past year\nthere have been manifest unusual interest and activity in child study ; and\nnot more interest in the study of children than in the devotion to their\nneeds, when these are once discovered. Child study has been thought by\nmany to refer wholly to the scientific investigation of the characteristics of\nchild life. Such people regard it as an intellectual movement merely. But in\na far more important sense it stands for a rich, emotional attitude toward\nchildren, a consecration to their care and culture in the schoolroom or\nelsewhere.\nSince our last meeting several vigorous state associations have been\nadded to the remarkably large number already in existence. Teachers'\ngatherings everywhere have been thought to be incomplete without\npapers and discussions upon this subject. The press, secular and professional, has given unusual space to the discussion of matters concerning\nthe development of the child and the mode of properly training him.\nMost significant of all has been the consideration which child study has\nreceived in women's organizations ; and when we consider that these\norganizations are increasing very rapidly, and that women are appreciating\nthat the most important field of usefulness for them relates to the\ntraining and care of childhood — more important than temperance or\npolitics, or, one might almost say, than religion, since it includes the lat-\n\n"}
{"page": 905, "printed_page": null, "text": "Depurtment]\n\nPRESIDENT'S\n\nADDRESS\n\n895\n\nt6r — in view of these things we see how great is the future of the work for\nwhich we stand — the sympathetic, affectionate study of childhood in all\nof its phases, and the most perfect devotion to its needs in every relation of life.\nBut we have not been without our critics during the past year. There\nhave been those who occupy high places who have been calling out to\nteachers in loud voices warning them against the dangers of child study\nand prophesying its early doom. But we may find consolation in the fact\nthat the world is full of the echoings of warnings from those who always\nsee in progress elements of danger, and who feel that a power which they\nare not directing cannot have real substantial merit. There has never\nbeen any great reform movement in the history of mankind which has not\nat the outset met with criticism and accusation by those who are so constituted that they never dare to depart from the beaten tracks. But such\ncriticism has its place in the evolution of the race, since it tends to prevent excesses, and so we should welcome it, especially if it be offered in- a\ncandid spirit.\nOne of the most prominent of our critics has sounded the alarm to\nthe teachers over the country, assuring them that the study of the child\nwill make them cold and indifferent; that no teacher may be successful\nwho regards her children in the light of objects to be studied scientifically ;that child study is making statisticians of those in the schoolroom\nand not true instructors of childhood. If this indictment were true, it\nwould certainly be a serious and a merited one. But teachers are not\nthus occupying themselves in their schoolrooms. They are not in any\ngreat measure filling out syllabi, or measuring and weighing their children, or probing them with all sorts of irrelevant questions. The childstudy movement has not at all encouraged this sort of thing, altho it\nwould be strange if on the fringes there were not to be found ravelings.\nEvery normal activity has some abnormal aspects; but we are not to\nallow these to become so magnified that they entirely obscure the true\nform and figure of the thing itself. What teachers are doing, in so far as\nthey are responding to the present interest in the study of child life,\nis to familiarize themselves with the results of scientific studies, and\nthen seeking to apply these in the concrete experiences of the classroom.\nAnd can it be gainsaid that this is a most important work for the\nteacher whose mission it is to benefit to the greatest degree possible every\nindividual life under her care ? It should be thoroly recognized that the\nteacher is primarily a gardener, not a»scientist. She must nurture and\ndirect the lives of the children committed to her care, and she may not\nbe at all concerned with elaborating a science of child growth, except as\nthis will make her more skillful, more influential, in shaping aright the\ndestiny of each individual in her charge. While the teacher, then, cannot\n\n"}
{"page": 906, "printed_page": null, "text": "896\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child Study\n\nbecome a scientist in the sense that she will strive to contribute to the\nscience of human growth, yet she must take the results which are reached\nby such scientific studies and observe them to the greatest degree possible\nin all the work of her schoolroom.\nBut there are those who feel that even this is unnecessary for the\nteacher, and that she would be more truly successful if she consulted\nonly her common sense, her uncultivated instincts, in all of the emergencies which arise in the tuition of childhood. In these days instinct is\nbeing magnified to such great proportions that it is esteemed by many to\nbe the safest guide to conduct in any and all situations. But if instinct\nwere the wisest counselor for those who direct the lives of childhood,\nthen we should indeed have our best teachers and parents among the\nmost ignorant of our people, whom nature and not tuition has instructed,\nand so in whom instinct is the guide of life. Without minimizing the\nvalue of the natural instincts of affection and devotion to childhood, yet\nit needs to be appreciated that special study of child life only serves to\nincrease,. to make richer and more comprehensive, one's affections and\nmore loyal his devotion. Ignorance in any of the concerns of life\nbreeds indifference ; it leaves the heart cold and the sentiments callous,\nwhile knowledge arouses dormant emotions and makes keener and truer\nthose which are already active. Ignorance of nature does not beget a\nlove for nature, nor does ignorance of the marvelous processes of growth\nin child life cultivate richer sympathies for the needs of childhood ; but\nrather, the more one knows of childhood, the more wonderful and beautiful itall appears, and the greater are the mysteries which are seen to lie\nentombed in every child's life. Such knowledge awakens a true love for\nchildren, and vitalizes the native instinct to sacrifice one's self-interest for\nthe well-being of the child.\nAs I see the situation, I apprehend that there is far greater danger\nfrom stagnation and indifference regarding childhood than from overenthusiasm in the child-study movement. I am not fearful that the great\nenthusiasm which is being manifested everywhere will have any other\neffect than to make teachers more considerate toward children, more skillful in dealing with both the normal and the abnormal, the perfect and\nthe imperfect, more sympathetic and patient and affectionate ; and, best\nof all, it will bind the teacher to the pupil and the pupil to the teacher\nin bonds of sympathy so close as to make the work of the schoolroom\nfull of .joy and pleasure.\nOf course, there are excesses which result from over-enthusiasm and\nfalse hopes that follow after too great confidence in what is merely\ntransient or speculative. But we are not to condemn the spirit itself\nbecause of the things which get attached to it. We are not to feel discouraged because we cannot control all of the factors which are at work\n\n"}
{"page": 907, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPRESIDENT'S\n\nADDRESS\n\n897\n\nin this movement ; but, rather, we are to have confidence that, by keeping\nthe ship headed in the right direction and moving with the right\nmomentum, we shall in plenty season reach port in safety.\nThere is another sort of criticism of child study, which charges it with\nbeing merely a fad which will pass out of view rapidly. Such criticism\nproceeds from those who regard child study as limited to the filling out\nof blanks and things of that sort. But this is the most unimportant part\nof the work. It is a mere incident. It would be well if we could secure\na term for this movement which would indicate on every occasion that\nit related to the subject of human development, in its broadest aspects\nand in all of its phases ; and that data are derived for this science from\nvarious lines of investigation that are concerned with growth in any form.\nThus evolution, biology, anthropology, neurology, and other sciences are\ncontributing vast amounts of information that are being assimilated into\na science of developmental psychology and hygiene. Child study should\nnot only proceed in its own special way, but it must go to every allied\nscience and find out what it yields that may advance our knowledge of\nhuman growth. And what is garnered from these various fields must be\nwrought into a harmonious whole that will alike describe the route\nwhich a child follows in his progress from birth to maturity, and teach\nus how best to aid him in his journey.\nRegarded in this light, child study is not only not a fad, but it is rather\njust at the beginning of a career which shall grow more brilliant because\nmore fruitful with every passing year. From all points come tidings of\nthe awakening of a deep conviction in the public mind that the greatest\nconcern in life has to do with the training of childhood, and that the\nprogress of the race demands that the best minds and the truest hearts\nbe devoted to this great cause. The call has been sounded, and the\nchoicest of the land are responding eagerly to it ; and when it is realized\nthat child study represents at the same time a scientific and a profoundly\nsympathetic attitude toward the study and training of child life, it will\nbe appreciated that it is a movement which will gain in momentum at\nevery point.\nWe have represented upon our program today the scientific and the\npractical aspects of child study. We have the fruits of investigations\nthat have been carried forward with great care and patience, and which\npromise to be of direct practical benefit to everyone who has the direction\nof child life. We shall, too, consider the ways in which the results of\nscientific studies may be most readily and efficiently applied in the training of home and school. Thus we ally the scientific and the practical in\nour program, as they must ever be allied in all the affairs of life in order\nthat they may have the most successful issue.\n\n"}
{"page": 908, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nSOME\n\nBY\n\nCAUTIONS\n\nOSSIAN\n\nH.\n\nLANG,\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nTO BE\n\nEDITOR\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nOBSERVED\n\n\"SCHOOL\n\nIN CHILD\n\nJOURNAL,\n\nNEW\n\n[Child Study\n\nSTUDY\n\nYORK\n\nThe exuberance of the first proselytes in child study has given many\na speaker and writer of a satirical turn of mind an opportunity to say\nwitty things about pedagogic fads. The truth is that many of these\nenthusiasts did appear ridiculously pompous when they solemnly told\nhow Johnny winked and what Nellie said and how Charlie neighed like\na horse, having been cajoled into the belief that this was genetic psychology done in a scientific way. However, things new have a grotesqueness all their own, and it is ihis very grotesqueness which helps to\nmake them talked about. The critic has in more than one way aided the\nintroduction of the very thing he was opposed to, by croaking about it\ntoo noisily.\nNotwithstanding all the funny stories that have been aimed at the\nefforts of the advocates of child study, not one sane and intelligent person\nhas ever seriously doubted the pedagogic value of an intimate knowledge\nof children. It may be that sometimes a speaker, fond of smart argument, is heard protesting that special, conscious child study is unnecessary to a successful education, but he invariably defeats his own scoffings\nby the logic of the appended attempts at proofs. True, there are many\ngood educators among mothers and teachers who know a great deal\nabout children, tho they have never heard of child study, but does that\nprove that they never studied children ? It is an absolute waste of time\nto attack or defend child study from this direction ; sophistry is not a\nbranch of present-day pedagogics.\nWhile the raison d'etre of child study cannot be denied, the methods\nin vogue in this particular field are certainly open to criticism. And,\nindeed, Professor Miinsterberg was justified in sending in his Atlantic\narticles a stray shot at the kind of child study which has at present a\nmonopoly. It is well to bear in mind that most of the mistakes in childstudy methods have their origin in mistaken views of the motif of child\nstudy.\nSome there are who think they have discovered in child study a means\nof revising the fundamental truths of pedagogy, a new kind of higher\ncriticism, as it were. These friends are usually very gullible and are\napt to swallow whole in their enthusiasm many of the psychological\nmorsels served up by yellow Sunday journals. Being extremists, they\nwill hardly remain true to their worship of pedagogic metaphysics long\nenough to feel the awful disappointment that might be in store for them,\nand we need not .shed one single tear in their behalf.\nChild study has\n\n"}
{"page": 909, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmcntl\n\nSOME\n\nCAUTIONS\n\nTO BE ORSERVED\n\nIN CHILD\n\nSTUDY\n\n899\n\nnot come to destroy foundation principles nor to deprive them of one jot\nor one tittle of their vital force.\nWith many others child study is a pretty toy. Volumes of genuine,\nadulterated, and bogus sayings of children have been published for their\nspecial delectation. Sometimes the credulity of these friends is rather\nseverely tried. Most of the bright little books purporting to be collections of children's sayings are full of cute counterfeits. Truth and fiction\nare usually mixed in a most fascinating way. Even Dr. Sully has not been\nable to keep his books of child studies free from colored statements,\nwhich add considerable brightness to the collection, but can hardly be\nexpected to have pedagogic or psychologic value. The trouble with the\ngeneral run of children's sayings is that they are so decidedly commonplace\nthat a 'collection of them would have but little selling power. The\nlove for fairy tales is not stored away with the top and the doll ; adults\nenjoy them fully as much as the children, and a flavor of them is necessary to make child study palatable to those whose sole object is to be\nentertained.\nChild study, to be sure, is not the one and all of education, but it is\ntoo serious a matter for simple diversion. I regard it as a pity that a\ngreat many earnest teachers have been led to look upon written collections of miscellaneous child observations as helps to their educational\nwork. It may be laid down as an axiom that these observations have full\nvalue only for the one who gathered them.' To others they may be suggestive, but nothing more. One might as well attempt to study botany\nin a library or from a herbarium bought of some collector. With every\nobservation put down in writing there is connected a residuum of experience which remains concealed.\nI do not wish to be understood as decrying study of the records of\nchild observers in general. A great deal of valuable thought may be\ngathered from such studies of individual children as those of Perez and\nPreyer, and the preserved character sketches written under the direction\nof Basedow, Pestalozzi, Herbart, Ziller, and others. But the feature of\ngreatest worth is, again, the suggestiveness of these records, and not the\nobservations themselves ; in other words, their chief value is to be found\nin the method pursued in gathering the observations. Moreover, it should\nbe borne in mind that the aim of these child studies was to construct\nconjplete pictures of individual children. I regard these studies of individualities as of higher value than classifications under psychological subjects. It is in child study as in nature study : there is too much reading\nof books and too little actual observation.\nThere seems to be no agreement as to what is really worth studying.\nThe majority of leaders in the child-study field point to physiological\nstudies, and here much valuable work has been done in recent years. But\nthese studies have no direct bearing upon education.\nThey merely\n\n"}
{"page": 910, "printed_page": null, "text": "900\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child Study\n\nestablish the physical and physiological factors which must be considered in pedagogic procedure. Nor are teachers generally capable of\ncarrying on these investigations in a scientific way. What good does\nit do to set teachers on a hunt for bacilli, for cases of myopia, chorea,\nneurasthenia, and other physiological defects ? All this is the business\nof the medical practitioner who is skilled in pathological diagnosis,\nparticularly the school physician. The fact that many schools are\nstill without medical inspectors does not invalidate the justice of the\nposition here taken. The day must come when a school physician is considered as necessary as a teacher. But, meanwhile, any medical diagnoses\nteachers may be led to attempt are worse than useless, unless the teacher\nhappens to be one of the very few who have an intelligent acquaintance\nwith human anatomy and physiology. Even under the most favorable\nconditions it is doubtful whether a teacher could make any practical use\nof this sort of data. Where there is no regular medical inspection, there\nought to be at least a thoro annual physical examination by a physician. At any rate, no child should be admitted to any school without\na medical certificate setting forth his physical defects, if there are any.\nIt may be there are many here whose views are diametrically opposed\nto mine as regards the value of anatomical and physio-psychological\nstudies of children carried on by teachers who have no preparation for\nmaking reliable diagnoses of this kind.\nHaving thus disposed, at least to my own satisfaction, of the futility of\nmaking child study a substitute for, instead of one of the aids of, pedagogics,\nthe danger of allowing it to become a mere toy, instead of laboring for\nits development into a serious research in the interest of education, and\nthe blunder of putting lay people to work on investigations which only\nthoroly trained physiologists, or physio-psychologists, can conduct with\nprofit, I may now turn to those schemes which have at least the appearance of justice and pedagogic usefulness. It may be well to consider\nbriefly the various motifs from which these latter plans may originate.\nFirst, the child study may be conducted in the interest of psychologists. These studies, so-called, may consist either in the mere collecting\nand recording of observations or in actual experimentation on children.\nThe former is of doubtful value, the second decidedly pernicious. No\ndoubt experimental psychology occupies an important field, and those\nteachers who are qualified to assist in its development may be justified in\ncontributing data. But how they can expect ever to get any pedagogical\nreturns is more than I can see. Besides, there is much danger that the\npsychologic amateur work will deprive ambitious teachers of what little\nrock bottom they have to stand upon. Psychologic experimentation on\nchildren ought to have as little place in the school as vivisection. It is\nnot necessary, and it opens the way to graye dangers.\nSecondly, there are child studies conducted in the interest of peda-\n\n"}
{"page": 911, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentl SOME\n\nCAUTIONS\n\nTO BE\n\nOBSERVED\n\nIN CHILD\n\nSTUDY\n\n9^1\n\ngogy. Teachers are requested, by someone who is expert in determining\neducational values, to furnish particular facts about children. Those who\nthus aid in the accumulation of data may thereby obtain many practical\nhints. The gain of the one who classifies the collection is rather doubtful, unless the collector is favored with an unusual amount of native\nshrewdness and possesses experience, coupled with thoro pedagogic\ninsight. Even then he will be safer if he relies only upon such information as is gathered under his direct supervision. It is a well-known fact\nthat most of the child studies of this character are mere summaries of\nnicely classified prejudices and opinions generally which reflect what\nteachers would have stated in similar terms without going to the trouble\nof a special investigation. It may be replied that usually the children's\nanswers to certain questions are gathered. Even that changes the result\nbut slightly. Children, like the \"grown-ups,\" are not willing to aid in any\nscheme that will reveal their weaknesses. A great deal of nonsense has\nbeen proclaimed with solemnity, purporting to be revelations of children's likes and dislikes. \" What books, what songs, what games do you\nlike best?\" and other inquisitories of similar character, give birth to so\nmuch guessing as to what the teacher would be pleased to hear that the\nresult will not add one iota to our capital of pedagogics.\nAnd right here let me add that I am firmly opposed to all methods\nof prying and spying into the child soul, unless there is serious and\nabsolute need for it. The child's secrets must be respected, and the\nthings which appear most hallowed to him must not be rudely handled.\nHow many of you would be willing to answer pointed questions touching\nyour thoughts concerning your innermost feelings ? Respect the child !\nPedagogy, no doubt, has gained much from such studies as Hall's Contents of Children's Minds. The caution to be observed in investigations\nof this sort is, not to mistake a knowledge of words for ideas, and vice versa.\nIt is very difficult at times to draw any definite conclusions. Many students of normal schools and colleges stand high in psychology who have\nnot the penumbra of a psychological idea. They might as well have\ngathered their knowledge from a dictionary. Nowhere else is so much\ncaution required as in examinations into the knowledge contained in a\nchild mind. I think I do not hit far off the mark if I say that 75 per cent,\nof the injustices committed by teachers are due to defective methods of\nexaminations, intended to be studies of the contents of children's minds.\nEven the best of teachers are human, and that means they see the child,\nnot as he really is, but as he looks thru their apperceptive spy glasses.\nI thank the president of this department for his courtesy in making\nmy subject read '^Some Cautions to be Observed in Child Study.\" He\nevidently suspected that I would not furnish him anything complete anyway, and his consideration for your comfort also deserves special commendation. Let me then conclude my paper with a few fragmentary\n\n"}
{"page": 912, "printed_page": null, "text": "902\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child Study\n\nremarks, embodying some of my convictions concerning the purposes of\nchild study and the methods employed in carrying them out.\nNothing final must be expected from child study. Every human being\nsurrounds himself with some reserve, and even if teachers could look right\ninto, the child soul, they would not be able to understand it.\nThe most fruitful line of child study is that which aids the teacher to\ndetermine the effect of his teaching upon pupils, to find out whether the\nchildren have grasped ideas or only words, and to watch their educational\ngrowth. Studies of this kind are really self-examinations, and ought to\nbe invaluable sources of counsel as regards choice of studies and form of\ninstruction.\nClosely allied to this form of child study is that which tests the educability of pupils, which includes the study of their educational needs as\nwell as their capacities, and aids to a recognition of what is good for\nthe pupil and what is best adapted to further his growth.\nReally profitable educational child studies can be conducted only by\ntrained teachers who possess pedagogic knowledge, skill, and, above all,\ntact and love of children. Trained educators derive from child study\ninvaluable data revealing the educational needs of their pupils, and they\nturn it to good account also in the testing of the effect of their methods\nof teaching.\nChild study does not aid in the discovery of what is best to give the\nchild to supply his educational needs. This fact is often lost sight of.\nIt may be, for instance, that we can determine the child's likes and dislikes\nin certain directions, but we do not find thru child study the pedagogical treatment needed.\nThe child's appetites are not a reliable index to his needs. A boy,\nand normal at that, may be fonder of green apples than of oatmeal.\nThere is no such thing as spontaneous recognition of what is good for\nhim. Some teachers have found that children can be fed even on grammar.\nStill, the children's appetites and interests must be studied. It is\nabsolutely necessary that they should be known. Economy is the watchword of modern pedagogics. The study of interests reveals the lines of\nleast resistance in the child's make-up. Child study here serves the most\nuseful purpose.\nA strong argument in favor of training in systematic child study is\nthat teachers thereby acquire habits of child study, chief among which is\nthe habit of looking constantly for the educational effects of their teaching upon and in the development of their pupils.\nJust one more word and I am done. All child studies must have\nbehind them, under them, and within them an educational or pedagogic\npurpose, if they are to be of any help to teachers. Before beginning an\ninvestigation, it must be known what to do with the result.\n\n"}
{"page": 913, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSTUDY\n\nOF FIRST-YEAR\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nPUPILS\n\nA YEAR'S STUDY OF THE ENTERING PUPILS\nSPRINGFIELD, MASS., HIGH SCHOOL\nBY\n\nFRED\n\nW. ATKINSON,\n\nPRINCIPAL\n\nOF\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\n9° 3\n\nOF THE\n\nSPRINGFIELD,\n\nMASS.\n\nThe last of May, 1897, the grammar-school principals of Springfield\nwere asked to meet the superintendent of schools and the principal of the\nhigh school for the consideration of a plan of high-school pupil study.\nSix out of the seven principals showed their appreciation of the proposed\nplan and promised their co-operation. In deference to the objections of\ntwo of the principals, it was decided that answers to the questions concerning the pupils who were to enter the high school the coming September\nshould not be sent to the high school until the last of October. By that\ntime it was thought the high-school teachers would have become somewhat acquainted with their pupils.\nIn all, 181 memoranda were returned by the grammar principals, 94\nconcerning girls and 87 concerning boys. Generalizations are made on\nthe basis of the first 140 records returned in regard to all of the points\ncovered by the questions. It is to be remembered, to reach generalizations, however valuable they may be found, is not the object, so much as\nto find out individual needs and capacities.\nOf 140 boys and girls 93 have passed thru every grade of the\nSpringfield public schools. Twenty-one have either omitted one grade or\nhave done the work of two grades in one year. Eight boys and 9 girls\nhave attended schools out of the city part of the time. Four boys and 5\ngirls have had only private instruction. These generalizations show conclusively that the same treatment will not do for all of the pupils of the\nfreshman class. It is only when these facts are considered in connection\nwith the individual himself that they are helpful in determining a distinctive method of treatment. Of 140 boys and girls 8 only are reported as\nirregular in attendance — 3 girls and 2 boys poor in health, and 3 boys\nof whom 2 worked out of school hours and i was evidently irregular in\nevery respect. Judging from the reports of the principals, there are 9\nboys and 16 girls not in good health, and of these 2 only were excessively\nnervous. Eight have a great deal of headache. There are 14 out of the\nentire number who have severe and frequent headaches. A great many\nare growing rapidly and are not very strong, who have otherwise fair\nhealth.\nThe principals in several cases noticed defective sight or hearing.\nThe answers concerning qualities are difficult to generalize. The most\ncommon temperament among the girls seems to be \"cheerful,\" \"sunny,\"\n\"quick,\" \"winning.\" A great many have marked ambition and conscientiousness. There were only four cases of diffidence noted. The most\n\n"}
{"page": 914, "printed_page": null, "text": "904\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child Study\n\nfrequent descriptions of character are \" good \" and \" reliable.\" There are a\nfew cases of vanity, but only two sly and unreliable characters. There are\nmore slow temperaments among the boys and more cases of laziness, carelessness, and lack of responsibility. The words \" ambitious \" and \" straightforward occur\n\"\noften. Four characters are \" unreliable\" and four \"unstable.\"\nThe subject of scholarship I pass over. The data concerning selection of\ncourse of study are peculiarly interesting. Twenty-four girls and 2 1 boys\nare taking other courses of study in the high school than those which the\nprincipals would have recommended. It was the judgment of the principals\nthat 1 2 girls and 5 boys only should be allowed to do extra work the first\nyear. Fifty-three are doing extra work and only 7 of these are of the\nnumber recommended for it.\nThe relations between school and outside interests and home conditions are very close. The most favorable condition seems to be a home\nwhere either some slight work or some accomplishment, as music, is\nrequired. The boys who do some work and the girls who help their\nmothers • at home are usually thoro in their school work. Many make\ncollections of stamps and of minerals. No work is required of the\nmajority. The last question, \" In case of difficulty in learning or fault in\nbehavior, what method of instruction or discipline have you found most\nhelpful?\" is the least answered. In some cases it is suggested that '* an\nappeal to ambition \" or \"an appeal to the better nature\" i^ sufficient,\nwhere behavior or work is at fault. • Many times \" a slight reproof\" answers.\nIn several cases it is advised to appeal to the parents.\nOn the whole, the grammar-school principals have shown cordial\nco-operation, and the information obtained from them is reliable and of\npractical value.\nHowever intimately some city high-school principals have come to\nknow their pupils, and however successfully others have won the cordial\nco-operation of the grammar-school principals, still it must be admitted\nthat practically little has been done to bring teachers and parents to work\ntogether. City life seems to exclude the possibility of knowing the home\ninfluences. No one questions the wisdom of bringing parents and teachers into a mutually helpful relation, and in a few cities steps have been\ntaken to gain the sympathies and co-operation of parents. Parents have\nbeen encouraged to visit the schools, conferences have been held, but\nrarely have parents been asked by high-school teachers to give them the\nbenefit of their knowledge of the pupils' health, eyesight, hearing,\nrecreation, home study, reading, tastes, temperament, character, etc. To\nobtain information concerning just these points, 197 blanks were sent to\nparents of the entering class. Over 85 per cent, were returned with\nanswers carefully filled out. There were those who feared the misapprehension of parents as to the objects we teachers had in view; and\nothers who prophesied even serious trouble.\nHere, too, I am able to\n\n"}
{"page": 915, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSTUDY\n\nOF FIRST-YEAR\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nPUPILS\n\n905\n\nsay many parents expressed appreciation of the efforts of the teachers\nand of the interest that led to the asking of the questions concerning\neach pupil.\nThe health reports of the parents usually agree with those given by\nthe principals, with two exceptions : the principals in several cases noticed\ndefective eyesight or hearing when the parents thought all was right. The\nother disagreement is that the parent sometimes emphasizes the fact of\n\"nervousness\" when the principal does not mention it. About 20 p'er\ncent, of the girls have not had good health the past two years, and in some\ncases have not felt so well since entering the high school. In most of\nthese cases there is either no recreation, or the exercise consists in housework or music study, and the results are worry and nervousness. Do not\nthese facts speak for themselves ? Is there any doubt that the question,\nschool life in relation to health, is one for us educators to consider ?\nAbout 20 per cent, of the whole class are reported as having defective\neyesight. No special tests, however, were made. The question arises :\nHow many would be found with eyesight below the normal were careful\ntests made ? The hours of sleep average eight or nine, seldom more, tho\nsometimes less. One boy sleeps ten or twelve hours, takes plenty of time\nfor breakfast, and has a \"very good temper.\" The question of sufficient\ntime taken for breakfast differs with boys and girls. The answers for\nboys average \" yes,\" tho sometimes it is \" not always \" or \" usually.\" \" No \"\noccurs four times definitely. One boy eats nothing, and another takes\n\"a part of a cup of coffee.\" With the girls the answers do not average\n\" yes,\" but are more often \" not always,\" \" eats little,\" or \" no.\" Some more\ncheerfully answer \" sometimes.\" One says, \"she is not allowed to go without, but it is often forced.\" The character of these answers demanjds that\nsomething be done.\nI wish there were time to give fully the reports concerning recreation\nand exercise. Judging from these results, it is clear that regular physical\nexercise in a gymnasium should be provided for. Six boys are reported\nas taking no exercise. Very few girls take over one or two hours of exercise a day. Twenty- five per cent, take very slight recreation or none.\nOne girl takes only evening exercise, studies music, has headaches, and\nis \"nervous.\" The influence of the bicycle on exercise is interesting;\nnearly one-half of the boys and about one-third of the girls ride wheels.\nThe questions regarding study are more definitely answered than any\nothers. In general, the feeling is that too much is not required of the\npupils, tho no more should be required. A few complain of too long\nlessons, and one writes ; \" Without intent to criticise, permit me to say that\nI have often felt that it is possible for the teacher to be overzealous, and\nin the anxiety for advancement to give more for a lesson than some pupils\ncan learn and retain.\" The study hours vary from one to six. The pupils\naverage two or three hours of study, at least judging from these reports.\n\n"}
{"page": 916, "printed_page": null, "text": "906\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child Study\n\nTo determine accurately the average amount of study done would, I fear,\nbe a difficult task.\nThe answers to questions regarding individual likes and dislikes are\nmost interesting and often most important. One boy has a \"steady\"\ndislike of \"scolding at home for not getting his lessons good.\" One boy\n\"likes everything in school, from cellar to attic.\" Latin causes the most\ntrouble naturally. A number dislike zoology, tho there is not one complaint of finding it hard. Some find English hard, and a few algebra.\nA great many find classical history hard, even when they like it. One girl\n\"got C for history, and it about made her sick. She talked in her sleep.\"\nThis is an extreme case, but there are several girls and one or two boys\nwho \"worry\" over their studies.\nIf there is one feature in this plan of pupil study which distinguishes\nit from the syllabi used in university youth study, it is that it seeks very\nlittle information from the pupil himself.\nThe pupil's outside reading, as an index to the outside activity, may\nwell come under the direct study of the teacher. It will be legitimate to\ndraw data from the pupil himself concerning the books read, favorite\ncharacters and authors, favorite magazines and papers, use of library, etc.\nIt is very important that a love for good miscellaneous reading be established while the young people are in school, for this habit they are likely\nto carry with them thru life. I am almost ready to say that what our boys\nand girls read is more important than what they study. Howell says\ntruly: \"The average boy does more for his education by observation and\nreading than the schoolmaster is able to do for him.\"\nTo find out the reading of the pupils done during the summer, the\nreading blank was used. Exceedingly suggestive data were obtained.\nThis blank was filled out by all the classes of the school. It was found\nthat in the Springfield High School the best reading is by the freshmen\nand the poorest by the seniors. That this practical result has been\nreached of itself more than compensates for the time and effort that have\nbeen expended in this study. The reading lists of the freshman class are\nvery uniform, and show plainly the strong influence the grammar schools\nhave in forming a thoroly good literary taste. The books most read last\nsummer by the entering class were Ivanhoe, Lady of the Lake, Marmion, A\nTale of Two Cities, Old Curiosity Shop, Oliver Twist, David Copperfield,\nPickwick Papers, Ben Hur, Vicar of Wakefield, Pilgrim' s Progress, Uncle\nTonCs Cabin, Julius Ccesar, Hamlet, Merchant of Venice, Westward Ho,\nJohn Halifax, Ramona, Lorna Doone, Treasure Island, Near to Nature's\nHeart, Wide, Wide World, Peasant and Prince, and the poems of Longfellow and Whittier. Cooper's novels were also read by many. Scott is\nthe favorite of 49, and Dickens of 38. Other favorites were as follows :\nLongfellow, 19 ; Miss Alcott, 8 ; Henty, 7. Most liked history in the\nform of \"fiction, with history mixed in,\" as one young lady expressed it.\n\n"}
{"page": 917, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSTUDY\n\nOF FIRST- YEAR\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nPUPILS\n\n9° 7\n\nThe liking for biography is remarkable. One boy rjad the lives of\nGarfield, Grant, Sherman, and Blaine. Another read lives of Charlemagne and Cromwell, and the biographies of Buffalo Bill, Daniel Boone,\nand David Crockett. Forty-three read nothing last summer. The reasons\nof preference are the most interesting portion of freshman lists, and are\nhonest, direct, and forcible. They usually show appreciation of the noblest\ntraits of character, rather than any effort at literary criticism. It is worth\nnoticing that it is usually not the most striking personality or phase of\ncharacter that is preferred, but the quiet and substantial virtues. One\nboy likes General Grant, \"because he is polite, but stern in his business.\"\nAnother admires Sherlock Holmes, \"because of his strength of mind.\"\nAnother* likes Little Nell and her grandfather, \"because they thought so\nmuch of each other.\" Don Orsino is admired \"because of his perseverance and dislike of idleness.\" An ideal or heroic character placed in a\nhistoric situation seems to appeal to the largest number. Some reasons\nof preference are unique. Ten Thousand Leagues Under the Sea was\nenjoyed \" because everything in it seems almost impossible.\" The character\nof an old maid was preferred \" for the reason that it shows so plainly what\nkind of persons these old ladies are.\"\nThe various data obtained from grammar-school teachers, the parents,\nand the pupils have not been taken as an ultimate guide. They have\nsimply been a help toward intelligent study by the high-school teachers.\nEach teacher of freshmen has had a small number (fifteen or twenty) of\npupils to look after, and has tried to make their acquaintance as thoroly\nas possible. Sixty boys and ninety girls have been studied. As far as\npossible in so large a class, the teachers were assigned those pupils in\nwhom they had the most interest, and the papers giving the results of this\npupil study show that the matter has been carefully and seriously undertaken. The studies are very interesting and sympathetic.\nOut of the sixty-six boys fifteen only are of absolutely poor scholarship ;a study of these shows that, except for one unusual case of a boy\nwho is overworked on a farm and two cases of poor health, these weak\npupils lack ambition. They study too little, lack power of application,\nand have not definite purposes. There are six mentioned as decidedly\nabove the average in ability. Many lack imagination ; others have too\ngreat a number of outside interests.\nIn too few cases is there evidence of independent interest in studies.\nThere is need of pushing and special effort to awaken interest on the part\nof the teacher. This lack of interest arises in a great many cases from too\nnarrow a conception of school life. Many are at school for practical\nends only, and do not take any interest in studies of which they cannot\nsee the practical application. This is doubtless the result of home influence. These sixtv-six boys are divided into three very sharp classes- — a\nfew who have further study in view, those who have merely practical\n\n"}
{"page": 918, "printed_page": null, "text": "9o8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nfChild Study\n\nmotives, and a, very large proportion who have no definite motive for\nattending school. Most of the boys who take the manual training come\nunder the second class ; they study merely to fit themselves better to earn\na living. One such boy is of accurate mind and fair ability, but baffled\nhis teacher who studied him. She came to the conclusion that .what he\nneeds most is \"a widened horizon.\" He dislikes his biology, \"which he\nregards as being of no practical value.\" His manner is indifferent, his\nattention wandering, his deportment sometimes troublesome, and yet he\nis in school \"for an education.\" This case is important as a strong type,\nof which there are too many less striking counterparts. But the third\nclass, those who have no definite purpose, is the most difficult to understand and to educate. Some of these pupils have good possibilities, but\ncannot be appealed to effectively, because their school work is not grounded\non definite purpose. School is in some cases frankly regarded as a place\nin which to pass away the time.\nAs studies of character many of these papers are thoroly interesting.\nOne boy is well-meaning, but \"too sociably inclined,\" hence forgets himself often. He is weak in deductive reasoning, hence illogical and blundering. This same boy wants to get an education \" to be of some earthly\nuse.\" One is \"too indolent to improve weak points,\" is interesting and\nexasperating. His purpose seems to be to \"do as he pleases.\" One is\n\" an interesting boy as illustrating the many-sided difference between the\nprivate and public-school student.\" He is unable to \"think under pressure.\" His ability to memorize is unusual. One boy \"sometimes slights\nschool work for outside work in which he is more interested, but not\nintentionally. This boy has unusual ability to think for his age, and is\nso genuinely interested in the study of science outside of school that\nhe has at times made himself ill from overwork.\" Another is \"happy\"\nby nature, \"serious\" because of responsibility connected with home and\nschool, and of a character \" wonderfully fine and strong.\" He would\nobtain ideas even under unfortunate circumstances, so eager is he to\nknow.\nOf the ninety-two girls who have been studied, ten are of poor\nscholarship. Two of these unsatisfactory pupils are well-meaning girls,\nbut weak in mind. They make efforts in vain to comprehend their work.\nTwo are of poor health. Four seem incapable of serious application\nbecause of lack of energy, of interest, and of mental self-control. Eighteen of the ninety-two are of excellent scholarship, and some of the most\ninteresting papers concern these. One is exceptionally original in written\nwork and is \"able to apply what she knows.\" One is slow, but \"allround.\" One paper is most interesting to read. It concerns a girl who\nwas born in Finland. She is described as \"enthusiastic,\" \"fond of jolly\nout-of-door pleasures,\" \"always on the alert to catch every small bit of\ninformation,\" \"keen of observation.\"\nShe \"wants to become a teacher.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 919, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSTUDY OF FtRST-YEAR High-School pupils\n\n909\n\nOne girl likes Latin and algebra \"because there is something in them to\novercon&e.\" In all of these excellent cases of scholarship there is\nstrength of character, abundant 'motive, and independent interest in work.\nIn most cases there seems to be plenty of out-of-door exercise and some\nvariety of interests outside of school. This leaves sixty-five who are\neither of medium ability in school work, or who are uneven in their work.\nSome of this number are pupils of fair normal development ; but there\nare too many who are characterized by lack of self-confidence, lack of\nmotive, and general lack of vitality — an all-round lack of positive\nqualities.\nThere are as many as eighteen of the ninety-two who are not interesting because they are not interested in anything strongly. Such expressions are used to describe their mental conditions as \"needs stimulus,\"\n\"needs to exercise her mind more,\" \"likes English best and tolerates the\nrest,\" \"listless,\" \"passive,\" \"negative.\" Of one girl it is said, \"she has\nno definite likes or dislikes.\" Of another the complaint is, \" no vital\ninterest in or out of school.\" Of several it is said that \"mental awakening\" is needed. One girl \"needs an earthquake to arouse her.\" There\nis a great deal of reticence, which at this time of a girl's life seems almost\nlack of individuality, when it is, in reality, only immaturity and diffidence,\nsometimes morbid diffidence. This may account for some of the seeming\nlack of interest. But lack of physical vitality is probably a fundamental\nreason for lack of positive qualities in so many of these girls.\nThere are few of these ninety-two girls of robust health. There are\nforty-five of these girls who are not strong, and some of them of weak\nhealth. There is a surprising amount of frequent headache. There is\ninsufficient exercise in the open air.\nA few comparisons may be made. There is a greater number of interesting studies of boys than of girls. There is more variety of interest,\nmore physical vitality, fullness of life among the boys than among the\ngirls. There are more girls who enjoy studies from real interest in the\nsubjects. There are more readers and more who can ^express themselves\nwell in writing among the girls.\nAs a whole, these are painstaking and valuable studies in a good\ncause seeking to know the pupil's individuality as far as it is possible in\na large public school. The best studies are those that seek motives and\ncauses. Such a study affords a definite basis for the development of a\npupil's peculiar capacities and the correction of his deficiencies. Under\nthis plan of pupil study observations which every good teacher naturally\nmakes are systematized and scientifically directed. Having in mind,\nsolely, the interests of the pupil, the results of one teacher's observations\nof a particular pupil have been transferred to another. Co-operation has\nbeen possible, and the efforts to help a pupil have been more effective.\nPupil study has tended to unify the work of the various departments of\n\n"}
{"page": 920, "printed_page": null, "text": "9IO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child Study\n\nour high school. It has shown teachers that the purpose of each department is the same. High-school teachers, from thinking so much of what\nand how they teach, are in danger of forgetting the pupils themselves.\nPupil study seeks to understand the individual boy or girl in order that\nthe means and methods of instruction may be adapted to his distinctive\nneeds and capacities. At its best, the method suggested of studying, consciously, the pupil, during his high-school course, will make us highschool teachers better able to watch over and further intelligently and\nsympathetically the education and physical health of the boys and girls\nfor whose future happiness and usefulness we are responsible. Such a\nplan, if wisely and generally administered, ought to show to the educational world what can be accomplished when grammar- and high-school\nteacher, parent and pupil, work together.\n\nHEREDITY\n\nBY\n\nEDGAR\n\nJAMES\n\nAND\n\nSWIFT,\n\nENVIRONMENT— A STUDY\nADOLESCENCE\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nSTEVENS\n\nPOINT,\n\nIN\n\nWIS.\n\nThe physical condition of children is a partial test of the vigor of\ntheir ancestors. A percentage of 84.76 of the Waukesha Reformatory\nboys were in good health. Twelve said their health was fair, apd, as most\nof these had little or nothing the matter with them, it does not seem\nunreasonable to class half of them with those in good health. If we do\nthis, the percentage rises to 87.61. So far as this indicates the physical\nvigor of their families, it is not seriously against them. The Elmira\nReformatory reports 90.4 per cent, of its inmates in good health at the\ntime of admission, and only 3.7 per cent, diseased.\nIf we turn from the physical condition of the boys to their mental\nability, we find 30.45 per cent, good, 41.62 per cent, fair, and 27.91 per\ncent. poor. This estimate was made for each inmate by the teachers of\nthe several classes. At Elmira, again, 75.8 per cent, of the 7,168 young\nmen who have been in the institution were of good ability, while only\n1.2 per cent, were regarded as deficient. The difference between these\nresults may be partly due to the fact that the estimate of the Waukesha\nboys was based almost wholly on ability as shown in school work, while\nat Elmira the opportunity for judgment is considerably enlarged.\nA percentage of 28.35 o^ the boys have lost their father, and 31.03 per\ncent, their mother. This is rather a large proportion. Morrison found\nthat 20 per cent, of the industrial school population of England and\nScotland were fatherless, and 14 percent, motherless. The large number\nof motherless children found by this investigation may be accounted for\n\n"}
{"page": 921, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHEREDITY\n\nAND\n\nENVIRONMENT\n\n9\"\n\neither by the father's desire to remarry leading him to wish to be rid of\nhis children, or by trouble with the stepmother. This seems to be indicated bythe fact that 22.5 per cent, of all the children have stepmothers,\nwhile only 15.53 P^^ cent, have stepfathers. The danger to young children if either parent remarries becomes evident when we see that 30.43\nper cent, of these boys report unkind treatment by their stepparent.\nMorrison ' thinks that the large number of reformatory children who\nhave lost one or both parents is evidence \" of a degenerate race either on\nthe father's or the mother's side.\" The inference that these children are\nmore inclined to crime does not seem to be warranted.\nPartially orphaned children of wage-earners gravitate to the reformatory quite regardless of criminal proclivities. If fatherless, they are a\nburden to the mother who has difficulty in supporting them, and if motherless, the father finds them an obstacle to remarrying. In both cases they\nare left to themselves, while the parent is away from home at work, and\nso they become incorrigible thru street life.\nInsanity was found in the ancestry of 4.6 per cent., epilepsy in 5,68\nper cent., and 6.13 per cent, reported chorea. In only four instances did\ntwo of these three nervous diseases appear in the same family line. One\nboy reported a death from nervous prostration and consumption. Either\ninsanity, epilepsy, or chorea was traced in the ancestry of 13.82 per cent.\nA percentage of 10.47 ^^^e of ancestry in which at least one has been\nconvicted of crime, while 7.48 per cent, said that their father had been\nconvicted. If we include in the estimate those who had never been convicted, so far as their sons knew, the percentage falls to 6.96.\nSo far as could be learned from the boys, their fathers were, in almost\nall cases, hard-working men ; 125 were skilled workmen, 46 unskilled, and\n33 farmers. Only 5 did not work, and 2 were saloonkeepers. When\nasked about the character of their fathers, 86.33 P^\"\" cent, said they were\ngood men, 11 per cent, thought them bad, and 2.65 per cent. fair.\nDrunkenness in their ancestry was admitted by 37.32 per cent. The\nparents seem to have been generally meant here, as the same question\nasked about them later gave practically the same result. It is interesting to note that of the 81 boys one or both of whose parents or\nancestors were hard drinkers 52 did not themselves drink, while of the\n136 whose parents and ancestors did not drink 31 reported that they\nwere accustomed to drink either whisky or beer, or both. It is not\neasy to explain this on the supposition that youthful delinquency is\nthe result of debilitated nerve centers brought about by ancestral alcoholism and disease. But, if boyhood crimes originate in a longing for\nexcitement which finds its gratification in crime because a healthier outlet for these feelings is not at hand, the results found here are not so\ndifficult to understand.\nIntemperance would, then, follow crime rather\n^Juvenile Offenders, p. 1 00.\n\n"}
{"page": 922, "printed_page": null, "text": "912\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child Study\n\nthan precede it, and this has been found to be true.' In any case it\nleaves a large number of delinquents to be accounted for in some other\nway. At the Elmira Reformatory over 50 per cent, are of temperate\nancestry.\nIf we consider all who were included in this investigation, 34 out of\n217 had learned to drink whisky, while 59 in 218 drank beer. Of the\n54 who gave the age at which they began to drink, 18 commenced at 10\nyears of age or younger, and 30 between 10 and 15, while 3 said \"very\nyoung.\"\nOnly 3 were older than 15 years ; 9 did. not know the age.\nThe influence of others is seen in the way in which they began to\ndrink. Fourteen became accustomed to its use at home, or were given it\nelsewhere by their father or some other member of the family; 18 were\nurged to drink by older boys, i was working in a brewery, 2 wanted to\nsee how it tasted, i was selling papers in a saloon, 2 drank because they\nsaw others do it, 3 \"for fun,\" 2 at a party, i was paid by a man to drink,\n3 thought they felt a desire for liquor, and 14 did not remember how\nthey began.\nThe best and worst part of a child's education come to him unconsciously. He acts out its suggestions before his judgment is mature\nenough to be critical. Only 24 had read any books that were not\nharmful, and many of these were valueless. They were merely not bad.\nThirty-five had read none at all, 29 all kinds, and 12 said good books,\nbut were unable to name any. Most of the books belonged to the class\nof the James boys, Diamond Dick, and detective stories. There seems\nto be force in Dr. Ferona's assertion that \" three-fourths of those who\nenter prison have been led to a life of crime from neglect of education.\"\nMoral ideas are rare among these boys, but there is no evidence of a\nprevailing absence of the moral sense. Few of them glory in what they\nhave done. One hundred and twenty-seven said that they would have\npreferred to spend their evenings in a free club room playing games, had\nthere been such a place where they lived. Three admitted they liked the\nsaloon better, and 13 would rather have remained at home. When\nasked whether they would like to be such a man as their father, 138\nreplied yes, while 58 wanted to be better.\nThe children of wage-earners in towns and cities, the class from\nwhich reformatories are constantly replenished, are, to a large extent,\ndeprived of the stimulus of social respectability. Besides, they do not\nreceive the same treatment as those socially higher. It is rare for anyone\nwho can win their admiration and arouse them to personal effort for\nimprovement to associate with them, at least in any other than a patronizing way. No one took enough interest in 20 of those who drank to\nadvise them to stop, while only 6 of the remaining 41 reported being\nurged\n\nnot to drink by anyone outside of their family.\n\n' Morrison, Juvenile Offenders, p. 70.\n\nFifty-four had\n\n"}
{"page": 923, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHEREDITY\n\nAND\n\nENVIRONMENT\n\n913\n\nnever seen or heard of anyone whom they greatly admired. Of those\nwho said that they had, 54 gave some member of their own family, 28\nWashington, while 25 were scattered, and 42 were unable to name anyone.\nAlmost all of the boys had lived the greater part of their time on the\nstreet. They were under the influence of associates older in crime.\nOne hundred and twenty-four said they had never felt any desire to do\nwrong, but were led on by others and wanted some fun. Of the remaining 14 who replied, 11 believed that they alone were responsible for what\nthey did, while 3 were not able to give an opinion,\nThe question of interest to society is not, Can children become\ncriminals because of inherited tendencies? but rather, Must these constitutional peculiarities reveal themselves in the life of the individual, however\nunfavorable to their development the surroundings may be ? The record\nof 106 children, who had been placed in families by the Minnesota State\nSchool for Neglected and Dependent Children, was examined in the hope\nof getting some information on this subject. The history book of the\ninstitution showed that one or both of the parents of all these children\nwere distinctly bad. The least of which any of them had been guilty was\nhabitual drunkenness and desertion of their family. In 39 instances\nintemperance, insanity, or criminality was found in both parents, and 39\nof the mothers were known to be prostitutes. The fathers of 2 had been\nconvicted of murder, and 3 were serving a sentence in the penitentiary.\nThis is certainly a good ancestry to produce criminals, if the effect of\nheredity is beyond control. The children whose record is given here\ninclude all those on the books of the institution, who were more than 17\nyears of age when last investigated by the state agent, and whose parents,\none or both, were known to be bad. All but 16 of them were older than\n18 years. Fifty-two of these children were classed by the state agent as\nexcellent, 36 as good, and 18 as bad. Those designated as excellent were\nso strong in character and ability as to attract unusual attention, while by\ngood was meant above reproach in character. One of those recorded as\nbad was a prostitute before entering the school. Eighty-three and twohundredths per cent., then, of all those of known bad parentage developed\ninto young men and women of good character when placed in better\nsurroundings.\nAt the Wisconsin State School the record of 91 children was studied.\nThe same rules of procedure were followed as before, except that a few\nbetween the ages of 16 and 17 were admitted. Both parents of 19 children were either intemperate or insane, or had committed a crime, and\n13 of the mothers were prostitutes. In this school 12 were classed as\nexcellent, 73 as good, and only 6 had turned out badly. One of these 6,\nit was found, had been placed with a man who was a hard drinker,\naltho this was not known wh^n the boy was given to him.\nAnother,\n\n"}
{"page": 924, "printed_page": null, "text": "914\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nED UCA TIONAL\n\nASSOCIA TION\n\n[Child Study\n\none of the younger girls, was seduced by the man in whose family she\nwas placed. The small number of these that did not turn out well, compared with those from the Minnesota school, is probably due to the fact\nthat many of them are younger. It is quite possible that some may still\nrevert, tho inherited characteristics usually appear in full strength by i6\nyears of age.\nWhen it is remembered that these children remained with their parents\nlong enough to imbibe a good deal of immorality by contact, the significance of these figures greatly increases. Besides, the children are placed\nunder an indenture contract, and, except in rare instances, are treated as\nservants by those who take them. They are usually valued in proportion\nto the work they can do.\nThe average age at which 255 boys were taken to the Waukesha Reform\nSchool was not quite 13.7 years. This is the time when the largest amount\nof energy is seeking occupation and wise guidance is 'particularly needed.\nYet this is exactly what these boys do not get. They are left to the chance\nof the street. At this period of life the nerve tissue is in a hyper-irritable\nstate, and, as Clouston' tells us, certain forms of emotional and irrational\nwillfulness, immorality, impulsiveness, and adolescent insanity are not\nuncommon. Escapades at this time do not necessarily point to a criminal\nnature. The excessive irritability of the nerve centers, to which the\nfrequency of nervous disorders at this period points, makes them erratically\nsensitive.\nAt this age children are especially susceptible to suggestion.\nThe acts for which many of the boys were sent to the reformatory\nseem to have been a sort of reflex resistance to dull or disagreeable conditions of life, a blind effort to escape from a hateful monotony. The\nhistory book shows that the common offenses were disobedience, running\naway from home or school, and stealing articles of little or no value, such\nas candy, tobacco, knives, or small amounts of money. The wish to have\nsome fun was the prevailing motive with many. In comparatively few\ninstances did the things that 'they took have much value, and most of\nthese were articles which boys long for. They were generally bicycles,\nwatches, and guns.\nOnly six boys out of 254 stole money in excess of $5.\nA sudden change comes in the early years of adolescence, and with it\nnew demands. Energy is in excess, and the childish sports which formerly\nabsorbed it no longer satisfy. Early education consists to a large degree\nin meeting and overcoming inherited nomadic and anti-social impulses.\nThe lawless acts of this period are probably the result of surviving rudimentary traits.'\nThe successful control of these ancestral tendencies is the most difficult\ntask of child training. If opportunity is given children to engage in\nenjoyable sports, exciting enough to satisfy their boundless imagination,\n' The Neurosis of Development, p. 1 2.\n'Ellis, Pedagogical Seminary, October, 1897, p. 188.\n\n"}
{"page": 925, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHEREDITY\n\nAND\n\nENVIRONMENT\n\n9^5\n\nand if school work is so planned as to respond to their varying interests,\nthese rudimentary impulses may gradually be eliminated from their life.\nThese reformatory boys were riot only left to the unrestrained influence\nof these ancestral traits, but, in addition, the surroundings were such as to\nfavor their abnormal development. The entire absence of the moral sense\nin hardened criminals, resulting in practical reversion and the redevelopment of those activities that are ordinarily rudimentary in the human race,\nis probably due, in many cases, to the environment reviving their latent\npower of functioning.\nInfancy and childhood is a transition period from lesser to greater\nbrain complexity. If conditions are favorable, this complexity is in the\ndirection of greater intellectual and moral perfection. New cell connections are now being made, and the associations thus established de^termine\nthe character of the man. It is probable that most of these connections\nare made unconsciously. Daily contact with associated ideas and acts\nwill end in establishing them in the mental background, however\nunnatural they may be. Natural and reasonable are relative terms.\nTheir interpretation depends on the paths that have been made among\nthe cells during their expansions from infancy thru adolescence, when\ndevelopment followed, uncritically, the lines suggested by experience.\nThe complexity that characterizes a developed brain is not a spontaneous\ngrowth. Tho mental limitations and possibilities lie within the brain\nitself, the direction that these possibilities shall take, resulting finally in\npro-social aspirations or in anti-social tendencies, is determined from\nwithout. Criminal training may end in as complex cerebral associations as\nthe best education. Enlarged mentality is the result of life amid broad\nsocial relations. The subjective possibility for character is actualized\nonly under the influence of perfecting social stimuli. Moral obtuseness\nis not necessarily the result of native incapacity. It is more often due to\nconstant exercise in perverted perceptions. Under the action of external\nstimuli modifications are constantly going on in a child's brain. The\nform that these modifications take will depend on the relations found in\nexperience. The child accepts relations as they are offered, and the ideas\nthus related form his standard for future judgment. The immediate\nvalue of an idea depends on responsive associations, and these are determined by the relations prevailing in the mental background. Hasty\naction will be common, unless there are arresting secondary associations\nof sufficient strength to hold the mind in balance until their full meaning\ncan assert itself. The greater the number of these secondary associations,\nthe more deliberate and reasonable will be the final decision. The\nrelations resulting from constant contact with vicious surroundings\naccount for much of the moral perversion that leads to thoughtless action,\nand later to crime.\nIt is doubtful whether in three-fourths of the cases criminal tendencies\n\n"}
{"page": 926, "printed_page": null, "text": "gi6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child Study\n\nare anything else than a convenient name with which to cover our social\nfailure in education. If, as Morgan tells us, we have good grounds for\nbelieving that \"the growth of intelligent plasticity, in any given race, is\nassociated with a disintegration of the instinctive plan, congenital adaptation being superseded by an accommodation of a more individualistic\ntype, to meet the needs of a more varied and complex environment,'\"\nand if \"a suitable training long enough continued can, to a certain extent,\nderange the hereditary tendencies which we call instinctive, and create new\nones,'\" heredity loses the charm of necessity, and society with its power\nto control environment becomes responsible.\n\nCHILD\n\nSTUDY\n\nBY JOHN\n\nIN THE\n\nG. THOMPSON,\n\nTRAINING\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nOF TEACHERS\nFITCHBURG,\n\nMASS.\n\nThis paper deals with but a single aspect of child study and a single\n,phase of the training of teachers. It presupposes that child study should\nhave a place in such training and does not advance reasons therefor. It\nassumes that the study of children should be a large factor in the preparation of those who are to teach children rather than subjects. It offers no\nopinion as to just how much time or just what part of the work spent in\npreparation for teaching should be devoted to child study, but discusses\nin a brief manner the lines along which this study should be conducted\nso as to give proper training to those fitting themselves to teach.\nOne may venture to predict, without fear of loss in reputation as a\nprophet, that, when an entirely new subject is added to the curriculum,\nwhether it be to that of the primary school, the secondary school, the\nnormal school, or the college, in the teaching of such a subject will be\nfound nearly all the errors and weaknesses that have been discovered\nand corrected in other teaching. The years required to convince school\nauthorities, and even teachers of drawing, that the way to learn to draw\nis to draw, and that the way to learn to draw objects is to draw objects,\ninstead of copying from the flat, is a good illustration of this. We begin\nto hear that we have been all wrong in regard to nature study, or elementary science, as in our wrongheadedness so many of us have insisted upon\ncalling it. But how long it has taken us to learn that love of nature can\nonly come thru communion with nature and never thru dissection or\ndestruction, or even thru scientific nomenclature ! And in child study,\nas carried on today in the training of teachers, are we not repeating\nthe old errors ? Missteps and falls are to be expected in learning to\n^Nature, February 3, 1898, p. 328.\n'Charles Letourneau, Popular Science Monthly, February, 1898.\n\n"}
{"page": 927, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!,\n\nCHILD\n\nSTUDY\n\nIN THE\n\nTRAINING\n«\n\nOF TEACHERS\n\n9^7\n\nwalk ; but must each new child in the family tumble over the same old\nobjects ?\nThree movements are now\", and have been for the past few years,\nparticularly proniinent in school work. The first is a re-emphasis of the\ntruth, long ago pointed out, that we should study things themselves rather\nthan treatises aboutjhings. In the study of literature today, reviews and\ncriticisms, the story of the life of the author, accounts of the peculiarities\nof his person or his manners, narration of circumstances attending or\nleading up to the writing, date and form of publication, are considered of\nsmall importance compared with the reading and absorption of the piece\nof literature itself. In geography, the reading or memorizing of descriptions of physical features, or of the work of physical agencies, is no longer\nallowed to take the place of field work. We are beginning to see that the\nearth and the out-of-doors are very near to every child and at the hand of\nevery teacher. In nature study it will no longer do to study trees in the\nschoolroom, or birds from descriptions, pictures, or mounted specimens.\nYet in child-study we seem likely to repeat the old mistake and to study\nabout children rather than to study children themselves. Classes of students preparing to be teachers are required to devote the larger part of\ntheir precious time to reading and studying articles and treatises about\nchildren, and to collecting anecdotes of child life. In some institutions\nverbal description is reinforced by collections of pictures of children of\nvarious ages. Logically, may we not expect to find pictures followed by\nmounted specimens ? Summer schools offering courses in child study,\nso far as I am informed, in no case study children themselves, but always\nabout them. A course of bird study carried on as is so much of our\nchild study would meet with deserved ridicule. Yet the children are\nalways with us, and the least of these little ones is \"of more value than\nmany sparrows.\"\nThat those training to teach should familiarize themselves with what\nhas been done in child study — with the works of Preyer, Perez, Baldwin,\nHall, Barnes, Warner, Miss Shinn, and others — is not questioned. The\npoint I wish to make is that such work should be subordinated to the\nactual study of children. Where such is not the case, and the study of\nchildren is made of less importance than the study of works about children, the old error of studying science and nature from text-books rather\nthan in the laboratory and the field is repeated.\nThe second movement in the new education is a demand for the\nrecognition of the individuality of the pupil. The tyranny of the graded\nsystem, the evils of the \" lock-step in education,\" are apparent as never\nbefore. In school work in general we seem to be breaking away from the\nidea that there is some one average or ideal child that may represent the\npupils of the first grade, or those of the third grade, or those of the fourth\ngrade, etc. The teacher is beginning to realize that the forty pupils in\n\n"}
{"page": 928, "printed_page": null, "text": "918\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTIONAL\n\nASSOCIA TION\n\nfChild Study\n\nher grade must not be considered as forty times one, but as forty ones,\neach one differing from every other one. The failure to recognize this\ntruth, and to direct teaching to meet individual needs, should increase the\nnumber of the teacher's deadly sins, as enumerated by Dr. Burnham, from\nseven to eight. To forget the individual in dealing with the class or with\nthe school is one of the easiest things for the young teacher. He must\nconstantly guard against it, and his training should recognize the fact.\nNaturally we expect the greatest assistance in this matter to come to the\nteacher thru child study. There are indications that this expectation will\nbe met in the near future ; but in child study so far the greatest stress\nseems to be placed upon averages. The influence of suggestion upon the\nchild of five, what the child of six likes to read, how often the child\nof ten plays truant, how the child of twelve regards tale bearing —\nthese and similar ones seem to be the vital questions. Thousands of\nanswers are collected, tabulated, and averaged in the attempt to build\nup the average or ideal child for each year or grade. Yet the teacher's\nchief interest is not in the child of five years of age, nor the child of the\nfirst grade, but in Mary Smith, Johnny Brown, and Susan Jones.\nThe teacher in training or in actual service can be interested in the\nadvancement of child study as a science only incidentally. It is not his\nbusiness to prepare questionnaires, and to collect and tabulate answers to\nthe same in the attempt to formulate laws of child development. This is\nthe work of scientific investigation, and should be left to those who are\ninterested in discovering some new general truth in regard to children,\nmore than in the progress and development of some few particular boys\nand girls. Child study. as a part of the preparation of teachers should\ndevelop skill in studying the individual for the sake of the individual.\nA knowledge of the few general truths established in regard to the\ndevelopment of children is absolutely necessary, but most of these are so\nold and so almost axiomatic that the acquirement of such knowledge will\ncall for the expenditure of but very little time. Provided the course be\nlong enough, it may be well to give the student teachers some acquaintance with the various methods of child study — with the scientific, the\nsemi-scientific, and the unscientific, to use Dr. Scripture's classification.\nChild study, in so far as its influence in the training of teachers leads\nthem to lose the individual in the mass, to interpret all children in the\nterms of some single average ideal child, is repeating and adding to the\nold error that has grown out of the closely graded system. In so far as\nsuch study develops in those preparing to teach the knowledge that each\nchild must be studied as an individual, and must be taught as far as possible as an individual, just so far is child study in harmony with one of\nthe most promising educational movements of the day.\nThe third, and perhaps the most important, movement in present\neducation is the growing appreciation of the truth that was in the mind\n\n"}
{"page": 929, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCHILD\n\nSTUDY\n\nIN THE\n\nTRAINING\n\nOF TEACHERS\n\n9^9\n\nof Garfield when he declared that Mark Hopkins on one end of a log and\na student on the other constituted a university ; that was in the mind of\nEmerson when he said that it matters not so much what you study as with\nwhom you study ; of the truth that must come home to everyone who\ntries to analyze the power of any great teacher, that the personality of the\nteacher — that inmost spirit which is the man — is of the first importance. The recognition of the supreme importance of this factor is doubtless due to a better understanding on the part of the public in general as\nto what education is. In the minds of fewer are scholarship and culture\nsynonymous. More are beginning to see that the result of teaching\nshould be quality of mind rather than quantity of knowledge, that there\nmay be encyclopaedic scholarship without culture, and that there may be\nculture with small scholarship.\nAs is true of the study of literature and of nature, and, in fact, of ai>y\nsubject, the study of children may result in the accumulation of knowledge or may result in culture. Culture has been defined as \"the process\nby which a man takes the world into his nature and is fed, sustained, and\nenlarged by natural, simple, deep relations and fellowship with the whole\norder of things of which he is part.\" Is child study in normal and training schools today so conducted that the student preparing to teach takes\nthe children \"into his nature and is fed, sustained, and enlarged by natural, simple, deep relations and fellowship\" with them ? Or are instructors\nin child study repeating the error of the old education in attempting to\ndevelop teachers by additions from without, by simply storing in theii*\nminds vast collections of miscellaneous facts about children ? Personality\nis to a great extent the result of culture. Is child study so taught that\nthru it the personality of the student teacher is riper, sounder, more\nattractive to children ?\nChildren are studied as a mechanic might study nicely adjusted and\ncomplicated machines. Many eminent scientists in various parts of the\nworld are engaged in studying them in this way. Much delicate apparatus has been invented to assist in this important work. The length of\ntime after the proper stimulus has been applied to the machine before\neach of its various parts are in motion, the rapidity with which the parts\nmove, the length of time that each can move after being started, these\nand similar measurements are made, many of which are very minute and\nvery delicate. Boys are compared with girls, young children with old.\nThe object of it all is to add to discovered truth, and, while some familarity\nwith the method will be helpful to the teacher in broadening his outlook,\nif in no other way, one cannot help agreeing with Professor Munsterberg\nthat such studies as \"how in fractions of seconds different just perceivable optical stimuli vary for our apperception if the eye remains unmoved\"\n— that such studies cannot develop in teachers the right attitude toward\nchildren.\n\n"}
{"page": 930, "printed_page": null, "text": "920\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child Study\n\nChildren are studied as the naturalist studies specimens collected for\nthat purpose. The child is weighed and measured, parts of the body are\nmeasured, and parts of these parts are further measured. The halves of\nthe body and of the head, the limbs, the hands, and the feet are compared\nto see if they are alike. The cranium is scrutinized to discover if it is\nbossed or if it has a frontal ridge ; the external ears to see if they are\nalike in form, if the antehelix is normal, and if the lobes are attached all\nthe way down ; the palate is examined to see if it is narrow, arched, or\ncleft ; the eyes for orbicularis oculi lax and for epicanthis, and of course\nfor myopia, hypermetropia, and astigmatism ; while the body as a whole\nis searched for signs of chorea, rickets, malnutrition, and for lordosis.\nThat children should be examined in this way is not questioned.\nThe teacher certainly should be able to recognize at once any very serious\ndevelopmental defect or any marked signs of nervous disorder. Further\nthan this he ought not to try to go. Were it desirable that as a part of\nhis training he should be educated as a physician, the time now spent in\npreparation to teach would not admit of it. But even in the time allowed\nfor child study great harm may be done by over-emphasizing this phase\nof the subject Both of the methods referred to take away the interest of\nthe teacher from the child as a living, sentient creature. They keep alive\nthe error of the old catechism which taught that the child has a soul,\nimplying that the child is a body. The child is a soul and tas a body.\nHis body may be studied in its machine-like functions, or as a naturalhistory specimen, but all such study must be secondary to the study of\nthe child as a soul, as a spirit; and it is only this latter kind of child study\nthat can strengthen the personality of the teacher by bringing him into\n\"natural, simple, deep relations and fellowship\" with children.\nBut even that study of children which seeks to understand the subtle\nprocesses of thought, feeling, and will, and which deals with the child as\na soul impossible to study under the microscope, and with motives, interests, and powers incapable of formulation in terms of time and space, may\nfail to assist in the proper development of the teacher. As Goethe says,\n\"the spirit in which we act is the highest matter.\" Child study, animated,\nas it seems to me much of it is, by the love of child study, and not\ninspired by love of and interest in children, must result in the growth of\nan entirely wrong attitude toward them. The effect of such study upon\nthe minds and hearts of those pursuing it must be similar to the result of\nthe study of nature upon Charles Darwin. He studied nature, not for the\nlove of nature, but for the love of science and that he might establish certain laws. The result was a wonderful scientific achievement, but at what\na cost to himself ! He says in a letter written late in life that his study\nhas rendered him incapable of experiencing the highest feelings of the\nhuman heart, the religious emotions, and has deprived him of feeling\npleasure in poetry and art.\n\nHe adds : \" In my Journal I wrote that whilst\n\n"}
{"page": 931, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nDEVELOPMENT\n\nOF SOCIAL\n\nCONSCIOUSNESS\n\n921\n\nStanding in the midst of the grandeur of the Brazilian forest 'it is not\npossible to give an adequate idea of the higher feelings of wonder, admiration, and devotion which fill and elevate the mind.' I well remember\nmy conviction that there is more in man than the mere breath of his\nbody.\" This was as a young man. And he concludes : \" But now the\ngrandest scenes would not cause such convictions and feelings to rise in\nmy Imind.\"\nbelieve that those who study boys and girls for the love of child\nstudy, for the love of science, rather than for the love of children, will in\ntime be obliged to confess that they have lost the power to appreciate the\nhighest and t^e best that is in the child.\nNeither the accumulation of facts about children nor the discovery of\ngeneral truths of child life and development can add to the personal\npower of the teacher. The growth of this power can be fostered only by\nthat study which arouses the feelings and develops sympathy and love for\nchildren ; for, as Professor Arlo Bates puts it, \" what we learn we possess;\nwhat we feel we are.\"\nChild study, then, in the training of teachers, should concern itself\nwith children a great deal and with treatises about them much less ; it\nshould Jtiot attempt to estaMrsh general truths of mental and physical\ngrowth, but should direct attention \"to the individual for the sake of the\nindividual; it should be so conducted that the interest will be in the\nchild rather than in child study ; and finally, it should be a culture study\nin the best meaning of the word \"culture,\" striving to put the pupil\nteacher into harmonious relations and fruitful fellowship with children.\n\nDEVELOPMENT\n\nOF THE SOCIAL\nCHILDREN\n\nBY\n\nSTATE\n\nWILL\n\nS.\n\nMONROE,\n\nNORMAL\n\nCONSCIOUSNESS\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nWESTFIELD,\n\nOF\n\nMASS.\n\nGerms of the social sense — instincts and feelings — which in a more\nhighly organized state give rise to social consciousness, have their roots\nlow down in the species. Animals of many kinds are social ; and a few\nfacts may be borrowed from the literature of natural history that will be\nof service in interpreting the origin and development of the social sense\nin the child.\nFollowing the classification of Ribot, four principal forms of animal\nsocieties may be noted : (i) Those in which the basis of the social tie is\nnutrition, as the hydroid popypes, animals in whom the social instinct\nexists in its lowest forms — the search for food, defense, attack. (2) Those\nbased on reproduction — domestic societies and families — in which may\n\n"}
{"page": 932, "printed_page": null, "text": "922\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child Study\n\nbe observed sympathy and the genesis of altruism. (3) Those founded\non the attraction of like for like, irrespective of sex, in which are manifest\nfor the first time true social tendencies, thru the habit of acting in common. They may consist of accidental and unstable assemblages, as is the\ncase in the migrations of birds and insects, or of more permanent assemblages voluntarily formed and maintained in view of a common aim.\n(4) Those with a stable and complete organization, in which there is\ndivision of labor, solidarity, stability, and continuity thru several generations, as in bees, wasps, and beavers.\nA study of the social tendencies of animals indicates that many of\nthe elements of man's social consciousness are clearly derivative. Herbert Spencer is authority for the statement that communities of rooks\nhave a rude form of government, recognize proprietary rights, and punish\noffenders ; and that among ants there is, besides division of labor, a system of signaling equivalent to a rude language, and elaborate processes\nof mining, road-making, and building. Says the same authority : \" Gregariousngss is joined with some subordination, some combination, some\ndisplay of the social sentiments. There is obedience to leaders; there is\nunion of effort ; there are sentinels and signals ; there is some idea of\nproperty ; there is some exchange of services ; there is adoption of\norphans ; and anxiety prompts the community to make efforts in behalf\nof endangered members.\"\nThe utility and modality of the plays of animals and children suggest some striking reciprocal relations. This is forcibly reiterated in\ncomparing the games of young and growing children with such researches\nas those of Professor Groos. Witness, for example, the striking parallelism between a game of cross-tag as played by children and the aerial\nantics of a flock of swallows.\nMr. W. H. Hudson, who has recently studied the social habits of\nSouth American birds, furnishes abundant evidence to show that social\ngames and dances are indulged in frequently, and that they occur at other\ntimes than the selection of mates. He cites the frequent mystic cloud\ndances of hawks, swifts, and vultures ; the mock fights of ducks ; the wing\ndisplays of the jacanas, in which both sexes take part; the evening\nassemblies and aerial dances of the scissors-tail tyrant bird, in which\nseveral pairs will leave their nests and young to participate ; the triplet\ndances of the spur-winged lapwing, in which two birds already mated will\ncall a third to complete the set. These and many similar instances are\ncited in confirmation of the fact that play in the animal, as in the child,\nis a veritable instinct and of immense significance in the development of\nits social sense.\nNormal men\n\nnever live in isolation — neither at the lowest scale of\n\nsavagery nor on the highest plane of civilization. The remains of riverdrift men fully confirm the fact that they lived just as primitive and\n\n"}
{"page": 933, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nDepartment]\n\nDEVELOPMENT\n\nOF SOCIAL\n\nCONSCIOUSNESS\n\n923\n\ncultured men live today — gathered into social groups and communities.\nBeginning unconsciously, the social sense is preserved by natural selection, and when its benefits are perceived, it is consciously perpetuated.\nAs Professor Giddings has so well stated it : \" The groupings of the social\ncomposition are natural products of the physiological and psychological\nactivities of individuals, supplemented by natural selection. They arise\nunconsciously, and their prevailing forms are established by unconscious\nadaptation to the conditions of life before the social mind begins to\nreflect upon them.\"\nAs the tendency to social life, as hinted in a previous paragraph,\noriginated low down in the animal series, so many of the social organizations and institutions, as we know them today, have had their definite\nbeginning far back in the period of savagery. \"We have the same\nbrain,\" remarks Morgan, \"perpetuated by reproduction, which worked\nin the skulls of barbarians and savages in by-gone ages ; and it has\ncome down to us laden and saturated with the thoughts, aspirations, and\npassions with which it was busied during the intermediate periods. It\nis the same brain grown older and larger with the experience of the\nages.\"\nThe most savage tribes, who roam about in detached bands living in\nmovable huts, everywhere give evidence of the gregarious instinct and\nthe sense of fellowship. Their federations may be loose, and the camp,\nrather than the soil, their fatherland ; but they quite universally recognize\nallegiance to a chief. The social bonds may be the outgrowth of blood\nkinships or merely the result of congregate associations, habitual intercourse, mutual interests, and co-operation.\nThat most of our modern institutions are clearly derivative from\nperiods of primitive culture a cursory review of the history of mankind\nfully confirms. Social organizations, for example, founded upon gens,\nphratries, and tribes, as Morgan has pointed out, are the oldest and most\nwidely prevalent institutions of mankind, furnishing the universal plan\nof government to the most isolated quarters of the globe. The Grecian\ngens, phratry, and tribe, and the Roman gens, curia, and tribe, find their\ncounterparts in the gens, phratries, and tribes of the American Indians.\n\"As far as our knowledge extends, this organization runs through the\nentire ancient world, upon all the continents, and it was brought down to\nthe historical period by such tribes as attained to civilization.\" Any study\nof the social sense in its archaic forms clearly reveals its remote origin,\nits universal distribution, and its abiding character.\nThe acquisition of social interests and institutions by the race are\nconstantly recapitulated in the child. He not only inherits social aptitudes and tendencies, but he is born into a world of social forces, upon\nwhich he reacts from the hour of his birth. As Professor Baldwin has\nwell stated it : \" He is born into a system of social relationships just as\n\n"}
{"page": 934, "printed_page": null, "text": "9^4\n\ni^A TtONAL EDUCA TIONAL ASSOCIA TtON\n\n[Child Study\n\nhe is born into a certain quality of air. As he grows in body by breathing\nthe one, so he grows in mind by absorbing the other,\"\nThe social sense appears in the child when he recognizes and takes an\ninterest in persons. This ordinarily takes place not later than the fourth\nmonth ; and in spite of the weak memory which characterizes the early\nmonths of infancy, the child early evinces a sympathetic interest in the\nsocial family group. The late Professor Preyer relates that a child one\nyear old was taken from home on a visit, and that on his return he paid\nno attention to the cat and dog, but at once manifested keen pleasure in\nthe recognition of his nurse and the other members of the family. Miss\nShinn reports that her niece on the eightieth, day smiled and gave a\njoyous cry on seeing her grandfather enter the room ; and on the eightyfourth day she watched him out of the room when he quitted her after\nplay, kept her eyes on him as he stood in the next room a few seconds,\nand gave a joyous crow when he turned to come back.\nThose who have been much with young children will agree with Sully\nthat \"they are instinctively attachable and sociable in so far as they show\nin the first weeks that they get used to and are dependent on the human\npresence, and are miserable when it is taken from them. In this instinct\nof companionship there is involved a vague, inarticulate sympathy.\"\nThe child's first lessons in social relationships are learned by imitating\nthe actions of the members of the family. As Professor Baldwin puts it :\n\" Everything that he learns is copied, reproduced, assimilated from his fellows; and all of them, including him — all the fellows, the socii — do and\nthink what they do think because they have each been through the same\ncourse of copying, reproducing, and assimilating that he has.\" From the\nsecond year on, when the child takes such keen pleasure in having others\ndo what he does, and sharing with him what he has, there are remarkable\nadjustments of the self to the social relationships. It is at the same time,\ntoo, that toys serve such a beneficent purpose in disciplining the ego\nand correlating it to environing actions thru play activities. All these\nactivities of which he partakes in the family — and which he helps to\ncreate — react most favorably toward the healthy development of the social\nsense of the child. Indeed, no one factor in the early life of the child\ncontributes more largely toward the development of its social consciousness than toys and playthings. Advocates of the kindergarten have long\ninsisted on the educational value of toys ; for, as Froebel pointed out in\nhis Mutter- und Koselieder, it is thru play that universal life is mirrored\nto the child, and by '\"'playing at\" life that he grows unconsciously into\nan understanding of the truth, dignity, and purpose of life. The social\nexperience which toys bring into the life of the child is wide in range and\nfar-reaching in utility. Note, as Seguin has suggested, the fullness of\nheart and thankfulness caused by a bright toy, and how it awakens in the\nchild a sense of ownership.\n\n\" He does not understand the idea of property.\n\n"}
{"page": 935, "printed_page": null, "text": "Uepartment]\n\nDEVELOPMENT\n\nOF\n\nSOCIAL\n\nCONSCIOUSNESS\n\n925\n\nbut he feels it in his grasp — a feeling which he never experienced in the\ncase of his garments ; and once his possession is assured, he endows it\nwith all the qualities of an ideal\", and devotes himself to it as to a reality.\nTrue to his sympathetic conception, though his mind know it to be false,\nhe — who never before looked into the future — opens this blank book of\nhuman imagination and writes on it all sorts of contingencies of which the\ntoy is the magic spring and center.\" Since toys are such immediate means\nof experience between the great realities of life and the smallness of the\nchild — a gap which can only be filled by a microcosm of playthings — it\nhas seemed to me that a fruitful field of inquiry would be to ascertain from\nchildren the basis of their interest in and love for toys. The following test\nwas accordingly given to 678 boys and 770 girls from the age of seven\non : \" What toys do you like the best for playthings, and why do you like\nthem the best ? \"\nThe reasons given suggested the followiijg scheme of classification\nfor the favorite toys : (i) imitation, (2) emulation, (3) love of noise, (4)\nwonder and surprise. The first group — imitation — embraces 49 per\ncent, of all the toys mentioned. It includes such toys as enable children\nto repeat actions once witnessed and which touch at so many points the\nsocial sense. The group is represented by 15 per cent, of the boys and\n34 per cent of the girls. Dolls are oftenest mentioned, being given by\n68 per cent, of the girls and 5 per cent, of the boys. The doll interest,\nalways strong with the girls, is strongest from nine to thirteen years ; and,\naltho at all times weak with the boys, it is strongest from seven to eleven\nyears. Doll's furniture, and playthings for dolls, have second place in\nthe group. They are mentioned by less than one-third of i per cent,\nof the boys, and 51 per cent, of the girls. Vehicles — sleds, carts, and\nwagons — are third, with 30 per cent, of the boys and 10 per cent, of the\ngirls; and toy dishes fourth, with less than one-half of i per cent, of the\nboys and 30 per cent, of the girls. Among the other toys classed in the\nimitation group are animals, tools, houses, ships, and soldiers.\nThe second group — emulation and the spirit of success — embraces\nballs, tops, marbles, kites, checkers, hoops, skipping ropes, cards, and\nskates, and includes 27 per cent, of the boys and 11 per cent, of the\ngirls. The ball is the favorite toy of the group, being given by 53 per\ncent, of the boys and 20 per cent, of the girls. It is oftenest mentioned\nat the age of thirteen years. Tops have the second place, and are favored\nby 40 per cent, of the boys and 15 per cent, of the girls. Marbles rank\nthird, with 33 per cent, of the boys and 4 per cent, of the girls. The\nspirit of emulation, chance, and rivalry, if one may judge from this study,\nis essentially masculine.\n• •\nThe third group embraces such toys as give pleasure by gratifying a\nlove for noise, and in it are represented 9 per cent, of the boys and 2\nper cent, of the girls.\nFife, horn, and other wind instruments lead, with\n\n"}
{"page": 936, "printed_page": null, "text": "926\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child Study\n\n1 7 per cent, of the boys and 6 per cent, of the girls ; firecrackers and firearms second, with 21 per cent, of the boys and less than one-third of 1\nper cent, of the girls j and the drum takes fourth rank, with 12 per cent,\nof the boys and one-half of i per cent, of the girls. Pianos, organs, and\nother musical instruments — none of them often mentioned — are included\nwith this group.\nThe fourth group embraces all those toys which excite feelings of\nwonder and surprise, and it is represented by but 2 per cent, of the whole\nnumber of children tested, the boys somewhat in the lead. The group\nincludes the following toys, mentioned in the order of rank : magic tricks,\npuzzles, jack-in-the-box, punch and judy, and magic animals.\nThe social circle widens when the child reaches the age of three or\nfour years and mingles with other children. New social relationships —\nmore complex in character — are formed. The interests, the passions,\nand the activities of his cpmpanions are reflected in and related to his\nown interests, passions, and activities ; and the social sense is widened\nand clarified thru these new experiences and relationships.\nIn order to determine the social elements mediating children's likes\nand dislikes, 1 gave the following test : \" What kind of a chum (companion, intimate friend) do you like the best ? \" The question was\nasked of 2,336 Massachusetts school children — 1,068 boys and 1,268\ngirls — between the ages of seven and sixteen years. The purpose of\nthe study was to ascertain some of the elements constituting the social\nsense of children, and to discover the influence conditioning their predilection and aversion for companions and playfellows. The catalog of\ntraits was neither as large nor as varied as might have been expected,\nand for the most part the children seemed to express their ideals with\nremarkable intelligence and clearness. The following from a boy of\neleven is fairly typical : \" For a chum I like a boy who does not use bad\nlanguage, smoke, or mix with bad company ; who will help me if I get\ninto a scrape, and not run away like a coward ; one who is an honest,\nupright, kind-hearted boy ; one who will come and see me when I am\nsick and cheer me, and not a fair-weather friend, who sticks by me because\nI have good things, and not a friend who is always telling everything\nabout me that he knows, and not one who is always hanging around me.\nSuch is the chum I like.\"\nThe papers were collated along the following lines : age, sex, moral,\nphysical, and mental traits ; habits, and general characteristics. Age\npreferences were indicated by 134 of the children, 107 wishing a chum\nof the same age, and 27 an older or younger chum. The girls had\nstronger age preferences than the boys. Sex is mentioned by 591 of\nthe children. Among the boys 235 want boy chums and 20 want girl\nchums; among the girls 328 want chums of their own sex and 28 want\nboy chums.\nSex preferences are most pronounced between the years of\n\n"}
{"page": 937, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nDEVELOPMENT\n\nOF SOCIAL\n\nCONSCIOUSNESS\n\n92?\n\neight to eleven. Size is mentioned by 89 of the children. The same\nsize is desired by 58, and a larger person by 31. A girl of eleven says :\n\" I would like a chum not too fat nor too slim, just between, with long,\nyellow hair ; \" and a boy of ten says : \" I like a chum that is about my\nown age and size. If you would like to know why, I will tell you. If he\nwere larger than I, and he wanted to climb a tree that I couldn't, it\nwouldn't be very pleasant. While, if we were just the same size, one\ncould do what the other could.\" A pretty or handsome chum is desired\nby 5 boys and 14 girls, and special teeth, eyes, hair, and nose by 6 boys\nand 32 girls ; and 15 boy/s and 55 girls want a quick or sprightly chum.\nThe favorite mental characteristic is good nature — a chum that is\njolly and cheerful. \" One who is full of fun,\" \" one that don't get mad,\"\n\"one with a bright, sunny nature,\" is desired by 141 of the boys and 228\nof the girls. Fifty-eight of the children want one that is bright and\ntalented, and 42 one that uses good language. The moral traits, as\nmight be expected, lead. Four hundred and seventy-eight of the children want a chum that is kind, charitable, or humane, and 455 a chum\nthat is honest, fair, or just. One is impressed in reading these papers\nwith the importance of play in the formation of the child's standards of\nmorality, as is illustrated by the lad of thirteen : \"The kind of a chum\nthat I like is one that don't cheat when you're playing ball. I don't like\none that says you're two strikes when you're one, or says you're out when\nyou're two strikes.\" Truthfulness takes third place among the desired\nmoralities. It is more pronounced with the girls than with the boys, and\nincreases with advance in years. Constancy comes next. \" I like a chum\nwho would speak just as nice of you back of you as right in front of your\nface, not one who would pretend to like you just to get something out\nof you ; and then go away and tell tales about you afterward,\" is the ideal\nof constancy of one young miss. This, like kindness, is essentially a\nfeminine virtue and is apparent only among the older children.\nUnselfishness has fifth place among the moralities ; affection, sixth ;\nmodesty, seventh ; obedience, eighth ; and courage, ninth. But 5 of the\nboys and 23 of the girls express preference for a religious chum.\nA chum that is \"not rough or quarrelsome\" is desired by 418 of the\nchildren, the girls leading. Fondness for play is more desired by the\nboys than by the girls, and diminishes with both sexes as the children\ngrow older; and one finds all sorts^of play specialties enumerated. Says\na girl of twelve : \" I like a girl chum the best who likes to climb and do\nstumps.\" A chum that is polite, \" has good manners,\" does not appear\nuntil the ninth year, increases as the children grow older, and is always\nmore marked among the girls than among the boys. It is formulated by\na boy of nine in these words : \" I like a chum who has very good manners. Who never swears or lies, never uses vulgar words. Who takes\noff his hat at the door and wipes his feet at the door.\nWho always\n\n"}
{"page": 938, "printed_page": null, "text": "928\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION,\n\n[Child Study\n\nasks to be excused whenever he steps on anybody's toe. Who always lifts\nhis hat when he sees anybody he knows.\" Thirty-six of the boys and\n64 of the girls want a chum that can keep secrets; 91 of the boys and\n8 of the girls one that neither uses tobacco nor drinks, and 73 of the\nboys and 17 of the girls one that don't swear. Dress and neatness influence 22 boys and 65 girls, and wealth 7 boys and 3 girls. Industry is\nnot strong, but 23 boys and 36 girls expressing the desire to have a\nchum that liked to work. Among the general characteristics were classed\n\"good chum,\" \"respectable chum,\" and \"nice chum.\" These terms are\nindefinite, and may mean one or a dozen traits. They are oftenest mentioned bythe young children, and the girls seemed to have an almost\nundisputed monopoly of that much-used word \" nice.\" The fact that\nboth \"good\" and \"nice\" diminish with advance in years indicates that\nthey belong to a period when ideas are not well defined.\nDuring the adolescent period there is an apparent struggle between\nthe real, actual self and the ideal self — a pretty strong desire to have a\nchum that embodies the traits they most desire, but which they are conscious of lacking. This struggle is well expressed by a girl of thirteen,\nwho says : \" I cannot tell the kind of a chum I like the best because I like\nto have two kinds. I like to have a friend to whom I can go and forget\neverything I would rather not remember in her presence. I mean by\nthat a person who is never serious. I like also to have a friend who is\njust the opposite. One who is serious and can help me. I like it this\nway because of my two moods.\" And several children specify certain\npersons whom they like best for chums, because they differ from themselves— persons who are what they themselves are not, but what they\nwould be — a sort of double that seems to suggest itself to the young mind\nduring this period of inquiry and doubt.\nThe conclusions of such studies must be regarded as tentative rather\nthan final, but the speaker heartily agrees with Professor Baldwin that\n\"the only way to get a solid basis for social theory, based upon human\nwant or desire, is to work out, first, a descriptive and genetic psychology\nof desire in its social aspects, on the one hand ; and, on the other hand,\nthe only way to get an adequate psychological view of the rise and\ndevelopment of desire in its social aspects is by a patient tracing of the\nconditions of social environment in which the child and the race have\nlived, and which they have grown up to reflect.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 939, "printed_page": null, "text": "r\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF- PHYSICAL TRAINING\n\nSECRETARY'S\nFIRST\n\nMINUTES\n\nSESSION.— Friday, July 8, 1898\n\nThe department was called to order at 3 o'clock p. m. in the Universalist Church by\nthe president, Dr. C. E. Ehinger, of West Chester, Penn., Normal School.\nThe first paper, on the subject \" Effect of Exercise on the Vital Organs, \" was read\nby Dr. William T. Harris, United States Commissioner of Education, followed by Dr. Henry\nLing Taylor, of New York city, on \" Exercise and Vigor.\"\nDr. Lightner Witmer, of the University of Pennsylvania, spoke on \"The Mental\nFactor in Physical Training.\" Discussion was led by Dr. Edward M. Hartwell, of\nBoston, Mass.\nThe committee on nominations was appointed as follows :\nMiss Ellen Le Garde, Providence, R. I.\nMiss Ada F. Thayer, Syracuse, N. Y.\nMiss Mabel Pray, Toledo, O.\n\n,\n\nThe committee on resolutions was appointed as follows :\nDr. G. W. Fitz, Cambridge, Mass.\nMiss Aha Wiggins, Salt Lake City, Utah.\nMiss Zue Brockett, Washington, D. C.\n\nSECOND\n\n,\n\nSESSION.— Monday, July ii\n\nPresident Ehinger called the meeting to order at 3 o'clock, and introduced Dr. R,\nTait McKenzie, of the University of Montreal, who read a paper on the \" Influence of\nSchool Life on Curvature of the Spine.\" An interesting discussion followed, which was\nparticipated in by Dr. Fitz, of Cambridge, Mass.; Mr. G. Lane Taneyhill, of Baltimore,\nMd.; Miss Thayer, of Syracuse, N. Y.; Miss Le Garde, of Providence, R. I.; Miss Shrieves,\nof Milwaukee, Wis.; Superintendent Aaron Gove, of Denver, Colo.; Superintendent Edwin\nP. Seaver, of Boston, Mass.; Superintendent G. W. Johnson, of Andover, Mass.; Mr. Sanford, of New York, and Dr. Ehinger, the president.\n\" Play in Physical Education \" was the subject of the second paper, by Mr. George\nW. Johnson, superintendent of schools, Andover, Mass. The discussion was opened\nby Dr. G. W. Fitz, of Harvard University.\nThe Committee on Nominations reported the following names of persons for officers\nfor the ensuing year :\nFor President — Dr. George W. Fitz, Cambridge, Mass.\nFor First Vice-President — Dr. William Krohn, Illinois Hospital for the Insane.\nFor Second Vice-President — Miss Ellen Le Garde, Providence, R. I.\nFor Secretary — Miss Rebecca Stoneroad, Washington, D. C.\n\nAs advisory board to confer with the local committee at the next annual meeting :\nMiss R. Anna Morris, of Cleveland, O. ; Miss Mabel Pray, of Toledo, O., and Mr. Robert Krohn, of\nPortland, Ore.\n929\n\n"}
{"page": 940, "printed_page": null, "text": "930\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nThe report was adopted and the nominees declared unanimously elected as officers\nfor the ensuing year.\nDr. Fitz, chairman of the Committee on Resolutions, then presented the following\nreport :\nREPORT\n\nOF COMMITTEE\n\nON RESOLUTIONS\n\nIn view of tlie kindly shelter we have had in this church, and of the very complete arrangements which\nhave been made in our behalf by the local committee, we offer the following resolutions :\n1. That the hearty thanks of the Physical Education Section are due to the trustees of the Universalist\nChurch for their kind hospitality during the meetings of the section ;\n2. That the Physical Education Section offers to the local committee its heartiest thanks for the unusually complete and satisfactory provision made for the comfort and convenience of its members and for the\nsuccess of the meetings.\nH. B. BoYCE,\n\nSecretary.\n\nPAPERS\nTHE\n\nEFFECT\n\nBY WILLIAM\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nOF EXERCISE\n\nT. HARRIS,\n\nUNITED\n\nSTATES\n\nON\n\nTHE\n\nVITAL\n\nCOMMISSIONER\n\nOF\n\nORGANS\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIt is well known that physical exercise affects directly the muscular\nsystem, and that the muscular system is not all of the body, nor, indeed,\nitself directly the generator of what may be called nervous energy. There\nis a nutritive process of digestion and a distributive process of circulation\nthru the heart and lungs and liver ; the two forming a building-up function which restores, repairs, and increases the organism and removes the\nwaste. There is, besides, a nervous organism which receives impressions\nfrom without and conveys impulses that react on the environment.\nPhysical training, as we understand it, deals directly and chiefly with\ntlie muscular system and with that part of the nervous svstem which conveys impulses from the brain outward thru the limbs to the environment.\nPhysical exercise indirectly acts on the digestion and the circulatory system arid on the nerves of sensation ; and its relation to those other bodily\nfunctions is nearly or quite as important as the direct relation of exercise\nto the muscles and the acquiring of strength.\nDuring the first fifty years of agitation on the subject of bodily training, connected with the rise of turner societies in Germany and the\npreaching of the gospel of bodily culture as auxiliary to intellect and will\nby Spurzheim, his disciple George Comb, and their numerous followers,\nwe may say, without hesitation, that the doctrine of physical exercise was\npassing thru its stage of superstition and quackery. There was a\nsharp dividing line between the believers in hygiene and the old school\nof physicians, and this separation led quite naturally to dismal results.\nThe doctors opposed, with blind conservatism, the new apostles ; and the\n\n"}
{"page": 941, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nDepartment]\n\nEFFECT\n\nOF EXERCISE\n\nON\n\nTH E VITAL\n\nORGANS\n\n93 1\n\nlatter justified the attitude of the former by a radicalism equally blind and\nfanatical.\nIt is the glory of the present -revival of physical exercise that it is led\nby educated physicians. It isa new movementof thehighest importance —\nthe establishment of a resident physician in each of our colleges as supervisor of gymnastics and recording inspector of physical development\namong the students. It means a synthesis of science with reform and\nthe end of the era of quackery in hygiene.\nOur civilization is so bent on the conquest of nature and the production of wealth that it perpetually strains its supply of nervous energy and\nproduces disaster along this line. Here is the special problem of our\ntime for hygiene to meet : how to restore and conserve nervous energy.\nThere are three factors here : first, the one of food and its proper\nassimilation ; second, the factor of rest and sleep ; third, the factor of\nexercise, muscular and mental. It is obvious enough that digestion\nrequires nervous energy, just as muscular and mental labor do. Hence,\ndigestion must be given time. It must not be encroached on by bodily\nexercise or by mental exercise. But what is the average amount of time\nrequired for this, and should it be total cessation from bodily and mental\nlabor, or is light labor of both or either best for the digestive progress ?\nBesides the mistake of cutting off the sleeping hours at the beginning\nor at the end for the sake of physical exercise, there is an equally harmful\nmistake of bringing the hour of exercise close to the hours for meals.\nJust preceding or just succeeding a meal, any exercise of sufficiently\nenergetic a character to cause the blood to leave the organs of digestion\nand fill the muscles of the body or the brain is injurious and tends to\nproduce dyspepsia. The stomach needs the greater share of the nervous\nenergy, and likewise of the arterial circulation. Dr. Sargent thinks that\nviolent exercise should not be taken at a period so long as three hours\nafter a meal, on account of the danger of faintness, which neutralizes the\ngood results of such exercise. Provided the person has just taken violent exercise, the blood is diverted to the muscles and brain, and away\nfrom the stomach. The taking of food at this time, when the nervous\nsystem is depleted of its vitality, is considered unfavorable to the best\naction of the digestive functions.\nThe object of gymnastic training, it has been said often enough, is to\nput the will into the muscles. It is to give one such control over all his\nmuscles that each act performed by the body is performed by the use of\nall the muscles which nature has provided for the purpose. The farmer\nor the blacksmith develops a few muscles and neglects others. The gymnasium issupposed to cultivate many muscles which remain rudimentary\nin the original man ; and here, I think,' is an item of compensation which\nmakes up for a great deal of the deletedous results coming to the imprudent gymnast who is careless about the hygienic precautions just now\n\n"}
{"page": 942, "printed_page": null, "text": "932\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nmentioned in relation to eating and sleeping. The gymnast — and I\nmean by the gymnast one who has taken sufficiently violent exercise to\ndevelop to a considerable degree the muscles of the chest, back, arms, and\nthe other limbs — the gymnast, I say, has acquired the power of putting\nhis will into his muscles by a slight effort. The gymnast performs all\nslight bodily actions, such as rising from a chair, sitting down, walking,\nclimbing stairs, swinging his arms, turning his head, everything, in short,\nthat he does with his body, by using many more muscles than the\nuntrained person uses. Hence it happens that one who has taken gymnastic exercise retains till old age the power of getting a maximum of\nexercise out of a minimum of bodily movement. Walking a few rods\nand running up and down stairs two or three times a day gives him as\nmuch exercise as the average farmer gets from two hours of farm work.\nThe great physical need of the pupil is relaxation ; the pupil needs\nto stretch his cramped muscles and send the blood in torrents thru his\nlimbs, which become torpid with unuse. The pupil is in want of fresh\nair and of the deep inflation of the lungs that exercise in the open air\ngives. He ought to use his voice, too. The reformers propose to substitute calisthenics for the purpose of supplying all these wants. They\nwill throw open the windows and let in fresh air ; they will have a\nsystem of well-devised movements which will give the needed circulation\nof the blood, etc.\nCalisthenic exercise serves a good place in the schoolroom, but its\nmost important function is not a physiological one. It is true that the\nblood is caused to circulate more vigorously thru the limbs and those\nparts of the body that have become partly torpid with sitting or standing\nstill. But the chief demand upon the pupil in calisthenics is a requirement of him to strain his attention and exercise his will. It is a will\ntraining to a greater extent than a physiological training. The great distinction between work and play is this one : in play the mind is\nspontaneous, governed entirely by its own individuality; in work the\nwill power is exercised to conform its individuality to some externally\nprescribed course of action. Calisthenic exercise is severe work, and not\nby any means a relaxation. But the child needs relaxation, and not\nmerely a change of work, altho the change is of some benefit. Exercise of the limbs, in accordance with a prescribed formula, is not the\nthing that nature requires.\nOur medical advisers who supervise gymnastic exercises are in process of correcting the evils and extending the benefits of physical education. Their best service is to be along the line of enlightening the\nstudent who is on the verge or beyond the verge of nervous prostration\nhow to build anew his nerves. For they will teach him the function of\nsleep and amusement ; of rest before and after meals ; of the danger of\nfollowing a mental strain of the will by another strain of the will directed\n\n"}
{"page": 943, "printed_page": null, "text": "DepartmentJ\n\nEXERCISE\n\nAND\n\nVIGOR\n\n933\n\nto the muscles ; of the danger of exercise late at night ; of the danger of\ntobacco and alcoholic liquors. We shall have science instead of quackery.\nAnd in the anticipation of the arrival of all these good things, allow me\nto congratulate you on being the pioneers of the better, the new, physical\neducation.\n\nEXERCISE\n\nAND\n\nVIGOR\n\nBY HENRY LING TAYLOR, M.D., NEW YORK CITY\nThe human organism seems to sum up a threefold evolution : First,\nascent along the animal scale, with increasing complexity of structure\nand activity; second, the social, political, and economic evolution from\nthe hunting and fighting savage to civilized man, a change to still greater\ncomplexity of relations, which, while it transfers the stress of activity in\nlarger measure to the nervous structures, is still characterized on the\nwhole by an active muscular life. The third evolution, that of the individual, epitomizes, in its earlier and later stages respectively, the general\ntrend of the two preceding. This race and life history is registered in\nthe bodily structure and tendencies, from which, as well as from experience, we may infer that man is by nature well adapted to a large measure\nof muscular activity, and poorly constructed for a sedentary life.\nExercise and vigor are married and cannot be divorced ; this is also\nthe direct teaching of bodily structure. The five hundred voluntary\nmuscles make up nearly one-half the weight of a well-developed man.\nThey are intimately connected by nervous filaments with the nerve\ncenters, and thru these with nearly all the tissues and organs of the body.\nBesides the fleshy muscles, whose contractions cause evident movements\nof the bodily frame, there is an important and widely distributed set of\nmuscular fibers of a different kind, which surround the blood vessels and\nhollow organs, and by contracting modify their length and caliber.\nThese involuntary fibers are equally subject to the control of nervous\nforces, tho not to the will, and are largely dependent upon the activity of\nthe voluntary muscles for their proper tone and function.\nThe fundamental, but almost unnoticed, work of the economy — the\ncardiac contractions, the respiratory movements, the adjustments of the\nmuscular coats of the vessels and viscera, the maintenance of vital heat —\ncalls in twenty-four hours for the expenditure of six times as much\nenergy as the day's work of a man at hard labor. Upon the vigor and\nactivity of the involuntary fibers largely depends the ability of the vessels\nand organs properly to perform their work, and to protect the body from\ndeleterious influences.\n\n"}
{"page": 944, "printed_page": null, "text": "934\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physica\n\nIn the muscle itself contraction produces heat, work, sound, and certain chemical and electrical reactions. There is a greater flow of blood\nto the working muscle; absorption of oxygen and nutritive material is\nincreased; tissue change and the formation of waste are accelerated.\nMuscular irritability is lowered by diminishing the local supply of oxygen\nby admitting certain toxic substances to the blood, and by repeated stimulation. The conditions of health for a working muscle are, therefore, \"a\nfull supply of proper food and oxygen, unimpeded and sufficient drainage, and rest at due intervals\" (Hartwell).\nConsidered dynamically, a muscle is a machine for converting the\npotential energy of its own substance into heat and motion. In muscular\ncontraction four times as much energy is converted into heat as into\nwork. The muscles and organs exist for and obey the nerve centers, as\nthe soldiers of an army obey their officers. The muscles contribute, also,\nin a very important degree to modify these centers, as the general and\nhis staff base their orders on the reports of their subordinates, and are\ndependent for their sustenance upon the service of the soldiers. Each is\nin fact, absolutely helpless without the other ; for without soldiers orders\ncannot be executed, and without officers there are no orders to execute.\nIn health and under hygienic conditions muscular movements tend\nto improve the nutrition and growth of the muscles used ; the black\nsmith's arm is a familiar example. The larger muscles act like so many\nhearts, kneading and compressing the vessels and organs in their vicinity,\nand assisting the blood current, their own drainage and that of neighboring structures ; even the bones participate to such a degree in the development of adjacent muscles that it is often possible from the size and\nstructure of the bones alone to form a fair idea of the muscular life of\ntheir former possessor.\nOnly by somewhat prolonged and strenuous exercise are the lungs\nthoroly ventilated, unless by special pulmonary gymnastics, as the cry of\nan infant. Upon the heart and circulation the effect of exercise is most\nimportant ; the tendency is to relieve the congestion of local areas, and\nto accelerate the circulation. The effect of exercise upon the digestive\norgans, upon the skin, and upon the organs of elimination is equally\nmarked, and upon the nervous centers it is of vital importance. If a\nlimb is amputated in early life, the corresponding brain area never\nreaches full development, and may be visibly shrunken. Every movement is registered in the nerve centers, and brings them into new relations and under new influences. The mind depends for its development\nuponthe registration and comparison of sensory impressions; of these a\nconsiderable share is of muscular origin, but the character and amount of\nall sensory impressions are conditioned by muscular activity. Since the\neffect of exercise on the different organs and vital processes is so profound, itmust and does modify general vigor, temper, mind, and charac-\n\n"}
{"page": 945, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nEXERCISE\n\nAND\n\nVIGOR\n\n935\n\nter. Can you imagine a vigorous and beautiful physique or a thoroly\ncapable and well-balanced mind, except as the correlative of the generous\nuse of God-given faculties, including that of varied and thoro muscular\nactivity ? An indolent or sedentary life is inevitably reflected in weak\nand flabby muscles, -soft or brittle bones, deficient respiratory power,\nfeeble circulation, an inactive skin, languid and imperfect nutritive processes, deficient reactive power, in a figure devoid of grace, an ungraceful\ncarriage, and not seldom in an eccentric or sluggish mentality. In the\nabsence of considerable vigorous use of the larger muscles, one must be\ncontent to go thru life withered in the essential elements of vitality and\nsteeped in one's own stagnant and poisonous waste.\nThe special effects and general tendencies of exercise will depend\nupon the kind and amount of the muscular movements and upon many\nother factors. They are not always or necessarily beneficial. Movements involving mainly the smaller muscles, as in piano playing or\nsewing, are useless, or even harmful, as exercise. Movements of the\nlarger muscles, especially those of the trunk, are the most desirable.\nExercise does harm in most acute and many chronic diseases, in conditions of over-fatigue, or too scanty nourishment, in severe injuries,\nhemorrhage, and shock. When exercise is too severe for the reactive\npowers of the individual, it tends to waste, rather than to develop, his\npowers ; where it is too monotonous or badly distributed, it may produce\ndeformity. In many diseases, however, exercise, systematically and properly taken, is of incalculable benefit. What the individual, sick or well,\nusually needs is not exercise or rest, but exercise and rest in due proportion and in the proper order.\nKeeping these fundamental facts in mind, let us briefly trace the role\nof exercise at the principal periods of development.\nThe infant, like the savage, starts out as an active being. All its\ncrying and kicking and seemingly purposeless movements aid in the\ndevelopment of the individual, begun by the differentiation of a single\ncell, and carried on thru embryo, infant, child, and adolescent to adult.\nAt first an organism of increasing complexity is built up, later special\npowers are emphasized at the cost of others. Are strong and healthy\norgans developed when this spontaneous activity of the baby is habitually\nrestrained and repressed ? The facts speak otherwise ; the over-coddled,\nover-dressed, and restricted babies are the delicate ones. Nature has provided at the start for this necessary neuro-muscular training by an inborn\nimpulse to movement which will develop and safeguard the growing\norgans, if the child is protected from ignorant interference, other conditions as to diet, fresh air, and sleep being normal. Even the savage\nmother, often obliged by her peculiar life to impose special restrictions\nupon her infant, is careful to permit the necessary exercise. In describing\nIndian infancy and the use of the portable cradle, Mrs. Fletcher says ;\n\n"}
{"page": 946, "printed_page": null, "text": "936\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\n\" It is a mistaken notion that the child is kept up all the time. Every\nday the baby is bathed and placed on a robe or blanket to kick and crow\nto his heart's content ; but when the family cares call the mother away,\nhe is put into the cradle with his arm free to play with the many bright\nbeads that hang from the hoop that encircles the head of this little portable bed.\" In Africa the system of infantile physical training practiced\nby certain tribes is more vigorous. Mr. E. J. Glave gives the following\ndescription in the Century: \"I note at Chikwa's that the little baby\nstrapped to his mother's back has a rough-and-tumble time of it, but takes\nit all good-naturedly, and one hears very little crying in the village. The\nmother goes to the fields with baby on her back, bobs about four hours in\nthe hot sun, weeding, hoeing, and doing general gardening ; carries huge\njars of water on her head ; scrapes him repeatedly as she bends and\nenters the narrow, low doorways of native huts ; gives him a thorough shaking as she vigorously pounds corn with a long wooden pestle ; takes him by\nthe wrist, ducks him in the stream till he is nearly suffocated, and then\nspreads him on a mat to dry.\"\nThe characteristic activity of the young child is shown in play, which\nis the spontaneous and joyous exercise of budding power, and in which\nmotor activity, imitation, fancy, and the social instinct ar^ deftly interwoven. The play of children furnishes not only amusement, but priceless mental and physical training. The child is practicing the scales of\nmuscular experience in order later to select the chords and arrange the\nharmony. What the child mainly needs is opportunity; a place to play\nin, children to play with. Here the city child is placed at a disadvantage,\nsince both these essentials are too often lacking, and the child is repressed\nin deference to conventional standards of decorum or to the convenience\nof the elders. Special attention should be paid to this informal motor\neducation of the child during its most plastic period before the school\nage. One of our wisest men has truly said : \" He who helps a child\nhelps humanity with a directness, an immediateness, which no other help\ngiven to human creatures at any other time of their human life can possibly give again.\" With the school age come more conventional standards and more restrictions, essential no doubt, but rendering all the more\nimperative the relaxation of the recess, the recreation of the playground,\nand the freedom of out-of-doors, into which play, games, and, later,\nathletic sports naturally enter. At this point we are brought face to face\nwith the question of a more systematic and formal physical training,\nnamely, some kind of gymnastics. This is needed, in my opinion, especially above the primary grades; and because it does train the nerve\ncenters, the intelligence, and the character, as well as the muscles — in other\nwords, because it forms an essential factor of a solid education — it should\ntake its place on its merits in the regular curriculum. This means for\nsuccess intelligent, trained, and inspired teachers, and a coherent plan\n\n"}
{"page": 947, "printed_page": null, "text": "bepartmem]\n\nkkERCISE\n\nAND\n\nVIGOR\n\n$37\n\nmodified to suit particular circumstances — conditions essential in every\nbranch of instruction. If you ask a horsebreeder how to train a horse,\nhe will probably reply : \" W-hat kind of a horse, how old, and for\nwhat purpose ?\" It is impossible to breed or train an animal which\nshall at once be suitable for draft and for racing ; nor will the training appropriate for a yearling be applicable to a three-year-old. With\nregard to a child the situation is similar; means must be varied to\nsuit sex, age, race, social and other conditions. No cut-and-dried formula or system will answer. There is no ready-made prescription\nwhich will enable us to dispense with observation, experience, intelligence, and judgment in the application of established principles. Much\nrelating both to principles and to their application remains to be worked\nout by pedagogic, gymnastic, and medical experts, for it will take a combination of all to produce the best practical results. Indeed, it is a\nfavorite opinion of mine that the knowledge of the medical and sanitary\nexpert should be drawn upon in all school matters, from the choosing of a\nsite and the planning of a curriculum to the daily routine of school life.\nPhysical training without regard to the laws of hygiene is futile. You\ncannot accomplish everything by exercise any more than you can by diet,\nsleep, recreation, dress, fresh air, or mental occupation. What is wanted\nis a proper proportion between the salutary ingredients of life. The relation of physical training to hygiene will furnish a hint for correlation in\nthe scheme of instruction. Its relation to voice culture and manual training may furnish others. One thing that has been established in the opinion\nof experts is the worthlessness of military drill for physical training in\nschools. The manual of arms is positively detrimental to the young.\nProper physical training, while in the highest degree disciplinary and\neducational, will also assist in establishing a foundation of organic competence which will be of the greatest ultimate value to the individual, and,\nof course, to the community. Still, of the two kinds of physical training, the formal and the informal, the informal, under favorable conditions,\nis probably the most valuable for the effects on the vital organs, because\nit is more attractive, because it is pursued in the open air, because it is on\nthe whole more varied and thoro, and because the child can get more of\nit. It also is educational, and it furnishes a kind of mental training that\ncomes from informal contact with nature and life, and which can hardly\nbe got from books, schools, or instructors.\nI heartily agree with what has been said of the evils of competitive\nathletics, especially in adolescents ; at the same time it must be admitted\nthat they furnish an interest and incentive that we could poorly afford to\nlose. They emphasize physical competence, beauty, and courage, and the\nworth and dignity of the physical ; they spread their inspiration among\nour young people, and fill a place in modern life comparable to that of\nthe old Greek contests, so instructively described.\nThey cannot be made\n\n"}
{"page": 948, "printed_page": null, "text": "938\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nLPhysical\n\nto take the place of rational physical training, but they illustrate a worthy\nideal, and their principal evils may be much diminished by discouraging\na too narrow specialism, and by favoring the contests of groups, rather\nthan those of individuals.\nAfter the school and college years come the years of performance and\nthe years of decline ; the years of the repetition of the daily task and the\nyears when the daily task may become a burden. Modern industrialism\nhas imposed grievous restrictions upon our people. Excessive division and\nsubdivision of labor make the daily round for the masses dull and onesided for\n;\nanother class the emphasis put upon the wits in the struggle\nand strain of competition often gives a fatal twist to mind and body ; for\nincreasing numbers the limitations of city life are added ; for the majority, perhaps, false ideals and false standards of success are displayed.\nSolidity is sacrificed to keenness, power to penetration. Industrialism\ncertainly has its brighter side and is, no doubt, a necessary phase of\nprogress. Perhaps the plan is to elevate the race by killing off the\nunduly greedy, for those who sacrifice too ardently to greed are ruthlessly extinguished. Vital organs give way under the unnatural strain,\nand the community pays its annual tribute in wrecked and ruined lives.\nWhat can exercise do for us during the maturity and decline of our\npowers ? Much, if early training has been broad and thoro ; something,\nwhen this has been deficient. Without waiting for the collapse, the wise\nworker uses a portion of his daily off-hours, his weekly rest, and his occasional vacation to round out his physical and mental experience, and to\nbuild up neglected or wasted powers thru new activities and avocations.\nIt is well to emphasize contrasts ; let us not carry our work into our play or\nour play into our work. Alternation is a law of nature. Those addicted to\nsedentary pursuits will find delight as well as vigor in excursions with rod,\ngun, or camera; in the cultivation of some taste or fancy for scenery, for\nrocks, plants, insects, or birds in their natural surroundings. Horseback\nriding is good ; riding a selected hobby maybe better. Such pursuits\nprovide a perennial interest ; sugar one's pill of physical training so that\none is hardly aware of it ; keep us in loving touch with our first mother.\nNature, from whom we cannot long or widely stray without danger and\nloss. Besides giving us exercise in its best form without any necessity\non our part for elaborating its details, such pursuits end by giving us new\npoints of view and better ideals.\nWalking over a hard, level sidewalk is one of the poorest exercises\nknown to man, but hill and mountain climbing, and rambles across an\nuneven country, with their attendant fence climbing and ditch jumping,\nare among the best. These are within the reach of thousands who little\nsuspect their possibilities for enjoyment and invigoration. This is the\nkind of exercise that will ventilate the lungs, strengthen the heart, aid\nthe digestion, and eliminate effete material.\n\n"}
{"page": 949, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nCURVATURE\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nSPINE\n\n939\n\nStill, it remains true that hundreds of thousands suffer from too much\nrather than too little exercise. Children of tender years are stunted in\ngrowth and development by the strain of daily labor in factory or shop,\nand, under modern conditions, the laboring adult is, perhaps, as often\ninjured and deformed by his work as he is invigorated and perfected.\nFor these, too, country rambles and excursions, with the emphasis on\ntheir restful and recreative sides, will bring refreshment and new interests.\nOur people are just beginning to recognize the value of country life\nand occupations, combined with out-of-door employments for the defective and degenerate. By such means the idiotic, the insane, the dependent, and the vicious may often be reconstructed and redeemed. Dr.\nWey, at Elmira, found that the vicious and incorrigible dullards of the\nState Reform School were physically defective. They respond to systematic exercise, and bathing, and a generous diet, and to nothing else.\nDr. Spratling, of the New York State Epileptic Colony at Sonyea, reports\nwonderful results from removing the inmates of crowded institutions to\nthe detached buildings of the colony, and putting them at farm work.\nHe says he has seen epileptic seizures disappear into the ground thru a\nhoe handle. These are but samples of a most promising field that is only\njust beginning to be worked.\nIn advanced years comfort and refreshment will still come from the\nless active forms of out-of-door exercise, like gardening, driving, and\nrambles of moderate length. Happy he who in earlier years has acquired\nspecial interests and intimacies under an open sky.\nPhysical training, then, like training of the mind and heart, is for all\nages and all conditions a most wholesome and necessary ingredient in the\nfull cup of life. Are there higher ideals than strength, courage, service?\nDare we neglect the physical in their cultivation ?\nWe may, I think, safely conclude that man is formed for muscular\nactivity, and that thru a wise use of exercise his organs and powers may\nbe educated, strengthened, and refreshed.\n\nINFLUENCE\n\nBY\n\nOF SCHOOL\nTHE\n\nR. TAIT\nMCKENZIE,\nM.D.,\nEXAMINER, AND\nINSTRUCTOR\n\nLIFE\nON CURVAIURE\nSPINE\n\nOF\n\nDEMONSTRATOR\nOF ANATOMY,\nMEDICAL\nIN GYMNASTICS,\nM^GILL\nUNIVERSITY\n\nIn a series of examinations made last year in the Montreal High\nSchool, of boys varying in age from thirteen to eighteen, and averaging\na little over fifteen years, I was struck by the number that presented some\nmarked irregularity of grOwth ; and on tabulating them I find that 20 per\n\n"}
{"page": 950, "printed_page": null, "text": "94©\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\ncent, had a marked lowering of the right shoulder, 3 per cent, had the\nleft low, scoliosis was found in 2 per cent., lordosis marked in 5 per cent.,\nand round shoulders in 3 per cent.; while the habitual standing position\nof 30 per cent, approached more or less closely to what Bernard Roth\nhas aptly named the \"gorilla type\" — abdomen protruded, chest flat, and\nhead'shoved forward.\nThese defects are found not alone among school boys, for out of 204\ncollege students of the athletic class examined at McGill twenty-nine\nshowed these same defects, varying from slight unevenness of the shoulders\nto marked scoliosis.\nIn a much more extended series of cases than those I have been able\nto see, other observers have found similar results, and I may quote the\nname of Dr. Scudder, of Boston, and of Dr. Seaver, of Yale, who found\nabout 6 per cent, of Yale students presenting more or less lateral deviation of the spinal column.\nAdmitting the frequency of this fault among boys — and every observer\nknows that girls are much more particularly liable to spinal weakness and\ndeviations during the critical age of school life — does it not seem worth\nwhile to attempt its prevention, if the scientific, hygienic regulation of the\nhours of school life can be used for that purpose ?\nPerhaps an inquiry into the condition of the spine during the years\nof childhood will show better than anything else the way in which ordinary scoliosis — or, as I prefer to call it, \"fatigue scoliosis\" — is brought\nabout. I may say, in passing, that the great bulk of cases are of that\nclass. Other causes, such as rickets, paralysis, etc., are responsible for\nbut very few scattered cases in comparison.\nIn infancy the spinal column is straight, or bent in a slight curve forward from hip to neck ; the bones are not yet ossified, and present a mass\nof pliable, cartilaginous material, with small deposits of bone. Between\nthe vertebrae the disks are very soft and compressible, and the ligaments\npliant and easily stretched.\nImmediately on assuming the upright position certain changes take\nplace. A sharp forward curve develops in the lower lumbar region, continued up into the dorsum, so that the infantile curve is reversed, and the\nback is hollowed. Gradually a compensating curve in the dorsal region\ndevelops and increases, till the well-marked backward curve of the back\nis the result; and, by the time adult life is reached, a third develops in the\ncervical in the same direction as the lumbar.\nIt is while these curves are forming that the child's school life is\npassed.\nThe formation of the first, or lumbar, curve is helped greatly by muscular action : the great mass of the erector spinae muscle, pulling back\non the vertebrae of the lower part of the dorsal region, acts like a bow string,\nwhile the powerful psoas muscles springing from the front and sides of\n\n"}
{"page": 951, "printed_page": null, "text": "DcpartmcntJ\n\nCURVATURE\n\nOf\n\nTHE\n\nSPINE\n\n941\n\nthe vertebrae, and going down to the thigh, further help in the formation\nof the forward curve by being on the stretch when the child is in the\nstanding position. The other curves are undoubtedly compensatory in\ncharacter. The muscles that act on the spinal column are most intricate\nand numerous, the superficial layers consisting of long strands passing,\nsome to ribs, but mostly from spinous process to transverse process of the\nvertebra. The deeper layers are shorter, and the deepest pass only from\none bone to its next neighbor. Gray describes five distinct layers, each\ncontaining from three to twelve muscles. This apparent redundancy\nand unnecessary complication are, after all, the one safety we have in preserving the upright posture.\nWe know that, if we hold the arm out at right angles, the fatigue and\npain at the shoulder soon become intolerable, and few can stand the test as\nlong as five minutes. The main strain falls on one muscle, the deltoid,\nwhich has no relief from continuous action. The same condition would\nresult in the back without this system of small muscles that keep working\nin relays, each slight movement bringing into action a new set, and\nrelieving the tired ones. Without this ingenious arrangement the erect\nposture would be an impossibility. Anything that will interfere with this\naction of the muscles in relays will hasten the oncome of fatigue and\ncollapse.\nThe constant desire for movement is the most striking quality of\nyoung animal life, human or otherwise — the play instinct so wonderfully\nunderstood by Froebel, and so sapiently applied in the games of the\nkindergarten to the development of the best physical powers of the\nchild.\nWith his introduction to regular school life the child's physical\ntroubles begin. He is made to sit still from three to six hours, with but\nmomentary rests at long intervals. The play instinct, expressed by recurrent attacks of the \" fidgets,\" has to be sternly suppressed by the teacher\nfor the sake of discipline.\nThe rapid fatigue of the undeveloped muscles and compression of the\nunformed bone are enough to encourage and fix faulty postures ; but if we\nanalyze the writing posture, we can trace the progress from the normal to\ncollapse in the position of pronounced scoliosis, or skewed back. I quote\nfrom Dr. Fahrner, whose description is so good that to change it would\nspoil it :\nBefore writing begins, the children sit perfectly upright, with both scapulae thrown\nback equally. As soon as writing begins, all the children move their heads slightly forward and to the left. Soon head after head drops with a rapid jerk from fatigue of the\nneck muscles. In a short time the back also collapses, so as to hang from the shoulder\nblades, supported by the upper arm. Then two types are seen, depending on the part of\nthe book they are at. Those writing on the upper part support themselves on both\nelbows, and let the chest sink forward against the desk, and back becomes curved forward— the round back.\n\n"}
{"page": 952, "printed_page": null, "text": "942\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nThe eyes are three or four inches distant from the desk, and the support is from three\npoints — the left elbow, the chest, and the right forearm, slightly. When at the bottom of\nthe book, they lose their third support, and have the left elbow alone, and add to these\nfaults of position a twisting or screwing of the back toward the right. The head is bent\ntoward the left shoulder, the right arm, with the scapula standing out like a wing, rests\nanywhere and lightly ; the eyes are too close to the paper.\n\nThis is the process of collapse by tiring out the spinal muscles as you\ntire out an arm by holding it at right angles, and scoliosis is the writing\nposition become fixed.\nThe evils of this \"confinement with hard labor\" are notably increased\nand made more dangerous by ill-fitting desks and seats.\nThis subject has been taken up so fully by more able and betterinformed observers, such as Scudder and Hartwell in America, Cohen in\nEngland, and Fahrner, Eulenberg. and Bach in Germany, that I will do\nlittle more than mention the defects usually found, and name the remedies that have already been found efficient in combating these evils.\nThe seat may misfit in three ways. It may be too low, bringing the\nweight on the hip bones and cramping the knees ; it may be too high, leaving the legs suspended in the air from the knees — a position that interferes with the circulation in the legs, and causes rounding of the back.\nThe seat may be too deep, and the back is thus prevented from reaching\nthe back rest, with rounding of the whole back as a result.\nThe desks may misfit in five ways :\nWhen too low, the pupil must bend forward and round the shoulders.\nWhen too high, the book is brought too close to the eyes, and the\nshoulder must be raised and the back screwed in writing.\nWhen the desk is flat, or but slightly sloped, the head must be brought\ntoo far forward in reading.\nIn the placing of a fixed desk too great a distance between it and the\nseat results in some of the same defects as in a low desk — the forward bending and stretching in writing ; while, if too near, the chest is cramped and\nrespiration interfered with. With so many errors, it would seem a delicate matter to steer clear of them all and get the ideal desk, and if our\nchildren are to spend five or six hours a day on their seats, before these\ndesks, it is surely a matter of the gravest moment that to confinement and\nfixity of position — evils in themselves — there be not added the crime of\nmisfitting desks and seats, to accelerate weariness and hasten the projluction of the fixed scoliosis of fatigue.\nThe problem is to have a seat whose length and breadth are proportional to the under surface of the thighs and buttocks of the sitter ; to\nplace it at such a height tha,t the sitter's feet may rest flat upon the floor\nwhen the legs are bent to a right angle, and to provide a rest that will\nsupport the sitter's back, whether quiescent or actively engaged.\nThe desk must be of the right height and slope. The under surface\nmust not cramp the knees ; and, above all, it must not be placed so far for-\n\n"}
{"page": 953, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCURVATURE\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nSPINE\n\n943\n\nward in relation to the seat as to require undue leaning forward in the\nsitter.\nThis last defect is shown in the normal dimensions given by Eulenberg and Bach, but was probably a concession to convenience as permitting the pupil to get in and out more easily.\nA vertical line dropped from the edge of the desk cover to the chair\nseat is called the \"difference,\" while the space between this line and the\nedge of the seat is called the \"distance.\" If the desk overhangs the seat,\nthe distance is said to be minus, if not, it is said to be plus. Remembering these two technical terms, it is easy to explain the points of a wellfitting desk.\nThe difference should be equal to measurement from the elbow tip to\nthe seat, the forearm being bent at right angles and elbow to the side. The\ndistance should be minus two inches, but if adjustable for distance, so\nmuch the better.\nThe desk slope is best at one in six inches.\nThe seat height should equal the measurement from the under surface\nof the bent knee to the sole of the foot.\nThe depth of the seat should eijable the back to touch the back rest\nthruout. The back rest should have a projection for the loins, and\nshould sweep backward to follow the natural curve of the back, and give\nthe figure a slightly reclining pose.\nIf in the furnishing of a schoolroom the furniture cannot be made\nadjustable thruout, some at least in every room should be so made,\nand the others constructed on the model just laid down, the result of\nyears of experiments and thought by skilled observers.\nEven with well-fitting seats and desks the present writing position is\nsuch as to favor to a marked extent the formation of fatigue scoliosis or\nthe permanent \" screwed back.\" Vertical writing has been spoken of as a\npanacea for the \"screwed back.\" It has been so strongly recommended\nby Cohen, of London, that he says, \" with the slanting script one never\nknows whether a pupil has sat upright or not ; with the vertical script he\nmust have sat upright while writing.\" Dr. E. R. Shaw has pretty clearly\nshown this to be fallacious, but the fact remains that its adoption would\ntend to lessen the frequency of fatigue scoliosis, especially if care\nwere exercised by teachers to keep the pupils rested and in good position.\nThe third point that tends to produce faulty posture, the startingpoint of lateral curvature, is bad lighting of the schoolroom. If insufficient,\nwe have at once the rounded back and stooped shoulders in the pupil who\ncannot see clearly. The same effect is produced when the windows are so\narranged that the pupil sits in his own light. The windows should be\nplaced high up, and the light should fall over the left shoulder, and never\ndirectly from the front or back.\n\n"}
{"page": 954, "printed_page": null, "text": "944\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nEvery school system should have a medical officer as adviser. His\nduties should be, in brief, somewhat as follows :\n1. He should give advice in the construction of schoolhouses in matters of general hygiene, but more particularly in the lighting and seating\nof the schoolrooms.\n2. He should inspect the rooms from time to time during school hours,\nto see that the pupils are not misfitted in desks or seats.\n3. He should make a careful examination of the muscular system and\nheart and lungs, etc., in all pupils, before taking part in the rougher\ngames, such as football and basket-ball, and keep a record of these\nexaminations.\n4. He should be consulted by teachers in all cases where they observe\na tendency to curvature or weakness, or dullness of any of the senses ;\nand they should then be examined carefully and a record kept.\nThese cases should be followed thruout their school life, and the\nteachers advised as to the defects. Where advisable, the parents should be\nwarned and advised.\nThe school should be the place for the detection and prevention of\nfaults in growth, but the treatment of these cases should be confined\nstrictly to what Dr. Sargent has called \"straight work,\" in which both\nsides of the body are equally used ; and it does not fall within the province\nof the school specially to treat them, any more than it would to prescribe\nglasses for shortness of sight.\nSuch work is therapeutic, and requires special, individual medical treatment, which the instructor, when one is present, has not the time to give,\neven if he could and it were advisable. It is in such cases that the value\nof an adviser is apparent, and even these unfortunates that have passed\nunheeded thru the plastic first stages of scoliosis till the faulty posture\nhas become habitual may by careful treatment be restored to the symmetry that is man's birthright.\n\nDISCUSSION\n\nDr. Fitz, Harvard University. — The question of scoliosis in schools is of perennial\ninterest to all who are teaching and have charge of children. In my own experience, it\nseems to me that the influence of the desk is not so great as has been maintained, inasmuch as the attitude that the child takes is the same attitude he takes at home, and is very\nfrequently the attitude he takes in bed. In the investigations which we have been making at the Children's Hospital in Boston we have found a great many cases where the\nscoliosis has been determined by the bed position. The child has had a uniform position\nin bed, lying upon the same side, and the sagging of the body between the supporting\npoints of hip and shoulder has determined the curve absolutely, as shown by having the\nchild lie upon the table in the habitual posture, and then reverse, making him lie on the\n\n"}
{"page": 955, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nDcpartmentl\n\nCURVATURE\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nSPINE\n\n945\n\nother side, when the curve will have a tendency to be obliterated, if it has not become\nfixed by bony change.\nWhenever a child suggests, by the retention of a posture, the question as to whether\nit is a habitual posture or not, the teacher should get information from the parents with\nregard to the position taken in sleep, and, if possible, have it reversed. Nearly all young\nchildren curl up in bed, and it will be of the greatest benefit if the teacher can correct\nthat, by getting the parents either to straighten the children out or tie them out. The\nlast suggestion is not a cruel one at all, for the children are very tolerant of rather\nextreme measures. They should be tied out straight, preferably in a back position, or\nalternately upon right and left side. The teacher should not be content with observing\nthe child, and deciding that he has scoliosis, or has a habitual posture that may bring on\nscoliosis, but should go to the parents and investigate with regard to the other habitual\npostures, and, if possible, correct them. There are so many cases of round shoulders, of\nflexible spines with habitually depressed shoulders, or with a habitual twist, which can\neasily be corrected if proper steps are taken, that it is well worth while for every teacher\nto be on the lookout for them.\nMiss Le Garde, director of physical training in public schools, Providence, R. I. —\nI should like to speak of the plan which was tried in the Providence schools. As soon as\none of the physical supervisors discovers a case of round shoulders, or lateral curvature, a\nnote is sent to the parents of the child requesting them to meet the teacher and the physical director at the building. The average parent is only too willing to come and see what\nthe state of the case may be.\nThe deplorable ignorance of parents as regards their own children is very apparent\nto any physical director. If the boys are found possessed of any physical defect, it is\nsuggested that they attend a certain class — in the Y. M. C. A., for instance — where special\nattention is given to the cure of curvature, and other like defects. The girls are recommended elsewhere. One of the graduates of the Boston Hospital for Children takes cases\nof this nature, and an arrangement has also been made at one of the hospitals where charity\ncases are taken. This last year, since medical inspection has been put into operation, the\ndoctor makes a visit to each of the schoolrooms, in company with a very broad-minded\nwoman, who is at the head of the primary department. This is done at the request of the\ndifferent schools. In this way the children are watched, and cases of spinal curvature\nnoted. The teachers give most valuable aid in visiting the homes and helping in every\nway possible.\nAdjustable desks are all very well ; every schoolroom in the seven hundred or more\nrooms in the city of Providence has adjustable desks in the front aud back rows, and the\nnew buildings have all adjustable desks ; but the trouble is that they are not adjusted, and\nthe teacher seats the children indiscriminately.\nAaron Gove, superintendent of schools, Denver, Colo. — I am confronted now more\nand more, year by year, with curvature of the spine, especially of the girls — of which, of\ncourse, I know nothing except the fact of the bald statement. It has been suggested to\nme, in the course of all this work which we are doing, that curvature of the spine with\nour girls in the grammar and high schools perhaps can better be traced back to the\npiano stool than to the schoolroom desk.\nI remember my ancestors lived and worked, healthy and healthful, to a good old age »\nand were vigorous and bright, physically speaking. Now, what is the trouble today? I\ndon't know. I should be very glad, and, I suppose, I shall be forced, to urge the authorities with whom I work hereafter to supply nothing but an expensive adjustable desk. The\nvery difficulty suggested just now is one which occurs constantly in practical work — not\nwith those who' investigate scientifically, but with those who work practically — viz., the\nnecessity of changing pupils from seat to seat, for many reasons that occur in the administration of a schoolroom,\nI am troubled to know if this great change in the physical\n\n"}
{"page": 956, "printed_page": null, "text": "946\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nmake-up of our girls is something that belongs to modern civilization and abuse, or 'if it\nmust be traced directly to abuse in the schoolroom.\nMiss Thayer, director of physical training in public schools, Syracuse, N. Y. —\nAfter watching the children of the primary and junior grades, and finding the worst cases\nof round shoulders, upon going to their homes to ascertain how they live, I find, in a very\ngreat many cases, that the children are taking care of little babies, their brothers and\nsisters ; and, of course, after spending so many hours of the day at that kind of work, they\nhave round shoulders. I do not see how we are going to correct that part of the evil.\nYou can talk to the mothers, but these children have to be attended to.\nWith regard to the adjustable desks, I will say that we are using them in many of\nour new schools with great success. They are under the direction of the department of\nphysical training, and the janitor changes them as they need to be changed. In schools\nwhere they have been introduced the children are straighter than before their introduction.\nEdwin P. Seaver, superintendent of schools, Boston, Mass. — Mr. President : I am\nprompted to say that I do not feel quite as skeptical as Mr. Gove appears to feel about\nthe benefits to be derived from some improvements in school furniture, and more use of the\nadjustable desks.\nI will say this, however, that we have experimented with three or four kinds in my\ncity, and we have not been perfectly satisfied with any one make. A committee was set\nat work about a year and a half ago, consisting of physicians able to deal with the subject, of which committee your associate here. Dr. Hartwell, is chairman. That committee\nhas done a great deal of work in investigating the whole subject, and in trying to devise\nsome simple form of adjustable furniture consisting of chair and desk. When that committee reports, its device will be public property.\nBut no one need be dismayed at the cost of these desks. It is not necessary to furnish\nthe whole room with them. The lady who spoke a moment ago said that, in her schools,\nthe front row and the back row were made adjustable, the rows being fixed in a single\nroom. Our practice is to make two rows out of seven, up and down the room, adjustable.\nThose seats are used for the very large or the very small pupils, or the abnormally shaped\npupils in any way; and then, by having three sizes of the standard furniture for the\nother five rows, we can manage to fit the children to the seats pretty well — so that the\nknee is not brought too high, so that the feet are not left dangling in the air, and so\nthat the body is placed in the right relation to the desk — with a tolerable approach to\naccuracy.\nGeorge E. Johnson, superintendent of schools, Andover, Mass. — Mr. President : I\nwish to rise to a very brief point. The objection was made that, inasmuch as these evils\nwhich have been mentioned are not due to schools, or school work, we should not bother\nourselves with trying to remedy them. I should like to know if that is really the attitude\nwhich we should take in the public schools.\nNow, it is over two hundred and fifty years since Massachusetts made education\nuniversal and free. And one of the leading purposes of that action, as stated in the ordinances of the state, was that children should be trained to morality and good citizenship.\nAnd yet, crime has steadily increased in Massachusetts ever since, and especially during\nthe last decade. Some people go so far as to say that the schools are to blame for making\ncriminals. We do not believe that. But are we to rest satisfied with that fact ? Are not\nthe public schools to do what they can to prevent it ?\nNow, in the matter of the physical side of the children : the state has a big hand in\nour public schools ; and it is supposed to train its children for the sake of the state. Are\nwe to confine ourselves, then, to the intellectual side, and to remedying only the evils that\narise in the schools ; or is it our province to make the child better, so far as we can, in\nwhatever shape we find him ? If he is round-shouldered, no matter how he got that way,\n\n"}
{"page": 957, "printed_page": null, "text": "Dcpartmentl\n\nCURVATURE\n\nthe fact is, he is round-shotildered.\nmake him straight ?\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nHe is lop-sided.\n\nSPINE\n\n947\n\nShall we rest content or shall we\n\nDr. EHiNGER.dire'ctor of physical training, West Chester, Pa., Normal School. — Ihave\nbeen working for the past eight years in a normal school where we have given physical\nexaminations to all the students, and I find, as most of those who make examinations do,\nthat we have a great many cases of spinal curvature. Now, the unfortunate thing is this,\nthat at the age at which we examine those students it is usually impossible to do very much\nfor spinal curvatures that have been fixed for a long time, even tho those curvatures may\nnot be due to any organic trouble — ^I mean organic in the sense of any bone defect; the\nvertebriE may be intact — simply beginning with muscular deficiencies, which, I firmly\nbelieve, might have been corrected had they been detected earlier.\nNow, what does this mean ? It simply ^eans that we must, in some way, learn to\ndetect these things a little earlier ; and it is not a difficult matter, in my opinion, to detect\nthe marked cases, even for those who have had no especial instruction, if they know what\nto look for. Therefore I believe in pressing this point of calling the attention of the\nregular school-teacher to the danger of spinal curvatures. If it is not detected early, you\nmay usually make up your mind that there is not much to be done.\nSeveral points, I think, ought to be mentioned. One is the mode of carrying the\ninfant on the part of the mother or nurse. It is sometimes the cause of spinal curvature\nin the child, and parents ought to know it. Curvature is readily caused by carrying the\nchild continually on one side, with the little arm thrown over the shoulder, and even by\nleading it, continually holding the hand upon one side.\nOne cause of spinal curvature of which we all know is that of the incorrect standing\nposition. I believe that the attention of our students ought to be called to their habitual\npositions, since often these positions, are more at fault than the desks. In the physical\nexaminations of our pupils one of the most marked things I have noticed in the last three\nyears, where there is no spinal curvature, is the unusual prominence of one hip. Of course,\nin exaggerated cases, there is the protruding abdomen, the head forward, and the difference in the hips ; but you will notice in a large percentage of cases that there is an enlarged\nhip on one side — that is, the outline of the hip is much curved, while it is straighter\non the other. If you go a little farther, you will see the difference in the height of the\nhips, and the height of the gluteal fold ; also a difference in the shoulders, and perhaps a\nspinal curvature.\nAnother cause is the carrying of schoolbooks. When children take home regularly\na number of books, and carry them usually on the stronger side, or put them in a satchel\nand swing them across one side, spinal curvature is likely to be induced, since the bodies\nare flexible, and the bones are in a plastic condition. Superintendent Gove has asked,\nWhat is the matter with our girls. What is the matter with our boys ?— because I find that\nalmost as many boys have spinal curvature as girls. I believe it is due to a lack of muscular\ntone. I believe there is not the muscular vigor that they ought to have. Of course, there\nare a great many causes ; but the rapid increase of city life, and imperfect exercise and\nhygienic conditions, are among the causes.\nDr. Tait McKenzie, McGiil University, Montreal. — As to the correction of physica\ndefects, I do not think that the school is the place for the correction of scoliosis — after it\nhas developed so as to require treatment, I mean. It is the place to prevent it, if we can ;\nit is the place to do what we can in z. general way, such as having the positions at the\nseats made better, and improving the standing position, as Dr. Ehinger pointed out ; but\nit ffe not the place for the direct treatment, which, I think, is more of a medical specialty\njust as is the correction of short sight, as I said in my paper.\nThe gentleman from Colorado, Mr. (love, spoke about the straightness of our grandmothers. Well, I have heard that before ; I have heard it from my own grandmother,\nabout the straightness of the girls in her time.\nOf course we did not see them when they\n\n"}
{"page": 958, "printed_page": null, "text": "948\n\nNATIOMAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nwere girls, and we do not know. There were no measurements taken, either. I am\ninclined to think that, conditions being equal, there is no more curvature and no more\ncrooked backs now than there were then. It is a point, of course, which can never be\nproved, one way or the other, as we have not the facts to go on. If there is any more,\nhowever, it is very likely due to this lack of muscular tone, brought out by Mr. Ehinger,\nI think.\nWhen I spoke of the slanting back, I did not mean a straight back. I meant a back\nwhose general position is slanting, so that the pupil, when at rest, is in a slightly reclining\nposition, with a support at the loins, and the seat back following the natural curve of the\nback. I do not think it is necessary that the body should be poised on the two hip bones.\nI think that if we have that slightly reclining position, it can be held longer, with less\n*\nfatigue.\n\nBY\n\nGEORGE\n\nE.\n\nPLAY\n\nIN PHYSICAL\n\nJOHNSON,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nEDUCATION\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nANDOVER,\n\nMASS.\n\nPlay as a factor in education is prehistoric; it antedates Adam. It is\nnot known how low in the scale of animal life play occurs, or to what\nextent, but reliable authorities attribute play to animals no higher in the\nscale than the insects. Groos classifies the swarming of insects in the sunshine as Bewegungsspiele. Sir John Lubbock, in Ants, Bees, and Wasps,\nspeaks of the games of ants. He says: \"Our countryman Gould noticed\ncertain 'amusements' or 'sportive exercises' which he had observed among\nants. Huber, also, mentions scenes which he had witnessed on the hills,\nand which he says ' I dare not qualify with the title gymnastic, although they\nbear a close resemblance to scenes of that kind.' The ants raised themselves on their hind legs, caressed each other with their antennae, engaged\nin mock combats, and almost seemed to be playing hide and seek.\"\nRomanes speaks of the love antics of spiders, as Darwin does of birds ;\nbut Forel, who corroborates the observation of Huber, says that the\nattraction of the sexes could not have been the cause of the play of the\nants.\nDr. Hodge called my attention to the curious antics of bees which he\nhad sometimes observed, a kind of ecstatic dance which suggests, in a way,\nthe capers of a well-fed calf or of young'lambs.\nProbably there is no such thing as play anlong animals which necessarily devote their lives to the search of food ; but with well-fed leisure\nappears the phenomenon of play. This fact doubtless influenced the\ntheory, so widely accepted, that play arises from surplus energy. Anabolism being complete, and there being no necessity for the discharge <n\nserious pursuits, the overfilled cells are discharged in mock purposes, or\nplay.\nThis theory, which may be termed the Schiller -Spencer theory, is\nregarded by Groos, the author of Die Spiele der Thiere, as of great worth.\n\n"}
{"page": 959, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPLAY\n\nIN PHYSICAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n949\n\nyet insufficient. Play, in both Animals and man, is often carried to\nfatigue, or even exhaustion, in which case the over-supply theory is inadequate. Play has its root in something deeper than momentary physical\nconditions; it is more than physiological, it is biological; it is an instinct\nwith the deepest biological significance.'\nThe belief that play activity has its root in instinct is by no means\nnovel. Professor James, in his chapter on \" Instinct,\" catalogs what seem to\nhim to be the most prominent of the tendencies which are instinctive in the\nhuman species, and in the list is play. In 1877 John Strachan, a physician\nof Edinburgh, issued a little book in which he endeavors to show that\nplay is instinctive, and that it is nature's method of preparation for mature\nlife, claiming that play activity alone is sufficient for the highest development of all the faculties, mental or physical. It has been the part of\nGroos to classify the play activities of animals and to trace each class to\nthe instinct on which it is based.\nThat play is a preparation for future serious occupations is evident to\nthe observer of kittens or young dogs. What cat could catch a mouse if\nit had not previously been trained in its play to crouch, creep stealthily,\njudge of distance, gauge its leap, and strike with its claws ? The instinct\nof hunting in the lion or tiger would we of little use, when prey was near,\nif there had been no previous exercise in play of all the arts required in\nhunting. Animals play, says Groos, not because they are young ; rather,\nthey have a period of youth because they need to play.\nThe preparatory value of play is strikingly manifest in the games of\nsavages. The games of the Teton-Dakota children, described by Dorsey,\nexercise the young Indians in the very temper of mind and powers of body\nneeded in their maturity. The boys imitate the sun dance, cutting holes in\ntheir skirts instead of the flesh ; they leap from high stumps or banks ; play\nhide and seek among the trees; take captives, fighting roughly, but without anger ; follow each other's trails in the snow or sand ; make bows and\narrows, and hunt with them ; fight mud battles, in which they throw mud\nballs from the ends of sticks, sometimes injuring each other severely; and\nplay many other games of warlike nature, often causing much pain to the\nplayers and imposing tests of courage, strength, and endurance. The\nyoung Ute Indians acquire much skill in making their toys — the boys\nbows and arrows, the girls dolls and pottery.\nGranting the instinctive-biological significance of play, it is not surprising that play should powerfully affect the vital processes. There is a\nwide difference between the effect of uninteresting exercise or work upon\nthe development of a child, and the effect of hearty play, which perhaps\ninvolves the same muscles.\nNot alone on the muscular, but equally on\n' This explanation of play, which has been wrought out so elaborately in the remarkable study by Groos, has been most admirably presented by Dr. George W. Fitz in the\nAmerican Physical Education Review, Vol. II, No. 4, December, 1 897.\n\n"}
{"page": 960, "printed_page": null, "text": "95°\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n|Physical\n\nthe nervous, system play has its effect. * Dr. Irving C. Rosse, in the Boston\nMedical Journal, October, 1895, writes on the \"Conservative Value of the\nPlay Impulse.\" Dr. Rosse claims that in some forms of play is one of\nthe best treatments of certain forms of nervous diseases. Chorea and\nhysteria, he says, have been cured by a course in swimming. Dr. Hartwell mentions the value of play with gymnastics in the prevention and\ncure of stuttering. \"On account of their joyous, refreshing influence,\"\nsays Raydt, \" the place of games cannot be filled by gymnastics.\"\nI have no thought of opposing play to gymnastics. Play is properly\none department of physical education. 'What we need is a greater facility\nfor and a more thoughtful use of play in the education of our children.\nFrom the nursery to the university the play of the child, the youth, and\nthe young man is worthy of the most careful consideration of a consolidated committee of ten and of fifteen. The play of the kindergarten, if\nit does not need a complete overhauling, at least should be most carefully\nconsidered in view of the possibility of that need ; the play of the schools\nbetween' the kindergarten and the college is scarcely given a thought by\nanyone; and the play of the college runs riot. I do not need to speak\nto you of the loss we incur, on the physical side, from any neglect of play :\nthe magnificent results achieved by the Greeks thru play, the temper and\nphysique of English youth, developed on the playground, are proof\nenough of the value of play in physical education. Nor do I need to\nmention the mental and moral effect of play ; all this has been done, far\nbetter than I could do it, in writings you all have doubtless read, notably\nthose of Inspector Hughes. But, before passing, I wish to speak of one\nmatter of importance.\nIt is this :\nThe industrial and social conditions have greatly changed in the last\nhalf century, especially in New England. The marked tendency today is\ntoward urbanization. Seventy per cent, of the people of my own state\n(Massachusetts) live in cities. Opportunities for play, such as were universal in the early days of Massachusetts, are not now offered, perhaps, to\none-half of her children. No public-school question is without its social\nimport, and we cannot afford to leave out of our consideration the social\nside of play in education. I believe we are encountering a mighty danger\nin the lack of adequate motor and will training in the case of our city\nchildren, and especially in the case of the children of the city poor. G.\nStanley Hall says that it is the tendency of modern psychology to reduce\nmost of the activities of the soul to some form of the will, and quotes\nSchopenhauer that the normal man is two-thirds will, one-third intellect ;\nRobertson, that doing is an essential organ of knowing; Matthew Arnold,\nthat conduct is three-fourths of life ; Maudsley, that both character and\nhistory are written in the habits of muscles; physiologists, that a large\npercentage of all the energy of the body is used up in muscle work, nearly\nhalf the body by weight consisting of tissues contracting under volitional\n\n"}
{"page": 961, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPLA Y IN PHVSICAL\n\nEDVCA\n\nTtOM\n\nt5t\n\ncontrol.\nAsk any public-school teacher how much time she gives a day\nprimarily to the developing of the intellect and how much primarily to\nwill training, and what will be her answer?\nAnd yet \"it can be easily\nshown,\" says Dr. Hall, \"that the will is no less dependent on the culture\nit receives than the intellect.\nIt is fast becoming as absurd to suppose\nmen can survive the great practical strain to which our life subjects all\nwho would succeed, if the will is left to take its doubtful chances of training and discipline, as to suppose the mind develops in neglect.\"\nCould\na more suggestive word, or indeed a more timely warning, be uttered ? At\nan age when boys formerly received will training in the work of the farm,\nin hoeing, mowing, raking, in odd jobs, making sleds, and repairs of\nevery description ; when girls once received a training of hand and will\nin housework of every sort, in quilting, sewing, spinning — we now get our\ncity children to using the \" insignificant muscles which move to the scribbling pen or wag the tongue.\"\nWe seat children in chairs screwed\nfast to the floor, and command them to think when we ought to give them\nspace for moving and set them to do. This need of muscle culture, in\ngreat cities especially, is an imperative one.\n\"The greatest need of an\nindividual or a nation,\" says Seguin, \" is muscular power.\"\nAnd there is\nnothing else in the wide world, I believe, that could insure the brain and\nthe brawn and the will of our future citizens as could the play of children.\nOur compulsory school laws keep our children in school five hours a day\nand forty weeks in the year, thinking, thinking, thinking, always thinking, never doing. They come in crowds too unwieldy for play. They\nstand around, they jostle, they push ; they loaf at thecorners of the street\nor shop windows; athousand, thousand movements of cars, horses, people\ncatch their eyes and attention, each to retain them but an instant, and then\nthey are gone, preventing any continuous, persistent exercise of willed\naction or attention ; in short, their play interests drivel and dwindle away,\nas it were, and with them most precious moments of childhood and possibilities of growth toward perfected manhood.\nI believe there is possible\nfor every stage of childhood an activity earnest, serious, absorbing ; an\nactivity with a conscious inner ideal toward which the child may ever be\nlooking.\nI should like to know the man who first called idle, senseless\nplay \"fooling.\"\nI think he must have been a philosopher.\nThis \"fooling\" in children is suggestive of some physical vigor, but of a minimum\nof cerebral activity, and is, I believe, a reaction from the forced and uninteresting study we^mpose on boys.\nThe Lord made it annoying to us,\nI could believe that we might arouse ourselves once in a while to a wiser\nattention to children as a matter of personal comfort, if nothing more.\nDid you ever see a young child, a two-year-old, \"fooling\"?\nHow\nseriously, earnestly, absorbingly so young a child attends to his play !\nOne might almost imagine he thought a world hung expectant on the\n\n"}
{"page": 962, "printed_page": null, "text": "952\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\noutcome of what he was doing. Alas ! it is only after boys get to\nschool that they go to \"fooling.\"\nSpeaking of the inner ideal in true play leads me to observe that it is\nthis ideal that makes all the difference in the world in the child's activity\nand its value. With this ideal vivid enough in the child's mind he\nbecomes self-directing in his activity, a living soul, not an animate machine.\nHe grows from within outward, unfolds like the bud to full blossom, not\nby a plastering on of this or that from without. The difference is as\ngreat as that between molding in solid gold and veneering in gilt. And\nhere we need a warning. It is very hard to draw the line perfectly\nbetween wisely and unwisely directed play. The kindergarten is at fault, I\nfear, in not allowing enough originality to the child. I am told that\nkindergarten children often need more direction and suggestion in their\nplay at home than they did before. May it not be that kindergartens\ngive an over-amount of attention to games as compared to free play ? It is\nthe positive, self-directing, and self-sustaining activity of play that is so\nefficient in will training. What is it that every great man has done ? He\nhas conceived for himself an ideal, and he has pursued it with all the\nstrength of mind and soul and body. So with the child at play ; he conceives his own ideal, whether it be a mud pie or a game of tag, and he\nfollows it with all his might. Muscular power disveloped in the pursuit of\nan ideal — that is what is needed more than all else in physical education.\nCity playgrounds and the play of city children are questions of national\nimportance.\nNot long since the editor of an excellent educational paper, in an\neditorial, deplored the fact that so much discussion was given to play as\na factor in education without first defining the terms*' play\" and \"work.\"\nNo doubt he was right, and I have delayed too long in this paper to state\nwhat seems to me to be play. Play, in a sense, is not distinct from work ;\nplay involves work. As Dr. Brinton says, \" the measure of the value of\nplay is the amount of work there is in it,\" and I might add, as he does,\nin regard to children at least, that the measure of the value of work is the\namount of play there is in it.\nThe boy who is building a hut in the woods and the girl who is making\na dress for her doll are working with all their might, but are nevertheless\nat play, acting from \" inner necessity and impulse,\" and from tendencies\nwhich are clearly instinctive. Moreover, it is the glory of play that it\nmay not only prepare for future serious occupations, b«t does actually, in\nsome rare and happy cases, develop into a life work. Art belongs to\nplay, and he who paints or chisels or writes because he must is only following out a play impulse into and thru maturity. It is serious now, and\nfor that reason and for dignity's sake, perhaps, should be termed work\nrather than play.\nAgain, play is more than an interesting exercise, and because an\n\n"}
{"page": 963, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPLA V IN PH YSICAL\n\nED UCA TION\n\n953\n\noccupation is pleasurable, or even \" fun,\" it is not necessarily play. Real\nchild play is based on some instinctive tendency, and has, on the part of\nthe player, no serious end other than the immediate pleasure of the act ;\nit has always the element of \" inner necessity and impulse.\"\nFor school children should be chosen so far as possible the games\nwhich are based on instinctive tendencies.\nTaking the list given by Professor James, we can base upon it some general classes of games :\nI. Based on hunting instinct :\nI. Games of chase; e. g., games of tag.\n2: Games of searching or hunting ; e. g., hide and seek.\n3. Games of hurling or throwing ; e. g., quoits.\nII. Based on fighting instinct :\nI. Games of contest ; e. g., football.\nIII. Based on instinct of emulation :\nI. Games of emulation ; e. g., racing.\nThere are other instincts on which play activities are based, but activities which do not necessarily appear in games. I distinguish between play\nand games. Play is the general term and includes games ; but psychologically and pedagogically we may distinguish clearly between the two.\nGames are formal ; play is informal. Games require two or more players ;\nplay may be wholly individual. In games there is prominent the idea of\nbeating, winning ; in play emulation may not beat all apparent. Educationally, play is a broader field than games, richer in information, executive power, and originality. Games give quickness, deftness, intensity, a\nhigh power of co-ordination as in what is commonly termed skill ; play\ngives breadth, culture, grace, and high power of co-ordination as in artistic\ncreations.\nOn the instinct of imitation is based an endless variety of plays, e. g.,\nkeeping house, playing school ; on constructiveness, playing with tools,\nmaking toys, huts, dams ; on the caring or tending instincts, pets, dolls ;\non acquisitiveness, collections. The physical -training teacher can join\nhands with the manual-training teacher, with the teacher of nature study,\nand the regular teacher, and pour all these activities on to do the work of\neducation. We have been trying this very experiment with a few boys in\nAndover. Of about thirty boys, along the line of toys and games, one\nmade skees ; three, bows and arrows ; four, peggies and peggy sticks ;\ntwo, jumping standards ; one, bicycle stand ; two, fishline winders ; four,\nswing seat ; seven, boat ; two, cart ; three, windmill. Along the line of\nnature study and collections, one made a stand and frame for ants' nest ;\none, a cage for toads ; six, aquaria ; twenty, butterfly net ; twenty-one,\ntadpole net; one, vivarium. For their homes, two made pigeonholes ;\ntwo, a bookcase ; one, footstool ; When we consider that the boys\nplayed with the toys they made, that they stocked their aquaria, hunted\nbutterflies and caught tadpoles with their nets, found occupants for their\n\n"}
{"page": 964, "printed_page": null, "text": "954\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\ncages and nests, and watched and cared for them, we see that the amount\nof physical training involved is by no means inconsiderable. Play (as\ndistinct from games) is not often emphasized in physical education, but\nit is of great importance. I am not sure that the finest specimens of\nphysical manhood could be developed thru games, but rather thru play,\ntoys, and activities allied to hunting, fishing, rowing, tramping. Yet we\nneed both, and we can have both. If such work should be taken up in\nconnection with regular school work, it would not only avail much for\nthe physical welfare of our school children, but would equally serve the\nmental and moral natures, and go far toward making that much-needed\nconnection between the school life of today and the out-of-school and\nhome life of our children.\nHampered as so many of us are by city environment and other disadvantages, we can, nevertheless, take suggestions, I believe, from the free,\nold-fashioned plays of children — the making of mud cakes and dolls'\ndresses, sand-pile farms and miniature roads, tiny dams and water wheels,\nwhittled-out toys, sleds, and dog harnesses, the flying of kites, the pressing\nof leaves, gathering stones, collecting stamps and butterflies ; and hope\nthat some day the Lord will show us a substitute or find a way for all\nchildren to be blessed by membership in that school to which, as Maurice\nThompson has said, \" the greatest philosophers, scientists, artists, poets\nof the world of all ages have shown their gratitude and indebtedness, the\nschool from which the greatest thinkers have been graduated, the school\nof the woods, the fields, the hills, the streams, the out-door play school of\nchildhood and youth. \"\nTo recapitulate : Play activity is rooted in instinct. It is a law of\nlife, obedience to which prepares for the serious occupations of maturity.\nAs a generator and conservator of nervous energy, it surpasses all other\nforms of exercise. As a character builder it produces strength and positiveness of will. It is especially needed in the education of the children\nof the city poor. Play should follow deep-seated and well-defined hereditary tendencies of the human species. Not only games, but what paay be\ntermed, in distinction, play, should be utilized.\n\nDISCUSSION\nDr. G. W. FiTZ, Harvard University.- — ^Mr. President, and members of the association : I have listened with much interest to Mr. Johnson's paper, which has given us\na very valuable analysis and discussion of the characteristics of plays and games, and\ntheir educational contributions. The biological influence of play in the development of\nthe powers of individuals, human as well as animal, cannot be overstated. I agree very\nheartily with\n\nMr. Johnson's\n\nstatements\n\nregarding\n\nit.\n\nTeachers should certainly be\n\n"}
{"page": 965, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPLAY\n\nIN PH YS/CAL\n\nED UCA TION\n\n955\n\nbrought to realize what a lever is given thetn for developing the character of children,\nand for giving them the essential education which is the right of all individuals. As Mr.\nJohnson has so well brought out, play develops power — the power of the individual to\nadapt himself to given conditions — as no other activity can do.\nThe child who is engaged actively in play is under no one's direction. He is\ndirected by circumstances. To get their directions he must observe quickly, intently ; he\nmust make judgments based upon his observation; he must initiate the motor reactions\nwhich will enable him to adapt himself to the conditions observed. The child is developing his power by every bit of play, and especially by all active plays which require\nstrong movement.\nTag is one of the most educative of plays, for it brings about an instant control of\nthe body thru balancing, sudden stopping and starting, and a general control of force,\nsuch as only games demand. Teachers of gymnastics tend to over-emphasize set drills\nbecause they are pretty and effective for exhibition purposes, and to decry the value of\nplay — to feel that in play there is no discipline. The teachers who have not made a\nspecial study of physical training are still more afraid of play, and are still more anxious\nto have what they call discipline in the schools.\nUnfortunately, however, the ordinary discipline of the school is not the true discipline. Only too many teachers occupy the position of the first-year primary teacher who,\nwhen asked if the kindergarten children did not seem more active and wide-awake than\nthe other children, replied : \" Yes, they do ! They give me trouble enough at first, but it\nisn't long before I make them understand thjit they've got to keep still and do as / say.\"\nDiscipline becomes synonymous with repression. The negative aspect, \" Thou shalt\nnot,\" is alone presented. We must remember that true discipline is not repression, but\nis the self-control of execution ; that the child should be trained to direct his energies\ninto productive lines, rather than made to feel that his chief aim of existence must be to\nrepress himself.\nOn the other hand, under the influence of play the child gains control of himself.\nHe gains the power of adapting himself to given conditions with ever-increasing efficiency ;he feels that upon himself rests the full responsibility for what he does. The\nresult is that he is trained in character, trained in will, trained by the ever-present possibility of failure to hold himself steadily to a purpose — trained in that natural school\nwhere failure is so vivid that the struggle is always for success.\nA word with regard to the amount of time which may be safely devoted to play in\nthe early years of school may not be out of place. The opportunity for play furnished by\nschool in the recesses of ten or fifteen minutes and the short time after school is ordinarily totally inadequate ; yet, as has been shown, the requirements of modern civilization\nand the environment of city life, have restricted the opportunities for play so largely that\nthey niust be given by the school if they are to be given at all. The school, in its function of giving to the child what is necessary for development, should give the opportunity\nfor play, just as it gives the opportunity for developing the number sense, or for learning\nto read.\nThe question of time for play hinges very largely upon the distribution of time for\nother work. All the efforts to introduce physical training into the schools today are\nhampered by the feeling of teachers that the time given to arithmetic, reading, writing,\nand nature work must not be interfered with. The physical-training work may have five\nor ten minutes a day, or perhaps fifteen minutes every other day, or twenty minutes a\nweek. It is needless for me to say that such an amount of time is entirely disproportionate. The child's entire development, physical and mental, depends so largely upon\nactivity that it is not too much to ask that the opportunity for physical activity should\ntake up half the time in the ideal primary-school program. Moreover, I think that it\nwill be demonstrated within a very few years that this time can safely be gained by\n\n"}
{"page": 966, "printed_page": null, "text": "956\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\ntaking half the time now given to work in arithmetic and reading in the fiist and second\nyears of the primary school. No loss whatever will result to the advancement of the\nchild in these lines. We are now trying to train mental faculties which have not yet\ndeveloped, with the inevitable result that that time is wasted in drill which should be\ndevoted to bringing out fully the play impulse of the child, to developing his observation\nand motor ability along the lines offered by plays and games, gymnastics, manual training, drawing, and similar activities.\nWe, who are interested in physical training, should make an effort, not merely to\ncrowd in physical training, but to reduce the amount of time given to other studies, that\nthe child may have the opportunity for physical activity broad and rich enough to bring\nout all his powers.\nA Member. — ^Mr. President, does Dr. Fitz mean play in our schoolrooms, with our\ndesks, our tables, cur chalk boxes, etc., in place of recitations ?\nDr. Fitz. — Mr. President, I do, most decidedly. I mean play in the best places we\ncan give our children — if necessary, in the schoolroom. If it is a roof playground, as\nthey are coming to have in New York, then on the roof ; if in the basement, then in the\nbasement, if it is well lighted and aired. But wherever it be, let us try to give to the\nchildren that which will develop them fully, even at the sacrifice of so-called recitations\nwhich sometimes do more harm to the children than good, by reducing their interest, by\nchaining them to the words of the teacher or book for their sources of knowledge, by\nreducing their physical vitality, and by deadening their nervous organizations and their\nplay instinct.\nThe Member. — I should like a practical illustration of play right in the school\nhours, and in the schoolroom. I wish you would describe something that actually has\nbeen done.\nDr. Fitz. — I think children have not changed so much from the time when I was\na child. I remember distinctly playing in the schoolroom.\nMiss S toneroad, director of physical training, public schools, Washington, D. C. — It\nis really surprising how much we can do in the way of play in the schoolroom. A teacher\nwho puts her mind to it can adapt to the conditions of the room many old plays and\ninvent new ones. We have just lately been playing \"follow my leader,\" which the\nchildren delight to do in the schoolroom. After walking in line they vault over the seats,\nrun and jump to touch a high point on the wall, skip sideways, stoop down and\ntouch the floor, clap their hands in time with the leader, vault sideways as they pass by\ndesks, etc. This is ideal play in the schoolroom, because the child takes the initiative,\nand it becomes spontaneous play. The leader proceeds to do anything which suggests\nitself to him. However, when first played, the teacher acted as leader, and having made\nmany excellent gymnastic movements, these are remembered.\nThe old game of \" tag \" can be varied to suit the room. We have made one variation which we call \" sitting tag,\" in which one child is chosen as \" old man \" for every\ntwo rows. The children jump out of their seats, and when the \"old man\" comes to\nthem, they quickly sit, and jump out again when he leaves. Every child in the room is\nplaying at the same time and having a good time. When the teacher claps her hands, as\na signal to stop, their minds are quickly turned in another direction.\nThe greatest difficulty lies in inventing plays and. games in which all can join at\nonce, and get good physical exercise out of the five or ten minutes devoted to them.\nMany plays advocated for the schoolroom can be played by only a few, which is unjust to\nthe others who are obliged to sit and look on.\nA Member. — Do the plays go clear thru the school course, up to the high school ?\nMiss Stoneroad. — No; we do not attempt schoolroom plays in the upper grades ;\nmerely in the primary schools, our first and second grades. In the higher grades it is\nour desire to make the recess plays and games complement the physical gymnastic work\n\n"}
{"page": 967, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPLAY\n\nIN PHYSICAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n957\n\nwhich we do in the schoolroom. I doubt the wisdoip of having play in the rooms of the\nhigher-grade schools ; but in the primary schools the teacher can play with the children,\nso that the work really is an advance on the kindergarten plays and games.\nMr. Ballard, of New York. — Mr. President, I have noticed a peculiar condition in\nchildren in different sections that has interested me very much. When I went to school,\nI went to several small country schools, known as \"district schools,\" and in those play\nwas very common. We went to school early in the morning, as early as we could get\nour breakfast, when we were little folks, for the sake of playing — bearing in mind the distinction between play and games that has been made here today. It was purely play.\nAnd in all of the different schools where I went the condition was just the same. We\nwent to school early in the morning ; we stayed at noon, if we could only take our dinner;\nwe were happy, so that we could play — play, pure and simple. We would stay long after\nschool for the same purpose. When we got a little older, I remember that the play was\nstopped almost entirely, and games were played — vigorous, active, running games. I\nremember one in particular that seems to me npw to be an ideal game. We called it\n\"goal.\" It was a very vigorous, running game, calling for a great deal of quickness and\nalertness and endurance and good judgment ; and we played that game year in and year\nout. I found that that or similar games, were played in the different country schools\n— purely country schools.\nIn the district schools that I taught there was that same condition of affairs. The\nchildren came early in the morning, and stayed after school, to play ; while the older\nscholars very soon took up these more vigorous games.\nAfter I entered a somewhat larger field, however, and went into large villages, I\nfound an almost entire absence of play, and an entire absence of games. I went to a\nstill larger place, and there the condition was still more marked. The children never\ncame to play, and they never played games.\nNow I remembered my schoolboy days, and while I was a little too old to help\nthem very much in play, still I thought I could start them with games. I know one that\nI started was \" hare and hounds.\" I thought that was a particularly good game, and I\nstarted the boys on it in the first village. Well, the boys liked it, and they would play at\n\"hare and hounds \" whenever I would run with them. If I would be one of the hares —\nand I was not very fleet-footed — they would be the hounds ; or, if I would be the hounds,\nthey would join in. And we had our runs, runs that would rival those of Tom Brown of\nRugby. We would run all over the country, and were known in all that section. But after\nI went away that game dropped dead. They never played it again. And in the next\nplace where I went they had no games of the kind. It was almost impossible to get the\nboys to play a game ; but I started them with \" hare and hounds,\" and they played it\njust as long as I would run with them. When I began to feel that I had run at \" hare\nand hounds \" about long enough, they dropped it ; and the boys have not played at\n\" hare and hounds \" for years.\nNow, what is the reason for that ? There must be some reason. I think that that is\nsomewhat characteristic — that if you go back into the country, in the district schools,\nyou will see this play among children, you will see the games among children ; and if\nyou go into the larger villages, near the cities, where they have plenty of room to play if\nthey wish, you will not find it. I know that, in the case of our boys, they never played\nbut one game in the yard, and that is the meanest that was ever invented — there is not\na good quality in it — the game of marbles. They will play marbles in the spring; and\nthat is the only game that they ever think of playing.\nG. W. Johnson, superintendent of schools, Andover, Mass. — In regard to the games\nto play, I think any teacher can easily get up good games by watching the children, or\nremembering the games that she used to play, or used to see children play. As for the\nuse of the schoolroom, there is much more that can be done with an ordinary schoolroom.\n\n"}
{"page": 968, "printed_page": null, "text": "958\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nfull of desks, than one would naturally think. There are a great many tag games and\ngames of racing that can be played in an ordinary schoolroom. For instance, you can\ntake two children at the head of the schoolroom, and start them down — one goes down\nthe center aisle, and turns to the left ; the other goes to the right, and then comes up the\ncenter aisle, and they touch a mark on the blackboard, perhaps. There is a race course.\nYou can have three or four children on a side, and have a regular team race, a relay race,\nwith them. You can set them to hopping, in the same way as racing ; you can vary it\nin almost an infinite number of ways.\nThe game of \" drop the handkerchief \" on the desk goes very well. Then they\nplay what they call \" going to Jerusalem,\" where a certain number of the desks are\nmarked off, so that no child can sit in them, and then they march around the room and\nscramble for the seats.\nAs to the play of children in the country being more general than that in the city, I\nmust say that it is very true, and it is a thing of great importance and significance, it\nseems to me. As I said, children come to city schools too unwieldy; a crowd rather\ndampens play in children than increases it. I think the case which has been given is\nrather an extreme one ; but I know that leadership counts for a great deal among\nchildren.\nMiss Sisson, in the Studies in Education gotten up by Professor Barnes, gives some\nvery interesting facts in regard to leadership in the kindergarten children, the free plays,\nand the plays the children took up spontaneously outside, entirely without direction.\nOnce in a while a boy or a girl comes forward as a marked leader of children in their\ngames ; but I never knew a case where, if one leader was gone, there would not be\nanother one.\nI never attended a big school in my boyhood. I do know this, however, that a\nlarge crowd of children in a small playground is apt io dampen the ardor of the play;\nthey are too unwieldy. I think what Mr. Ballard said was very suggestive, however, of\nthe important place a teacher may take in the plays of children. Some are timid, and\ndo not find it easy to get out to play — the boys are rough, and they are afraid. Take\nthe boy who has a very active mind, but a very sluggish body, to whom reference was\nmade. He is probably afraid to enter the games ; and it would be a good thing to turn\nhim on to some outside play — get him a fad of some kind, like collecting butterflies,\nor get him interested in woodwork. There is some interest in that boy of bright mind\nthat you can tie him to, and if you tie him to one thing, it will spread.\nPresident Ehinger. — One thought occurs to me, and that is this: EI as not the\nmodern tendency to athletics something to do with changing this play spirit among the\nolder boys in the larger towns, and in the cities? I believe in athletics myself — directed\nathletics — but it is my belief that the extreme athleticism that we sometimes see has\nsomething to do with abolishing these little so-called \"childish \" games and plays; and\nthose boys who have not any particular bent in athletics, and are not ready or fitted to\ntrain for anything, usually drop out ; and they are, of course, the larger number.\n\n"}
{"page": 969, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL\nINSTRUCTION\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nSCIENCE\n\nMINUTES\n\nFIRST SESSION.— Friday, July 8, 1898\nThe department met in St. Paul's Lutheran Church, corner of Eleventh and H\nstreets, at 3 : 15 p. M., and was called to order by the vice-president, Mr. Charles N. Cobb.\nPrayer was offered by Rev. S. Domer.\nIn the absence of the secretary. Professor C. J. Ling, Mr. W. P. Hay was appointed\nacting secretary.\nThe vice-president then announced the following Committee on Nominations :\nProfessor E. H. Hall, of Harvard University.\nProfessor C. S. Palmer, of Colorado State University.\nProfessor A. P. Brigham, of Colgate University,\n\nOn Resolutions :\nProfessor Sydney T. Skidmore, of the Philadelphia Normal School.\n\nOwing to the absence of Professor P. C. Freer, his address on \"The Relation of\nScience Education in the Secondary School to That in the College and University\" was read\nby Professor E. W. Lyttle.\nThe second paper, on \" The Teaching of Biology in the High School,\" was read by\nMr. W. P. Hay, of the Washington, D. C, high schools.\nThe preliminary report of the standing Committee of Ten was read by the chairman.\nProfessor E. M. Hall, of Harvard University, who also read the report of the Subcommittee on Physics.\nThe report on chemistry, which had been prepared by the subcommittee's chairman,\nProfessor Alexander Smith, of the University of Chicago, was read by Professor C. S.\nPalmer.\nThe report of the Subcommittee on Botany, which had been prepared by Professor\nJohn M. Coulter, of the University of Chicago, was, in his absence, read by Professor B.\nD. Halsted, of Rutgers College.\nThe report of the Subcommittee on Physical Geography was read by Professor Albert\nPerry Brigham, of Colgate University.\nA motion was made and carried to accept the reports of the main and subcommittees\nas reports of progress.\nOn motion, the section adjourned at 5 : 30, to meet again at 2 p. m., July 9.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION.— Saturday, July 9\n\nThe department was called to order at St. Paul's Lutheran Church by the vicepresident, at 2 : 30 p. M. It was announced that the report of the Subcommittee on\nZoology had been transmitted by Professor Ward, its chairman. It was read by Professor\nC. S. Palmer, of Colorado.\nOn motion, the report was accepted as a report of progress.\n959\n\n"}
{"page": 970, "printed_page": null, "text": "960\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nIt was moved and carried that the co-ordinating science committee instead of consisting ofall the members of the five subcommittees, shall consist of the chairmen of the\nsubcommittees and the general secretary of these committees, and that this committee of\nsix shall have authority to make a co-ordinating report to the department.\nProfessor E. H. Hall, as chairman of the nominating committee, submitted the following report :\nFor President— Mr. Charles N. Cobb, Regents' Office, Albany, N. ,Y.\nFor Vice-President — Professor A. H. Tuttle, University of Virginia.\nFor Secretary — Professor C. J. Ling, Manual Training School, Denver, Colo.\n\nBy unanimous vote the secretary was instructed to cast the ballot of the department\nfor the nominees.\nThe ballot was so cast, and they were declared elected.\nIn the informal discussion which followed remarks were made by Professors Hall,\nPalmer, Tuttle, Brigham, Lyttle, and Harrington, Messrs. Harvey and Albright, and Miss\nParker.\nA resolution tendering the thanks of the department to the pastor, officers, and members of St. Paul's Lutheran Church for their courteous and kindly action in granting\nthe use of their church building for the meetings of the department was submitted by the\nCommittee on Resolutions, and was unanimously approved.\nIt Wfis moved and carried that the minutes of the meetings be subject to the approval\nof the chairman.\nMoved and carried that the bill of expenses submitted by Professor C. J. Ling, per\nC. S. Palmer, be approved.\nThe department adjourned at 4 : 30 P. M.\nW. P. Hay,\nSecretary pro tempore.\n\nPAPERS\nTHE\n\nTEACHING\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nOF BIOLOGY\n\nBY W. P. HAY, M.S., CENTRAL\n\nHIGH\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\nWASHINGTON,\n\nD. C.\n\nBy all who have given the matter serious thought it is agreed that the\nprincipal aims of the high-school course in biology are to educate, to\ninstruct, and to foster a love of nature. There are many points included\nunder these three heads, and, while it is not at all in the province of this\npaper to go into detail concerning the pedagogical value of biology as a\nscience, it is necessary briefly to enumerate some of them.\n\" The development of the habit of observing and of observing correctly\nlies, of course, at the bottom of all scientific work, be it biology, or chemistry, or physics, or what not. , The ability to distinguish from among\nthe things observed those which are essential, to know the difference\nbetween those which are real and those which are only apparent, is a\nquality still more valuable. And lastly, the mental habit which can come\nbest from the study of living organisms, and which demands the most\nsearching investigation into all phases of a question before there is any\n\n"}
{"page": 971, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTEAChlMC\n\nOP BIOLogV\n\nIN -TkE MlGli SCHOOL\n\n961\n\nwillingness to come to a conclusion, is one which will do more toward\nmaking of our pupils good men and women than any other thing which\nthey can get in school. Our students, when they reach maturity, will be\nless ready than men now are to follow the demagog or believe in every\npleasing and apparently convincing argument presented to them. We\nhave given them the training which has fitted them for investigation, and\nthey will not be willing to take on faith anything which they can prove\n•\nfor themselves.\" '\nWhile it is generally admitted that this educative or disciplinary\nquality of biology is its most valuable feature, there is no one who has\naltogether lost sight of the cultural value of a knowledge of the science.\nPure information upon biological subjects should form no inconsiderable\nportion of the course. Such instruction was formerly the only kind\nattempted, and today it is the only kind given in many of our schools. The\ndemand for it was based upon a distinct need, and our enthusiasm for\nthe more important work must not cause us to overlook this altogether.\nThe third purpose of the biological course — to foster a love of nature —\nis only too frequently lost sight of by our high-school teachers. Instead\nof a course of study which will draw the pupil to the subject, interest him,\nand make him anxious to go deeper into it, the work is so arranged and\ncarried out as effectually to kill any desire to know more about either\nanimals or plants. Every child has, when he comes to us, more or less\nof a love for nature in his heart, and our aim should be to take hold of\nthis and develop it, not with the idea of making naturalists of all our\npupils, but that they may leave us with a greater love for nature, a better\nunderstanding of her laws, and an appreciation of her benefits.\nAs to the best means for attaining these results there is little difference\nof opinion. To make of biology a disciplinary science, to make it\ndevelop the reasoning faculties as well as the memory and powers of\nobservation, it must be studied in the laboratory and the field more than\nin the class-room. The student must be compelled to find out for himself, and up to the limit of his ability do original work. He must be made\nto feel that successful investigation depends upon his own efforts, that the\nonly way to learn is himself to get to the bottom of things.\nIt must not be understood from the foregoing statements that it is\npresumed for a moment that the pupil is to be thrown on his own\nresources altogether. He will need a great deal of help from his teacher,\nhis laboratory guide, and from books of reference. The help given him,\nhowever, should be help in the sense of making him stronger. The teacher\nwho can answer with a question, the laboratory guide which gives no opportunity for the mere verification of its statements, are what is required,\nrather than information. The equipment of the biological laboratory\nshould be as complete as can be afforded by the school ; it should be\n' B. W. EVERMANN, Inland Educator, February, 1898.\n\n"}
{"page": 972, "printed_page": null, "text": "962\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nas liberally provided for, at least, as are the physical or chemical\nlaboratories.\n\" While it is doubtless true that with a very small outlay for apparatus\nmore good work can be done in biology than in any other science, and\nwhile there are some teachers who can get enthusiastic work from their\nclasses with no laboratory equipment whatever, it cannot be argued that\nui^der any conditions increased facilities will not result in better work.\nGood and honest work can be done in a poorly equipped laboratory,\nbut this assumes that there is on the part of the students a disposition to\nwork faithfully in spite of disadvantages, an assumption which is by no\nmeans justified by the facts.\"\nThe furniture of the biological laboratory should be carefully considered and planned for its intended uses. There should be solid work\ntables, with drawers or lockers for the reception of instruments, notebooks,\nand laboratory guides, and jars to hold unfinished work. An ample water\nsupply-close at hand in the laboratory is imperative.\nThe use of the compound microscope in the high-school course is\noften criticised, and when the use of this instrument is carried so far as to\nexclude all work in gross anatomy, the criticism is certainly a just one.\nThere is, however, a place for the compound microscope in every laboratory, and the instruments should be at the disposal of the pupil in sufficient numbers to obviate loss of time in their use. Simple microscopes\nshould form a part of the equipment of each pupil, and the frequent use\nof the instrument should, be insisted on.\nAnother piece of apparatus, the value of which as an adjunct in biological instruction is, just coming prominently to the fore, is the stereopticon. They are now offered in such a variety of patterns, and the light\nhas been made so cheap and is so easily handled, that the excuse of\ninability to run an instrument can no longer hold. Lantern slides can\nreadily be made by any amateur photographer, and it is undoubtedly the\nbetter plan for the teacher to perfect himself in this line of work than to\nbuy his slides ready-made. His talks in the latter case must be made to\nfit the slides, whereas his slides should illustrate his talk.\nThe reference library, from which the pupil is to get such information as cannot be obtained from his own investigations, demands careful\nattention on the part of the teacher. If there are any suitable books\navailable, they should be so placed as always to be at hand. They should\nbe the best obtainable, thoroly trustworthy and strictly scientific, without being too technical for the average high-school girl or boy. Above\nall, let the working library be free from the popular scientific literature with which the book market is now flooded. It will not do to\nteach the science of biology with a poem or delightful novel as a textbook, nor shall we be doing our duty to our students if in our work we\nadhere to a classification of animals or plants which had its origin in the\n\n"}
{"page": 973, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTEACHING\n\nOF BIOLOGY\n\nIN THE\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n963\n\nbrain of one of the fathers of the science.\nIf biology is worth teaching\nat all, it is worth teaching right.\nHow and what to teach in the biological course in the high school are\nquestions which have been so frequently discussed, and concerning which\nso many views are held by teachers of long experience, that no effort will\nbe made here to settle them.\nThe relative values of morphology, systematic biology, physiology,\nand all the other branches into which the science has come to be divided,\ncannot be fixed ; they are subject to great variation from a multitude of\nconditions over which the teacher has no control. Much depends upon\nthe training and the ability of the teacher, a great deal upon the age and\nnature of the pupils, and often no little modification of ideas is necessary\nto make the plan of work conform to the equipment and the policy of the\nschool. Certain it is, if we are striving to give to our pupils a broad, general idea of the various forms in which life may be manifested and the\nmethods by which these have come to be what they are, no one kind of\nwork will bring success. The student must feel that morphology, physiology, embryology, and all the others are, as it were, but avenues in a\nlabyrinth, all of which must be traversed before we can come to the other\nend and say with certainty that we know what a given organism is and\nhow it has come to be what it is.\nIn any course in biology the field excursion must form a feature\nsecond in importance only to the work in the laboratory. Upon its\nsuccess depends very largely our success in sending our pupils into the\nworld with the knowledge that an endless amount of enjoyment and\nprofit lies waiting in every part of nature's ground. The teacher who\ncan go into the fields or woods with his classes ftnd make them see the\nbeauties that lie there and bring them back full of enthusiasm will get\nfar more work from his pupils in the laboratory than the one who spends\nhours in lecturing or forcing his classes to grind thru some uninteresting\ntext-book. The text-book or lectures or laboratory becomes really interesting only after the organisms have been observed living and moving about.\nThen for the first time the relation of living things to one another begins\nto be understood.\nFrom the foregoing it can be plainly seen that, in the opinion of the\nwriter, a person who is to be a successful teacher of biology must have\nhad, in addition to the usual education, special training in the chosen\nsubject — must be an active worker and an enthusiast.\nSpecial training in the teacher will result in benefit to the school ; not\nonly that money will be saved by the man who knows what he wants and\nhow to use apparatus after he gets it, but the intellectual product of the\nschool will be far better. Happily the day is almost past when the idea\nwas held that any man who collected specimens was good enough to teach\n\n"}
{"page": 974, "printed_page": null, "text": "964\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nbiology. Modern methods and modern men are needed in biology, if they\nare needed anywhere.\nTo be an active and enthusiastic worker in some branch of biology\nis the only means of keeping in touch with the science, so rapid is the\nprogress now being made by the army of its followers. The teacher of\nbiology whose favorite work lies in some other line, who regards his work\nonly as a means of making a livelihood, and who would get out of it if he\ncould do anything else, will surely fall behind and in the end fail.\nEnthusiasm in the pupils can be obtained only by a teacher who is\nhimself an enthusiast and who can see in nature all that he tries to impart\nto his classes.\nOur teachers should not be \"cranks\" who will insist that in biology\nis to be found all that goes to make an education. They must be, however, men and women of broad and liberal views, who are teaching biology\nbecause they can see it is sure to benefit the pupil ; who feel that biology\nmust form an important part of every course of study, the aim of which\nis to bring the pupil into the line of modern thought and modern progress, and, feeling so, be willing to fight for its recognition and fair treatment.\n\nMEMORANDUM\n\nCONCERNING\nOF\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nSIXTY\n\nAs a report of progress from the combined committee, or Committee\nof Sixty, the chairman. Professor E. H. Hall, of Harvard University, read\ncertain propositions which had been made by Professor Alexander Smith,\nof the University of Chicago, and which had been discussed by correspondence and otherwise among the chairmen of the five subcommittees.\nNo formal conclusion had been reached concerning any of these propositions, which are substantially as follows :\n1. In the secondary schools the courses in each science should not be\nless than one year in length, and should be of the same weight as courses\n(of the same length) in other subjects. In view of the fact that home\npreparation is not required for laboratory work, double periods of time\nshould be assigned to the latter. Thus, where ordinary courses require\nfour periods a week, in science there should be two periods of recitation\nor demonstration in the class-room, and four periods in the laboratory.\n2. Colleges and universities should recognize the expansion and development which the teaching of sciences in secondary schools is undergoing,\nby placing them among their entrance requirements, and should combine\nto arrange uniform requirements in all the sciences.\n\n"}
{"page": 975, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nCHEMISTRY\n\n. 9^5\n\n3. The secondary-school course in each science should be designed in\nthe interest of the school pupil, without reference to whether the pupil\nwill enter college afterward or not. College entrance being only one of\nthe objects, and in many schools a minor object from the point of view\nof pupils, the college should not, and indeed cannot, demand anything\nwhich is not equally suitable for all the pupils in a public high school.\nIt follows, therefore, that the college must fit itself to the high school.\nEach department in the college should adapt its courses so as to offer a\nsuitable continuation of the preparatory course for the benefit of those\nstudents who enter with credit in the subject. This should be irrespective\nof any beginning course which it may find itself compelled to offer.\n4. The most general principles, from the school-teacher's point of\nview, which should control the high-school course in any science are\nthese :\n{a) That work in formal chemical analysis, the minute anatomy of\nplants or animals, or speciaFized work of any kind, is premature and out\nof place in a high-school course of one year in length.\n{p) That the high-school work should confine itself to the elements of\nthe subject, with careful selection of facts — full illustration of principles,\nand methods of thought and work being given.\nAs a report of progress from the Subcommittee on Physics, the chairman. Professor Hall, gave an account of correspondence which had been\ncarried on between members of the committee.\nNo formal conclusions had been reached by this correspondence, and\nas a small minority only of this committee had come to Washington, it\nseemed inadvisable to make a formal report for this committee. The\nchairman was hopeful that further correspondence would bring valuable\nresults.\nFor the Subcommittee on Chemistry Professor C. S. Palmer, acting\nfor the chairman. Professor Alexander Smith, who was absent, made the\nfollowing report :\n\nREPORT\n\nBY\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nOF SUBCOMMITTEE ON OUTLINE\nELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY\nALEXANDER\n\nSMITH,\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF\n\nOF\n\nCHICAGO\n\nThe following general principles are submitted :\nI. Theoretical deductions are not justified, as a rule, by the experiments of students alone. But experiments illustrative of the chief principles should be included among those performed by the pupil, or at least\namong those shown by the teacher.\n\n"}
{"page": 976, "printed_page": null, "text": "966\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\n2. All chemical changes being concerned with the behavior of definite\nquantities of material, measurement of these quantities by the use of the\nbalance cannot be omitted without endangering the faith of the student\nin the exactness of the science.\n3. Equivalent and combining weights. The proportions and composition byweight of substances taking part in chemical change, being fundamental facts, must be included in the laboratory work of every course in\nchemistry, no matter how elementary. They are independent of any\ntheory (such as the atomic theory).\n4. Adequate experimental study in the laboratory of Avogadro's law\nand its consequences (leading to the absolute determination of atomic\nweights) introduces very close and difficult reasoning, and involves volumetric experiments with gases requiring, in some instances, expensive\napparatus (Hofmann experiments) and, in some cases, the expenditure\nof considerable time on the part of the pupil. It may be questioned\nwhether, with large classes and limited time, such work is possible or\nprofitable in the secondary schools as part of the laboratory work. In\ncases where the students cannot perform the experiments themselves this\ntopic would best be discussed and illustrated in the class-room only. In\nno case can the demonstrations be omitted.\n5. The use of formulae and equations, representing the proportions\nand composition by weight of the substances taking part in chemical\nchange, will greatly assist beginners in following chemical change. They\ncan do no possible harm, provided the laboratory work contains exercises\nspecifically intended to illustrate the way in which the facts recorded in\nthe equations are ascertained and the way in which the equations are constructed from these facts. Experiments to this end must be introduced\nearly, before any but the very simplest equations have been used, to forestall the misconception which will be apt to arise that equations are made\nby putting together the symbols of the elements according to some rule,\nand that this can be done in advance of experiment. Equations can be\nmade independent of any theory (such as the atomic theory).\n6. The course in a secondary school should embody information of a\nchemical nature about common substances. The proper representation\nof this aspect of the subject ought not to be sacrificed in order to introduce more theory. Indeed, the latter is not secure without abundant\nmaterial for illustration. The teacher should aim to discuss only such\nsubstances and reactions as are of fundamental importance, and he should\ncarefully avoid side issues.\n7. The classification of the elements into natural groups is as valuable\nfor an elementary course as the atomic theory. The study of twelve to\nfifteen elements would be the minimum basis on which any classification\nshould be presented. This leads, therefore, like 6, to the introduction\nof more facts than the bare presentation of the atomic theory would\n\n"}
{"page": 977, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nON BOTANY\n\nIN SECONDARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n967\n\nrequire. (The expression \"atomic theory\" in 7 includes Avogadro's law\nand its applications.) It must, however, be emphasized that a certain\namount'of experimental knowledge and knowledge of fact must precede\nthe atomic theory, and that both must precede the natural grouping of the\nelements.\nThe one (study of groups) cannot take the place of the other.\n\nREPORT\n\nOF THE SUBCOMMITTEE OJSl BOTANY\nSECONDARY SCHOOLS\n\nIN\n\nby professor john m. coulter, university of chicago\n[abstract]\n\nThe methods of botanical instruction in secondary schools are so various that a consensus of opinion is hardly possible. This naturally follows\nfrom the fact that the subject may be attacked in a variety of ways, and\neach method presents arguments that commend it to those who use it.\nStill the most widely prevalent method is that which was once universal, viz., examination of or recitation about the gross structures of\n\"flowering plants,\" culminating in the so-called \"analysis,\" and often\naccompanied by the preparation of a \" herbarium \" representing a stipulated number of species. When this phase of botany represented all that\nwas organized for elemetary instruction, it was natural that there should\nbe but one method. In the judgment of many teachers this still remains\nthe best method of introducing the subject, in spite of the fact that the\nscience of botany has been immensely enriched and enlarged. The gross\nstructures of flowering plants and the names of a few species seem to be\nso superficial and restricted, and even irrelevant, a presentation of botanical science that in certain schools the old method has been abandoned\nand a new one iritroduced.\nThe new method has to do with the use of the compound microscope\nand the examination of minute structures. It is either morphological or\nanatomical. Taking the morphological method as representative of the\ntype, the theory is that by the careful examination of a few forms representing all the great groups, from the lowest to the highest, a general\nconception of the structure of the plant kingdom may be developed.\nThe difficulty of selecting a few types that can fairly represent the plant\nkingdom soon becomes apparent ; and many of the first types selected,\nand almost riveted into our laboratory schemes by text-books and guides,\nhave proved to be highly specialized forms, representative only of themselves. The time-honored use of spirogyra as representing green algae\nand of marchantia as representing liverworts is a case in point. The\ntype plan has been modified by increasing the number of types and\n\n"}
{"page": 978, "printed_page": null, "text": "968\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\ndecreasing the amount of time given to each ; seeking to grasp only\nimportant and telling structures, and passing over the minor things once\nexamined merely for the sake of examination. This is certainly the best\nform of the morphological method, and commends itself at least as a\nsuitable elementary course for colleges. It does not follow, however,\nthat it is as appropriate for secondary schools. It is at this point that the\nconflict of judgment is most pronounced. To some a view of the plant\nkingdom seen only thru the compound microscope seems not only inadequate, but misleading. A compound microscope is a very deceptive\ninstrument, which needs a trained power of interpretation if it is to present the real facts of structure. It is a serious question whether its excessive use by students as young as those in secondary schools, and with the\nlimitations of time for laboratory work usual in such schools, iS' the best\nuse of time and money. Emphasis should be laid upon the word \"excessive,\" for no teacher will question the claim that certain structures must\nbe demonstrated by means of the compound microscope; but this does\nnot mean an instrument for each pupil. As a long-time exponent of\nthis morphological -type -microscope method I cannot be accused of\nprejudice if I confess that its results have not been satisfactory. It does\nnot effectively relate the student to plants as they occur in nature ; it is\ndecidedly narrow ; and there is no background of experience to make it\neffective.\nIt would seem that in the two methods of botanical instruction\ndescribed above, which, for convenience, may be referred to as the \" old\nmethod\" and the \"new method,\" we have two widely separated extremes.\nReaction against the old method naturally led to the other extreme. It\nhas seemed to some of us that it will be' wiser to eliminate the disadvantages of both and to combine their advantages in another method. It is\nbelieved that the first view of the plant kingdom should be the most general one, so that all subsequent narrowing of the view will have its appropriate background. It is further believed that ecology presents just such\na view, and that it furnishes the appropriate material for botanical instruction in secondary schools. The broadest fact is that plants form the\nnatural covering of the earth's surface. It is discovered that they are not\nscattered at random, but are organized into definite associations or \"societies,\" dependent upon certain external conditions. When some knowledge of these determining conditions has been developed, every landscape\nbecomes significant, and vegetation in the mass begins to mean something.\nIf the student carries away from a short course but one piece of botanical\nknowledge, it is this large preliminary view, which enables him to look\nupon the earth's surface with some intelligence. It is not the kind of\nknowledge that is acquired and then forgotten, for the subject-matter is\nconstantly thrust before his eyes.\n\n"}
{"page": 979, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department J\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nBOTANY\n\nIN SECONDARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n9^9\n\nIt is further discovered that each plant is an organism holding definite\nlife relations with its environment; and that this fact determines its\noccurrence at any given place: The important life relations are studied\neasily. For instance, the foliage leaf is essentially a light-related organ.\nThis is the greatest fact connected with it, which explains all that is essential in its structure and position. Instead of the dreary drudgery of\nnames usually associated with the foliage leaf in describing its forms, etc.,\nthere is the single problem of its light relation, without a knowledge of\nwhich form and structure and position have no significance. This method\nsimply means the substitution of the physiological standpoint for the\nmorphological or anatomical ; of the standpoint o»f function for that of\nstructure. It naturally restricts morphological and anatomical examination to those facts which are needed to explain the simplest life\nrelations.\nIn suggesting a general outline course, it must be understood that the\ngreatest flexibility as to time and material is possible. The course naturally falls into three sections :\nI.\n\nTHE\n\nLIFE\n\nRELATIONS\n\n1. Vegetative organs. — Under this head such differentiated organs as\nleaves, stems, and roots are studied as to their essential life relations,\nonly so much of structure being included as may serve to explain them.\n2. Reproductive organs. — Under these would be included not merely\nthe formation of spores and seeds, but all the phenomena connected with\ntheir dispersal and germination.\nII.\n\nPLANT\n\nGROUPS\n\nThis is not intended to be a full type study ; but simply such an introduction to plants as will enable the student to recognize the main groups\nin the field. He is to know what is meant by an alga, a fungus, a mushroom, aliverwort, etc. This may be done in a very few lessons, or it may\nbe extended indefinitely. It should be remembered, however, that the\nwork is not being done to teach morphology, but to enable the student\nto do some field work.\nIII.\n\nPLANT\n\nSOCIETIES\n\nWith some training in the important life relations, and in the recognition of prominent groups, the student is prepared for some intelligent\nfield work. The local plant societies are investigated ; and their nature\nand the conditions which determine them examined.\nSuch a course not merely brings real contact with plants as they exist\nin nature, but it certainly supplies that kind of background which every\nuniversity botanical instructor wishes for his entering students.\n\n"}
{"page": 980, "printed_page": null, "text": "970\n\nNATIONAL\n\nTHE\nBY PROFESSOR\n\nB. D.\n\nLEAF\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nA\n\nHALSTED,\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nLIGHT-RELATED\nRUTGERS\n\nCOLLEGE,\n\n[Science\n\nORGAN\nNEW\n\nBRUNSWICK,\n\nN.\n\nJ.\n\nUnder life relations it maybe an advantage to some that an instance\nbe stated, even tho it be in brief terms. Let us take the leaf, as it is the\nfirst of the three organs cited by Dr. Coulter under his group of vegetative organs. Let us keep up this threefold division a few steps farther.\nThe leaf is divided into three parts — the stalk, stipules, and blade.\nFurthermore, the blade is made up of the framework, the pulp, and the\nskin that envelops all and holds the parts together. Professor Coulter has\nstated that the leaf is a light-related organ., and it will be to the point to\npursue this relationship a little farther.\nIt is the pulp that interests us in considering the leaf as related to the\nlight, and this is the soft portion lying between the upper and lower skin\nand supported by the framework. It consists of minute cells somewhat\nloosely placed. It is now that the microscope lends valuable assistance,\nfor by it it is seen that the cells consist of three parts, the wall or sac, the\nliquid, and the green granular contents. It is these minute masses of\nprotoplasm colored green by chlorophyll that interest us in a study of\nthe light relation, for it is in these that the energy of motion is transferred into energy of position ; kinetic into potential energy.\nWithin these chlorophyll granules the energy of the vibrating rays\nof the sun splits up the molecules of water, coming from the soil thru the\nroots and stems, and those of the carbon dioxide from the atmosphere,\ndriving off a portion of the oxygen. Thus, if we should have six groups\nof the carbon dioxide molecules (6 COg) and five of water (5 HgO),\nthere might be a separation of twelve atoms of oxygen, and the union of\nthe remaining portion would give a molecule of starch (CgH^^Og).\nThis is food-making reduced to its simplest terms, and the chlorophyll\ngranules that float in the semi-liquid plasma are the centers of synthesis\nof organic compounds.\nEach starchgranule, whether of wheat, potato, sago, or rice, representsa\npotential energy that may remain unnoticed until the occasion for oxygen\nagain, to unite with the elements in the compound, when it ceases to exist\nas starch ; and with the liberation of sensible energy, carbon dioxide and\nwater result. In other words, the sun's foirce raises the inorganic compounds to a higher plane by deoxidation and union, and from that\nplane they may fall back, yielding in the descent an energy that physicians\ntell us is equal to that by which it was raised.\nIn considering the leaves in their relationship to the sun, and the\nwhole realm of life upon the earth, it is evident we are face to face with\n\n"}
{"page": 981, "printed_page": null, "text": "DepMtment]\n\nTHE\n\nLEAF\n\nA LIGHT-RELATED\n\nORGAN\n\n971\n\nthe most potent of vital activities and are getting at the heart of the\nforces that move the world. We might well approach with much solemnity the subject that lies before -us, for the green leaf, as it stands upon\nits supporting twig, is a minute laboratory in which a noiseless chemist\nis constructing compounds that possess a potency peculiarly their own.\nWith these facts in mind it must needs be a very heedless child who\nwill not be impressed with the worth of the wealth of greenness that is met\nwith in the living vegetable fabric that is woven with sunlight to clothe\nthe otherwise barren earth.\nFrom this central thought concerning light relations of plant foliage\nthere are a thousand starting-points for study, and time permits of but\nthe briefest mention of a few. Many plants have no green color, but\ndoubtless prosper. These are the parasites, plants that have long ago\nformed the habit of gaining their nourishment at second-hand and from\nthose who do their own work of synthesis. The golden-threaded dodder,\nthe sickly-hued mistletoe, are of this class. They form no exception, in\nthe true sense, for they steal instead of labor for their living. The mushroom, toadstools, molds, and mildews are other low forms of plants that\nlive upon organic matter similar to the more exalted flower-bearing\nparasites.\nThere are many plants that, while making their own food, are seemingly without green. This is only a seeming, for beneath all the bright\ncolor there is an abundance of the chlorophyll, which may be as readily\nextracted, for example, from the showy coleus leaf as from the green\ngrass.\nThere is a long list of questions that naturally arise in the thoughtful\nmind as to the behavior of plants in relation to the sunshine. To illustrate this we will go out into the woods and use our imagination in a piece\nof field work. It is possible that a little study like the following may be\nmade.\nLet me draw the outline of the problem that is to be investigated.\nImagine, if you will, that we are standing upon a slope of land facing the\nnorth, that the sun may not blind our eyes. To the right is a wood lot\nwith its oak, hickory, chestnut, birch, and other trees, standing neighborly\nwith arms interlocked, not too closely for comfort ; and thru the\nbranches the broken shafts of light reach the shrubby and herbaceous vegetation beneath. There are the alders and huckleberries ; and their close of\nkin, the Virginia creeper, runs upon the ground and over the smaller\ntrees in the vicinity of a sleepy rivulet bordered by skunk cabbage and\njack-in-the-pulpit. Where it is not quite so marshy the ground view of\nthe woods is delightfully obscured by a luxuriant growth of the cinnamon\nfern, for it is midsummer. To the left is a similar piece of wood lot, not\na primaeval forest in either instance, and here the wild grape clings to the\nyoung maple, and the poison sumach may be lurking in the lowland.\nIn\n\n"}
{"page": 982, "printed_page": null, "text": "972\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nfront of you, however, lies a strip twenty rods wide where the woodman's ax has done its destructive work, and the clumps of small growth\nwhich you see are the sprouts from the maple and other stumps. This is\nthe second season from the time of clearing.\nHave you the picture before you — a rectangle of vegetation stretching\ndown to the rivulet, that is lost under the direct rays of the summer sun,\nand then on up the slope beyond; all framed in by right lines of forest\ntrees and grateful shadows ? If you have located the clearing from my\nbrief outline, you are ready to enter in and possess it botanically.\nIf such a piece of land, even tho it be but a single acre, is close at\nhand, you have a treatise on vegetable ecology and physiology that contains no end of treasures. Not that it includes any long list of species,\nbut that it does possess the varying conditions which, taken in connection with the border land, are more interesting than books ; for it is the\nliving volume, the vitalized cyclopaedia of facts, and the suggestions of\nprinciples that make plant analysis seem tame and useless, save as it may\nhelp to catch the convenient handle to hold the subject that is undergoing some delightful transformation.\nLet that clearing be your field of study from time to time. When the\ndays are long and the heat is intense, make notes, and with specimens\nthere gathered retreat into the shade of the wood lot upon either side.\nCompare the parts of the sun-kissed, and it may be sunburned, herbs\nwith those of its shaded neighbor of the same species. Both were once\nalike, but the ax of the woodsman has let in the full sun upon the one,\nwith drying effect upon the soil surroundings. One bears, or attempts\nto bear, the burden and heat of the day, while the other is nursed in\nbroken sunshine and a moister soil.\nThe osmunda in the sun has its fronds strict and upright, the pinnae\nuplifted and twisted to lessen the direct exposure. In the shade its habit\nis that of some other species, with the fronds gracefully curved outward\nand the delicate pinnae so placed as to catch every broken shaft of the sunlight that penetrates the tree tops. The ferns in the open are bleached,\nwhile those in the shade are deep green ; the former are tough and the\nlatter delicate.\nEvery plant in the clearing that has survived the ordeal of the exposure is a study of adaptation, the reason for the change in some instances\nnot being upon the surface; but this only adds to the interest that is centered in the clearing and its surroundings.\nThis is the new botany. It is not yet in the books, and in one sense\nnever can be. It inheres in the plants themselves, and any attempt to\nlodge it elsewhere must needs be futile. I trust each teacher of the science\nof botany may find a field for study in the sense of the clearing briefly\noutlined.\nIt may be more convenient for some student and teacher — and one\n\n"}
{"page": 983, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPRELIMINARY\n\nREPORT\n\nON PHYSICAL\n•\n\nGEOGRAPHY\n\n973—\n\nneeds to be both to be the latter — to have a garden patch where plants may\nbe asked various questions. If it is in the line above indicated, a shading\ntotal or partial may be easily arranged. For example, a half shade may\nbe provided by placing frames of lath upon stakes. The frames may be\nmade for a few cents, by nailing ordinary carpenter's laths to cross laths\nat the ends, with a single lath interwoven thru the middle. If half\nshading is desired, let the vacant spaces between the laths be equal to the\nwidth of the laths. Under such a shading ordinary plants like bush beans,\nlettuce, etc., may be grown, and the variations in time of germination, size\nof plant, of leaf and its position, time of blooming, size of fruit, longevity,\netc., can all be studied with no imall amount of interest and profit at a\nminimum of expense.\nShould you like to make a record of the difference in thickness, for\nexample, between the exposed and shaded leaves, it can be done by actual\nmeasurement, but there is another way not mentioned in the books. Place\ntwo bean leaflets, one from the open and one from the shade, upon a slip\nof clean glass in a photographer's printing frame, and over the two specimens place a sheet of sensitized paper and expose them to the sun.\nWhen the work is done you will have a print of each leaflet, but the thinner\none from the shade will have recorded the fact in the darker print. In\nshort, the sun will have made its own registration of its own penetrability.\nNothing that has been named in the way of apparatus is expensive, in\nthe ordinary sense. Anyone who can afford to have a bicycle and keep\nit in repair is able to follow up the suggestions. That a child of nine\nyears can be interested in this study of plants is certain, for it has been\ntested by the writer to his entire satisfaction.\n\nPRELIMINARY\n\nBY\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nREPORT OF THE SUBCOMMITTEE\nPHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY\nALBETT\n\nPERRY\n\nBRIGHAM,\n\nCOLGATE\n\nON\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nThe committee appointed to consider the course in physical geography in secondary schools would respectfully report as follows: The\ndecision of the department at the Milwaukee meeting, to double the\nmembership of the several natural-science committees, occasioned serious\ndelay in the work. Diligent efforts were made to secure the additional\nappointments for geography. It was found in March last that three\nvacancies still remained, but in order to prepare a report in time for the\nmeeting at Washington, with the approval of Professor C. S. Palmer, the\ngeneral secretary of the committee, work was undertaken, the committee\nbeing constituted as follows :\n\n"}
{"page": 984, "printed_page": null, "text": "974\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nNEW\n\nENGLAND\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nWilliam North Rice, professor of geology, Wesleyan University.\nW. H. Snyder, master in science, Worcester Academy.\nMIDDLE\n\nSTATES\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nAlbert Perry Brigham, professor of geology, Colgate University.\nJ. M. Jameson, professor in Pratt Institute.\nNORTH\n\nCENTRAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nG. L. Collie, professor of geology, Beloit College.\nSOUTHERN\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nCollier Cobb, professor of geology. University of North Carolina.\nAMERICAN\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nADVANCEMENT\n\nOF\n\nSCIENCE\n\nRalph S. Tarr, professor of dynamical geology and physical geography, Cornell\nUniversity.\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF\n\nNATURAL\n\nSCIENCE,\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nW. M. Davis, professor of physical geography. Harvard University.\nR. H. Cornish, assistant in physics. Girls' High School, New York.\n\nThe chairman prepared a preliminary list of questions for criticism by\nthe several members of the committee. The following circular of inquiry\nwas then issued as a basis of work for members of the committee and\nothers :\n1. Should a high school offer the following subjects under the general head of geography : mathematical geography, meteorology, oceanography, physiography of the\nland, distribution of organisms, economic geography, geology ? If geology is included,\nwhat parts of the subject should be taught ? What topics should economic geography\nembrace ?\n2. In what year or years of the high-school course should physical geography have\nplace ? What studies should precede or follow ?\n3. What preparation in geography is to be expected from the elementary schools ?\n4. Outline of work for one- and two-year courses, including order and time allotment\nfor subjects named in i, and number of periods per week.\n5. Place of geography in college-entrance requirements. Should geography be\nelective or required in so-called English courses ? In classical courses ? To what extent\nmay geography be presented as a substitute for other subjects, particularly for other\nsciences ?\n6. Text-books.\n7. Laboratory work ; how related to lectures and recitations ; outline of laboratory\ncourses ; use of notebooks ; amount and character of field work to be done ; modifications in field work, or substitutions for it, in city schools.\n8. Standard equipment of maps, models, photographs, lantern slides, specimens, and\napparatus for class-room and laboratory.\n9. List of books in geography recommended for school or teacher's library.\n10. Any other phase of the subject deemed important.\n\nThe several individual discussions thus prepared were embodied in this\nreport, which was amended and approved at a meeting of the committee\nheld in Springfield, Mass., July 1-2, 1898. Only those who were able\nto be present at this meeting have signed the report.\nThe gentlemen\n\n"}
{"page": 985, "printed_page": null, "text": "i)<,.artment]\n\nPRELIMINARY\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nGEOGRAPHY\n\n975\n\nwho were not present cannot be held responsible for the views here\nexpressed, but they have all made valuable contributions to the paper,\nand are believed to be in accord with most of its positions. In the case\nof the signers of this report, it is not to be understood that every one\napproves of every proposition announced as the opinion of the majority\nof the committee, tho all do find themselves in cordial harmony with the\nviews of the report as a whole.\nI. The committee finds itself in agreement as to the scope of\nphysical geography and as to the topics which should constitute parts of\na high-school course in this subject. The meaning and general scope of\nphysical geography have never been better expressed than in the words,\n\"the physical environment of man,\" used by the conference on geography in its report to the Committee of Ten. On the whole, the term\n\"physical geography\" is to be preferred to physiography, as having in\ncommon usage a more precise definition. Physiography in the English\nsense of a general introduction to all sciences is too broad ; and in the\nsense in which it is now employed by some American students it is not\nbroad enough. The ideal high-school course in physical geography will\nbe neither too general and fragmentary, nor too special and difficult. The\nsubject should be carefully held to the leading idea of the physical\nenvironment of man, and it should be the aim to exclude a number of\nsubjects frequently treated under physical geography, but more appropriately included under other heads; for example, purely astronomical\nmatter, certain principles of physics, the classification of animals and\nplants, and tables of the geological periods. Important and interesting as\nthese subjects are in their proper connection, it is believed that a better\nmental discipline will be obtained from physical geography when all its\nparts are closely joined to its leading theme. It may thus provide an\nintellectual training comparable in value to that secured from physics,\nmathematics, or language, in which continuity of theme is so well maintained.\nIt is agreed that the earth as a globe, the atmosphere, the ocean, and\nthe lands should be the principal themes of the course. Here one may,\nif preferred, use the more formal terms, mathematical geography, meteorology, oceanography, and geomorphology. A serious objection to these\nterms is that they do not sufficiently take human relations into account.\nIf, however, they are employed,. it is to be understood that the character\nof high-school work, as well as the limited time at disposal, forbid the\ngiving of extended courses in these subjects. They must all, and especially the three former, be given in an elementary way, and all must be\ntaught with the motive, and from the special point of view, of physical\ngeography as defined above.\nThe distribution of organisms should not be taught with reference to\nzoological and botanical classification, but in exposition of the organic\n\n"}
{"page": 986, "printed_page": null, "text": "976\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nenvironment of man, and as itself controlled by physiographic and other\ninfluences. Pupils should be taught the tendency of species to diffuse\nthemselves and the limitation of the tendency of climatic, oceanic, and\ntopographic barriers. It will, for example, be easy to teach the influence\nof temperature in the establishment of zones of animal and vegetable\nlife. The difference in the effects of deep and shallow seas as barriers to\ndistribution should be illustrated by reference to Wallace's line, and to\nthe faunas and floras of continental and oceanic islands. The depth and\ntejcture of soils, and the quantity and distribution of ground water,\nshould be related to their control over the distribution of plants and\npopulation. The whole subject may be treated by incidental references\nin the chapters on the atmosphere, the ocean, and the lands, or may\nform the theme of a supplementary chapter, or the two methods may be\ncombined.\nThruout the course in physical geography every opportunity should\nbe taken to illustrate the relation of economic products to physiographic\ncontrol, on the one hand, and to the distribution and condition of mankind, on the other. If time allows, a summary of the subject might be\nadded as a closing chapter.\nIn the next section of this report reference will be made to more\nadvanced elective courses of a geographic nature which may have place\nin the high-school curriculum.\n2. The committee recommends that the course in physical geography\nbe generally placed in the first or second year. If the elements of\nphysical geography have been used as a basis for work in geography in\nthe elementary schools, then physical geography in the high schools\nmight perhaps be a relatively advanced course in the fourth year, using\nthe materials afforded by the study of physics, chemistry, and biology in\nthe previous years. It is, however, the opinion of the majority of the\ncommittee that under any conditions the study of physical geography\nshould come early in the high-school curriculum. Certainly this is the\ncase as matters now stand. It would be unwise to allow pupils to reach\nthe age of eighteen years, or thereabout, without attaining the broad\nway of looking at the earth that physical geography, of all subjects, gives.\nAdditional reasons for introducing the subject at an early stage are\nfound in the fact that only a small part of the pupils who enter the high\nschool complete the curriculum, and in the further consideration that the\nsubject can, without deranging the general order of studies, in some cases\nbe taken by those who are preparing for classical courses in college. The\ncommittee deems it entirely practicable to teach good courses in elementary physical geography without previous courses in other sciences.\nThe qualified teacher will readily supply any needed chemical or physical\nprinciples. In some cases rudimentary instruction in physics and chemistry has been given in grammar-school courses.\n\n"}
{"page": 987, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPRELIMINARY\n\nREPORT\n\nON PHYSICAL\n\nGEOGRAPHY\n\n977\n\nAdvanced elective subjects of a geographic nature may be offered late\nin the curriculum. Among these is geology. It is agreed that the larger\nshare of time should be given to dynamical and structural phases of the\nsubject. Only the simplest facts about minerals and rocks can be given,\nand such difficult dynamical subjects as metamorphism and vulcanism\ncan be treated only in a general way. It will be possible for a competent teacher to give effectively the elements of historical geology, especially if good museums or localities for fossils be at hand. Detailed\ninstruction in historical geology is too difficult for high-school pupils,\nand should not be attempted.\nThe course in geology should, if practicable, follow those in physics\nand chemistry, probably in the last year of the curriculum. In dynamical and structural geology the subjects treated will necessarily be to\nsome extent the same as those in the earlier work in physiography. But\nthe treatment of these topics in the course in geology will be in less\ndegree simply descriptive. P'or instance, in the earlier course some general ideas of the work of running water and the development of topographic forms can be given. In the later course the work of running\nwater should be explained in relation to the laws of energy, the stream\nbeing considered as a falling body. In the course in physiography the\ngeneral action of the atmosphere in the decay of rocks can be presented,\nbut in the later course in geology the nature of the chemical changes\ninvolved in weathering should be illustrated. In general, dynamical\ngeology should be regarded as the chemistry and physics of the globe,\nand the conduct of this course must, therefore, presuppose a knowledge\nof chemistry and physics on the part of the student. If the pupil haS\nstudied zoology or botany, or both, during the earlier years of the curriculum, itwill be possible to make an outline of historical geology more\nintelligible than it could otherwise be.\nThe committee approves of the suggestion that an advanced elective\ncourse in meteorology may be introduced, if the number and qualifications of the teachers render it practicable. Such a course would probably come in the last year, accompanying or following a course of physics.\nSuch a course would sustain to the meteorological chapters in physical\ngeography a relation similar to that which the course in geology bears to\nthat section of physical geography which concerns geological processes.\nIf a course in astronomy is offered in the later high-school years, it\nwould follow as a natural expansion of the chapter on the earth, as a\nglobe. If a later course in physical geography should be introduced, it\nmight be either an expansion of the first course, with more advanced\ntreatment, or a course in the physical features of some land area, preferably the United States.\nAltho it has seemed worth while to give brief indication of the nature\nof the four advanced courses above outlined, it is not desired to imply\n\n"}
{"page": 988, "printed_page": null, "text": "978\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTIONAL\n\nASSOC FA TION\n\n[Science\n\nthat high schools should at present offer all, or, indeed, any of them.\nThe chief interest of the committee is in the establishment of a well-considered elementary course.\n3. It may be reasonably expected that in the teaching'of geography\nin the elementary schools a good beginning will have been made in\nacquainting the pupil with the conceptions of physical geography. Geographical teaching has greatly improved in the last two decades, and much\nis to be expected in the near future from the current agitation in this\nfield. Frye's Complete Geography, zxi^ \\\\it. Natural Advanced Geography h-^\nRedway and Hinman, illustrate the kind of knowledge which may be\nexpected to be acquired in the grammar schools. Teaching that deals\nwith mere matters of location may, with advantage, be replaced by the\nintroduction of the causal notion.\n4. The committee desires to emphasize at the outset that no one curriculum can be the best for all high schools. No outline of work can be\nmade to fit all conditions. It is of doubtful utility to give to teachers at\nlarge anything more than a very general outline, which may offer suggestion and prove a help and incentive to better things. Not less than four\nperiods per week for one year should be assigned to the proposed elementary course in physical geography. Five periods would be better.\nPeriods of less than forty-five minutes each would be inadequate, and in\nany case two periods per week should be scheduled together, to be used,\nif desired, for field or laboratory exercises.\nOf the leading subjects, the earth as a globe, the ocean, the air, and\nthe land, the first should occupy the least time, and the others should\nhave an increasingly larger allowance, in the order given. Adequate\ntreatment of the features of the land will require as much time as the\nother three subjects combined, and it may be more. If the distribution\nof organisms and economic geography are treated as separate subtopics,\nthe time allotted to them must necessarily be short. As regards the whole\nquestion of proportion, it must again be said that much depends on the\nteacher and the environment. A teacher in a school situated near the\nocean might give much attention to the features of the shore line, while\none in the interior might give a larger share of attention to plains or\nmountains.\nIt is not deemed necessary to present in this report detailed outlines\nof teaching material. Recourse should be had to text-books, school journals, and especially to the report of the conference on geography to the\nCommittee of Ten.\nNor is it thought best to give estimates of time for the advanced elective courses which have been suggested, believing that time allotment must\nvary with the views of teachers and the conditions of schools. If the\nassociation desires the committee to go farther into the question of outlines, itwill be glad to receive instructions on that point.\n\n"}
{"page": 989, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPRELIMINARY\n\nREPORT\n\nON PHYSICAL\n\nGEOGRAPHY\n\n979\n\n5. Recalling the fact that the Committee of Ten places physical geography as a requirement in the first year of all high-school courses, your\ncommittee desires to express its agreement with this indication of the\nimportance of the subject, in the hope that it may be made accessible to\nall. The committee would, however, hesitate to propose the prescription\nof the study for all, but does strongly urge that physical geography be\nrequired in all English high-school courses. It also believes that it\nshould be elective in classical courses, either on the same footing with all\nthe other sciences, or in a position secondary to physics, as indicated\nbelow.\nThe attention of educators has been of late repeatedly called to the\ntruth that a four-years' course consisting almost exclusively of classics and\nmathematics, with scant recognition of English literature, practically no\nmodern history, and no physical or natural science, is a course so disproportionate and unsymmetrical as to be a monstrosity. The relation of the\ndifferent educational institutions to each other ought to be such that a\ncourse preparatory to college will also be a course well adapted to fit the\nstudent for the later work of life and for social and civil duties, in case\nhe should fail to take a college course. It cannot be claimed that\nthe present classical course in high schools, constructed with reference to the classical course in colleges, makes any approximation to\nthis result. The student who has completed a high-school course in\npreparation for the classical course in college has gained, not a tolerably\ncomplete and symmetrical education as far as it goes, but a wretched torso\nof an education. Nor is the exclusion of science injurious only to those\nwhose studies are interrupted at the end of the high school course. For\nthose who enter college the ignoring of the study of nature in preceding years tends to unfit for success in such studies. Their powers of\nobservation and imagination of physical phenomena are well-nigh atrophied by disuse, and they have lost their native curiosity about the world\nin which they live. It would tend to correct this evil if a certain amount\nof science were required for admission to the classical course. Physical\ngeography would be one of the most suitable subjects to be thus required,\nbut in the present unsettled and transitional condition of our educational\nsystem it would probably be better for the colleges to allow an option\namong several scientific subjects.\nTaking the point of view of the college, the sentiment of the committee is that physical geography should not be required for entrance to any\nof its courses, but that the college should accept it as part of the preparation for any course, when pursued for not less than one year, provided\nthe teaching has attained a proper standard of excellence. In its relation\nto physics, chemistry, zoology, botany, and physiology, several members of\nthe committee believe that geography should stand on perfectly equal\nfooting, as an alternative requirement, but some would assign to physics\n\n"}
{"page": 990, "printed_page": null, "text": "980\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\ndistinctly the first place. Those who take this view, however, would insist\nthat geography be accepted as an alternative for any other scientific subject. The college should not fail to set serious tests in geography, where\ngiven at all.\n6. The number of text-books which represent the best current standards of high-school geography is not large. Several now before the public\nare fairly well adapted for class use. Their titles will be found in the\nannotated list to which reference is made later in this report. In the use of\nthese books, as well as in the preparation of new ones, it is hoped that the\ndefinition of the subject, as already given, will be carefully regarded.\nThe earth in relation to man should receive sustained emphasis, and\nirrelevant scientific matter should be reduced to a minimum. A number\nof good text-books are available in the subjects suggested for advanced\nelective courses.\n7. Field and laboratory work should receive emphasis in every highschool course in geography. So far as practicable, the lectures, discussions, and recitations should be related to such work. Notebooks\nshould be carefully kept, but their importance should not be emphasized in an artificial way. It is possible for a pupil to make a handsome notebook, while entering little into the spirit of the subject.\nField work during the open season should take the place of at least\nhalf of the laboratory work, if conditions allow. It must not be forgotten\nthat the field is, from one point of view, an out-of-door laboratory. The\nteacher must plan the work according to circumstances, but it should\ncertainly include practice in the making of sketch maps, study of the\ndevelopment of land forms, and observation of the distribution of plants\non a small and varied area. In most cities, except the largest, field study\ncan be accomplished without serious difficulty, by short excursions into\nthe country. Such work is strongly recommended. The interest attaching to such trips will frequently enable the teacher to place them in afternoons and holidays. Field work has been undertaken with favorable\nresults in Buffalo, Chicago, and elsewhere. The report of the Chicago\ncommittee for preparing a syllabus in physical geography includes a\nvaluable list of such possible trips, for the use of the teachers of the city.\nEleven excursions are scheduled, giving route, cost of round trip, and\nnaming the phenomena to be seen and studied. The latter include stone\nquarries, streams, bowlders, and glacial topography, sand dunes, lake\nshores, and a large museum. Preparation of similar guides for other\ncities would greatly advance this kind of geographic study. Chicago is\nnot an exception. An equally important group of facts is assembled in\nthe vicinity of nearly all cities.\nLaboratory work in geography is comparatively new to the schools at\nlarge, and hence suitable manuals or outlines are few; but sufficient\nbodies of suggestion are at hand for good beginnings.\nOne member of\n\n"}
{"page": 991, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPRELIMINARY\n\nREPORT\n\nON PHYSICAL\n\nGEOGRAPHY\n\n98 1\n\nthe committee has contributed the following, which is here included, not\nas a specific guide, but by way of informal suggestion. Figures in parentheses indicate the number of hours for each exercise :\nCause of day and night and extent of sunlight over surface,\n(i)\nDetermination of latitude, north and south line, and high noon,\n(l)\nDetermination of difference of longitude by sending watch,\n(i)\nFinding variation of local and standard time,\n--..-.(i)\nMaking maps on different projections,\n-- (4)\nStudy of ocean-current maps,\n..(l)\nStudy of tide charts,\n(l)\nStudy of map of the world showing heights of land and depths of sea,\n(2)\nDifference in temperature between the top and bottom of a hill,\n- (l)\nFinding height of hill or building by barometer, (i)\nDetermination of dew point,\n-(l)\nMaking isotherm and isobar maps from furnished data,\n(4)\nStudy and. reproduction of weather map, ........\n(j)\nPredictions from weather maps (written with reasons),\n.\n.\n.\n.\n(2)\nObservations of rainfall, temperature, velocity of the winds, etc.,\n- —\nDetermination of the amount of snowfall and the amount of water produced by an\ninch of snow,\n(l)\nObservations of ground temperatures, depth of frost, etc.,\n- —\nMaking contour and hachure maps from small models,\n(2)\nDrawing cross sections from contour maps,\n(4)\nWritten descriptions of models,\n(4)\nPicture reading (written description),\n--.......\n(4)\nMap reading (written description),\n(4)\nReproduction of contour map in hachures,\n(i)\nMaking map of small area in neighborhood,\n.-.--..\n(i)\nTrip or journey planning with study of country to be seen,\n.\n.\n. (4)\nDetermination of the amount of sediment carried by a stream,\n(i)\nStudy of rocks and minerals, ----.------.\n(10)\nStudy of erosion by sprinkling pot,\n--...-.-(2)\nIn fall, four excursions, one a week,\n-- (8)\nFour excursions in spring,\n(8)\n\nFor another laboratory outline which has been tested by actual\nexperience, see \" Laboratory Work in Elementary Physical Geography,\"\nby R. H. Qoxvi\\^y Journal of School Geography, June and September,\n1897.\n8. There cannot be a uniform or standard equipment of apparatus for\ngeographical teaching. It is sought here only to give such suggestions\nas may enable teachers and schools to acquire, without serious mistake or\ndelay, materials for effective work. Maps and photographs will naturally\npredominate, and slides and projecting apparatus should be added if\npossible^ with the more common meteorological instruments. Care\nshould be taken to secure illustrations well related to the systematic progress of the work. For example, under land forms the illustrations\nintroduced should be chiefly directed to explaining their causes and consequences, rather than to the production of striking pictorial effects. A\n\n"}
{"page": 992, "printed_page": null, "text": "982\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nset of about one hundred classified lantern slides selected by W. M.\nDavis, chiefly from the Gardner collection of geological and geographical\nphotographs of Harvard University, can be purchased from E. E. Howell,\nWashington, D. C. Some of the more important materials, such as the\ntopographic maps of the United States Geological Survey, cost but little,\nand much material may be had free of cost from official surveys, or as\ngifts from individuals interested in the school. Some account of these\nand other official maps may be found in Governmental Maps for Use in\nSchools, published by Henry Holt & Co., New York.' Models serve a\nuseful purpose if their vertical scale is not too much exaggerated. Among\nthose that may be mentioned are a number made by E. E. Howell,\nWashington, D. C, and the Harvard geographical models published by\nGinn & Co., of Boston.\nSuggestions concerning the use of these topographical maps in\nschools have recently been published by the departments of public\ninstruction of Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, and New York.\nSimilar publications would be useful in other states. An important publication ofthe United States Geological Survey has lately been begun in\nthe topographic atlas of the United States, of which the first folio,\nentitled Physiographic Types, by Henry Gannett (price, 25 cents), will be\nfound of much material service. Other folios of this series are promised\nfor the future.\nIt is believed that school boards will in the end furnish appropriations for geography as freely as for physics or chemistry, if the needs of\ngeography are duly appreciated by superintendents, principals, and science\nteachers'. Abundant allowance of time should be given to secondary\nteachers of geography, to perfect their equipment and to work out the\nnew problems with which they have to deal.\nBy way of further suggestion, the teacher is referred to an article on\nthe \" Equipment of a Geological Laboratory,\" by W. M. Davis, in the\nJournal of School Geography for May, 1898. The following list also\nindicates an equipment found practically useful by one member of the\ncommittee :\nA good globe ; small globes (25 cents), one for each two pupils ; plumb bobs ;\nvertical standards for the determination of latitude ; Kiepert's \" Physikalische Wandkarten \" (Europe, Asia, North America, South America); \" Weltkart zur Ubersicht der\nMeerestiefen und Hohenschichten ; \" small compasses ; bright thin metal dishes for the\ndetermination of dew point; blank weather maps; co-ordinate paper; thermometer;\nbarometer ; rain gauge ; tide charts ; ocean-current maps (copies from Challenger\nExpedition); small wooden balls ; small outline maps ; sprinkling pots and boxes ; a few\ntypical charts ; geological maps ; United States contour maps, sufficient duplicates of\nI Since the publication of this book the free distribution of the pilot charts of the North Atlantic, issued\nby the United States Hydrographic Office, and of the topographical maps published by the United States\nGeological Survey, has been suspended. The charts and maps are now sold at a very low price by the\nrespective bureaus of publication. The method of purchasing the maps issued by the Geological Survey is\nexplained in the Journal of School Geography for September, 1897.\n\n"}
{"page": 993, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPRELIMINARY\n\nREPORT\n\nON PHYSICAL\n\nGEOGRAPHY\n\n983\n\nsome sheets to give one to each pupil ; Davis and Curtis models ; fragments of models for\ncontour drawing ; maps of different projections ; a few English hachure maps ; photographs and pictures ; stereopticon and views ; several atlases ; collection of rock and\nmineral specimens, enough for each pupil if possible.\n\nFor illustration of the structures and processes concerned in the\ndevelopment of land forms there should be specimens of the common\nrock-forming minerals, and of such rocks and structures as are important\nin determining topographic forms, or have economic value. Thus there\nshould be sandstones, conglomerates, shales and limestones, lavas, specimens showing faults on a small scale, slickensides, crumpled laminations,\nripple marks, raindrop impressions and sun cracks, glacial bowlders and\nglaciated surfaces, stalactites and stalagmites. If an advanced course in\ngeology is given, the amount of such material as has been indicated above\nshould be considerably increased, and some fossils should be added. In\nall cases care should be taken to avoid such jumbles of miscellaneous\nminerals and fossils as often make up collections so-called.\n9. An annotated list of text and reference books has been prepared\nby Miss Mary I. Piatt, recently of Radcliffe College, now teacher of geography, High School, Holyoke, Mass. The list, including fifty titles, has\nbeen examined and criticised by W. M. Davis and R. E. Dodge, and is\npublished in the Journal of School Geography iox May, 1898. This list\nis by no means intended to be exhaustive of useful books, but outlines a\nuseful beginning of a school library which might to advantage be greatly\nincreased. It is further suggested that \\.\\i& Journal of School Geography\nis the most important help with which teachers of the subject in the grades\nand high schools can provide themselves.\nPREPARATION\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHER\n\n10. It is not to be expected that notable success, in this or any other\nsubject, will be attained if attention is so far turned to the outline of the\ncourse br.the equipment of the schoolroom that the preparation of the\nteacher is forgotten. The committee, therefore, wishes to emphasize three\npoints that are of prime importance in this connection. The training of\nthe teacher should have reached a distinctly higher grade in physical\ngeography than that of the course to be given. It should include laboratory courses in physics, chemistry, botany, zoology, and geology, and it\nshould have developed ability to take advantage of the local phenomena\nin the neighborhood of the school in the conduct of field work. These\nconsiderations should weigh in the selection of new teachers. Teachers\nalready employed and of good experience in their work should be urged\nto supplement their preparation, if deficient in any of the lines above indicated, byattending serious courses in teachers' classes and summer schools,\nas far as practicable with due regard to rest and health.\nA primary object of this report has been to attempt a rational definition\n\n"}
{"page": 994, "printed_page": null, "text": "984\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nof physical geography and to offer to teachers and school authorities\na line of suggestion in organizing geographic instruction, especially\nto secure a sound elementary course in the early years of the high\nschool. Minute and specific directions are undesirable, because a great\nvariety of conditions must be met and the new must be built upon the\nold. A further object here sought is to set forth practicable views of\nthe co-ordination of geography with the other sciences in the high-school\ncurriculum, and of geography as a factor in satisfying college-admission\nrequirements. The results, of course, are tentative. It is not thought that\nthis committee and the other committees with which it is associated can\nformulate a rigid or final plan for all schools, but an approximation toward\nunity can be made, with advance upon the chaotic conditions of secondaryscience instruction in the past.\nThe committee would be glad to be continued for another year, in\norder that, profiting by the discussions of its conference already held,\nand by such criticisms as the publication of the present report may evoke,\nit may embody the' results of further consideration in a subsequent\nreport.\nAlbert Perry Brigham, Chairman.\nCollier Cobb.\nW. M. Davis.\nWilliam North Rice,\nW. H. Snyder.\n\n"}
{"page": 995, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION\n\nSECRETARY'S\nFIRST\n\nSESSION.^\n\nMINUTES\nFriday, July 8, 1898\n\nThe meeting was called to order at 3 p. M., at the Columbian University, by President John E. Brandegee, member of board of education, Utica, N. Y.\nMr. Jesse H. Wilson, of Washington, extended a welcome to the department, which\nwas responded to by the president.\nMr. Harvey H. Hubbert, member of board of education, Philadelphia, then read a\npaper on \" What Kind of Centralization, if Any, will Strengthen Our Local School System?\"\nThe discussion was opened by Dr. William Clarence Webster, Columbia College, New\nYork city, and continued by William George Bruce, editor American School Board Journal^\nMilwaukee, Wis. ; Dr. C. M. Woodward, St. Louis, Mo. ; John T. Prince, of Massachusetts Charles\n;\nBulkely Hubbell, president of board of education. New York city.\nMr. Job Barnard, member of board of education, Washington, D. C, then read a\npaper on \"Manual Training — Its Purpose and Value,\"\nThe discussion was opened by C. M. Woodward, of St. Louis, Mo., and continued\nby P. N. Sigler, of Dayton, O.\nMr. B. W. Wright, of Ishpeming, Mich., then read a paper on \"The Tenure of OfiSce\nof the Teachers.\"\nThe chairman appointed the following committee on nominations :\nB. W. Wright, Ishpeming, Mich. ; Harlan P. French, Albany, N. Y. ; P. N. Sigler, Dayton, O.\n\nAdjourned.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION.— Saturday, July 9\n\nThe second session opened with President Brandegee in the chair.\nThe Committee on Nominations reported the following-named officers for the ensuing\nyear :\nExecutive Committee\nPresident — E. F. Bradt, Ishpeming, Mich.\nP. N. Sigler, Chairman, Dayton, O.\nFirst Vice-President— Q.\\2a\\c% Bulkely Hubbell, New Harvey H. Hubbert, Philadelphia, Pa.\nYork, N. Y.\nEdward Welden, Bethlehem, Pa.\nSecond Vice-President — John F. Hughes, Utica, N. Y. CM. Woodward, St. Louis, Mo.\nThird Vice-President — William S. Black, Aurora, III. Job Barnard, Washington, D. C.\nSecretary — William George Bruce, Milwaukee, Wis. A. Lawrence Lowell, Boston, Mass.\n\nThe report was adopted, and the nominees were declared elected.\nMr. A. Lawrence Lowell, member of board of education, Boston, Mass., then read a\npaper on \" The Professional and Non-Professional Bodies in Our School System, and the\nProper Function of Each.\"\nA discussion followed, by P. N. Sigler, of Dayton, O.; C. M. Woodward, of St.\nLouis, Mo.; Edwin P. Seaver, of Boston, Mass.; S. M. Kelten, of Anderson, Ind.; Job\nBarnard, Washington, D. C; John E. Brandegee, Utica, N. Y., and Harlan P. French,\nAlbany, N. Y.\n985\n\n"}
{"page": 996, "printed_page": null, "text": "986\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[School\n\nJohn F. Hughes recommended that the department take up the subject of heating and\nventilation next year.\nA paper by Edward Welden, of Bethlehem, Pa., on \"The Selection, Appointment, and Removal of Teachers and the Grading of Salaries,\" was not read, owing to the\nwriter's absence.\nA general discussion followed, in which the subject of heating and ventilation\nreceived attention, Messrs. E. A. Gastman, of Illinois ; Edwin P. Seaver, of Massachusetts, and P. N. Sigler, of Ohio, taking part.\nAfter a few remarks by the newly elected president, E. F. Bradt, of Ishpeming, Mich.,\nthe department adjourned sine die.\nWilliam George Bruce,\nSecretary.\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nWHAT KIND OF CENTRALIZATION, IF ANY,\nWILL\nSTRENGTHEN OUR LOCAL SCHOOL SYSTEM?\nBY\n\nHARVEY\n\nH.\n\nHUBBERT,\nMEMBER\nOF BOARD\nPHILADELPHIA,\nPA.\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION,\n\nThis is a time when prodigious efforts are being exerted to concentrate\ninterests managed by many under a system whereby they can be controlled by one corporate authority. Commercial and industrial enterprises are being consolidated on every hand, in order that the commercial\ninterests involved may be the more economically and effectually administered, and this is also true in the social life of our days. Religious and\nmoral movements are being combined in vast organizations, under one\nexecutive head, whose power and influence and numerical strength extend\ninto all continents, comprise all races, and fellowship with all tongues.\nIt should, therefore, occasion no surprise to find this same spirit and\nimpulse pervading educational circles. A strong sentiment is widely\nexpressed in favor of centralization of executive authority in school government, and it is the settled conviction in the minds of the most thoughtful and earnest friends of our public-school system that some concentration\nin this respect should be SQcured among all the states, to overcome the\nevils which spring from the district system of control and the multiplied\nmethods of administration which prevail in so many states. We admit\nthat the problem is not easy of solution, and the efforts to secure such a\nresult have not thus far been entirely satisfactory. Much of the school\nlegislation of recent years has been enacted in order to bring about a\nform of government in this direction, but the only result obtained in most\ninstances, thus far, has been to institute conflicting elements by retaining\nthe powers, in a limited form, of the local boards or trustees, and at the\n\n"}
{"page": 997, "printed_page": null, "text": "Administration]\n\nCENTRALIZATION\n\nIN LOCAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nSYSTEM\n\n987\n\nsame time conferring controlling powers upon a newly created board or\nauthority operating within the same jurisdiction.\nThis condition prevails in a number of states, and has in every case\nseriously hampered all efforts to secure the most efficient and practical\nlocal supervision. Centralization of authority which would be acceptable\nmust come from state legislation.\nNational control upon the plan which prevails in continental Europe,\nwhich confers all authority upon one man, the minister of public education, as in France and Germany, is so utterly opposed to the American\nidea of self-government and home rule as not to be entertained even as a\nproposition in this discussion. It is our conviction that any plan of\nadministration that would meet with general adoption must be one which\nrecognizes the right of the people to govern thru delegated representative school officials, and therefore local control and supervision should\nbe preserved, but in such a way as not to conflict with authority vested in\nsome central corporate body. Dual or rival school authorities should be\nabolished wherever they exist, and no further legislation should be permitted that would tend to recreate a system which h^s worked so much\nmischief wherever it has been in operation.\nThe idea has prevailed in the United States, from the very origin of\nour school system, that the states, individually, should make provision for\nthe education of the young, and it would seem to be consistent with this\nprinciple that the states should have control over the schools within their\nborders. A state board of education, similar to that which has been in\nexistence in Massachusetts for so many years, is the best method yet tried\nin securing state supervision and organization. Such a board could very\nproperly be authorized to have general executive authority, to see that the\nschool laws are properly executed, that the state school funds are equitably\ndistributed, and to provide for a uniform basis upon which the school tax\nshall be assessed ; also to establish uniform courses of study for the schools\nof all grades thruout the commonwealth, to fix the qualifications of\nteachers, and to provide for their proper selection and examination.\nLocal authority could be exercised by school directors or committees\nappointed or elected for every town in the state, and boards of education\nfor the larger cities, such as now exist in many of the states. The functions of these local school authorities should consist of executive and\nadministrative authority, and should be limited in their exercise to their\nrespective town or city jurisdiction. They should appoint the teachers,\nlocate the schoolhouses, and expend all moneys and appropriations for\nthe maintenance and support of the schools, and should have such general\nsupervision as would insure absolute control over all matters pertaining to\nthe management and direction of the public-school system.\nThe school boards or committees should be composed entirely of repre\"\nsentative citizens, and no person should hold ex-officio relations to the\n\n"}
{"page": 998, "printed_page": null, "text": "988\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n.\n\n[School\n\nschool boards by virtue of any connection with other departments of\nmunicipal or county governments, for it is usually these elements in school\nboards that are responsible for the mischievous influences of politics\nwhich so often neutralize the best efforts of the school authorities.\n\nDISCUSSION\nDr. William Clarence Webster, New York city, agreed with Mr. Hubbert in\nfavoring appointive vs. elective state and local boards of education, and concentrated\nauthority in central city boards, and in not favoring a national centralization of educational administration. Dr. Webster also pointed out in detail many excellent features of\nthe Massachusetts plan of educational administration, including supervision by state\nagents, compulsory regulations concerning evening schools, day and evening high schools,\nmechanical and industrial drawing, manual training, free text-books, compulsory attendance, sanitary regulations, and the \" township system ; \" all of which features of the Massachusetts plan were strongly favored by the speaker. Much of the average excellence\nof the Massachusetts public-school system was attributed to the salutary effects of the\nabove state control and centralization.\nDr. Webster, however, went farther than Mr. Hubbert, and advocated a still greater\ndegree of state control and centralization in educational administration, on the ground\nthat the local school systems would thus be made more efficient. Every state ought not\nsimply to have as much centralization and state control as Massachusetts, but many of\nthe states need a much greater degree of such control. One fundamental reason for\nextended state control and quite thoro centralization in educational administration\nexists in the fact that in most states either a majority or a very large part of the communities have not developed a public opinion sufficiently enlightened voluntarily to provide\ngood schools. The interests of the various states at large, as well as the real interests of\nthese same communities, demand the very best possible educational facilities. The backward communities must be coerced into developing good schools by some outside authority\nwhich is inspired by the highest educational ideals and thoroly awake to the best\nmethods of carrying out these ideals. This, in a last analysis, is the chief ground for, and\nthe best justification of, extended state control ; and this is sufficient ground for almost any\ndegree of state control and centralization of educational administration, the real effect of\nwhich is to make better the local school systems and increase the efficiency of educational\nadministration. Massachusetts, with a high average of public enlightenment concerning\nthe value and importance of good schools, owes much of this present high average to state\ncontrol. Other states surely need as much such control, and many states need much\nmore owing to the much lower average of public sentiment.\nDr. Webster then suggested and definitely argued for the following kinds of state\ncontrol and centralization : (i) A compulsory local school tax. (2) More state aid than in\nMassachusetts to supplement local taxation, either in the form of a permanent school fund\nor a state school tax. (3) Thoro state control and administration of the school census to\navoid \" padding \" of census returns for private profit and for larger local apportionment.\nThe New Jersey plan was recommended. (4) State control of the examination and certification of teachers. The New York, New Jersey, and Indiana plans were described, and\nthat of New York was especially recommended. (5) Thoro state control of teachers'\ninstitutes, including state selection of institute instructors, state regulation of courses of\nstudy, and compulsory attendance.\nThe Wisconsin plan was especially recommended.\n\n"}
{"page": 999, "printed_page": null, "text": "Administration]\n\nMANUAL\n\nTRAINING\n\n— ITS PURPOSE\n\nAND\n\nVALUE\n\n989\n\n(6) Central enforcement of compulsory attendance and truant laws. The Connecticut\nplan of providing a state agent to superintend the enforcement of these laws was recommended. (7)Central appointment of county superintendents and at least partial support of\nthese officials by the state. (8) A more extended and independent appellate jurisdiction of\nthe state superintendent of public instruction, as in New York and a few other states.\nThe speaker concluded his discussion by trying to dispel the popular idea that\nincreased centralization in educational administration is un-American and something to\nbe feared as savoring of imperialism and despotism, and by pointing out that it is rather\nto be welcomed as one great means of salvation to the American public-school system,\nespecially in its weaker places, by compelling the weaker places to become strong under\nthe stimulating direction and coercion of efficient central administration.\n\nBY\n\nMANUAL\n\nTRAINING— ITS PURPOSE\n\nJOB BARNARD,\n\nMEMBER\n\nOF BOARD\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION,\n\nAND\n\nVALUE\n\nWASHINGTON,\n\nD. C.\n\nWhile the National Educational Association has had for many years\na department in which \"manual training\" has been discussed in all its\nphases, this is the first time that the Department of School Administration\nhas undertaken to consider the subject. It has received such general\nattention, however, and has actually been in vogue in its various forms,\nand under widely differing conditions and circumstances, for such a\nlength of time, and with such favorable results, as to carry it beyond the\nstages of experiment, and to insure it a permanent position in the publicschool system. This being conceded, it is incumbent upon the officers\nand boards represented in this department to make provision for it in\nthe most liberal and general ways that may be found useful or expedient,\nin their several localities.\nMany municipalities have already provided commodious, convenient,\nand substantial buildings, with machinery and power, tools and material,\nand a corps of good teachers, for the use of these schools, their pupils\nusually coming from the high schools. We are happy to be able to state\nthat Congress has just placed its approval upon this kind of education\nby an appropriation of $12,000 for the establishment of kindergartens in\nthe public schools of this district, and $125,000 for the purchase of\nground and the erection of a building for a manual-training school.\nWe need more kindergartens, and more such special buildings for the\nmanual-training schools, all over the country, with the best teachers that\ncan be obtained ; but we also need smaller shops and convenient rooms\nin the vicinity of the graded schools, where pupils of every grade may\nhave the advantage of this kind of training, modified to suit their several\nstages of advancement and growth.\nThe title of this paper, suggested by the Executive Committee,\nadmits of the consideration of the subject in its broadest sense, in order\n\n"}
{"page": 1000, "printed_page": null, "text": "990\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[School\n\nthat its general purpose and value may be ascertained. In this sense we\nmay assume that manual training includes all systematic training of the\nvarious faculties of the body, as part of a general scheme of education, by\nactual doing. This doing of real work cultivates the motor nerves, as\nwell as the nerves of sense ; it develops the muscles and tissues of the\nbody ; it stimulates and strengthens the brain.\nTo be of use in the city, the central office or telephone exchange\nmust have wires running to and from it, which can there be connected.\nIf the wires all terminated at the central office, without possible connection, the messages sent might cause a plethora of knowledge at that\npoint, but of what use would it be to the business of the city ?\nSo, if the brain was constituted and disconnected in such manner that\nall the impressions or dispatches received by it from the outposts, the\nextremities of the body, or from any part of the environment in which\nthe body moves, were retained by it, and there were no motor nerves by\nwhich this knowledge could be expressed or sent out again to other\nbrains, no progress could be made, and the accumulation of knowledge\nby any individual mind could be of no use to others.\nBut happily it is a law of life that so soon as the child acquires\nknowledge, it endeavors to give it expression by word or act ; and by the\ngetting and giving of knowledge the sensor and motor nerves are both\nused and developed; and the brain to which they are both attached\nbecomes the useful central office or exchange, and is expanded and\nstrengthened by its use.\nThere is one fact which seems to distinguish manual training from\nall other kinds of education, namely this, that it involves a plan, pattern,\nor idea, simple or complex, to be thought out, formed, and executed.\nThis requires mental effort first, and then a positive physical exertion\nto express the conception in material form. It also requires the concurrent operation, and the co-operation, of mind and body, and not the\n■exercise of either independently. We must think while we work, and\nwork while we think. If we would obtain useful knowledge, we must not\nonly read, hear oral teaching, commit to memory, and meditate on what\nwe have learned, but we must endeavor to tell what we know to others,\nand to apply our knowledge to the practical uses of life, by doing with\nour might whatsoever our hands find to do.\nBy this the doing faculty is not only developed, exercised, and\nmatured, but the knowing faculty is also enlarged, disciplined, and made\nmore reliable. When we try to teach others what we think we know, we\nare surprised to find out that we are not certain of our knowledge.\nSpeaking literally, manual training means the training of the hands ;\nbut as hands are symbols of power, their training really signifies a systematic use of the whole body so as to put it under the control ot the\nmind, and thus to acquire power to execute skillfully, accurately, and\n\n"}
{"page": 1001, "printed_page": null, "text": "Administration]\n\nMANUAL\n\nTRAINING— ITS PURPOSE\n\nAND\n\nVALUE\n\n99 ^\n\npromptly whatever is undertaken by the mind. The doing of the thing\nplanned is not, in the educational sense, for the purpose of making\nsomething of commercial value, or for teaching a trade ; but it is for the\npurpose of acquiring the power to do as one wills to do. It is for the\npurpose of mind-making, sense-sharpening, brain culture; to have all the\nfaculties of seeing, hearing, tasting, smelling, and feeling quickened, cultivated, and perfected ; and to create the power to form correct judgments.\nMany years ago I read a story written by Henry Ward Beecher,\nentitled Norwood, and I remember only a single sentence and a single\ncharacter in the book. The character is Abiah Cathcart, a New England\nfarmer, of whom the author said that \"he first thought out his work, and\nthen worked out his thoughts.\"\nThis is what is required of every pupil in a manual-training school.\nAs a layman I may be excused if I make a mistake by claiming too\nmuch ; but I think the term is broad enough to include kindergarten\nwork, drawing, penmanship, cooking, cutting, fitting, and sewing, modeling in clay and sand, with or without other tools than the hands themselves, as well as tool work in the shops ; but I believe that the term, as\ndefined by schoolmen who have given the subject much careful study, is\nmore restricted in its meaning, being strictly used to include only \" the\ntraining of the hand in the use of tools, and in practical drafting, as a\npart of a system of general education.\" It is claimed by them that it\ndoes not include kindergarten work, laboratory work in science, and\nillustrative teaching, on the one hand, or teaching of trades, on the other.\nMr. John Chamberlain, director of manual training in this district in\n1890, prepared a teachers' manual in which he defined the term, as then\nunderstood here, in the following words : \" Manual training, as understood in the public schools of this city, includes everything in the course\nof study in vfhich the hand does a part. It includes clay modeling, stick\nlaying, and paper cutting and folding in the lower grades ; free-hand\ndrawing in all grades; paper-model making, sewing, cooking, and bench\nwork in the upper grades; and cooking, free-hand and mechanical drawing, moulding, forging, and machine work in wood and metal, and work\nin botanical, physical, and chemical laboratories, in the high school.\"\nSince 1890 the sewing department has grown to include cutting and\nfitting, five schools being now conducted for this work, and attended by\nthe girls of the sixth grade. Plain sewing is taught to girls of the third,\nfourth, and fifth grades only, and in the rooms devoted to other school\npurposes. The girls of the seventh and eighth grades attend the cooking\nschools, but sewing is not taught to those above the sixth grade. Modeling in clay, from nature, is taught to the pupils in all the grades ; and\ncarving in clay is taught from the fourth to the eighth grade.\nIt has been the aim in the Washington schools to make some form of\n\n"}
{"page": 1002, "printed_page": null, "text": "992\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[School\n\nmanual training applicable to every child in every grade from the kindergarten to the high school. This has involved some original work, or\nmodifications of the work more frequently taught in the secondary\nschools. How well we have succeeded in our aims must be left to others\nto judge. We do not claim that we have attained perfection, but we do\nclaim that an examination will disclose an application of the practical\nidea of manual training in every year of public-school work in this\ndistrict, as a purely educational exercise.\nWe have fifteen shops, located conveniently for the boys of the seventh\nand eighth grades of the white schools, where carpentry is taught. Here\nthey design and make those things usually designed and made in such\nschools. They are allowed much freedom in choosing the article to be\nmade, within certain limitations, and whatever is undertaken is constructed\non correct scientific principles. They make boxes of different shapes,\nscreens, stools, tables, stands, desks, bookcases, cabinets, and other things.\nThe boys of the Central High School attend the machine shops on O\nstreet, between Sixth and Seventh streets, where they have use of steam\npower. There are six carpenter shops for the boys of the colored schools,\nlocated singly, three in the city and three in the district outside the city,\nbesides three in the Miller Building on H street, between Sixth and Seventh\nstreets, where they have steam power, and where one machine shop and one\nblacksmith shop are also located, making eleven shops in all. Mr. J. H.\nHill is the director in charge of the Miller Building and the three carpenter shops in the city ; and the three in the district outside the city are\nunder Mr. Chamberlain's direction. The colored boys of the sixth,\nseventh, and eighth grades, and a few from the fifth grade, attend these\nshops. The colored high school also sends a few boys to the shops in\nthe Miller Building.\nThe girls from the colored schools are learning sewing, cutting, and\nfitting, and cooking, with as much interest as the white girls.\nFor further details of the work of our schools, and for some very\ninteresting and able papers on this subject, I refer to the report of our\nboard of trustees for the year ending June 30, 1897, particularly to the\nvaluable report therein of Superintendent William B. Powell, and of\nDirector John A. Chamberlain. Besides these, the reports of Dr. F. R.\nLane, director of the high schools; Mrs. Susan E. W. Fuller, director of\ndrawing; Mrs. E. S. Jacobs, director of cooking, and Mrs. M. W. Gate,\ndirector of sewing, all contain interesting matter on the subject of manual\ntraining. In the same volume the report of the various officials and\nteachers of the colored schools will also be found of much interest, as\nshowing how readily the pupils of these schools take hold of practical\nwork of this kind.\nThe purpose of manual training, as already indicated, is to raise the\nstandard of character and scholarship, and to develop more evenly and\n\n"}
{"page": 1003, "printed_page": null, "text": "Administration]\n\nMANUAL\n\nTRAINING\n\n— ITS PURPOSE\n\nAND\n\nVALUE\n\n993\n\nperfectly the growing mind.\nIt is to teach the children their own\ncapacities for doing things ; how things can be done ; what it is possible\nfor willing hands to accomplish, and what is beyond their power.\nIt is\nto inspire self-reliance and confidence in the intelligent, and to check\nthe egotism of the ignorant.\nWhile its purpose is educational, and its greatest value to develop\nthe mind, to\n\" Hew off the block, and get out the man, \"\n\nthere are other incidental results which may be expected from this training, all of which have their value.\nIt helps the young man or woman to decide with better judgment\nupon a vocation ; it removes prejudice and inspires respect for those who\ndo the work of the world ; it increases the intelligence of the mechanic,\nand enables him to do better work and to command higher wages ; it\nlessens crime by furnishing something useful and interesting \" for idle\nhands to do;\" it discourages the growth of that helpless, impracticable\nindividual who is educated above his capacity and has more knowledge\nthan he can use, and who is characterized by Pope as \" the learned\nblockhead, ignorantly read, with loads of learned lumber in his head.\"\nAnother result that may be expected from this training is that it will\nmake men and women more trustworthy, more capable of truth-seeing\nand truth-telling. The eye is trained to see correctly and positively, and\nthe mind to judge truly at the same time. If sight is clear, and judgment\nsound, and expression accurate, then the bystander, on whose testimony\nlife, liberty, and property often depend, and who has no wish to give any\nfalse impression, is enabled to tell the truth, and justice is done to the\nneighbor. The witness who is most capable of telling the exact truth,\naccording to my observation and experience of many years in the trial of\ncases before judges and juries, is the man who has been trained in designing, drawing, and making things. The civil engineer, the architect, the\nbuilder, are representatives of this class. They can tell what they see so\nas to make others see it correctly. They can distinguish between a condition and a theory, between a fact and an illusion between the true\nand the false ; and their evidence will often enable a court to reach a just\nconclusion where otherwise it would be impossible.\nI suppose that every boy raised on a farm has always wanted to do\nsomething that was beyond his ability to do well, rather than to content\nhimself with doing such work as he could properly do. The reason of\nthis seems apparent. It is the self- activity of the growing boy; he is\nreaching out for something more than he himself can do; something that\na man does. The work usually assigned to him, such as turning a grindstone, using a rake or hoe, feeding the stock, and bringing in wood, is all\nwell enough from an economic standpoint, but it is mere drudgery to the\nboy. There is no mind in it; it requires no thought, no planning, no\n\n"}
{"page": 1004, "printed_page": null, "text": "994\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[School\n\ndesigning; he wants to \"make a hand,\" and take on the responsibility\nof some job on his own account. As soon as he learns to do a thing\nautomatically, without thinking about it, there is no more education in it;\nand from an educational standpoint it would be better to set him a new\ntask; or, what is still better, if possible, give him his choice of two or\nmore new tasks.\nIn the winter the country boy usually goes to school, and does chores\nnight and morning, with a full day's work on Saturday. When spring\ncomes, he probably has to quit school and help in the field.\nAs a rule, the city boy has no such opportunity for the exercise of\nhis self-activity in manual work, and hence does not get the vigor of\nmind and body, by mixing study with work, that the country boy does,\nand for this reason needs the manual-training school most, and needs it\nearly in his school life. The boy that grows to maturity on the farm not\nonly lays in a good supply of energy, but actually accumulates considerable\ngeneral Icnowledge, if he is inclined to take advantage o^ \"rainy days and\nSundays\" for reading and study; and yet he knows less, as a rule, than\nthe city boy. Why is it, then, that he so often outstrips the city boy in\nthe race of life, and becomes distinguished as a nian, when he enters upon\na career of business or politics in the city ?\nI think it is due to the power to execute ; and this executive ability\nis acquired by the actual doing of things in the growing period, when\nbrain and muscle, will and understanding, are being made in the daily\nlife on the farm.\nI once heard a prominent member of the cabinet deliver an address\nat a banquet on President Lincoln's birthday. He said that Mr. Lincoln\nwas sometimes spoken of as an uneducated man. He wanted to correct\nhistory, in so far as that impression might have been received. He said\nthat Mr. Lincoln had unusual educational advantages. Thrown upon\nhis own resources in early life, he had learned and practiced all kinds of\nwork on the farm, and with his father's carpenter tools ; had lived in\nthree new states of the union ; had aided in building a flat boat, and\nmaking two voyages to New Orleans with produce for market ; and in\nhis leisure moments had learned to read, write and cipher, and had\nacquired a taste for good literature, all before he was twenty-one years of\nage ; and such a life of work, travel, and study, while he was growing up,\nhad laid the foundation for that noble character, that gentle soul, that\nintellectual power, that made him so much loved and honored.\nI need not now take time to give you other instances where character\nand learning, acquired under similar circumstances, have led to the highest positions of trust and honor in this country. They are familiar to\nall ; your reading and acquaintance will suggest many such.\nWhere the work performed is wholly planned by some other mind,\nand the one that executes is merely the hand of the other, there is not\n\n"}
{"page": 1005, "printed_page": null, "text": "Administration]\n\nMANUAL\n\nTRAINING\n\n— ITS PURPOSE\n\nAND\n\nVALUE\n\n995\n\nthat growth of brain and nerve for either that there is where the mind\nthat plans and the hand that executes are united in the same person.\nHence, while there is a great discipline in working in factories, for railroad companies, in telegraph offices, in all kinds of machine shops, the\neducation is not so beneficial as where the workman has to use more mind.\nIt is true, he acquires regular habits, and a quick ear, a steady hand, a\nsound judgment about the special thing he is set to do, but learning only\none thing, that soon becomes mechanical, and the mind does not increase\nfrom the merely automatic bodily activity.\nThe great numbers now being educated in agricultural colleges, technical, industrial, and trade schools, make it evident that there is a growing\ndemand for better-trained men and women to do the higher class of work\nrequired by our advanced civilization. The public school should assist\nin supplying this demand, and in fostering the inclination for such courses\nin the minds of its pupils.\nMind, when reduced to its simplest terms, is composed of only two\nfaculties : will and understanding. These may also be represented by\nthe terms affection and thought, impulse and intellect, love and wisdom,\nheart and head, goodness and truth.\nBoth of these faculties must be exercised and cultivated, if a perfec\nmind is to be formed. The will, or the desire to do and to have, is not to\nbe repressed, but is to be drawn out, directed, and instructed until the\nunderstanding matures and the judgment is formed.\nThe pure imagination and the good emotions are to be awakened.\nThe perfect form of created things should be made plain in thought ; and\nthen the thought should be clothed, or embodied, or ultimated in the\nmaterial form.\nThe pupil in the manual-training school should see clearly that every\npicture, statue, house, school, cathedral, city, monument, car, bridge,\nship, everything made by the hand of man, first had its existence in the\nwill. To carry out the will or desire of the \"builder, he had first to study\nthe subject so as to arrange the details in mind and form his plans in\nthought; then to gather and prepare his materials, and put his working\nplans on paper ; and then to attain the end wished for by giving the\nthought the material body in which it can be seen by others. Thought\ncan never become visible except when it takes on a material form, either\nin spoken words — sounds formed by the vocal organs, or written\nwords — symbols formed by the pen or type; or pictures ; or the concrete form, made by the hands, tools, and machines, from wood, stone,\nmetal, or other material.\nBy all this training the will is developed as well as the understanding ;\nthe emotions are cultivated ; the taste, the love, the affections, are elevated\nand purified ; and the whole man is perfected, morally, physically, and\nintellectually ; and this is the end and value of all true education.\n\n"}
{"page": 1006, "printed_page": null, "text": "996\n\nTHE\nBY\n\nNATIONAL\n\nTENURE\n\nB. W. WRIGHT,\n\nMEMBER\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nOF\n\nOFFICE\n\nOF\n\nBOARD\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nOF\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nEDUCATION,\n\n[School\n\nTEACHERS\nISHPEMING,\n\nMICH.\n\nWe live in a time of great competition and rivalry and of ceaseless\nenergy, where push is expected and justly admired. It is an age, also,\nwhen it is thought by some that change is the chief indication of progress,\nand that long occupancy of a position provokes dry-rot. So they call\ntried capability and usefulness barnacles and inefficiency, and think\nepithets have settled the question. They observe with no regret the\ndeparture of the old year, but welcome with rapture the arrival of the\nnew, apparently merely because new. Yet withal, Father Time still controls the years, and they are joyous over the sentiment for freshness\nwhile aged experience still directs.\nCivil service is not popular, because this class of politicians claim that\nchanges must be made, and merit is not to be considered. By their standard placidity is thought to be stagnation. They forget that great power\nis often connected with smoothness. They seem to desire a little friction\nand an occasional smashup to convince them that the machinery has been\nin operation.\nBeing a public matter, our school management unfortunately comes\nunder the ban of a class which criticises and condemns in a superficial way\nthe entire school system, and insists upon radical measures. Prominent\namong these is a demand for frequent changes in the teaching force.\nEspecially is this the case where politics dominate in school elections,\nand school trustees trim their sails in the endeavor to catch the popular\npuff which shall waft them into the desired haven of public affairs.\nThis is an unfortunate condition, and happy is the community where\nsuch is not the case, but where there is a proper appreciation of the\nimportant place a teacher occupies, as an individual as well as in the\nschoolroom.\nI am friendly to young teachers, for there are many to whom experience is yet a stranger, who are willing and worthy, but are untried, who\nshould have encouragement and assistance; but experience should always\nbe preferred in considering qualifications.\nThe position of the teacher is unique, because she not only instructs\nfrom text-books, but is the model in morals, manners, and etiquette\nas well. She is a living example, and upon her pupils is stamped her\ncharacter. Her deportment is imitated, her speech echoed, and her\ncostume is an object-lesson. She is certainly \"known and read\" by all\nchildren, and should have as well a refining influence upon the homes of\nher pupils.\n\n"}
{"page": 1007, "printed_page": null, "text": "Administration]\n\nTENURE\n\nOF\n\nOFFICE\n\nOF\n\nTEACHERS\n\n997\n\nHer authority extends beyond the narrow confines of the schoolroom,\nand is acknowledged and quoted wherever the child may be. This being\nso, will not long service accentuate her influence and increase her value to\nthe community ? In the high school she is liable to be associated with\nthe same pupils for a period of four yours, if continued as suggested. In\nthe grades her contact with individuals is for a shorter time, but children\nof the same family often succeed each other there, and the knowledge of\nfamily traits should be of considerable help in teaching the \"young idea.\"\nMeanwhile the teacher, also, is gaining something new and valuable by\nexperience, and her power is expanding the longer she is in contact with\nthese surroundings.\nI believe the patron of the schools desires the continuance of good\nteachers as long as the service is faithful. \"I wonder,\" said an experienced high-school principal, \"if I shall ever be thru with the Jones children.\" \"I hope,\" replied a mother within hearing, \"that you will not\nquit teaching before the Smith children are thru.\"\nProgressive, wide-awake teachers should be appreciated and retained\nso long as they are willing to stay, not as a favor to them, but in justice\nto them, the school, and the taxpayer.\nIn no better way can the public money be expended than in the continuance of the cost of their service. In a thriving city of the upper\npeninsula of Michigan there are several teachers whose years of continued\nservice have been many, and, with no discredit to their associate instructors, itcan be said that their success is as positive, and their hold upon\nthe pupils and patrons as strong, as those of any of the others of a large\ncorps employed. Their constant labor does not seem to have impaired\ntheir enthusiam, and their acquired knowledge of methods and wide experience iscertainly invaluable to the youth in their charge. The last five\nyears of their work have been unequaled by any previous ones.\nMy attitude as to the tenure of office of the teacher is plain, but should\nbe qualified. My support will not be given to the lazy teacher, even\nfor a short service. I do not think the public money should be expended\nin paying the salaries of these persons, who have no higher ideal than to\nteach merely for a little pin money or to help out in a stylish wardrobe.\nI would not grant a long commission, either, to the individual who resigns\nwithout any consideration of business honor, to obtain a larger salary or\nto clinch a matrimonial chance.\nBut the honest toilers in the educational ranks who have just appreciation of their opportunities, and the possibilities also, and who therefore\nhave an earnest purpose in their life work, should challenge our admiration and co-operation.\nIf you have in your schools a competent teacher, gifted with broad\nscholarship, high aims, and agreeable presence, who conscientiously\ndesires to do her best, who loves children, who takes a high place for\n\n"}
{"page": 1008, "printed_page": null, "text": "998\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[School\n\ngood in the community, who is loyal to the town that supports her, whose\nfidelity to the school board and superintendent needs no demonstration,\nwho is in accord with the system instituted by the latter, and who has the\ntrue spirit of affiliation with her associate teachers — you have an aquisition which should be retained, if possible. There are many such, and\nonly a matter of salary, probably, will induce them to leave your employ.\nExperiment very little, if at all. No one will deny that the position of\nthe public-school teacher is one of trust and responsibility. We intrust\nto her care our children, expecting that she will inspire them with love of\ncountry and our country's God, and teach them how to think and how to\nlive, so as fittingly to endure the contingencies in life's struggle ; and we\nhope she will feel a lively interest in their moral, social, and physical wellbeing also. To fit herself for such a task has required years of preparation in the cultivation of natural tact and ability. Shall we place such\ncapacity and acquirements on a level with those required of the day laborer\nor hired man, and grant her no feeling of security in her position ? Business sense dictates a negative reply.\nWe continue honest and competent employees in places of private trust\nso long as they study our interests. Shall we do less in the employment\nof a teacher ? A teacher who has become well acquainted with her environment will accomplish more than a newcomer, and, knowing the methods\nof the superintendent, can with much greater ease keep up the work.\nNot unnaturally there are many influential \"outs\" who are sure that\nthe situation would be greatly improved by an exchange with \"ins,\" but\nthe school board must withstand the pressure, weigh impartially grievances and complaints, and not be governed by the standard of prejudice\nor personal favor. That is one of its functions, and it must firmly\nassume the responsibility.\nA competent authority in Chicago is quoted as saying : \" It is the\nopinion of nearly all of the more experienced teachers that a woman is\nmuch more capable after fifteen years of labor than is she who has had\nonly six or seven years' experience. We think that such a long and conscientious service should be recognized above that of another instructor\nwho has worked half or a quarter as long.\"\nThis is in line with business experience, and should be carefully considered. We boast that our public schools represent a supreme interest\nin life, for in them is laid the foundation of society and citizenship, built\nwith living stones. Let us sustain, then, as much as possible the great\nnumber directing this movement, by assuring them not only of a place\nin our appreciation, but substantial support in their position, during good\nbehavior; for scholarship, adaptability, fidelity, and loyalty, with good\nhealth and clear brain, are deserving of recognition.\nIn considering the subject assigned me I have spoken of woman,\nbecause she is most in evidence as a teacher, and therefore, if for no other\n\n"}
{"page": 1009, "printed_page": null, "text": "Administration] EXPERTS\n\nAND\n\nLA YMEN\n\nIN SCHOOL\n\nADMINISTRA\n\nTION\n\n999\n\nreason, entitled to the greatest consideration in this paper ; but you may,\nif you choose, apply what has been said to man also, and will, I trust,\nadmit that under ordinary circumstances, with a true desire for the good\nof our schools, the greatest benefit will accrue by permitting as little\nchange in the teaching service as possible, when the talent employed is\nworthy.\n' And, above all, do not think that a spirit of unrest, often prevalent, is\nalways indicative of progressive ideas, for often behind it all are the selfish\naspirant for position, the \"chronic kicker,\" and the stingy taxpayer, while\npossibly misinformation is their chief bulwark.\nIntelligent criticism must be heeded and ignorance convinced of its\nerror, otherwise ignored.\nResults from the school work will sustain your position, and there let\nit rest.\n\nTHE\n\nPROFESSIONAL AND NONPROFESSIONAL\nOUR SCHOOL SYSTEM, AND THE PROPER\nOF EACH\n\nBY A, LAWRENCE\n\nLOWELL,\n\nMEMBER\n\nOF BOARD\n\nOF EDUCATION,\n\nBODIES lA\nFUNCTION\n\nBOSTON,\n\nMASS.\n\nAt the very threshold of this subject I want to disclaim any extensive\nknowledge of the various systems of school administration in the different cities of this country, and of their practical results. The fact is that\nthe school problem, as presented to the school board of the city of\nBoston, has been somewhat limited in its scope. Simultaneous but independent efforts were made this year to reform the administration of the\nBoston schools ; on the one hand, by an application to the legislature,\nand, on the other, by a reform in the rules and regulations of the board\nitself. The former did not succeed, and the latter, which was successful,\nwas necessarily limited by the existing statute, and it was within the limits\nthus fixed that the new organization had to be constructed. The term for\nwhich the superintendent was chosen, the fact that he could not be made\nindependent of the school board, and many other matters, were regulated\nby statute and were not within the control of the school board. But,\naltho many of the fundamental principles of the organization were thus\nprescribed and not within our control, we believe that some of them are,\nin themselves, wise.\nThe general principles on which the relation to each other of professional and non-professional bodies ought to be based are easy to describe.\nIt is clear that those matters of detail which require for their administration intricate technical knowledge ought to be left to the expert. It is\nclear, also, that on questions of general policy the advice of experts is of\n\n"}
{"page": 1010, "printed_page": null, "text": "lOOO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[School\n\nthe utmost importance, and ought always to be sought ; and it is no less\ncertain that the opinion of the layman brings to bear on any subject the\ngeneral common sense of the community, while his instinctive feeling\nhow far public opinion will permit the realization of a plan is of great\nvalue as a counterweight to the technical point of view of the expert. It\nis easy to lay down these principles in general terms, but it is by no means\neasy to apply them to particular organizations. There is no fixed formula\nwhich can be used in drawing the line between the functions of professional and non-professional bodies. Much must depend upon how far\nthe problems to be solved are of a highly technical nature, and how far\nthey are capable of being readily understood by laymen. Much must\ndepend, also, upon the intelligence and capacity of the laymen themselves. One thing is clear: as the problem becomes more intricate, the\nneed of the expert is greater, and his proper functions become more\nextensive.\nIn New England, a hundred years ago, when the public school consisted of a small wooden building, heated by a stove in the corner, and\nwhen the instruction was limited to reading, writing, and arithmetic,\nthere was little need of an expert management. The farmer on the school\ncommittee was quite capable of deciding whether the schoolhouse\nneeded shingling; he knew the three R's himself, and few educational\nquestions arose. If a schoolmaster wanted to carry the instruction of a\nbright pupil farther, he was welcome to do so, but the main curriculum\nunderwent little alteration. Today education in our great cities includes\nkindergarten, primary, grammar, secondary, and sometimes mechanical\narts, high, normal, deaf-mute, and truant schools; while the courses of\nstudy in these schools have increased very much in number, in range, and\nin complexity. Anyone who does not make it his life's work can no\nlonger become thoroly familiar with the whole subject of public education in a great city. At the same time, the growth of the art of heating\nand ventilation has added to the difficulty of the school problem on\nanother side, and made the expert advice of engineers indispensable.\nThe very size of the organization, moreover, has made it impossible for a\nmember of the school committee to take a general view of the problems\ninvolved, unless he is saved from becoming entangled in the detail ; and\nyet, in New England at least, the relation of the school boards to their\nexperts has remained, as a rule, unchanged. The functions of the professional and non-professional bodies have remained what they were under\na condition of things that long ago passed away ; and the work that should\nbe done by the experts is done by subcommittees of the board. In\nshort, the organization has become thoroly antiquated.\nI have said that relative functions of experts and laymen vary with\ncircumstances. Success in the management of all large enterprises\ndepends, indeed, to no small extent on the skill in using experts, and\n\n"}
{"page": 1011, "printed_page": null, "text": "Administration] EX PER TS AND\n\nLA YMEN\n\nIN SCHOOL\n\nADMINISTRA\n\nTION\n\nI OO I\n\nevery man of affairs learns with some accuracy how far he can wisely rely\non their advice. Now, if school committees were composed of men of\nlarge business experience who remained permanently upon the committee,\nthey would insensibly draw a correct line between their own proper functions and those of the professional officers, without formal provisions on\nthe subject. This is true in our universities, where the legal powers of\nthe various governing bodies are not usually minutely prescribed. They\ndepend rather on custom and experience. But in our school committees,\nunfortunately, the condition is not fulfilled, and hence the necessity of\nregulating with precision the exact duties of the professional and nonprofessional elements.\nThe fact that school committees have failed to feep up with the\ndemands of the times in the matter of administration by professionals\nhas apparently caused a tendency among some reformers to go to the\nopposite extreme. The best-known plan of school organization, and one\nreceived with general favor, is that proposed several years ago by the\nCommittee of Fifteen. This plan, which has been put into operation in\nsome cities, substantially places the control of the schools in the hands\nof the superintendent. He appoints the teachers and prescribes the\ncourses of study on his own responsibility ; while the school board has\nno real part in the ordinary management of the schools, and is virtually\nlimited to an occasional interference in some matter that arouses a\npeculiar degree of hostility. In other words, the schools are administered\nsolely by the superintendent, who can, however, be checked if he goes\ndecidedly too far. This system has, no doubt, a^reat deal to recommend\nit, but, on the other hand, it has obvious defects. Three of these may be\nespecially noted.\nSuch a system eliminates the lay element almost altogether, and this\nis unfortunate, for purely professional men are liable to lose in some\ndegree the sense of perspective. Everyone who has himself been an\nexpert, who has practiced a profession, must recognize this in his own\ncase. He must have seen the tendency to give undue prominence to\ntechnical matters. He must have perceived the advantage of bringing\nto bear on questions of general policy the good sense of outsiders or\nlaymen. This is, in fact, a matter of common experience. The medical\nstaff of a hospital, for example, always prefers to have men of affairs rather\nthan physicians upon the board of trustees. Our universities and colleges are usually governed in this way, and, on the whole, the system has\nworked exceedingly well.\nSecondly, government by an autocrat is not a bad thing if the autocrat himself is good ; but this plan places so much power, so much patronage, in the hands of the superintendent that a great temptation is\noffered to politicians to get control of the place. We have the politician\nalways with us, and he never sleeps ; and if the office once falls into his\n\n"}
{"page": 1012, "printed_page": null, "text": "I002\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[School\n\nhands, it is so fenced about that it would be almost impossible to restrain\nabuse.\nThe third defect is closely connected with the one just mentioned.\nWhen dealing with a subject which touches the whole community so\nnearly as do the public schools, it is a great benefit to have a body of\nlaymen to act as a buffer between the professional force and the public —\na body that sanctions the acts of the experts and assumes the responsibility for them. It is much less important that the superintendent should\nhave his way upon every matter, than that he should be protected from\nthe gusts of discontent that ruffle all democracies from time to time. It\nis much better that he should be checked here and there, but should be\nable to pursue his policy in the main without interruption, than that he\nshould be exposed to the constant criticism from outside, and to the\ndanger of failure of re-election which autocratic power necessarily\ninvolves. Hitherto the superintendent of schools in Boston has had\nlittle power, but his tenure of office has proven secure; and it seems possible to give him sufficient authority to make him the real directing force\nin education without loading him with a responsibility which would\nendanger the stability of his tenure.\nFor these reasons it would seem that the plan of the Committee of\nFifteen places too much, just as the existing school organization in New\nEngland places too little, authority in the hands of the expert. The true\nfunctions of the professional bodies in the school system at the present\nday would seem to lie between these two extremes. In order to save the\nschool board from being» confused by a mass of detail, and in order to\nhave the current administration systematically and consistently carried on,\nit ought to be the province of the professional officers to attend to all\ndetails and all matters of secondary iihportance. A distinction is sometimes drawn between legislative and executive duties, but this terminology isvague and unfruitful. In the political sense of the term, all the\nduties of the school authorities are executive ; and if, on the other hand,\nwe understand by the legislative the framing of general rules for the\nmanagement of the schools, so that the school board would be limited\nto making from time to time a code of regulations, it is clear that those\nregulations must either be virtually dictated by the professional officers,\nor else they will be bad.\nThere are other matters, such as questions of finance, with which a\nschool board is much more competent to deal than it is with the regulations of the schools. I have used the expression \"details and matters of\nsecondary importance \" in describing those things which are properly\nattended to by the professional force on its own responsibility, altho this\nexpression is doubtless vague. In matters of great consequence it would\nseem proper that the professional officers should act as the motive power\nor mainspring of the organization ; taking the initiative in proposing\n\n"}
{"page": 1013, "printed_page": null, "text": "Administration] EXPERTS\n\nAND\n\nLA YMEN\n\nIN SCHOOL\n\nADMINISTRA\n\nTION\n\n1 003\n\nany policy, but leaving it to the board to decide upon the wisdom of the\nsuggestions made, and to assume the responsibility for them. Moreover,\nin cases where political pressure is likely to be used, and where action is\nliable to entail unpopularity, such as the appointment of teachers, it\nwould seem an advantage to have the decision of the professional officer\nconfirmed by the board, so that it may share the responsibility with him.\nThe chief point in which the plan thus outlined differs from that proposed\nby the Committee of Fifteen is that, except in matters of detail, the superintendent, instead of acting on his own authority, must persuade the\nschool board that he is right before he acts.\nThese principles are carried out under the new rules of the school\ncommittee of Boston by giving to the superintendent power to attend to\nall matters of detail, to execute the regulations and orders of the board,\nand to make any arrangements and give any directions not contrary\nthereto. For this purpose he is to be assisted by a body of supervisors\nand directors of special subjects, who are under his control, and to whom\nhe may delegate any part of his authority. He is further given power to\nappoint, transfer, and remove teachers, subject to confirmation by the\nboard ; and, in order to insure for his opinion its proper weight in questions of general policy, it is provided that all proposals to change the\nregulations of the schools, or the courses of study, must originate with\nor be referred to him before they can be acted upon by the board. Partly\nfor historic reasons, and partly in order to relieve the superintendent\nfrom the persecutions of book agents, the duty of recommending textbooks isvested in the board of supervisors, of which he is ex officio the\nchairman. This body also conducts examinations, both of the pupils and\ncandidates for teachers, and grants the certificates.\nThe superintendent is expected to be the leader and guide of the\nboard, and he is, therefore, authorized to take part freely in all debates.\nIn fact, his relations with it are made as close and confidential as possible,\nand with this object it is provided that, if he wishes to make a confidential communication, he may require the board to go into executive\nsession, while any member who so desires has the same privilege for the\npurpose of asking a confidential question of him. Moreover, in order\nthat he may explain freely and openly the reasons for his appointment\nand removal of teachers, it is provided that all discussion of such matters\nshall take place in executive session of the board. This last provision is\na necessity, for the board cannot hear a real statement of the merits of a\ncandidate or the defects of a teacher in a session that is open to the public.\nIn many places all this is virtually done in a subcommittee, but one of\nthe main objects of the change of organization in Boston was to do\naway as far as possible with the action of subcommittees, and have all\nthe work which is not committed to the professional officers alone done\nin the full board, so that every member may, as far as possible, know\n\n"}
{"page": 1014, "printed_page": null, "text": "I004\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Schoo\n\nwhat is going on, and have an opportunity to express his opinion\nabout it.\nThe fullest benefit of the experience of the teaching force cannot be\nobtained unless it is recognized and given a legitimate influence in school\npolicy. There is in Boston an association of head masters, and some years\nago it addressed a petition to the school board, but was informed that when\nits advice was wanted it would be asked for. Such a position is certainly\nwrong, and, in order to give the teachers a chance to form and express\ntheir opinions, it is proposed to establish a school faculty, which shall\nhave a right to address the board, and to which certain questions must be\nreferred. This part of the plan has not yet, however, been enacted by\nthe school board, and there are differences of opinion in regard to its\ndetail ; but it will be brought forward for consideration in the autumn.\nIn every well-considered plan for school organization both the professional and non-professional bodies must have their place, and no plan\ncan work well unless there is harmony between these two elements. The\nideal system would seem to be, not one which separates those elements\nand, clearly defining the duties of each, puts them into antagonistic positions, but one which makes them co-operate with each other. This we\nhave attempted to do in Boston. Whether we have succeeded, whether\nthe two elements will work smoothly together, or whether there will be\nfriction between them, can be determined only after experience. In its\nchief outlines the plan adopted resembles closely the method of university government which is common in America, and, in fact, the plan was\noriginally based upon that model. For our universities the system has,\non the whole, worked exceedingly well, and, if properly adapted to the\nschools, we have certainly a right to hope that it will work well there\nalso.\n\n"}
{"page": 1015, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIBRARY DEPARTMENT\n\nSECRETARY'S\nFIRST\n\nMINUTES\n\nSESSION.— Monday, July ii, 1898\n\nThe meeting was called to order at 3 P. M., in Wesley Chapel, by the president,\nL. D. Harvey.\nAn address of welcome was made by Henderson Presnell, librarian of the United\nStates Bureau of Education.\nIn the absence of J. C. Dana, chairman of the Committee on the Relations of Public\nLibraries to Public Schools, the report was read by S. S. Green, Worcester, Mass.\nThe president announced that the absence of Miss Linda Eastman, Mr. James Russell, Miss May Wright Plummer, and Miss L. E. Stearns would compel the omission of\ntheir papers.\nThe following papers were then read : \" The Purpose of the School Library,\" by\nRichard Hardy, Ishpeming, Mich ; \" The Gueneral Subject of Relations of Libraries to\nSchools,\" by S. S. Green, Worcester, Mass.; \"The Best Literature for the Early Adolescent Period,\" by Miss Susan F. Chase, Buffalo, N. Y.\nThe president announced that he had secured from the Board of Directors the desired\nappropriation of $500 for continuing the work of the Committee on the Relation of Public Libraries to Public Schools.\nA general discussion followed.\nThe following committee on nominations was appointed :\nRichard Hardy, Ishpeming, Mich.\nSherman Williams, Glens Falls, N. Y.\nMiss Susan F. Chase, Buffalo, N. Y.\n\nSECOND\n\nSESSION.— Tuesday, July 12\n\nThe session was opened at 3 P. M. with the report of the Committee on Reading\nLists and Editions for the Several Grades of Public Schools, presented by the chairman,\nF. A. Hutchins, of Wisconsin.\nIn addition to the report, as printed, the committee recommended that one committee\nof five members be appointed, instead of two, as before, the new committee to be charged\nwith the duties of the two former committees. The entire report was adopted, with its\nrecommendations.\nThe president announced that, as money had been appropriated for the use of this\ncommittee, its members would be appointed by the National Council of Education.\nA paper on \" Reading Lists for Public Schools \" was then read by Sherman Williams,\nof Glens Falls, N. Y.\nIn the absence of Frank C. Patten, of Helena, Mont., his paper on \" How to\nInterest the Public in Children's Reading\" was omitted.\nA general discussion followed.\n1005\nOn mdtion, it was carried that the president of this department be asked to make\n\n"}
{"page": 1016, "printed_page": null, "text": "IOo6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\narrangements for representing library work on the program of the next meeting of city\nsuperintendents, to be held in Columbus, O.\nActing on the report of the Committee \"on Nominations, the present officers were\nre-elected for the ensuing year as follows :\nPresident — L. D, Harvey, Milwaukee, Wis.\nVice-President — J. H. Van Sickle, Denver, Colo.\nSecretary — Miss Myrtilla Avery, Albany, N. Y,\n\nPAPERS\nREPORT\n\nAND\n\nMyrtilla Avery,\nSecretary.\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nOF COMMITTEE ON RELATIONS OF PUBLIC\nLIBRARIES TO PUBLIC SCHOOLS\n\nThe Committee on the Relations of Public Libraries to Public Schools\nsubmits the following by way of a preliminary report :\nWe recommend that a committee on this subject be continued, and\nthat it be instructed :\n1. To make a careful examination of the relations now existing between libraries and\nschools.\n2. In making this examination, to pursue its inquiry in such a w^iy, by means of circulars\nand thru the columns of educational and library papers of the country, as to inform\nthe largest possible number of school and library people of such things, now being done,\nas seem to bring about helpful relations between schools and libraries.\n3. To examine with care into such questions as the following :\n{a) How to induce librarians to acquaint themselves with the needs of the schoolroom ;\nand how to induce teachers to make themselves more familiar with the possibilities of\npublic libraries.\n(b) How to encourage normal schools to give more instruction in the use of books and\nlibraries.\n(c) How to induce ,high schools, colleges, and universities to establish \" schools of\nthe book.\"\n(d) How to promote the introduction of schoolroom libraries.\n{e) How to induce more public libraries to open special departments for children and\nteachers.\n(/) How to increase the interest of parents in the reading of their children.\n{g) How to make more accessible for parents and teachers select and annotated lists\nof books for the young, and how to promote their use.\n(h) How to promote close relations, thru joint meetings and otherwise, of parents,\nteachers, and librarians.\n(?) How to encourage the careful treatment of books by young people.\n(y) How to arrive at conclusions of value in regard to the treatment of young people, as far as reading is concerned, during the adolescent period.\niji) How to convey to school boards and teachers in remote districts a sense of their\nneeds in the way of good books well used, and information as to how such books can\nbest be secured.\n\n"}
{"page": 1017, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nUSE\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nLIBRARY\n\nIOO7\n\nA careful consideration of the work to be done leads your committee\nto urge the appropriation by the proper authorities, for the expenses of\ninvestigation and reports, of $500.\nYour committee asks consideration of the above report, and additional\nsuggestions for the committee's future work.\nRespectfully submitted,\nJ. C. Dana, Chairman:\nS. S. Green.\nL. D. Harvey.\nC. D. Hardy.\nMary W. Plummer.\nL. E. Stearns. :\nSusan F. Chase.\nLinda A. Eastman.\nJ. E. Russell.\n\nTHE\n\nBY\n\nRICHARD\n\nUSE OF THE\n\nHARDY,\n\nSCHOOL\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nLIBRARY\n\nOF SCHOOLS,\n\nISHPEMING,\n\nMICH.\n\nThe prescribed limitations of the papers will not permit more than\nmere generalization and assertion. The school library, as a distinct\nfeature of school work, is just coming into general notice, hence deductions upon its worth must be made from an experience that is brief, and\nits true value will not be known until a more extensive use shall have\ndemonstrated it. I take it that this discussion is to apply to the use of\nthe library in primary and grammar schools, as the value of the library\nin academic preparation is too well known to require notice or mention.\nIn the field of secondary education there is at present a growing demand\nfor specialization, and as this will require far more adequate facilities for\nsuccessful work, more will be required in the matter of laboratories and\nlibraries.\nSecondary schools, however, are fairly well equipped, and the use of\nthe library is largely for reference. It is to the library below the high school\nthat I wish to direct your attention, for here, in the formative period of\nthe child's life, should be begun the work that will have most to do with,\nhis weal or woe. As yet the field is an unworked one ; here and there are\ncultivated places where we find efforts at interesting children in juvenile\nliterature, and, from the reports given, most excellent results have followed these attempts; but in 90 per cent, of our schools library work, as\nsuch, is quite entirely absent from the grades. It is our duty, then, as\nmembers of this department, to set forth the reasons for the faith that we\n\n"}
{"page": 1018, "printed_page": null, "text": "loo8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nhave in libraries, and to urge their introduction into the grades of our\npublic schools. The school library will be of value as a means of reference. It will make the work in history and geography many times more\nvaluable. As these subjects are now presented, children merely memorize\ncut-and-dried book statements, and recite them after teachers during the\nclass period.\nAn illustration or two may be of service : An eighth-grade boy\nstudied the movements of the American army about Philadelphia thru\nMitchell's Hugh Wynne. The teacher took from him his history during\nthe time of this study. When the hour for recitation came, the boy had\nan information on this subject that was amazing. With the map that he\nmade himself he traced his story to the delight of himself and his classmates. Washington to him was a living personage ; the army moved\nover real land and real water ; it fought with guns that were different\nfrom any he had ever known until he read. The study of that book made\nall his future understanding of the revolution far clearer. A seventhgrade class in geography was studying England. The description of the\ncity of London read : \" London is the capital of the empire, and the\nmetropolis of the world. It is the scene of many famous buildings, such\nas the houses of Parliament, Westminster Abbey, and the Tower of London. These are visited by all tourists.\" And this was the picture of\nLondon that the child was given ! From the room library, however, a\nhalf dozen books were taken ; pages were given by the teacher, and the\nchildren were set to work. At the next recitation reports were given.\nPictures, diagrams of buildings, and vivid descriptions were presented to\nthe class. The dull, meaningless book definition was gone. London became a city filled with men and women who lived and breathed.\nThe children were aglow with enthusiasm. The Abbey meant to those\nboys and girls what it should mean — the most glorious structure in all\nEngland. These are but two commonplace illustrations of the use of the\nschool library.\nThey might be multiplied indefinitely.\nFurther, the library will develop the reading habit. It will take\nfrom the boy his love of the cheap and trashy, and give him a taste for\nthe higher and the better literature. The teacher who is daily brought\ninto contact with the minds of her school will quickly decide the kind of\nmental nourishment that should be given her pupils. This is a fact of\ncardinal importance. It is frequently urged that the city library is quite\nenough. This is a fallacy. The city librarian generally has no time to\ninterest himself in individual cases, and he will give out any book that is\ncalled for by the child. It should be the teacher who is to direct the\nchild's reading, and this she can best do by a school library under her\ndirect charge. The results produced will be infinitely better. The school\nlibrary will enrich all the work of the school, because it will bring light\nupon subjects of dark and obscure meaning.\nIt will interest the children.\n\n"}
{"page": 1019, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCONNECTION\n\nBETWEEN\n\nLIBRARIES\n\nAND\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n1009\n\nbecause it will provide new means for activity. It will make the teacher's\nlife easier, because it will place within the pupil's reach much that she\nmust otherwise provide herself. It will help thru the period of adolescence. It will make pupils more independent because of the research\nwork that they must do. Nor would I have you believe that the upper\ngrades are alone to be reached. Even as far down as the second grade\ngood results may be obtained. Better that a small child should read\nHans Andersen than worry his little brain over nine plus seven. In my\njudgment the school world has in this library work a means for great\nbetterment. It should receive more attention from teachers. We should\nbe more aggressive in our demands for the tools with which to work, and\nour labors should not cease until every room has a library of at least fifty\nwell-selected volumes, and every program shows a period for library\nstudy. Then we shall know the value of the use and purpose of the\nschool library.\n\nCONNECTION\nBY\n\nS.\n\nS.\n\nGREEN,\n\nBETWEEN\nFREE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nLIBRARIES\nLIBRARY,\n\nAND\n\nWORCESTER,\n\nSCHOOLS\nMASS.\n\nADVANTAGES\n\nIt is evident that teachers can do better work if they can avail themselves of the free use of a considerable number of books in preparing\nthemselves for school exercises. This use makes their instruction more\ncomprehensive and full, and more enlivening and entertaining. Such a use\nof books by children gives a largely increased interest and profit to their\nstudies in geography, history, the natural sciences, English literature, the\nclassics, and other branches of knowledge.\nTeachers continually have chances of awakening the curiosity of\nscholars to find out about various matters. By communicating with\nlibrarians they can obtain for them suitable books with which to gratify\ntheir curiosity. Teachers often do much to make careful readers by having pupils describe to them the contents of books which they have been\nreading. Incidentally in doing this work they give a good language\nlesson. Sometimes libraries have furnished twenty or more copies of a\npoem or good story to a school, so that every member of a class might\nhave a copy to use in reading in a class and in preparing himself for\nexamination on the character and contents of a book. It is now generally regarded as the duty of the school committee to furnish the numerous\nduplicates needed in this kind of work, as, in some states, it furnishes\nother text-books and collateral reading.\nIt is obvious that work done in connection with schools must cultivate\n\n"}
{"page": 1020, "printed_page": null, "text": "loio\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nthe taste, for great care is taken to send good literature only to schoolhouses. If teachers begin the work described with children in the lower\ngrades of schools and continue it until they graduate from high schools,\nand do so much of it that most of the time which children have at home\nor in school for reading will be occupied in gratifying curiosity which\nhas arisen in school exercises spontaneously, or has been awakened by\ninstructors, it is certain that a decided influence must be exerted in behalf\nof good reading and the profitableness of study. It is noticeable, also,\nthat older members of families read the books which children take home\nfrom school.\nSo much for work in the schoolroom. If teachers and pupils form\nthe habit of going to libraries to get answers to questions, material for\ncompositions and debates, and to make investigations, large or small, and\nmeet there sympathetic and cultivated attendants ready to aid them, they\nare learning how to use books, conduct inquiries, and get at information.\nChildren learn much at a library if they are only taught there how to\nuse encyclopaedias, dictionaries, indexes, tables of contents, page headings, and other means of quickly getting at knowledge.\nFEASIBILITY\n\nThe Free Public Library of Worcester, Mass., was probably the first\nin the country to do systematically, comprehensively, and on a large scale\nthe work of helping schools. We have been doing this work for twentyfive years. Two thousand volumes, belonging to the library, are in use\nby teachers, and by pupils under the supervision of teachers, every\nday.\nIn colder weather, a wagon controlled by the school department, goes\nregularly to every one of the fifty schoolhouses in the city to carry books\nselected from numbers on cards, carried or mailed beforehand to the\nlibrary, and bring back books that teachers have ceased to need. Children are in daily and large use of facilities for study and reading in the\nlibrary building. This work which has been done so long and so successfully inWorcester is being done, in a similar spirit, if not in exactly\nthe same way, in large and small places all over the country.\nPRELIMINARIES\n\nThere should be a perfect understanding at the start between the\nsuperintendent of schools and the librarian, they taking care that school\ncommittees and trustees know enough of what is going on to keep them\nfrom becoming suspicious or inclined to interfere. Interest in the work\nmust be aroused in librarians and teachers, when it does not exist, by\naddresses and conversation, and they must work together on a plane\nof perfect equality, as fellow-laborers in the cause of popular education.\n\n"}
{"page": 1021, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREADING\n\nFOR\n\nEARLY\n\nADOLESCENT\n\nYEARS\n\nloil\n\nMETHODS\n\nTeachers have special cards. Thus, in Worcester, every teacher may\nhave two such cards. By means of one of these he may take out six\nbooks to be used in preparing for school exercises or for serious study\nin any direction. Only one novel (for purposes of recreation) can be\ndrawn out by the use of this card.\nBy means of the other card eighteen books may be taken out to be\nused by the teacher in any way he pleases for the benefit of his pupils,\neither in the schoolroom or at their homes. A larger number of books\ncan be had if needed. The books are taken to the schoolroom and there\ndisplayed. The children thus have a chance to rummage among them\nand become interested in good books.\nThe books given out on the two cards can be kept two weeks, and, by\nsending word, renewed for two weeks additional. Often they can be\nkept for a longer time by especial arrangement.\nThe number of volumes which can be allowed to a teacher for his own\nuse and that of his pupils depends in any town upon the size of the\nlibrary. The length of time which the books can be kept out will be\nregulated by the same consideration. In this connection the number of\nduplicate copies of a book in a library has to be considered. It may be\nremarked here that it is very desirable to buy such a number of duplicates\nof really good books needed by school children as the means of a library\nwill allow.\nAs stated above, a wagon goes to every schoolhouse in Worcester\nregularly to exchange books. In other places street-railway officers,\nbutchers, grocers, persons who carry mail in buggies, stage drivers, and\nother persons who have occasion to go regularly to the center of a town\nfrom outlying portions of the place, can be availed of to aid in the distribution ofbooks.\nIt should be stated that great care ought to be used by teachers and\nlibrarians in selecting books for the use of children.\nA large use of pictures is now made by librarians in school work.\nFor methods in their use see Appendix I to the \" Eighth Report of the\nFree Public Library Commission of Massachusetts,\" 1898.\n\nCHOICE\n\nOF READING\n\nFOR THE\nYEARS\n\nBY\n\nSUSAN\n\nSTATE\n\nMISS\n\nF.\n\nCHASE,\n\nNORMAL\n\nEARLY\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nADOLESCENT\n\nBUFFALO,\n\nN. V.\n\nAccording to the Century and our later medical dictionaries, adolescence covers a period of about twelve years.\nIts entrance is thru\n\n"}
{"page": 1022, "printed_page": null, "text": "I0I2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nthe \"golden gate of childhood,\" its exit leads to full maturity. The early\nadolescent period may be roughly fixed from about twelve to eighteen\nyears of age, the later period from eighteen to twenty-four. These\nage limits, however, are subject to great variations both in individuals\nand races. The period of early youth, from twelve to eighteen, is a\npeculiarly trying one to parents and teachers. It is a time of longings\nand out-reachings. The flood of emotional and intellectual activities\nmounts to its crest ; yet what mental waste within these precious years !\nHow to utilize and direct these adolescent energies is a problem demanding concerted attention. The proper choice of reading during these\nyears, as a help to the solution of this problem, is a most important subject for study.\nIn December, 1897, a syllabus on reading matter for adolescents was\ndistributed. The purpose of this questionnaire was to find the facts of\nadolescent reading and from these facts, if possible, to gather suggestions\nfor the choice of reading matter for the earlier adolescent years. The\nsyllabus has been quite generously responded to. Adolescents have\nwritten of themselves, and adults have written of their own earlier experiences, or have given their observations of others. In all 719 have\nresponded to the syllabus — 213 men and 506 women. The replies have\nbeen collated and observations made concerning them. Many conclusions have been made ; others could not be reached, for the field is still\nopen to inquiry.\nThe following are the facts most strongly impressed by reading these\nadolescent experiences :\n1. The power of environment (both home and school) in influencing\nliterary tastes.\n2. The book barrenness of the majority of homes — atmospheres\nstifling to book culture.\n3. The almost equal barrenness of many of our schools.\n4. The great appetite for reading so often noted between the years\ntwelve to eighteen, and sometimes very much earlier.\n5. The enormous waste of reading energy during these intense years\nand the evils arising therefrom — loss of concentration, injury to memory,\nvitiation of tastes, morbid sensibilities.\n6. The amount of lazy enjoyment of reading and the need of stimulation to thought — book gluttony the ruin of book digestion.\n7. The demand for love fiction and overwrought sentiment, beginning\nearly with girls, boys preferring stories of adventure and action, but often\nawakening later to a demand for love lore.\n8. The startling amount of surreptitious reading done by adolescents,\n65 per cent, of the men who reported on this subject, and 46 per cent, of\nthe women, admitting a period of secret reading. Motives for such reading: (a) reading in stolen time, 13 per cent.; (/5) reading condemned\n\n"}
{"page": 1023, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREADING\n\nFOR\n\nEARLY\n\nADOLESCENT\n\nYEARS\n\nIOI3\n\nbooks, 23 percent.; {c) clandestinely seeking information, 64 per cent.\nThe depth of meaning involved in this subject of secret reading cannot\nbe revealed here. Parents and teachers have erred in the past. The\ntime for giving knowledge came, and knowledge was not given. Then\nthe curious mind turned to secret, and oftentimes to evil, resources.\n9. The value of early cultivation of a taste for good literature as the\nbest preventive of a desire for the bad.\n10. The important office of reading aloud in forming tastes. The\nadolescent loves companionship. He finds it in the voice of a good\nreader.\n11. Imitation and suggestion powerful over adolescence as over childhood ;indeed, powerful thru life ; hence the influence of suggestions\nabout books as well as the influence of book contents.\n12. The relation of interest to the selection of reading matter for individual readers. The vantage ground is present interests, provided such\ninterests be neither immoral nor debasing — the right books at the right\ntime to the right reader. The proper moment being passed, the value of\nthe book is often gone. The fickleness, and yet the intensity, of adolescent interests is well known. The educator must know the value of the\nbook, and must be quick enough to recognize the moment of the fleeting\ninterest, or strong enough to excite new interest when the old has flagged,\nor when all interest lies dormant.\n13. The absolute necessity for intelligent and sympathetic guidance\nof young people in the choice of reading ; the hunger of adolescents for\nsuch guidance ; their quick response to sympathy and personal influence.\n14. The need of educative centers where instruction may be given to\nparents and teachers in the proper choice of reading for young people —\nbook ignorance lying at the basis of much wrong leadership, or of absolute neglect.\n15. The great educational aim in reading, as elsewhere,,\" to utilize the\ntempestuous emotions of adolescence\" — to turn the flood of emotional\nand intellectual activities into ennobling channels; and —\n16. Finally, to reach, thru the aid of well-selected reading, that\nnoble end, the building up of character.\nThis summary of observations lacks the satisfaction of definite conclusions as to ways and means of satisfying adolescent needs. A rich end\nwill be gained when we can answer these questions :\nWhat is the normal adolescent appetite for reading? How shall it be\nfed?\nWhat are the disease symptoms?\nWhat is their remedy?\nAt present our knowledge is insufficient. Certain large investigations\nmust be pushed. Such questions as these must be answered : What\nare young people actually reading? How far may individual tastes be\nemployed to develop a love for pure and ennobling literature? How\nstimulate a desire for reading when there is no native desire?\nIn what\n\n"}
{"page": 1024, "printed_page": null, "text": "IOI4\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nway lead young people on in the choice of better reading, working always\nfrom the standpoint of present interests? How avoid the danger of overstimulation and at the same time arouse enthusiasm? What amount of\nindependence to allow in the choice of books? How shall we anticipate the temptations to secret reading? How shall we meet the demand\nfor religious culture? At what age should the Bible be put into the\nhands of the reader? What should be our attitude toward love stories?\nHow far shall we restrict them? Should immature boys and girls be\nallowed to read the recent, so-called realistic, literature? Shall we prohibit\nany reading matter? What should be our attitude toward indiscriminate\nreading of the newspaper by boys and girls? These are a few of the\nquestions waiting to be answered.\nThe importance of this subject no one can deny. Reading matter for\nthe adolescent, when well chosen, may be the salvation of his body and his\nsoul; or, if chosen ill, may lead him \"down, down, down,\" as Carlyle\nsays, \"doing more and more, wilder and wilder mischief.\"\n\nDISCUSSION\nA. R. Spofford, Washington, D. C. — The intimate connection between libraries\nand schools is of national importance, for very few schools have enough books accessible. A step has been taken in this city to popularize libraries, by opening the National\nLibrary from 9 A. M. to 10 P. M., so that government employees and all residents and\nsojourners of Washington may have access to the books during the day and evening.\nAfter years of hope deferred and long and perilous delay, the library of Congress has\nmoved into its new home, built from the appropriation of ;^6,ooo,ooo, so wisely expended\nthat every dollar tells. The building represents the flower of modern architecture, the\ntriumph of modern art. It receives almost unanimous praise. In this casket are accumulated jewels worthy of so magnificent a setting. In one of the upper halls is an\nexhibit of rare American books. We are now trying to make this the most representative library in the world.\nIt may not be generally known that here in Washington there is a school of library\nscience, with twenty-one students, organized in 1897 at the Columbian University.\nInstruction is given in every department of library economy and administration. The\nattendance is praiseworthy, and the proficiency of the pupils has exceeded all expectations.\nF. A. HuTCHiNS, Wisconsin. — It is the duty of the teacher to train pupils to go to\nthe library habitually. The trouble with the school library is that the school is closed during vacation and the teachers change. The public library, however, is permanent. Part\nof the work of this department should be to explain to teachers the value of the public\nlibrary to the school.\nJ. H. Van Sickle, Colorado. — It seems to me there is use both for the school and\nthe city library. The school library trains children to an intelligent use of the city library.\nChildren cannot select from lists ; even as low as the second grade they should have\nbooks to see and handle. The city library should, therefore, provide each room with from\n\n"}
{"page": 1025, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREADING\n\nFOR\n\nEARLY\n\nADOLESCENT\n\nfifty to one hundred books to be kept during the year.\nto the library for use there during vacation,\n\nYEARS\n\nI0I5\n\nIn June they should be sent back\n\nF. A. HUTCHINS, Wisconsin. — To use Mr. Hardy's example of a class studying\nLondon, why not send books on this subject to the school ?\nO. F. Barbour, Rockford, 111. — Over a year ago we organized a library section of\nthe State Teachers' Association, and have been working on these problems. We find\nthat many times a taste for reading is formed after the pupil has read surreptitiously. A\nmovement is on foot to help children to read much younger than formerly.\nSherman Williams, New York. — The problems of Miss Chase's paper would\nlargely be answered by the proper use of school libraries.\nMr. McGinness, Pennsylvania. — I know a graduate of Harvard who has let his\nchildren read all sorts of romances.\nThe result is he has developed, but not his children.\nS. S. Green, Worcester, Mass. — I recommend the use of the public library by\nmeans of cards issued to teachers and pupils.\nJ. H. Van Sickle, Colorado. — We begin with the second grade to furnish libraries\nof fifty books. The result has been a great demand for library cards when the pupil\nreaches the fifth grade ; at the eighth grade many children have cards in both our public\nlibraries.\nA demand for reading is created by early use of books.\nSherman Williams, New York. — How do you make the books go around ?\nJ. H. Van Sickle, Colorado. — We limit the time to two weeks.\nJ. E. Brandegee, New York. — It is a great mistake to have the public library under\nthe school authorities. The first notion, then, is that it is a school affair, run for school\nchildren ; also, the school board is called on for all sorts of expenditures, and the last\nthing is the public library. In New York the state duplicates library money raised from\nlocal sources, to the limit of J^200. Thrifty school boards, accordingly, spend just enough\nto get that appropriation and no more. I know of no instance in New York where the\nschool and public libraries have been separated that they are not both better. The\nexpenditure is, then, made in the open. People will give more willingly for a library\npure and simple than if it is the tag end of a school appropriation. The library has its\neducational purpose ; it is the university of the common people.\nWhen the library is under the charge of the school there is disconnected, disjointed\nmanagement ; but the library can attain its greatest success only by co-operation between\nthe teacher and the librarian. Get the children into the habit of going to the public library.\nThere is education in association with a large collection of books. Some child, perhaps,\nfinds a biography there and gets more from it than from all the history he studies in\nschool.\nS. S. Greene, Worcester, Mass. — In Massachusetts the need of free libraries was\nfelt by the state legislature, and one hundred dollars' worth of books was appropriated to\nevery town complying with certain conditions.\nW. W. Dewees, Pennsylvania. — Large towns and cities are likely to care for themselves. Interest centers in rural schools. In my county a kind of circulating library\nhas been established to which country districts subscribe, and books are sent out from\nthe county seat in parcels. It is easier to care for the books in this way than to form\na number of small libraries.\nSherman Williams, New York. — Our library is supported by private funds, but\nwe allow free use of the books and access to the shelves. The latter does much good,\nand not enough books are lost to force us to discontinue the custom.\nS. S. Greene, Worcester, Mass. — Access to the shelves is very desirable in smaller\nlibraries, but imagine it applied to the rare portions of the Boston public library ! I once\narrested a man who went about from place to place taking out cards for rare books.\nWith common sense, however, access to shelves in ordinary libraries is entirely feasible.\nWhenever there is doubt, let an attendant accompany the reader to the shelves.\n\n"}
{"page": 1026, "printed_page": null, "text": "10 16\n\nREPORT\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nOF COMMITTEE ON LISTS OF BOOKS FOR READING AND REFERENCE IN THE LOWER GRADES\nOF PUBLIC SCHOOLS\n\nAt a meeting of the Library Department of the National Educational\nAssociation, which was held in Milwaukee in July, 1898, a resolution was\nadopted directing the appointment of \"a committee to recommend lists\nof books and editions suited for reading and reference use of pupils in\nthe several grades of the public schools.\"\nThe committee was appointed early in February of the present year,\nand has prepared, and herewith presents, two lists of books. One list has\nbeen prepared for the use of rural schools which have only meager school\nlibraries. The teachers and pupils of such schools have usually read but\nlittle, and they need books which are not only wholesome, but which will\ninterest them. In selecting books for their power to interest children\nfrom homes where there are few books, the test of experience must be\naccepted, and the committee has been guided in its choice by reports\nfrom many teachers and librarians. To these books of proved interest\nhave been added a few books of information and inspiration, which will\nawaken new thoughts and aspirations in the minds of the brighter teachers and pupils.\nThe second list, is more extended, and has been made for graded\nschools in villages where there are small school libraries.\nIt is the opinion of the committee that a third list should be prepared\nfor the schools of cities and villages which possess large school and public libraries ; which have teachers with the knowledge ahd tact to train\nyoung people to appreciate and love the best literature, and to read widely\nto advantage.\nIn preparing the following lists the committee has thought it best to\npresent such courses of reading as will lead pupils to regard books as a\nmeans of pleasure as well as of intellectual profit. The books of each list\nare divided into three classes.\nClass A includes those which may most profitably be read in classroom, where the stimulus of companionship and the supervision of the\nteacher will inspire more thoughtful reading.\nClass B includes volumes which may be read to the pupils by the\nteacher, who can give the occasional explanations and suggestions which\nare needed to make the text clear to the average pupil.\nA large portion of the books of Class C have been selected from those\nwhich experience has proved that children delight in reading independently at their homes.\nIt is from books of this class that most children\n\n"}
{"page": 1027, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nLISTS\n\nOF BOOKS\n\nFOR\n\nLOWER\n\nGRADES\n\n1017\n\nmust get that habit of reading good books for pleasure which keeps the\nmind occupied with clean and wholesome thoughts, and safeguards its\nfortunate possessor against the evils of idle hours.\nIt is evident that lists so brief can include only a small proportion of\nthe books that children may read with profit ; but it is hoped that they\nwill be found safe guides for teachers who can spend but little money for\nbooks, and who wish to buy only wholesome literature in editions which\nare suited to school use.\nf. a. hutchins.\nCaroline M. Hewins.\nHannah P. James.\nA. W. Rankin.\nSherman Williams.\nH. R. Pattengill.\nLIST OF BOOKS\n\nFOR\n\nRURAL\n\nFIRST\n\nAND\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nWITH\n\nSECOND\n\nYEARS\n\nCLASS\n\nSMALL\n\nLIBRARIES\n\nA\n\nScudder, Horace E., editor — Verse and Prose for Beginners in Reading. Houghton, Mifflin & Co.\n$0.40,\nCo.\n\nNorton and Stephens, editors — Heart of Oak Books. First book. D. C. Heath &\n$0.25.\nCLASS\n\nB\n\nScudder, Horace E., editor — Fables and Folk Stories. Houghton, Mifflin & Co.\n;?o.40.\nPoulsson, Emilid — In the Child's World.\nMilton Bradley Co.\n$2.\nAndrews, Jane — Seven Little Sisters.\nGinn & Co. $0.50.\nAndrews, Jane — Each and All. Ginn & Co.\n50.50.\nLane, Mrs. C. A. — Stories for Children.\nAmerican Book Co.\njSo.25.\nEggleston, Edward — Stories of Great Americans.\nAmerican Book Co.\n$o./^o.\nWood, J. G. — First Natural History Reader.\nBoston S. S. Co.\n;55o.25.\nTHIRD\n\nA^fD FOURTH\n\nYEARS\n\nclass a\nCo.\n\nNorton and Stephens, editors — Heart of Oak Book. Second book. D. C. Heath &\n50.45.\n\nScudder, Horace E. — Fables and Folk Stories.\nHoughton, Mifflin & Co.\n50.40.\nEggleston, Edward — Stories of American Life and Adventure. American Book\nCo.\n50.50.\nAndersen, Hans C. — Stories.\n\nHoughton, Mifflin &\nCLASS\n\nCo.\n\n50.40.\n\nB\n\nSewell, Anna — Black Beauty. Lothrop Publishing Co.; %\\. American Humane\nSociety; 5o.lo.\nSchwatka, Frederick — Children of the Cold.\nCassell & Co. 5L25.\nBaldwin, James — Four Great Americans.\nWerner School Book Co.\n50.50.\nDodge, N. S, — Stories of American History.\nLee & Shepard.\n50.30.\n\n"}
{"page": 1028, "printed_page": null, "text": "loi8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nKaler, J, O. (James Otis) — Toby Tyler. Harper & Bros. $i. Seven Little Sisters,\nand Each and All. See Class B, first and second years.\nFIFTH\n\nAND\n\nSIXTH\n\nCLASS\n\nYEARS\n\nA\n\nRuskin, John — King of the Golden River. Ginn & Co. ; boards, $0.20 ; cloth, ;5o.25.\nMaynard, Merrill & Co.; $0.12\nHawthorne, Nathaniel — A Wonder Book for Boys and Girls. Houghton, Mifflin &\nCo.; $0.40. University Publishing Co. ; paper, $0.13; cloth, ^0.20. Maynard, Merrill\n& Co. ; ;?o.i2.\nLongfellow, H. W. — Hiawatha.\nHoughton, Mifflin & Co. $0.40.^\nBurroughs, John — Birds and Bees, Sharp Eyes, and other papers. Houghton, Mifflin & Co* $0.40.\nCLASS\n\nB\n\nKingsley, Charles — The Water Babies (abridged editions). Ginn & Co. ; boards,\n;?0.35 ; cloth, ;j!o.50. Maynard, Merrill & Co. ; . $0.12.\nAndrews, Jane— Ten Boys who Lived on the Road from Long Ago till Now. Ginn\n& Co. ;SSo.5o.\nAlcott, Louise M. — Little Men.\nRoberts Bros.\n^1.50.\nBlack Beauty.\nSee Class B, third and fourth years.\nEggleston, Edward — First Book in American History.\nAmerican Book Co. $0.60.\nDefoe, Daniel — Robinson Crusoe (abridged editions). American Book Co.; ^^0.50.\nGinn & Co. ; boards, $0.35 ; cloth, ^0.50.\nHoughton, Mifflin & Co. ; $0.50.\nWyss and Montolieu — Swiss Family Robinson. Ginn & Co. Boards, ^^0.40; cloth,\n$0.50.\nSEVENTH\n\nAND\n\nEIGHTH\n\nCLASS\n\nYEARS\n\nA\n\nHawthorne, Nathaniel — Tales of the White Hills, including Great Stone Face.\nHoughton, Mifflin & Co.\nPaper, ^0.15 ; cloth, $o.a,o.\nWhittier, John G.— Snow Bound. Houghton, Mifflin & Co. Paper, ;?0.I5 ; cloth,\n$0.25.\nScott, Sir Walter — Lady of the Lake. American Book Co.; $0.30. Maynard, Merrill\n& Co.; ;go.24. Leach, Shewdl & Co.; $0.-iS- Houghton, Mifflin & Co.; #0.75. The\nMacmillan Co.; ^0.40.\nLongfellow, H. W. — Evangeline. Houghton, Mifflin & Co.; paper, $0.15; cloth,\n$0.2.^- Maynard, Merrill & Co.; $0.24.\nLeach, Shewell & Co.; ;So.35.\nWarner, Charles Dudley — A Hunting of the Deer, and other papers. Houghton,\nMifflin & Co.\nPaper, $0.15 ; cloth, ^0.25.\nCLASS\n\nRepplier, Agnes, editor — A Book of\n\nB\n\nFamous Verse.\n\nHoughton, Mifflin & Co.\n\nFranklin, Benjamin- Autobiography (abridged editions). Ginn & Co.; boards,\n;jSo.40; cloth, ;S5o.5o. Houghton, Mifflin & Co.; paper, $0.30; cloth, ;?o.40 and $0.50.\nAmerican Book Co.; $0.35.\nHale, Edward Everett — The Man without a Country. Roberts Bros. Paper, ^0.30 ;\ncloth, $\\.2%,\n\n"}
{"page": 1029, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nLISTS\n\nOF BOOKS\n\nFOR\n\nLOWER\n\nGRADES\n\n1019\n\nCLASS C\n\nDodge, Mary Mapes — Hans Brinker, or the Silver Skates. Chas. Scribner's Sons.\n»l.50.\nHughes, Thomas — Tom Brown at Rugby. Ginn & Co.; boards, $0.40; cloth,\n;$0.50. Houghton, Mifflin & Co.; paper, to.45 ; cloth, $0.50 and $o.bo. American Book\nCo.; JI0.35. A. L. Burt; $0.75.\nCoffin, Charles Carleton — The Boys of '76. Harper & Bros.\n$2.\nAlcott, Louisa M. — Little Women.\nRoberts Bros.\n$1.50.\nScudder, Horace E. — George Washington. Houghton, Mifflin & Co. Paper, J0.30 ;\ncloth, $0.40.\nPyle, Howard — Men of Iron.\n\nHarper & Bros.\n\nBOOKS\n& Co.\n\nOF\n\n$2.\n\nREFERENCE\n\nChamplin, John D. — Young Folks' Cyclopedia of Persons and Places. Henry Holt\n^[2.50.\n\nChamplin, John D., Jr. — Young Folks' Cyclopedia of Common\nHolt & Co. $2.50.\n\nThings. Henry\n\nFoster and Williams, editors — Selections for Memorizing. Ginn & Co. Boards,\n$0.40 ; cloth, $0.50.\nBellamy and Goodwin, editors — Open Sesame. Vol. I. Selections of poetry and\nprose.\nGinn & Co.\n;?0.7S.\nLIST FOR\n\nGRADED\nFIRST\n\nSCHOOLS\nAND\n\nIN SMALL\n\nSECOND\n\nVILLAGES\n\nYEARS\n\nCLASS A\n\nScudder, Horace E., editor — Verse and Prose for Beginners in Reading. Houghton,\nMifflin & Co.\n$0.40.\nNorton and Stephens, editors — Heart of Oak Books. First book. D. C. Heath &\n& Co. $0.25.\nArnold and Gilbert — Stepping Stones to Literature. First reader. Silver, Burdette\n& Co. j5o.30.\nLane, Mrs. C. A. — Stories for Children.\nAmerican Book Co. $0.25.\nHaaren, J. H. — Rhymes and Fables.\nUniversity Publishing Co. $0.12.\n\nPoulsson, Emilid — In the Child's World.\nMilton, Bradley & Co.\n$2.\nScudder, Horace E., editor — Fables and Folk Stories. Houghton, Mifflin & Co.\n^0.40.\n\nAndrews, Jane — Seven Little Sisters.\nGinn & Co. $0.50.\nAndrews, Jane — Each and All. Ginn & Co. $0.50.\nKipling, Rudyard — The Jungle Book.\nThe Century Co. $1.50.\nWhittier, J. G. — Selections from Child Life in Poetry. Houghton, Mifflin & Co.\nfo.40.\nWiggin, Kate Douglas — The Bird's Christmas Carol. Houghton, Mifflin & Co.\n$0.50.\n\nEggleston, Edward — Stories of Great Americans for Little Americans. American\nBook Co. $0.40.\nCraik, Mrs. D. M. (Miss Mulock) — Adventures of a Brownie. T. Y. Crowell & Co.;\n$0.50.\nHarper & Bros..; $0.90.\nWood, J. G.— First Natural History Reader.\nBoston S. S. Co. $0.25.\n\n"}
{"page": 1030, "printed_page": null, "text": "I020\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nTHIRD\n\nAND\n\nFOURTH\nCLASS\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nYEARS\n\nA.\n\nSeven Little Sisters. Each and All. Fables and Folk Stories. Stories of Great\nAmericans for Little Americans.\nSee Class B, first and second years.\nAndersen, Hans C. — Stories.\nHoughton, Mifflin & Co. iSo.40.\nEggleston, Edward — Stories of American Life and Adventure. American Book\nCo. 50.50.\nBaldwin, James — School Reading by Grades.\nThird year. American Book Co.\n\nHawthorne, Nathaniel — A Wonder Book for Boys and Girls.\nHoughton, Mifflin &\nPaper, $0.30 ; cloth, $0.40.\nHawthorne, Nathaniel — Tanglewood Tales. Houghton, Mifflin & Co. Paper,\n;5!o.30 ; cloth, ^0.40.\nBaldwin, James — Four Great Americans.\nWerner School Book Co, $0.50.\nBaldwin, James — Fifty Famous Stories Retold.\nAmerican Book Co. $0.35.\nChurch, Alfred J.— The Story of the Iliad. Macmillan Co. ^0.50.\nHawthorne, Nathaniel — Little Daffydowndilly, and Biographical Stories. Hough-\n\nCo.\n\nton, Mifflin ■& Co.\n\n^0.40.\n\nCLASS\n\nc\n\nSewell, Anna — Black Beauty. Lothrop Publishing Co.; %\\. American Humane\nSociety; ;?5o.io.\nKaler, J. O. (James Otis)— Toby Tyler.\nHarper & Bros,\n^i.\nKaler, J. O. (James Otis) — ^Mr. Stubbs's Brother. Sequel to Toby Tyler. Harper &\nBros.\n;^i.\nSchwatka, Frederick — Children of the Cold.\nFIFTH\n\nAND\n\nCassell & Co.\n\nSIXTH\n\n^1.25.\n\nYEARS\n\nRuskin, John — King of the Golden River. Ginn & Co.; boards, ^0.20 ; cloth, $0.25.\nMaynard, Merrill & Co.; $0.12.\nBurroughs, John — Birds and Bees, Sharp Eyes, and other papers. Houghton,\nMifflin & Co. ;go.40.\nEggleston, Edward — First Book in American History.\nAmerican Book Co. ^0.60.\nKingsley, Charles — The Water Babies (abridged editions). Ginn & Co.; boards,\n;go.35; cloth, $0.50.\nMaynard, Merrill & Co.; ^0.12.\n•\nLongfellow, H. W. — Hiawatha.\nHoughton, Mifflin & Co. ^0.40.\nCLASS\n\nB\n\nAlcott, Louisa M. — Little Men.\nRoberts Bros.\n$1.50.\nAndrews, Jane — Ten Boys on the Road from Long Ago till Now. Ginn & Co.\n$0.50.\nWright, Henrietta C. — -Stories of American Progress. Chas. Scribner's Sons. ^1.25.\nPlutarch's Lives (abridged edition).\nGinn & Co.\nBoards, $0.40; cloth, $0.50.\nMacaulay, T. B. — Lays of Ancient Rome. Houghton, Mifflin & Co.; paper, ^0.15;\nlinen, So. 25. Maynard, Merrill & Co.; to.2i,.\nRepplier, Agnes, editor — Book of Famous Verse.\nHoughton, Mifflin «Sr Co.\n$0.75.\n'\n\nCLASS\n\nc\n\nDodge, Mary Mapes — Hans Brinker.\nChas, Scribner's Sons.\nAlcott, Louisa M. — Little Women.\nRoberts Bros.\n$\\.S0.\nGrinnell, George B. — Story of the Indian.\n\n$1.50.\n\nChas, Scribner's Sons.\n\n^1.50.\n\n»\n\n"}
{"page": 1031, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nLISTS\n\nLOWER\n\nFOR\n\nOF BOOKS\n\nGRADES\n\n1 02 1\n\nSeawell, Mollie E.— Little Jarvis.\nD. Appleton & Co. %\\.\nDefoe, Daniel — Robinson Crusoe (abridged editions). • American Book Co.; $0.50.\nGinn & Co.; boards, $0.35 ; cloth, I0..50. Houghton, Mifflin & Co.; $0.50.\nVVyss and Montolieu — Swiss Family Robinson. Ginn & Co. Boards, ;?o. 40 ; cloth,\n«0.S0.\n\nBolton, Sarah K. — Poor Boys who Became Famous.\nT. Y. Crowell & Co.\nSi-SOBolton, Sarah K. — Girls who Became Famous.\nT. Y. Crowell & Co.\n$1.50.\nSEVENTH\n\nAND\n\nEIGHTH\n\nCLASS\n\nYEARS\n\nA\n\nHawthorne, Nathaniel — ^Tales of the White Hills, including Great Stone Face.\nHoughton, Mifflin & Co.\nPaper, $0.15; cloth, J0.40.\nWhittier, J. G. — Snow Bound.\nHoughton, Mifflin & Co. Paper, ^So.iS; cloth, $0.25.\nScott, Sir Waltei- — Lady of the Lake. American Book Co.; ^0.30. Maynard,\nMerrill & Co.; $0.24. Leach, Shewell & Co.; $0.35. The Macmillan Co.; $0.40.\nHoughton, Mifflin & Co.; $0.75.\nLongfellow, H. W. — Evangeline. Houghton, Mifflin & Co.; paper, $0.15; cloth,\n50.25.\nMaynard, Merrill & Co.; ^0.12.\nLeach, Shewell & Co.; ;55o.35.\nWarner, Charles Dudley — A Hunting of the Deer, and other papers. Houghton,\nMifflin &Co.\nPaper, ;?o.i5; cloth, ;go.25.\nShakespeare — Merchant of Venice. Houghton, Mifflin & Co.; paper, $0.15; cloth,\nj!5o.25. Ginn & Co.; $0.50. Harper & Bros.; paper, $0.40; cloth, $0.56. Leach, Shewell\n& Co.; $0.35.\nAmerican Book Co.; 50.20.\nThe Macmillan Co.; $0.40.\nCLASS\n\nB\n\nA Book of Famous Verse.\nSee Class B, fifth and sixth years.\nFranklin, Benjamin — Autobiography (abridged editions). Ginn & Co.; boards»\n$0.40 ; cloth, $0.50. Houghton, Mifflin & Co.; paper, $0.30 ; cloth, 50.40 and 50.50.\nAmerican Book Co.; 50.35.\nHale, Edward Everett — A Man Without a Country. Roberts Bros. Paper, 50.30;\ncloth, 51.25.\nGibson, William Hamilton — Sharp Eyes.\nHarper & Bros.\n52.50.\nParkman, Francis — La Salle and the Discovery of the Great West. Little, Brown\n& Co.\n51.50.\nCLASS\n\nC\n\nCoffin, Charles Carleton — Boys of '76. Harper & Bros.\n52.\nFiske, John — War of Independence.\nHoughton, Mifflin & Co.\n50.40.\nScudder, Horace E. — George Washington.\nHoughton, Mifflin & Co. 50.40.\nCoffin, C. C— Old Times in the Colonies.\nHarper & Bros.\n52.\nBrooks, E. S. — True Story of Abraham Lincoln.\nLothrop Publishing Co. 5i-50.\nCarpenter, Frank G. — Carpenter's Geographical Reader. Asia. American Book\nCo.\n50.60.\nCuster, Mrs. Elizabeth — Boots and Saddles.\nHarper & Bros.\n5i.So.\nBuckley, Arabella B. — The Fairy Land of Science.\nD. Appleton & Co. 5i-5o.\nScott, Sir Walter — Ivanhoe (abridged editions). Ginn & Co.; boards, 5o.6o; cloth,\n50.75. American Book Co.; 50.50. University Publishing Co.; paper, 5o.20; cloth, 50.30.\nCooper, James Fenimore — Last of the Mohicans. A. L. Burt; 50.75. T. Y. Crowell;\n5l. G. P. Putnam's Sons ; 51.25.\nHoughton, Mifflin & Co.; 5o.6o.\nMacmillan Co.; 5l.\nAldrich, T. B.— Story of a Bad Boy.\nHoughton, Mifflin & Co. 50.70.\nStevenson, Robert Louis — Treasure Island. Chas. Scribner's Sons; 5i- A. L.\nBurt ; 50.75.\nRobert Bros.; 50.25.\n\n"}
{"page": 1032, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nDeland, Margaret. — Oakleigh.\nHarper & Bros.\n^1.25.\nPyle, Howard. — Men of Iron.\nHarper & Bros.\n$2.\nLongfellow, H.W — Courtship of Miles Standish. Houghton, Mifflin & Co. Paper,\n$0.15; cloth, ;?o.25.\nBrown, Dr. John — Rab and His Friends. Houghton, Mifflin & Co.; $0.60. Maynard, Merrill & Co.; $Q.i2.\nGuerber, H. A, — Story of the Romans.\nAmerican Book Co. $0.60.\nGuerber, H. A. — Story of the Greeks.\nAmerican Book Co.\n$Q.ho.\nBOOKS\n\nOF REFERENCE\n\nChamplin, John D., Jr.— Young Folks' Cyclopedia of Persons and Places. Henry\nHolt & Co. $2.50.\n& Co.\n\nChamplin, John D., Jr. — Young Folks' Cyclopedia of Common Things.\n$2.^0.\n\nHenry Holt\n\nChamplin, John D., Jr. — Young Folks' Cyclopedia of Games and Sports. Henry Holt\n& Co. ;S!2.5o.\nBeard, D. C. — American Boy's Handy Book.\nChas. Scribner's Sons.\n$1.\nGoodwin and Bellamy — Open Sesame.\nVol. I. Ginn & Co. to.T^.\nWilliams & Foster, editors — Selections for Memorizing. Ginn & Co. Boards, $0.I0;\ncloth, $0.50;\n\nREADING\n\nLISTS FOR PUBLIC SCHOOLS— HO W PREPARED,\nHOW USED EFFECTIVELY\n\nBY SHERMAN\n\nWILLIAMS, SUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF SCHOOLS, GLENS\n\nFALLS, N. Y.\n\nIt is comparatively an easy matter to make a list of good books, and\nnot very difficult to classify them, but to make a list for pupils to read,\nand one that shall be valuable in the work of creating and fostering in\nthem a taste for good literature, is a much more difficult matter. No one\nlist will answer all purposes, nor will any one list answer the same purpose under all circumstances. Nor will a list that is valuable for certain\nwork under certain circumstances continue to be valuable for all time.\nThe best possible list needs to be changed from time to time. It is quite\npossible for a reading list, even tho made up of good books, to be positively harmful. It always will be if it tends to make the pupils dislike\nreading. Among the things to be considered in making reading lists for\npupils are :\n1. Your purpose.\n2. The class of pupils you are seeking to influence,\n(a) Their age and maturity of mind, {b) Their training, {c) Their tastes, (d)\nTheir environment.\n(^) The reading they have done.\n3. Your facilities for work.\n{a) The books that the pupils can already have access to. (b) The periodicals\nthat they read regularly, {c) Their opportunities for attending lectures. (^)\nThe existence of reading clubs.\n\n"}
{"page": 1033, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmeni]\n\nREADING\n\nLISTS\n\nFOR\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n1023\n\n4. The nature of the community and the help that may be had from —\n(a) The public library,\n(b) The press,\n(c) The clergy,\n{d) Principals\nschools,\n(e) Teachers.\n(/) Parents.\n\nof\n\nLet US consider these points somewhat in detail. The primary purpose of reading lists in public schools should be to train pupils to love\ngood literature. We have all classes of children to deal with, and if we\nsucceed in large measure, we must consider them all. We must take them\nwhere we find them and gradually develop their taste. We must select\nbooks that interest them. In doing this we must select some books that\nhave very little literary merit. If we would shut out pernicious literature,\nwe must at certain periods, for some pupils, provide reading that has little\nvalue, save in that it shuts out that which is positively bad.\nA taste for good reading is a growth, even when it is an inheritance,\nand often a very slow growth. There are certain experiences that the\nnormal boy and girl are sure to have in the process of acquiring a taste\nfor good literature, and those who ignore this fact are not likely to be\nvery successful in dealing with them. Some people seem never to have\nbeen young, and some others to have forgotten that they ever were.\nThis is unfortunate, if they have to deal with the young. The child will\nhave, and ought to have, the kind of literature that his nature craves at\nvarious periods of his development ; all that we can wisely attempt is to\nsee that he has the very best of the kind that he wishes. Of course, I am\nnow speaking of those who have not acquired a taste for pernicious literature. In meeting this demand of the child it is not necessary to provide\nhim with any literature that is at all objectionable morally, or particularly\nbad from a literary point of view. It is more likely to be objectionable\nbecause of what it is not than because of what it is. I speak from a large,\nearly personal experience when I say that the taste for the kinds of literature I have referred to is short-lived. It will always be if the child is\nproperly looked after ; but if this kind of reading be not allowed, many\nchildren will never form a taste for any kind of reading. At the time\nthat most children crave reading that is not of a high order, it rests with\nus to determine whether that craving shall be gratified by reading books\nthat are harmful, or those that will serve as stepping-stones to better\nthings.\nOwing to the great differences of children in school, their training,\ntheir tastes, their environment, it is not wise to make a reading list that\nis arbitrarily to be followed. The list should be quite large and allow a\nchoice. In the list for the children of the same age there should be some\nbooks much more difficult than others. Again, the list should not only\nbe divided so as to have a list for each year's work in school, but the list\nfor each year should be subdivided, providing one section for fiction,\nanother for biography, another for travels, others for history, essays,\netc.\nThe child should be required to read one or more from each\n\n"}
{"page": 1034, "printed_page": null, "text": "1024\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nsection given in his year's work, but he should be allowed to select that\none himself. The first year that home reading is required there should be\nbut one section of books, because there will be some pupils who are not\nfitted to read anything save very easy juvenile fiction. Poetry should be\nintroduced much earlier than is usually done. Children will read and\nenjoy Longfellow and some other poets much earlier than is generally\nsupposed.\nReading lists are frequently made for the high school only. This is\na very great mistake. -Only a very small part of the children ever reach\nthe high school, and those who do will have formed a taste for reading\nbefore that time — a taste that will not be readily changed. The reading\nlists should cover the whole school course. As early as possible the children should be required to do their own reading ; before that their teachers\nshould read to them.\nIn the making of reading lists one must bear in mind the material\nthat can be had. Usually the public library is glad to co-operate heartily\nin the matter, but in some places there is no public library, in which event\nthe list must include only such books as the school library contains,\nunless there is some other source of supply. In a small place the super' intendent, in larger places the principals, can, without much difficulty,\nlearn what books and periodicals the children have access to at home ;\nand in cases where there is no public library, or school library of much\nsize, this information can be made very useful.\nCharles Dudley Warner has said : \" To teach a child to read, and not\nteach it what to read, is to put a dangerous weapon into its hands.\" I\nthink there is a pretty general agreement that this statement is true, but\nit is the one thing that very few courses of study recognize as being\nimportant. From the time a child has learned to read until he graduates\nfrom the high school, he should be held as strictly to a course of reading\nas to a course in mathematics, or science, or language. It is the one line\nof work done in school that continues thru life in the case of all the\npupils. . Yet in most schools little or no attention is given to it below the\nhigh school. The work of formation, the establishment of taste and\nhabit, must be begun earlier than that, if there is to be much hope of success with pupils in the high school, to say nothing of the fact that only a\nvery small percentage of the pupils ever reach the high school.\nNot every child can be trained to like a given kind of literature\n— poetry, for example — any more than every child can be trained to\nlove music, art, or mechanics ; but every child, every normal child, can\nbe trained to like good literature of some kind. Each child should be\nrequired to read some works in the various departments of literature, but\nthere should also be a large degree of freedom of choice. Nearly every\nbook on the list will be read by some one of the children, and they will\ntalk over their reading with each other and influence each other more\n\n"}
{"page": 1035, "printed_page": null, "text": "I>epartment]\n\nkEADING\n\nLISTS\n\nFOR\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n1025\n\nthan their teachers can influence them. They can safely be allowed a\nlarge degree of freedom of choice in selecting from the lists, and the\nlists should be long, if the material at hand that can be used admits of a\nlong list. The matter of learning to choose is in itself of a good deal of\nimportance, because after leaving school they must choose their own\nreading.\nIn making reading lists for use in public schools the subjects studied\nshould be considered to some extent. Often a pupil will be interested in a book that gives him help in his lessons when he would not\nbe in any other; besides, the habit of collateral reading is a valuable\none. If the pupils attend lecture courses, books bearing upon subjects\ntreated by the lecturers may be accepted for home reading in place of\nbooks already on the course.\nIt is necessary to know in some way that the books have been read,\nand how they have been read. Probably each superintendent would\nsettle that matter for himself. A very satisfactory plan has been to have\nthe teacher assign several topics relating to characters in the work read,\nthe motive of the book, descriptions of scenery, etc., and have the pupils\nwrite an essay on whichever of the subjects they chose. This not only\ninsures a careful reading of the book, but is also a good exercise in composition.\nIn making reading lists you must study the community. If you are in\na college town, or one in which the inhabitants are largely well educated,\nin which a taste for literature is largely an inheritance, you can require\nreading of a character that you could not hope for in a manufacturing\ntown in which the inhabitants are largely foreign-born, the children coming from homes where books are not known, and where the parents at\nbest read only the daily newspapers, and in most cases not even them.\nYou must also consider what a community wants, or thinks it wants.\nIf the parents care nothing about having their children acquire a taste for\nreading, you have them as well as the children to educate, and you must\nrely upon the press and the clergy, as well as the teachers, for help ; and\nyou must, for a time, be content to make progress slowly. If public sentiment is with you, as it ordinarily will be, all that is needed is good judgment; ifit is against the work, or indifferent, you need to add to good\njudgment patience.\nWith a competent superintendent, ultimate success is absolutely certain. May I be pardoned if I close with a brief account of my own\nexperience ? I give this because it may encourage someone who feels\nthat his opportunities are so meager that he cannot succeed. We began\nthis work thirteen years ago in a most humble way. Our only library\nconsisted of some four or five hundred articles taken from old magazines\nand pasted in cardboard covers. There was no public library in the\nplace. It was not a reading community.\nThere was not in it a dozen men\n\n"}
{"page": 1036, "printed_page": null, "text": "102 6\n\nI^ATIOI^AL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nwith a college education. It is a manufacturing place. Nearly one-third\nof the population was Canadian French, a large part of whom were\nunable to read. More than one-half of the population was foreignborn. We began the formation of a school library buying in sets books\nin cheap bindings. Our work grew slowly. It met with some opposition. Our school library grew slowly, but the interest in the work increased\nrapidly. We were continually speaking of the need of a public library.\nOne day I was greatly surprised to have a gentleman come to me and\noffer to start a public library for us and guarantee an annual income.\nThe library did not make the reading course, but the reading course made\nthe library. Today there is no work done in our schools more popular\nwith pupils, teachers, and parents than that required by our reading\ncourse, and I am sure none more valuable. I give this bit of history\nbecause I think there are few places that would begin this work under\nmore unfavorable circumstances than we did, and, as we succeeded, having\nno unusual skill, or experience, or wisdom to aid in the work, it would\nseem that it might be attempted almost anywhere with good hope of success. It may not be out of place for me to say here that my next report,\nwhich will be issued next fall, will give a full and detailed account of\nwhat we have accomplished, and that I shall be glad to mail a copy of it\nto anyone who cares to send me a postal card asking for it.\nIn closing, it seems to me that I cannot do better than to give the foling quotation from Henry Hudson : \" What sort of reading are our\nschools planting an appetite for ? Are they really doing anything to\ninstruct and form the mental taste, so that the pupils on leaving them may\nbe safely left to choose their reading for themselves ? It is clear in evidence that they are far from educating the young to take pleasure in\nwhat is intellectually noble and sweet. The statistics of our public\nlibraries show that some cause is working mightily to prepare them only\nfor delight in what is both morally and intellectually mean and foul. It\nwould not, indeed, be fair to charge our public schools with positively giving this preparation ; but it is their business to forestall and prevent such\na result. If along with the faculty of reading they cannot also impart\nsome safeguards of taste and habit against such a result, will the system\nprove a success?\"\n\nDISCUSSION\nL. D. Harvey, Wisconsin. — In Milwaukee lists are made out by the principals and\nsent to the public library. The books are then sent to the school buildings for a certain\nlength of time, charged to the principals, and are lent to teachers and pupils. Whenever\na change is wanted, notice is sent to the public library. The same arrangement is made\nwith the normal school.\nThe books are kept from one to eight weeks.\n\n"}
{"page": 1037, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREADING\n\nLISTS\n\nFOR\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n1027\n\nJ. H. Van Sickle, Colorado. — Has there been difficulty in getting books ?\nI^. D. Harvey. — Yes, because the demand increases so rapidly, tho books are added\nmore frequently than formerly.\nThe policy of the librarian is liberal, but the demand outruns the supply.\nJ. H. Van Sickle. — Is this extended to country places ?\nL. D. Harvey. — No.\nJ. H. Van Sickle. — What is thejplan in New York ?\nMiss Myrtilla Avery, New York. — Traveling libraries consisting of duplicates of\nbooks for class-room work and supplementary reading are lent to high schools. With\nthese are often included lantern slides and pictures.\nJ. H. Van Sickle. — Is any definite work done by normal schools to create an interest in books and reading ?\nL. D. Harvey. — I do not know in general, but in Milwaukee it is done. It was\nintroduced because for twenty years I have been among the common schools and at every\nstage have found the difficulty to be that the teachers know nothing whatever about\nbooks. At one institute I found that not more than 10 per cent, of the teachers present\nhad read a poem longer than one found in a reading book. In our state, schools are provided with libraries. A visitor once asked a teacher about the library. He said there\nwas none The visitor then asked the district clerk, who also said there was none ; but\nhis wife said: \"You are mistaken; it is in the bedroom under the bed.\" The teacher\nhad not even enough energy to find out about the library. It is an important work to\nshow teachers their needs and acquaint them with the provisions that have been made to\nsatisfy, those needs.\nMuch that has been accomplished in Milwaukee is due to one primary-school teacher,\nMiss L. E. Stearns, who spent her time and money in this cause. She had also that rare\nquality — *' sand.\" When a boy came to her and said his mother didn't want him to read,\nshe replied : \" You take those books right home and read them ; that is the work you are\nto do at home.\" Presently the same boy came and said : \" Please, may I keep this book\na little longer ? My mother can't read English, but she likes to have me read this to her.\"\nIf you can find a teacher like this, cultivate her. Give her every facility to carry on her\nwork. This committee should encourage such efforts. You have a good list, but this will\nbe ineffective unless there is a teacher who believes reading is a good thing. When\nlibrarians attempt to do this work alone, there is little success. Sometimes results are\naccomplished in spite of teachers, but that is rare. Most librarians are overcrowded with\nother work, while teachers are with their pupils six hours a day. They can exert a constant influence toward making reading a pleasure rather than a drudgery.\nIn Milwaukee we require pupils to know what is in the best standard books. We\nask them to make lists and to say what they expect to find from them. In reading, when\nthey do not like a book, we advise them not to read it, and we find some book they want\nto read. Sometimes this is a pretty poor book but we try to get them to read better ones\nnext time. Perhaps we do not get systematic work, but we get reading and a love for\ngood reading, and that is worth more than system. To begin with Henty and end with\ngood books in history means intelligence, interest, and enthusiasm on the part of the\nteacher. I believe this is the most fruitful field in educational work today.\nJ. H. Van Sickle. — How does this react on the teachers ?\nL. D. Harvey. — They come to understand what the pupil can appreciate and enjoy.\nIt is a very practical form of child study.\nMiss WooDARD, Michigan. — In our normal-school library of 20,000 volumes we\nhave lists for all grades, and these books are in the library where students can consult\nthem. The director of the training school has begun a card catalog, which is being\ncarried on by seniors. In our school paper, also, we have printed information in regard\nto library progress.\nI should be glad to know if there are any normal librarians here\n\n"}
{"page": 1038, "printed_page": null, "text": "I028\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nwho give instruction, and also what is to be done if the librarian has not time to give a\ncourse of lectures.\nL. D. Harvey. — In Milwaukee we undertake to make our students familiar with\nour books.\nS. S. Green, Massachusetts. — The library school at Albany, N. Y., is working on\nall these problems. The vice-director, Mrs. S. C. Fairchild, is constantly on the lookout\nfor points in this connection, either information or its sources.\nSherman Williams. — I wish some steps might be taken to interest teachers. The\nhead of the school must be interested if a large and effective work is to be done. In New\nYork there are not one hundred teachers who take a live interest.\nS. S. Green. — The way to create interest is to get together the jieople who are\ninterested. When I started this work at Worcester, I asked the principals of the high\nschool and the normal school to meet me. Then the superintendent of schools called all\nthe teachers together, and I found some teachers were already interested. Then the\nsuperintendent became interested, and after that the subject was discussed at teachers'\nmeetings.\nIt is important to incite an interest among those in authority.\nF. A. HuTCHiNS, Wisconsin. — Each state ought to have an enthusiastic man to go\nthruout the state and teach the teachers how to read.\nRichard Hardy, Michigan. — After learning of Mr. Harvey's plan I undertook\nsomething similar in my school, and as a means of spreading the work I took advantage\nof the spirit of envy. We began to \"brag,\" and we found it very effective. The papers\ngot hold of it, and northern Michigan was soon interested.\nJ. H. Van Sickle. — Much can be done thru institutes, and widespread influence\nmight be exerted thru the meeting of city superintendents.\n\n"}
{"page": 1039, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION OF THE DEAF,\nTHE BLIND, AND THE FEEBLE-MINDED\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\nThe meetings of the department were held in the Franklin School building, a unique\nand interesting feature being the exhibits by the associate departments.\nTHE\n\nDEAF\n\nThe education of the deaf was represented by daily exercises in speech and gymnastics by a class of little pupils from Miss Garrett's school in Philadelphia ; also by\nspeech work by older pupils from the state school at Columbus, O. — J. W. Jones, superintendent.\nThe Arkansas and New Jersey State Schools for the Deaf made an exhibit of interesting kindergarten-occupation work by young children ; the latter also had an exceptionally fine exhibit of art work by advanced pupils.\nThe Horace Mann School of Boston made an exhibit of stories for young children ;\nprinting and typesetting ; drawing ; card-board work, illustrating a three-years' course\nfor pupils between the ages of eight and eleven years ; wood work, illustrating a fouryears' course for pupils aged from seven to seventeen years ; needle work ; cooking-class\nexhibit. — Miss Sarah Fuller, principal.\nThe McCowen Oral School for Young Deaf Children — the first permanent home\nkindergarten for the deaf — located at 6550 Yale avenue, Chicago, exhibited class-room\nwork illustrating in sequence the value of drawing and work in materials, such as wood, tin>\nleather, paper, etc., as a means of expression for very young children in kindergartens\nand for primary grades of public schools, clearly showing the underlying principle and\nthe correlation of material under varying circumstances and at different stages of thought\ndevelopment. — Miss Cornelia D. Bingham, in charge.\nTHE\n\nBLIND\n\nThe department for the blind was represented by an exhibit of the New York State\nSchool for the Blind, Batavia, N. Y., comprising kindergarten work, primary-grade work,\nscript writing by the blind, typewriting class work by the blind, a sewing exhibit, and an\nAmerican flag, made entirely by blind girls, the forty-five stars of which were sewed on by\nforty-five different pupils. — Gardner Fuller, superintendent.\nThe North Carolina State School for the Blind exhibited handwork by pupils. —\nJohn Ray, principal.\nA loan exhibit of periodicals, books, music, ihaps, etc., for the blind, from the Congressional Library ; a circulating library for the blind of the District of Columbia, and\nmiscellaneous handiwork, exhibited under the auspices of the Aid Association for the\n1029conducted a series of morning concerts by\nBlind of the District of Columbia, which also\nthe blind. — Mrs. John Russell Young, president.\n\n"}
{"page": 1040, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 030\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nTHE\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Education of\n\nFEEBLE-MINDED\n\nThe department for the feeble-minded was represented by an exhibit of the handiworic of pupils attending the Haddonfield, N. J., Training School for Mentally Backward Children. — Miss Margaret Bancroft, principal.\nAn exhibit of work and an entertainment by pupils of the Pennsylvania Training\nSchool for Feeble-minded Children, at Elwyn, Pa. — Dr. Martin W. Barr, chief physician,\nin charge.\nFIRST\n\nSESSION.— Monday, July ii, 1898\n\nThe first session of the department was called to order in the auditorium of the\nFranklin School building, at 2 : 30 P. M., by the president. Dr. Joseph C. Gordon, of\nJacksonville, 111.\nThe president's address was followed by words of welcome by General John Eaton\nand Dr. Alexander Graham Bell, of Washington, D. C.\nMary Garrett, principal of the Home for the Training in Speech of Deaf Children\nbefore they are of School Age, Philadelphia, Pa., read a paper on \" The Duty of the\nHour to Young Deaf Children.\"\nSuperintendent P'rank Hall of the Illinois State Institution for the Blind presented\na paper on \"Pedagogical Lessons from the Study of the Blind.\"\nDr. E. M. Gallaudet, president of the Columbian Institution for the Deaf, Washington, D. C, spoke on \" The Advantages of College Education for the Deaf.\"\nIsaac B. Gardner, of Little Rock, Ark., read a paper on \" The Relation of the Deaf\nto the Hearing World.\"\nThe next paper on the program was by Margaret Bancroft, Haddonfield, N, J., on\nthe subject of \" The Trend in the Training of Backward and Mentally Deficient Children.\"\n' A paper on \" The Relation of Language Teaching to Mental Development \" was\nread by S. G. Davidson, Mt. Airy, Philadelphia, Pa.\nThe following committee on nominations was appointed :\nDr. Alexander Graham Bell, Chairman.\nH. E. Dawes, Omaha, Neb., Stcretary.\nHon. Robert C. Spencer, Milwaukee, Wis.\nMrs. Alice U. Hunt, District of Columbia.\nMiss Thyrza Williams, Haddonfield, N. J.\n\nSECOND\n\nSESSION.— Tuesday, July 12, 2:30 p. m.\n\nDr. Martin W. Barr, chief physician, Pennsylvania Training School for the Feebleminded, Elwyn, Pa., read a paper on \" The How, the Why, and the Wherefore of the\nTraining of Feeble-minded Children.\"\nAn address on \" Methods of Instruction \" was given by Dr. Louis Klemm, specialist.\nUnited States Bureau of Education.\nDr. W. O. Krohn, physiologist of hospital, Illinois, explained \" Phyiical Laboratory\nMethods,\" giving physical examinations and sense tests.\nDr. Elmer E. Gates, of the Laboratory of Psychology and Psychurgy, Chevy Chase,\nMd., presented a paper on the subject of \" Brain Building and Mind Building with Special Reference to Sense Training of the Eye and Ear, and Teaching Mentally Deficient\nChildren.\"\nProfessor Robert C. Spencer, president of the Phonological Institute, Milwaukee,\nWis., gave a report of the \"Day Schools for the Deaf of Wisconsin.\"\nThe Committee on Nominations submitted the following report :\nFor President — Dr. Joseph C. Gordon, superintendent of State School for the Deaf, Jacksonville, 111.\n\n"}
{"page": 1041, "printed_page": null, "text": "Defectives!\n\nPRESIDENT'S\n\nADDRESS\n\n1 03 1\n\nFor Secretary and Treasure? — Miss Mary McGiwen, supervising principal of the Chicago public\nday schools for the deaf, Chicago, 111.\nFor Vice-Presidents:\nVice -President /or the Dea/— Mrs. Jennie Bright Holden, 6a6 Hayes street, San Francisco, Cal.\nVice-President for the Blind — Hon. Frank Hall, superintendent of State School for the Blind, Jacksonvil e, I I.\nVice-President for the Feeble-minded — Dr. A. £. Osborne, superintendent of School for the Mentally Deficient, Glen Ellen, Cal.\n\nThe committee further recommended that these five officers constitute the executive\ncommittee of the department.\nThe report of the committee was adopted by a unanimous vote. On motion, the\ndepartment adjourned.\nMary McCowen,\nSecretary.\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nPRESIDENT'S\nBY\n\nDR.\n\nJOSEPH\n\nDISCUSSIONS\nADDRESS\n\nC. GORDON, SUPERINTENDENT\nOF STATE\nTHE\nDEAF,\nJACKSONVILLE,\nILL.\n\nINSTITUTION\n\nFOR\n\nI am well aware that you have not come to hear me make a speech in\nthese days of action when our young men and our older men as well, are\nmaking history so fast. It is deeds, not words, that are wanted. I am very\nglad, however, to respond for a moment to the kind words of welcome, and,\non behalf of all connected with Department Sixteen who have met here in\nthe capital city of the nation, I now return our profound thanks to the\ncommittee of arrangements, of which Dr. Bell is chairman.\nThe time is too short to go into the history of the organization of this\ndepartment. I will say, merely to put the matter on record, that the\ninitiative came from the National Educational Association, at a meeting\nin Madison, Wis., in 1884. The matter was taken up there of joining\nhands with the educators of the deaf ; and immediately after the meeting\nadjourned an invitation came from the officers of the National Educational Association for the teachers of the deaf to form a department ; but\nnothing came of it at that time.\nAt the Buffalo meeting of the association a formal petition was presented (bywhom I know not) asking for the organization of a department\nfor the deaf. This petition was granted, but later was revoked, as an\ninformality was found in it.\nThe following year the day-school teachers of Chicago and Wisconsin\nunited in a petition asking for a round table in the interests of the deaf,\nin connection with the association at Milwaukee. This petition was\nproperly indorsed by more than the requisite number of active members,\nand was readily granted.\nThe round table was duly organized, and held\n\n"}
{"page": 1042, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 032\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Education of\n\na successful and enthusiastic meeting, which furnished a propitious opportunity for a renewal of the former pelfition in an acceptable form ; and\nthus this branch of the great National Educational Association was formed,\nand arrangements entered upon which have culminated in this, the first\nformal meeting of this department of the association.\nI can only say, speaking for myself, that it gives me the greatest happiness to have the honor to be the first president of this department.\nMany of my brethren have looked upon this movement with .various feelings. For my part, I am ready and willing to join hands and keep step\nwith every man and every woman on this broad earth who is working for\nGod and humanity.\nIn planning this organization, it seems to have been laid out upon\nbroad lines. It is, you may say, all-embracing, for it embraces the beginnings of all things. While it was primarily intended for the educators of\nthe deaf, it soon came to include the educators of the blind, and afterward it took in those who are interested in the education of backward\nand feeble-minded children. It invites to attend the meetings of the\ndepartment all who take an interest in the growth and progress of education for these classes. We feel that we are a part of the great educational\narmy, and we feel that we are entitled to march along the same road, and\nthat we must do so if we would keep up with the procession.\nThe difference between the education of the defective child and\nthat of the university student, I take it, is not a difference in kind ; it\nis simply a difference in degree. You take the same kind of step over\nthe same track and pass thru the same processes, and no man can go thru\na university successfully who has not taken precisely the same steps\nsome time in his life that the backward and handicapped child must\ntake.\nI will only say that we who are engaged in these special lines have\nalso been urgently invited to join our forces with the body of associated\ncharities. Some looked with serious misgivings on that, but our friends\nwho are connected with this organization state that they are the power\nbehind the throne, that they are in control of the purse, and that the\nlegislators all depend on what they say as to what the different schools in\nthe states may receive. They tell us it is better for them to know something about us, something about our work, in order that they may sympathize with us and appreciate our work ; and that they cannot for their\nlives see how our coming into their association can harm our work in any\nway. I agree with those who take this position. The educators of the\ndeaf have a number of organizations peculiarly their own. They have the\nAssociation to Promote the Teaching of Speech, which has been very successful in its work, and a great many of the educators of the deaf are connected with that association. They wish us all to become connected\nwith them, and I say Godspeed to their work ; and I am glad, indeed,\n\n"}
{"page": 1043, "printed_page": null, "text": "Defectives]\n\nDUTY\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nHOUR\n\nTO\n\nYOUNG\n\nDEAF\n\nCHILDREN\n\n1033\n\nwhenever any teacher of the deaf can see his way clear to work with that\norganization.\nThen there is a newer organization as to form, but later in fact : the\nConvention of American Instructors of the Deaf, which holds conventions,\nwhen needed, every three or four years, as the case may be ; and it has\naccomplished in the past, and is still accomplishing, a very great work.\nI feel that all this shows what a superabundant life and strength there is\namong us. And we are now also deeply interested in the great National\nEducational Association, which is the largest and greatest, and I believe\nthe most efficient, educational association in existence.\n\nTHE\n\nDUTY\n\nBY MISS\n\nMARY\n\nIN SPEECH\n\nOF THE\n\nHOUR\n\nS. GARRETT,\nOF DEAF\n\nPHILADELPHIA,\n\nTO\n\nPRINCIPAL\n\nCHILDREN\n\nYOUNG\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nBEFORE\n\nDEAF\n\nHOME\n\nTHEY\n\nFOR\n\nARE\n\nOF\n\nCHILDREN\nTHE\n\nTRAINING\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAGE,\n\nPA.\n\nThe duties of the present generation to the rising generation are\nbeing recognized and performed, to an extent that is most encouraging,\nin the general study of the individual child and in providing for it the\nopportunity for development of its individual powers.\nOur deaf children have been more or less sharers of the improved\nopportunities, but the proportion of those who have had the chance for\nthe best development of which they are capable has been distressingly\nsmall. The oral method for their instruction is gradually supplanting the\nsign method, so that out of about 520 schools in the world about 230\nare oral schools. While the training of the children in and thru\nthe medium of communication which is used in the world in which they\nmust live is an advantage over a training in an arbitrary sign language\nwhich is not understood by others, they still have an additional handicap\nput upon them which hearing children do not suffer. With a very few\nexceptions, instead of their training in speech being commenced in babyhood, as ours was, it is delayed to the school age.\nWe have from a few mothers learned to realize the simple fact\nthat, if deaf children are trained from infancy to look at the mouths\nand faces of people who are talking, and if they are further guided to\nimitate the speech they thus see, and if sufficient repetition of this is given\nthem to make up for what hearing children get, unconsciously to themselves, byhearing every word spoken in their presence, they will talk and\nunderstand language from sight.\nIt would seem as tho nothing more were necessary than to tell the\nmothers and friends of every deaf child this, to induce them to do the\n\n"}
{"page": 1044, "printed_page": null, "text": "I034\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Education of\n\nsame, but we find that two things must be accomplished before this work\ncan be generally done at home :\n1. All mothers must be made to realize that it canh^ done, and then\nthey must be shown how to do it.\n2, The public must realize that, instead of treating deaf children differently from other children, which makes them different, they must\nsimply talk to them from infancy.\nThe most effectual way to do this has seemed to be to establish a home\nfor deaf children^with an environment which would secure to the children,\nas nearly as possible and under everyday home conditions, the same\namount of repetition of the language thru the eye that hearing children\nget thru the ear while learning to talk. We have done this in Pennsylvania, and there is some of this early work being done in Chicago and\nMassachusetts, but very little elsewhere ; but all of our work together is\nnothing to what needs to be done to give all deaf children as fair a chance\nas hearing children. As scarcely anyone who has not seen this work\nrealizes what can be done, and as all thinking people, when they do see it,\nfeel that it should be done for all, it seems reasonable to suppose that, if\nwe should establish such homes simultaneously in all our states and territories, they would in the course of a generation so instruct the parents,\nfriends, and the community as to what is possible for the children that\nafterward it would be done in their own homes as naturally as hearing\nchildren are taught, and special institutions for this class would no\nlonger be needed. The deaf children who have no suitable homes would\ndoubtless be provided for as our Children's Aid Society in Philadelphia\nprovides for little waifs. It now has on its books 7,618 homes, all visited\nand certified to by its agents, in which little homeless children have\nbeen received and are well cared for. As there is only one deaf child\nin every fifteen hundred, the demand for homes for them could doubtless\neasily be supplied. This, then, seems to me the duty of the hour to little\ndeaf children. With articulate speech, speech reading, and language,\ntheir happiness and independence may be said to be secure ; without it\nthey are more or less handicapped in every relation in life. If it is better\nfor us to begin in infancy, it is better for them.\n\nPEDAGOGICAL\n\nLESSONS\n\nBY FRANK\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nH. HALL,\n\nBLIND,\n\nThe mind\n\nFROM\n\nA STUDY\n\nOF THE\n\nSTATE\n\nJACKSONVILLE,\n\nILL,\n\nis approached thru\n\nthe senses.\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nBLIND\n\nINSTITUTION\n\nFOR THE\n\nThe educator depends\n\nmainly upon three avenues of approach — sight, hearing, and touch.\n\nA\n\n"}
{"page": 1045, "printed_page": null, "text": "Defectives]\n\nLESSONS\n\nFROM\n\nA STUDY\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nBLIND\n\n1035\n\npsychologist tells us that the normal child obtains nine-tenths of his\nsense-perception thru the sense of sight. To teach a child to whom this\navenue is closed, whose amount of sense-perception is thereby greatly\nreduced, is the task of every teacher of the blind. Careful observation\nof the results may possibly throw some light upon the general educational problem.\nFirst, let it be observed that about 50 per cent, of the pupils in the\nschools for the blind have some sight. One -half of the remainder, or\n25 per cent, of all, have had sight and readily recall images that originally came to them thru the visual. organs. Of the 25 per cent, remaining who have no memory of sight, and therefore cannot recall visual\nimages, many are mentally defective ; the causes that operated to produce blindness having resulted in more or less serious mental disturbances.\nThe number of blind persons, then, who have never had visual images,\nand who are otherwise normal, and who are therefore suitable subjects\nfor the proposed investigation, is exceedingly small — probably not greater\nthan 15 per cent, of those who are found in the institutions, and not more\nthan 5 per cent, of the blind people in any given community.\nMy proposition, then, is to examine with some care educatfve processes and results attained with that very small class of people who have\nnever had visual images, and who are seemingly, in respect to natural\nmental endowments, the equals of ordinary children with sight.\nFirst let us consider the educative processes employed with this class\nof pupils. Their education must begin, and, so far as sense-perception\nis concerned, end, in hearing and touch. They can come into possession\nof no images except tactile and auditory ones, and such as may be built\nup from these. This deprives them not only of all ideas of color, and of\nlight and shade, but, what is vastly more important and interesting to the\nstudent of pedagogy, it deprives them of all instantaneous sense-perception of large areas. The normal pupil takes in at a glance a landscape.\nHe afterward, by the analytical process, observes its parts, and their relations to each other and to the whole. The largest landscape that a blind\nperson can grasp at one time, as a whole, thru the senses, does not exceed\nthat which he can span with his outstretched arms. Oftener his sense-grasp\nincludes only what comes under the palm of a hand, the tip of a finger,\nor the sole of a foot. His images of the most common objects, as a tree,\na house, a garden, must be built up by the process of constructive conception, the material being the images of the very small objects that have\ncome within his sense-grasp. The blind boy must obtain his image of a\ntree that he cannot climb somewhat as the boy with sight obtains an image\nof a place which he cannot visit. Each builds with images that have come\nto him thru sense-perception ; the one builds with the large visual images\nof landscape, sky, and sea ; the other must build with the minute tactile\n\n"}
{"page": 1046, "printed_page": null, "text": "1036\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Education of\n\nimages of objects that have come into the palm of his hand, or under the\nfinger tip, or into absolute contact with some part of the dermal surface.\nNot only must the blind child obtain his image of a tree or house in this\nmanner, but his image of a foreign country, or of any country, must be\nbuilt up of the same minute tactile images or of images that he has himself made from these. A moment's reflection will make it apparent that\nall the images of objects that come into the consciousness of the blind\nperson, whether the objects themselves be near or remote, large or small,\nmust be made up of small tactile images. The blind child is thus led to\ngive more attention to detail than th^ seeing child. From necessity he\nexercises the power of constructive conception many times as often as\ndoes his seeing companion. Images of a thousand objects with which the\nseeing child is familiar without any constructive mental process can only\ncome into the consciousness of the blind child by building them of\nsuch tactile images as are already in his possession.\nLet it. be supposed that the normal child of twelve years of age spends\none-half of his wakeful hours in sense-perception and one-half in elaboration— in reproducing, in comparing, in thinking about that which he has\nperceived. Take away the sense of sight, and not more than one-third\nas mucR time will be spent in mere sense-perception. One-third of onehalf is one-sixth. This leaves to the blind child five-sixths of his time\nfor reproduction. The sense-perception of the normal child is to his\nelaboration, in respect to time, as i to i ; of the blind child as i to 5.\nThese two peculiarities in the educative processes of the blind, namely,\nthe synthetic-analytic habit of thought, and the large amount of time\ngiven to a reproduction of sense-images, to comparison, and generalization, account for nearly all the almost marvelous achievements of some\nsightless students.\nBlind pupils excel in mathematics. Why ? Mathematics has to do\nmainly with comparison of quantities — mainly with comparison of\nmeasured quantities — mainly with comparison of imaginative measured\nquantities. The blind student easily creates images of the quantities to\nbe compared. His synthetic habit of thought and his constant practice\nin imaging give him this power. He brings the terms of the comparison\nquickly into consciousness. The child with sight sees figures. Too often\nhis images are images of digits. He fails to see the magnitudes or\nratios which the figures should suggest. He attempts to see relation\nwhen the terms of the comparison are not in consciousness — only the\nsymbols of the terms. The blind child has never seen these symbols, and\nmakes little use of them even thru the sense of touch. He deals directly\nwith number, and number suggests to him magnitude or ratio, or both.\nSuggested magnitudes he can create ; suggested relations he can apprehend, because the images of the things related are in consciousness.\nBlind children excel in geography. Why ? Because they have learned\n\n"}
{"page": 1047, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nDefcctivesl\n\nLESSONS\n\nFROM\n\nA STUDY\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nBLIND\n\n1 03 7\n\nto use the imaginative faculty. They see places only a few feet distant,\nthru the mind's eye. The task of seeing places a few miles away, or even a\nfew hundred miles away, is scarcely greater. They have built their image\nof the town in which they live, with its trees, its gardens, its dwelling\nhouses, and its public buildings, mainly by the exercise of the power of\nconstructive conception. They can build a London, or a Paris, or a\nMoscow in the same manner. The child with sight sees the town in\nwhich he lives, but he cannot see London, He fails to see with the mind's\neye the villages and cities, and rivers and mountains, which these symbols\nshould suggest. The blind child has never seen these symbols, and those\nwhich he uses are sufficiently unattractive and difficult of manipulation to\nguard against the danger of substituting in the mind of the pupil the\nsymbol for the thing symbolized.\nBlind students are, for the most part, good rekders and good listeners.\nBoth of these processes, it will be observed, are synthetic, and are therefore quite in harmony with the operation of the two educative senses\nwhich the blind exercise. The amount that a blind student reads is, of\ncourse, comparatively small ; but the amount retained is comparatively\nlarge, while his digestion and assimilation of what he reads or hears are\nmore complete than those of the seeing child.\nBut blind people do not excel in all branches of study. In mathematics, history, and literature, if the means are at hand for providing\nskilled teachers and the necessary books and appliances, blindness seems\nscarcely a barrier to progress. The compensations almost, if not quite,\nequal the deprivations. In natural sciences the blind pupil is seriously\nhandicapped. True, his memory of words may enable him to \" pass \"\neven in the science studies, if the tests are such as were usually made in\nthe schools twenty years ago ; but he can at best do little in the laboratory ;and his knowledge must be lacking for the most part that sensebasis which is necessary to make it of real value. He may acquire a\nknowledge of scientific terms, and know something of their correct use ;\nbut as to training for power by means of scientific observation and comparison, blindness presents an almost impassable barrier.\nA main weakness of the blind is the result of the narrow sense-basis\nupon which they must build. This is also a main source of their strength.\nThey are narrower in their intellectual acquirements, but deeper and\nhigher, than their seeing companions. Their profundity, however, has\nbeen gained at the expense of breadth. They have fewer sense concepts,\nbut these are more perfectly elaborated ; and they seem entirely sufficient\nfor remarkable success along certain lines of purely intellectual effort.\nThere is a danger in \" eye-mindedness \" that is the counterpart of the\nmain difficulty in blindness. For the blind a most vigorous effort should\nbe made to increase the amount of sense-perception. For the seeing\nthe main source of danger is that in these days of \" laboratory methods \"\n\n"}
{"page": 1048, "printed_page": null, "text": "1038\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Education of\n\nand \" nature study \" mere sense-perception will occupy the time of the\npupil to such an extent that comparison, classification, generalization,\nand reflection will not receive a due share of mental effort.\nNeither is blindness favorable to that kind of intellectual and physical\ndevelopment which prepares for usefulness in society. The education\nof the blind, if allowed to proceed along the lines of least resistance, has\nreference mainly to the psychological factor in education. The sociological element is almost wholly wanting. The blind child learns that\nhe may be learned. He desires to know that he may possess knowledge.\nHe wants intellectual training for the delight there is in it to himself. He\nwants music for the sake of music, and the satisfaction which it brings to\nhim. There is pleasure in mental development, in growth; and this\npleasure he seeks where it can be most easily obtained. He wants mental\npower without any idea of the use to which this power is to be put. And\nthe great human heart says. Let the poor blind child have all the pleasure\nhe can get ; and institutions are provided and generously equipped in\nwhich the young blind are segregated and trained along physiological\nand psychological lines, until they almost forget that there is any world\noutside of a school for the blind, or any duties to perform except such as\nhave a direct bearing upon their own mental and physical development.\nThe weakness of the blind is not chiefly psychical, it is not chiefly physical. It is their inability to use their powers in the proper performance\nof social duties. It is in the great difficulty they find in adapting themselves to their social environment after they leave the school and take\ntheir place in society. It is in the great difficulty they find in contributing their share to the well-being of the race, or to that portion of the\nrace that forms a part of their environment. In this respect they are not\naltogether unlike many of the pupils from the common schools. In the\ncase of blind people this defect in their education and in their capacity\nis fearfully emphasized. In school they are segregated — separated from\nthose with good sight, from such as those with whom they must associate\nin after-life. The necessities and some of the luxuries of life are provided\nfor them at the public expense. Three-fourths of their time for eight or\ntwelve years they are in an atmosphere utterly unlike that into which\nthey will be thrust at maturity. After leaving school, unless the family\nwealth is sufficient to provide for their wants, they are confronted with a\nproblem utterly different from any they have found in the books. In\nsome instances their education has unfitted them for the solution of this\nlife problem. Many pupils- — some of them blind, and some of them\nwith two good eyes — learn to measure the value of every exercise by\nwhat it will directly contribute to their personal comfort — physical, intellectual, spiritual. The idea that their own ultimate happiness and genuine\nprosperity must come from what they can contribute to community life\nhas no place in their thought.\n\n"}
{"page": 1049, "printed_page": null, "text": "Defectives!\n\nRELATION\n\nOF THE\n\nDEAF\n\nTO THE\n\nHEARING\n\nWORLD\n\n1039\n\nThe State recognizes the fact that the feeble-minded will be unable to\nlake their places in society and contribute to the community as much as\nwill procure, in return for their services, the necessities of life. Hence\nasylums are provided in which they may spend their days, and perhaps*\npay in part for what they receive.\nThe deaf are but slightly handicapped in their productive power. The\nstate educates them, providing in many instances instruction in a trade,\nand sends them out equipped for service.\nThe blind, with capabilities for intellectual development slightly\nimpaired, with powers of mind that are sometimes akin to the marvelous,\ncapable of intellectual enjoyments of the highest order, are most, sadly\nhandicapped in their attempts to perform useful service. No asylums for\nthem are provided (unless the industrial homes be so regarded, and the\nnumber of these that are successfully managed is small). They are segregated for years and then sent back to their homes, or sent out into the\nworld to make a home in darkness for themselves.\nI repeat, the teachers of the blind have the most difficult task of all —\nproperly to co-ordinate the psychological and the sociological factors in\neducation, and this task is rendered doubly difficult by the artificial\nenvironment which their segregation produces.\nAnd yet there is but one test for all. The value of any educational\nprocess must be measured in units of service, and precisely the same\nmeasure that determines its value to the community determines its value\nto those who receive its benefits.\nIn the words of Ruskin : \" The human race is a divine family, the\nideal of which is that each shall work for the good of all and precisely in\nso doing secure for himself the greatest good.\"\nIn this divine family there are no exceptions to this general rule. The\nrich and the poor ; the bond and the free; the deaf, the blind, and the\nfeeble-minded, can all secure for themselves the greatest good by working\nfor the good of all ; and that educator, or that group of educators, or\nthat educational system, or that educational institution, that shall in a high\ndegree promote the service power of those to whom instruction is given\ncannot fail to be working on right lines, for their efforts are in accord\nwith a divine law as certain in operation as the law of gravitation itself,\nand as beneficent in results as that of Christian charity.\n\nTHE RELATION\nBY\n\nOF THE DEAF\nISAAC\n\nGARDNER,\n\nTO THE HEARING\nLITTLE\n\nROCK,\n\nWORLD\n\nARK.\n\nIn the study of history we examine the records of past experience so\nthat we may be able to foresee and provide for the experiences which are\n\n"}
{"page": 1050, "printed_page": null, "text": "I040\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nfEducationof\n\nto come. The final chapter in the history of the human race is already\nbegun, and each of us may turn to that history and read there the story of\nhis own life, for the history of the individual is in every respect analogous\nto the history of the race. It is due, in great measure, to education, that\nthe deaf of today are able to contribute their share to the making of history. Years ago, when the condition and welfare of the deaf first began\nto arrest the attention of thinking men, it was considered impossible for\nthose deprived of the sense of hearing to be formally educated, because\nit was believed that no medium of communication could be established,\nand, furthermore, that the deaf were intellectually incapable of receiving\nsuch an education. But time and experiment have overcome this puritanical prejudice and proven the fallacy of both these premises. The\ndeaf man is not less rational or impressionable because of his deafness.\nIn being shut off from the influence of sound he merely suffers an inconvenience. His sense impressions are not less acute, nor his intellect less\nstrong; his conscious experience is not less perfect, nor its influence less\npotent.\nThus it has been discovered that education may do for the deaf precisely what it may do for the hearing. The deaf child, being of the same\nconstitutional nature, and inheriting all the attributes of that nature, is\neducated by the same method, subject to the same training, and masters\nthe same course of study by which his hearing brother is educated. The\nnumber of sense impressions received within a given period of time is, of\ncourse, somewhat diminished, but in the matter of mental development\nthis is the only point of departure from the normally conditioned child.\nTo increase the intellectual activity by supplying the deficiency in sense\nimpressions occasioned by loss of hearing constitutes the special profession of the instructor of the deaf.\n\nTHE TREND IN THE TRAINING OF BACKWARD\nMENTAILY DEFICIENT CHIIDREN\n\nAND\n\nBY MISS MARGARET BANCROFT, PRINCIPAL OF THE HADDONFIELD,\nTRAINING SCHOOL FOR MENTALLY BACKWARD CHILDREN\n\nN. J.,\n\nEver an increasing interest is manifest in the \"what to do\" and the\n\" how to do it \" for those who are mentally, morally, or physically deficient ;so that even the mite which I can add to the general collection\nmay assist in the building up of those future edifices for the care and\ntraining of weaker humanity. It is our hope that a few facts impressed\nfrom time to time may spur on these thinking women and men of the\nNational Educational Association to aid in uncovering the minds which\n\n"}
{"page": 1051, "printed_page": null, "text": "Defectives!\n\nTREND\n\nIN TRAINING\n\nOF BACKWARD\n\nCHILDREN\n\n1 04 1\n\nhave been hidden, and the morals overgrown with weeds, even as the\nsculptor uncovers the statue when he has wrought his best.\nBefore entering upon the details of training the mentally deficient,\nthere are two essential questions to be settled, namely, the size and character of the state schools, and the necessity for a change in the nomenclature from idiot and imbecile to one which will demand respect from all.\nOne of our great scientists says : \" Science is organized common\nsense.\" Can any intelligent human being see or feel that there is organized\ncommon sense in bringing together under the care of a single institution\nhundreds of human beings afflicted in a physfcal sense to such a degree as\nto cause mental deficiency ? Think of it, you who are students of\nphysiology, and predict the results ! Think of it, you who are interested\nin the study of psychology, and interpret the loss of mentality to those\nwho, if surrounded by the proper environment, might reach a higher standard ! Think of it, you who are earnest students of biology : is this the\nway you treat the specimens which you wish to preserve and improve ?\nThe thoughtful must feel that little is as yet known of what may be\ndone for this class of unfortunates, requiring, as they do, more tact, more\npersonal care, and more scientific teaching than the deaf or blind, yet\nreceiving less than any other class of defectives.\nIn 1850, in the United States, the mentally deficient aggregated 9,830 ;\nin 1890 the increase was to the number of 97,097. The last eight\nyears the number is increasing more rapidly. Dr. Fernald estimates an\naverage of one mentally deficient person in every 500 inhabitants in the\nUnited States. In the ye^r 1898 there were twenty-four state schools,\nwith 8,492 inmates.\nIn our opinion, schools should be established thruout the different\nstates, with a capacity not exceeding one hundred in*'number and arranged\non the cottage plan. Each cottage should have a family of twenty-five,graded according to the mental advancement, placing in each family of\nhigher grade two of lower grade, so that the pupils of lower grade would\nimbibe some of the mentality of the higher order. This would give the\nmatron an opportunity of judging what help and care are required by\nthose of the lower grade.\nThe assembling together of all of a low grade is very detrimental, as\nmany children might, from some disfigurement or physical cause, appear\nmore deficient than they really are ; and at first sight this general plan\nwould seem to involve a very large expenditure, but this would be more\nthan offset by the advantages which would accrue from the practical and\nscientific management of this class. In each of these small state homes\nthere should be a schoolhouse, equipped as thoroly as for normal children. Physical-culture and manual-training departments should befitted\nwith the best apparatus and tools. There should be not less than six good\nteachers for this number, each thoroly qualified in her special branch.\n\n"}
{"page": 1052, "printed_page": null, "text": "1042\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Education of\n\nThe physical care should be given over to none but first-class practitioners. No resident physician is able to acquire sufficient experience\nmaterially to benefit the mentally deficient or insane. An outside physician\ncoming in daily contact with different diseases in private practice, and in\nthe hospital clinic, is the one to care for these who are afflicted in a thousand different ways. That outside physician would bring new thought,\nnew impetus, and new interests, which would result in maintaining a\nhigher standard in the homes. Physicians of all schools should have\nequal opportunities in the treatment of these cases ; conditions which one\nschool might overlook another might remedy.\nIt would be well for this society to formulate and urge the passage of\nstate laws providing that every mentally deficient boy (whose mental\ndeficiency is positively proven by three competent physicians) be castrated\nbefore the age of puberty. Such a procedure, regulated by law, is a\nhumane measure to prevent the perpetuation of his kind.\nThese children should be trained in both physical and mental work,\nthus utilizing the physiological fact that systematic stimulation is as necessary for development as is a supply of blood to the nerve centers. Sight\nand sound are the more common stimuli to movement. A methodical brain\ntraining, utilizing and also providing for the appropriate exercise, in rotation, of all the brain cells responding to the senses, will, if carried out\nby earnest teachers of strong mentality, produce good results.\nIn physical culture the work should be done with the feeling that a\nmuscle duly supplied with good blood and properly stimulated to action\nwill grow. The nerve centers of the brain which stimulate the muscles\nare brought into simultaneous activity, and tend, on future occasion, to\nact with more exactness and promptitude when stimulated by repetition\nof command. Much depends, however, on the selection of teachers with\nstrong and adaptive individuality, who are able and sufficiently interested\nto become for the time the mind, so to speak, of the charges under their\ntuition, and thus stimulate mentality by a sort of induction.\nAs the work demands so much in the way of mental resource, a successful teacher in this work, as in the training of normal children, is compelled to grow. The second important matter in connection with the\nadvancement of this class of children is the absolute and universal\nchange of the name from that which is neither technical nor dignified.\nI allude to the terms \"idiot\" and \"imbecile.\" Dr. Ireland tells us that\nthe terms are not descriptive ; and, furthermore, that it is difficult to\nframe a terminology comprehensive enough to include all the meanings\nin which they have been used. We agree with Dr. Ireland, and feel that,\nuntil less objectionable terms can be applied to these conditions, the\ngeneric title \"mental deficiency\" is not only free from the stigma of\nreproach, but is also descriptive of the condition.\nThe ideal teacher for this work must possess inborn tact, as well as a\n\n"}
{"page": 1053, "printed_page": null, "text": "Defective*]\n\nLANGUAGE\n\nTEACHING\n\nIN MENTAL\n\nDEVELOPMENT\n\n1 043\n\ngood working knowledge of psychology and physiology. No second-rate\nteacher should evei;. be placed in charge of such children. Another problem that has been so far unsolved presents itself. What is the best training for the morally deficient ? There should be small home schools where\nthe children of this class can remain under the most judicious training\nfrom earliest childhood until past twenty-one. Houses of refuge and\nother so-called reformatories are not the proper places for these children.\nThey should have homes, and these homes should be under the care of\nthe most expert psychologists, and the best physicians should be in daily\nattendance to note the individual results of management.\nIn the management of the morally deficient there should be no hesitation about the unsexing of both male and female, where it has been\nproven beyond doubt that the case is incurable, as in the case of the hopelessly insane or mentally deficient.\nWe should meet the question bravely and with \" organized common\nsense,\" and altho the problem is not solved ; for as long as we are imperfect we shall have moral lack ; yet the unsexing of those unfitted to take up\nthe duties of life, together with the lines of management previously suggested, will go a long way toward the practical solution of this important\nquestion.\n\nTHE RELATION\n\nOF LANGUAGE\nTEACHING\nDEVELOPMENT\n\nBY S. G. DAVIDSON,\n\nMT. AIRY, PHILADELPHIA,\n\nTO MENTAL\n\nPA.\n\n[an abstract]\n\nThe paucity of mental development and the inability of the deaf to\nexpress themselves with ease and correctness in spoken or written English, which we discover in so many of the pupils in the advanced classes\nof our schools for the deaf and in our graduates, are due, in a great measure, to our failure to recognize in the work of the primary and intermediate grades the close relation existing between thought and language,\nand between the processes for the development of the one and the teaching of the other.\nWhile we think and speak of language as the expression of thought,\nin educational practice we too frequently treat the two as if they were\nthings apart, endeavoring to give thought independent of English modes\nof expression and drilling on language forms without much regard to\nthe thought content of the word or sentence. Moreover, we are quite\nliable to overlook the less obvious, but equally, if not more, important,\noffice of language as a stimulus to the intellect and an instrument for its\ndevelopment.\nWe do not, as we should, determine the matter and\n\n"}
{"page": 1054, "printed_page": null, "text": "1044\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Education of\n\nmethod of instruction in language by the mental states of the pupil, nor\nconsider the influence of the work we are doing, and the way of doing it,\nupon the future mental states. Neither do we commonly recognize the\nimportance of so cultivating the faculties as to make future progress in\nlanguage possible and easy. To state the matter broadly and briefly, our\nwork lacks the psychological basis that alone can make it progressive and\nenduring in its results.\nThis is primarily due to the fact that few of our teachers are students\nof psychology, and particularly of the new psychology, which, by its bearing on educational principles, is revolutionizing methods of instruction\nin the common schools.\nIt is not proposed here to discuss the theoretical aspect of the relation\nof language to mental development, but to speak of the practical application in the teaching of the deaf of a few of the principles that have been\ngenerally accepted by psychologists and educators.\nLanguage of some kind is necessary as a stimulus to the mind, as a\nmeans of directing the attention, recalling past perceptions, and affording\na means of comparison and reasoning, so that with the very young deaf\nchild signs have an apparent advantage over speech and writing, in that\nthey are so much easier to learn, and put him at once into communication\nwith other children and with his teacher. But this advantage is many\ntimes counterbalaaced by the effect of the use of signs upon the child's\ncharacter, his present and future improvement in spoken and written language, and the ultimate development of the faculties. Psychologists are\nagreed that a man's thoughts and feelings are unconsciously molded by\nhis vernacular, the language which he uses from childhood, and in which\nhe spontaneously expresses himself.\nHence we are irresistibly impelled to the conclusion that to make signs\nthe vernacular of the deaf child must result in his becoming, not an Englishman, aGerman, a Frenchman, or a member of any other nationality,\nbut, intellectually, a man without a country. In other words, we find in\nthe sign language a psychological basis for the conditions that are sometimes referred to under the term \"the deaf-mute mind.\"\nHow, then, can he be expected to attend to — make an effort to master\n— that which seems to him superfluous ? Let us ask ourselves the question :If a child does not master the English language, what will be the\neffect on his future development ?\nBy all authorities on education, attention is considered the first necessity. In the absence of a trained attention, any great development of the\nother faculties or acquisition of knowledge is impossible, and this is the\ngreat lack thru all the grades of many schools for the deaf. It must be\ncultivated in the lowest grades, and it cannot be done by making language, which is here practically the only thing taught, a mere form\nstudy.\n\n"}
{"page": 1055, "printed_page": null, "text": "Defectives]\n\nTRAINING\n\nOF FEEBLE-MINDED\n\nCHILDREN\n\n1 045\n\nIt is therefore necessary, while not neglecting the drill on forms which\nwill rapidly habituate the pupil to correct expression, to devote much\ntime to the presentation of thought that will interest and so excite the\nattention. Object and nature study are best calculated, not only to\naccomplish this end, but to exercise the other primary intellectual faculties, and so prepare the way for the development of the higher activities.\nIt is also the thought study that most satisfactorily accommodates itself to\nthe language necessary at different periods.\nIn closing the line of thought, Mr. Davidson gave the following quotation :\n\"Words have no authority and no office if we divide them from\nthings, nor can things have the light thrown on them by which the mind\ndistinguishes, orders, and groups them, and acquires the power to recall\nthem, if they are detached and set apart from words.\"\n\nTHE\n\nHOW, THE\nWHY, AND THE WHEREFORE OF THE\nTRAINING OF FEEBLE-MINDED CHILDREN\n\nBY MARTIN\n\nW. BARR, M.D., CHIEF PHYSICIAN OF THE\nPENNSYLVANIA\nING SCHOOL FOR FEEBLE-MINDED CHILDREN, ELWYN, PA.\n\nTRAIN-\n\n\"It is better that every kind of work honestly undertaken and discharged should speak for itself rather than be spoken for.\"\nThis sentiment of Charles Dickens is certainly that which animated the\nmembers of your committee when they requested a practical object-lesson in\nthe training of all classes of defectives. While thanking them on the part of\nour branch of the work for their cordial invitation, I may add the hope\nthat the wisdom of their arrangement may be emulated by all organizations desiring information on a subject which mere language fails to elucidate. Thus, and thus only, and by repeated exposition, can the public\nbe brought to estimate rightly the tremendous importance of this work,\nor, in fact, to understand at all the how, the why, and the wherefore of\nthe training of mental defectives.\nOur first topic, which, I trust, our boys have clearly demonstrated,\nand which is further illustrated by their exhibit, is briefly explained in\nthe motto of their little paper : \" The working hand makes strong the\nworking brain.\" ^You will see there also that in our scheme of development the three H's have superseded the time-worn three R's.\nRecognizing that the sense of touch is the most sensitive, as well as\nthe most reactive, of all the senses, we utilize it as the master-key which\nshall set free the powers of the head, the hand, the heart. The axiom\nthat the will is best stimulated by and thru the emotions is daily veri-\n\n"}
{"page": 1056, "printed_page": null, "text": "1046\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Education of\n\nfied in dealing with natures absolutely sluggish and indolent, intensely\nperverse and obstinate, or unduly nervous and excitable. This stimulus,\nto be healthful, must be natural, and what more natural to a child, from\nthe days of traditional mud pies up, than the love of making something —\nunless it be the love of tearing up ; and even that has long since been\nrecognized as due to a spirit of investigation, and therefore to be constructive rather than destructive. Indeed, we must take the child as he is,\nwithout attempting to make him over again. Direct the destructive\nactivities into constructive channels — make the stream turn the wheel,\nand it will not sweep away the mill.\nThis little ball in my hand I consider the most valuable thing in my\nexhibit. The boy who made this was next to the lowest grade of mentality. His hand against every man, he fancied every man's against him ;\nalways under close custodial care that he might harm neither himself nor\nothers, he would vent his spleen in tearing his clothing. His teacher, a\nwoman of rare patience and devotedness, one day sat beside him tearing\nstrips of old linen and laying them in order. \" See, Willie, let us make\nsome pretty strips and lay them so.\" His wonder grew at seeing her\ndoing what he had been reproved for doing, and at once there was a bond\nof sympathy. She was playing his game — the only one, poor little fellow, that he was capable of — and he joined in. \"Now we will draw out\nthe pretty threads and lay them in rows.\". For weeks the child found\nquite a pastime in this occupation, and the violent nature grew quieter in\nproportion. One day the teacher said : \" Let us tie these threads together\nand make a long string.\" It took him months to learn to tie those knots,\nbut meanwhile his attendants were having breathing space. \" Now we\nwill wind this into a pretty-ball, and I will cover all you make for the\nboys to play with ; \" and a new occupation was added to his list. The\nnext link in this curious chain of development was a lesson in knitting.\nThru months of patient teaching it was at last accomplished, and the boy\nto the day of his death found his life happiness in knitting caps for the\nchildren, in place of tearing both them and their clothes. You see she\nwas wise enough to utilize the natural activities of the child and direct\nevil propensities into a healthful channel. Had she brought knitting and\nbright yarn or anything foreign to him first, it would have been truly putting \"new wine into old bottles.\" His obstinacy would have been\naroused, and he would have torn clothing to the end of the chapter.\nNow, just what this shows is to be found in varying results thru all the\ngrades that have been presented to you today — and just here a word on\nthe subject of grades, so little understood by the general public. Mental\ndefectives, broadly considered, are divided into two classes : the imbecile,\ntrainable; the idiot, untrainable. Between the two, the idio-imbecile, the\ndirection of whose feeble powers, so far as to aid in the care of himself\nand of his weaker brother, can hardly be dignified by the term training.\n\n"}
{"page": 1057, "printed_page": null, "text": "Defective. J\n\nTRAINING\n\nOF FEEBLE-MINDED\n\nCHILDREN\n\n1047\n\nOf these two latter it is not my purpose to speak just now, altho they are\nfound in large proportion in the custodial departments of all training\nschools of this country, but not in England nor on the continent. It is\nthe imbecile or trainable class which is here presented to you, in the four\ndifferent grades which experience has dictated and proven. You are not\nto confound these grades of mentality with school grades in the common\nacceptation of promotion in studies ; on the contrary, between mental\ndeficiencies there is a distinct line beyond which there is rarely an individual case of advance, tho there may be, and often is, retrogression.\nFirst you have the low-grade who can never learn to read or write —\ntrainable only in the simplest acts of house or farm service, who can know\nnothing beyond a life of drudgery, but will, on the whole, be content\ntherein. This grade generally presents two types : one, good, docile,\nobedient, having little or no will power. Such a one out in the world\nbecomes the ready tool or victim of the designing or the vicious, and thus\ninnocently helps to fill our prison wards. The other, obstinate, perverse,\nand indolent, needs always a strong hand to keep him at constant occupation, which is all that preserves him from a lapse into idiocy. He would\nbe the tyrant of a household — the terror of a community.\nThe middle-grade, trainable in varied degree in the useful and\nmechanical arts, may or may not, as an aid in his development, be brought\nto read and write, but will never use the knowledge practically in his work\nas a good servant or a fairly good mechanic.\n^\nThe high-grade, capable, in intellectual capacity, of advance as far as\nthe first intermediate, can never, without danger of breakdown, attempt\nall the studies of that course. His life work must, therefore, be sought in\nthe various trades and handicrafts to which his development, by means of\nmanual training from the kindergarten up, has always been directed, and\nlife happiness, possibly as a skilled artisan, for him be assured.\nLastly, the moral imbecile — found in all three grades, often abnormally bright — may vary intellectually from a brute to a genius, but the\nmoral sense is absolutely wanting. It is from this class that the criminal\nranks in all lands are largely recruited. His permanent sequestration\nunder close custodial care, with as many ameliorations as possible, is\nabsolutely essential to the safety of himself and of society.\nIn hearing how we strive to arouse dormant faculties, and that manual\ntraining is not only the basis, but the means and the end, in all our efforts,\nyou have probably already arrived at some of the many reasons why.\nFirst : Safety for the individual. In dealing with mental weakness,\neither congenital or accidental, there is always danger, under pressure, of\noutbreak into insanity or a lapse into idiocy. We must stimulate and\narouse the sluggish nature while we guide and restrain the excitable.\nNow, in the wide field of varied occupations, manual training offers a great\nadvantage over the purely intellectual — an advantage incalculable to us,\n\n"}
{"page": 1058, "printed_page": null, "text": "1048\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Education of\n\nforced as we are to consider not only the different grades of mentality, but\nthe peculiarities and proclivities of individuals in each grade. Not only\ndoes it afford great selection for the child, but opportunity for observation\nand immediate change according to needs. A diagnosis of intellectual\nprocesses under the excitement of class competition is not so easy, and\nthe remedy, therefore, not infrequently comes too late.\nSecond : The happiness of the individual is next to be considered ;\nand all true happiness must have its root in self-respect. We are dealing\nwith a race that has too long been despised and rejected, and science, by\nindicating many hitherto unrecognized, is adding a host bright enough\nto be extremely sensitive and unhappy under such conditions. To avoid\npauperizing and to stimulate self-respect, we must offer some avenue for\ngaining the respect and appreciation of others. This is best done by\nuplifting and maintaining the dignity of labor, and this for all grades.\nEven the lowest is made to feel : \" Who sweeps a room as to Thy law\nm^kes that and the action fine.\"\n\"Study to show thyself a workman approved,\" must be our charge to\nthe many, if each is to realize, \" Not what I have but what I do is my\nkingdom.\" This, moreover, for the moral imbecile who, in close\ncustodial care, must find his only safety in congenial employment, if we\nwould avoid that blot upon nineteenth-century civilization — the record\nof the unoccupied in prison cells.\nThe social qualities so often dwarfed in the narrowness of class competition expand freely in this natural atmosphere, where honest work well\ndone is made the true gauge of character. The moral effect of the daily\nuse of the try-square cannot be overestimated. Egotism, that bane of\nthe imbecile, finds in it a constant check, while altruism is best fostered in\nthe workroom where each is called to admire and consider \"not his own\nbut another's good.\" Furthermore, when the child in the kindergarten,\nthe girl or boy in the workshop, has faithfully modeled, improved, or\noriginated any one thing worthy to be offered as a gift, these children,\nwho can know nothing of the value of money, have yet within their grasp\nthat without which the rich man with all his possessions would be poor\nindeed — the power and the right of giving.\nWe aim, indeed, to make this the dominating spirit; even the acquirements of reading and writing are made tools to this end ; those who can\nlearn being encouraged to entertain and assist those who cannot. Music\nand drawing alike are not to be regarded as mere accomplishments of the\nindividual, but all must minister to the common good.\nAnd wherefore all this for imbeciles ? Is it worth it ? many may ask.\nBetween that question and the answer lie a hundred years of experience, and the working out of scientists and philosophers of a basis for\nthe coming century to build upon.\nWork among the mental defectives, having its birth with the nine-\n\n"}
{"page": 1059, "printed_page": null, "text": "Defectives]\n\nTRAINING\n\nOF FEEBLE-MINDED\n\nCHILDREN\n\n1049\n\nteenth century, has grown with it. Enriched by its thought and discoveries,\nand adapting itself to its ever-increasing demands, it has so modified\nuntil its character and aims are \"alike changed.\nWhat, in the beginning, was a philanthropic purpose pure and simple,\nhaving for its object the most needy, and therefore naturally directed\ntoward paupers and idiots, now assumes the proportions of a socialistic\nreform as a matter of self-preservation, a necessity to preserve the nation\nfrom the encroachments of imbecility, of crime, and of all the fateful\nheredities of a highly nervous age.\nThe enthusiasm of Itard, in 1800, to reclaim the wild boy of Aveyron\nwhich inspired the efforts of his pupil Seguin in his wonderful work at\nBicStre was a noble preparation, but still, as Seguin himself admits,\nwas only experimental until \"Haller, Boerhaave and Morgagni had\nbrought physiology to its rightful place at the head of the medical\nsciences,\" and Rousseau, Pereira, and others had demonstrated its application to education. Then the closing decade of our first half century\nwitnessed a simultaneous movement in England, America, and on the\ncontinent in the establishment of institutions for the training of mental\ndefectives. The work was good of its kind, and we have not improved\nupon it, nor can we, for it was expended chiefly upon the class which, as\nI have told you, is largely unimprovable. It was embarrassed, and is\ngreatly so today, by the idea, eagerly embraced by the ignorant, of cure.\nI wish it were only possible to convince some of the heart-broken\nmothers that for congenital mental weakness there is no cure. One may\nas well talk of curing a child born without an arm as restoring a defective\nbrain.\nWe cannot r<fplace that which never was placed.\nScience again points the way, and having before repeated new principles as bases of practice, she now designates new cases to be treated.\nMedical science in all its branches, educators from kindergarten to university, have, during the last half century, studied man. Viewing this\ninvestigation, culminating as it has in this wave of child study, one might\nsay that anthropology and sociology had led all in one common bond\nto the cradle to note there the influence of nervous environment and\nunfortunate heredity.\nThis simultaneous investigation and comparison of views has caused\nrapid modification of thought, judgment, and consequent action, already\nmaterially affecting individuals and society. In law, in medicine, in\neducation we find signs of less dogmatism and severe condemnation,\nmore time given to observation, and greater desire to assist rather than to\nforce nature. Criminology shows the criminal the irresponsible victim of ill,\nrather than its deliberate author. As alienists and neurologists constantly\nnote and report new examples of nerve disorder, society begins to recoil\nfrom the evils of imprudent marriage connection and from a high-pressure system of life and education \" falsely so-called.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 1060, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 050\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Education of\n\nThus the signs of the times are full of hope — hope which shows endless possibilities for teachers and guardians for a dominant and dominating race. It means success and victory all along educational lines, if\nuntrammeled by defectives, but defeat which will lead to tedious and\nendless readjustments, if teachers are forced to continue the impossible\ntask of dragging normal and abnormal up to one common standard.\nThink of it ! One hundred thousand of the feeble-minded children\nin the United States alone, constantly increasing by birth and immigration, and not one-tenth provided for in institutions ! The rest crowd\nour schools, walk our streets, and fill alike jails and positions of trust,\nreproducing their kind and vitiating the moral atmosphere.\nScience and experience have searched some of them out and classified\nthem, but hundreds of their brethren are desolating homes, paralyzing\nthe energies of normal people, or suffer in prison cells the innocent perpetrators, not of crime, but of motiveless acts.\nTo nations and races as to households and individuals must come a\nclearing-out time, and it has come to us. There must be a sifting out,\nand \"each must go to his own place,\" if we are to clear the way for\ntwentieth-century progress.; and therein lies the wherefore of our work.\nWe are already preparing to receive the element which your backward\nclasses of feebly gifted children and your truant schools will eventually\nbring to us, and we are doing it by means, not of mere trade schools —\nthat will come later — but of an all-around system of development thru\nmanual training. We must take what you sift out, but, in order to do this,\nwe, too, must have our clearing out, for we shall need space and yet more\nspace. With our untrainable population — the idiots and idio-imbeciles —\ncared for in institutions suited to their needs, and with relief from the\nodium of their presence as well as their care, the better class will drift\nmore readily from you to us, and thus we shall be enabled to extend our\nlegitimate work of training to embrace the trade schools, which shall give\nlife-long occupation to these children that sit in darkness and shadow.\nNot only must we be able to relieve you, and to press forward ourselves,\nbut soon we, too, shall need relief from overcrowded conditions.\nHaving trained, what shall we do with, the imbecile ? is the question\nfor you who send, for us who receive, to ponder ; a question fittingly\naddressed to a national assembly, for it is one to be gravely considered\nby the whole nation, of national importance, and requiring national legislation and provision.\nShall we turn this irresponsible loose to undo the work of the past and\nredouble that of future ? Surely, if this be done, history will not write our\nnames among the wise. Experience, and indeed every consideration for\nthe individual and for society, points to the absolute necessity of permanent\nsequestration, and this, too, coupled with every means that science, under\nwise legislation, may dictate to stem the torrent of inherited ill, and to\n\n"}
{"page": 1061, "printed_page": null, "text": "Defectives]\n\nBRAIN\n\nBUILDING\n\nAND\n\nMIND\n\nBUILDING\n\n1 05 1\n\nforbid the increase of this pernicious element — measures which, freeing\nthe unfortunate from the bondage of passion as well as of a keeper, would\npermit greater freedom of intercourse between members of a community.\nThe colony idea now working itself out will shortly give sufficient\ndata upon which to form an opinion, and, if successful, will doubtless give\na practical solution to this problem.\nI do believe that, under wise direction and national provision, such a\ncolony might be made almost self-supporting, and also, by giving definite\naim, be an encouragement to the work in the various training schools ;\nand it does seem to me that these settlements of simple, childless folk\nscattered up and down thruout the land — these victims of the follies and\nvices of the past, who must themselves, in a certain sense, always be children,\nfinding their happiness in congenial occupations and quiet pleasures —\nwould in time have an influence for good greater and more far-reaching,\nbecause more subtle, than the frown of penitentiary walls. Protected\nfrom the world, and the world from them, these children of the nation,\ninstead of, as now, its standing peril, would be a continual object-lesson —\nat once a reproof and a warning to guide us to \"that statelier Eden of\nsimpler manners, purer laws,\" which the twentieth century shall usher in.\n\nBRAIN BUILDING AND MIND BUILDING, WITH SPECIAL\nREFERENCE TO SENSE- TRAINING OF THE EYE AND\nEAR, AND TEACHING MENTALLY DEFECTIVE CHILDREN\nBY PROFESSOR\n\nELMER\n\nGATES, OF THE ELMER\nCHASE, MD.\n\nGATES\n\nLABORATORY,\n\nCHEVY\n\n[abstract]\n\nCertain experiments in physiological psychology prove that the training of any one sense develops the sensitiveness of all of the other senses.\nThe experiments of Urbanschitz proved that certain sounds can be more\ndistinctly heard when the auditor is at the same time looking at certain\ncolors, and vice versa. He showed that certain colors could be seen\nat a greater distance when the spectator was simultaneously hearing\ncertain sounds. The power to exercise voluntary attention is a product\nof civilization and training. Savage races have only spontaneous attention, and they are easily distracted. One of the results of modern\neducation is the production in the pupil of the power to will his attention to a specific theme or object. I think this point has philosophic\nsignificance, namely, that the training of any one sense is able to\ndevelop not merely that special sense, but the general power of the whole\nmind.\nThe application of this series of facts to the training of the\n\n"}
{"page": 1062, "printed_page": null, "text": "I ©5 2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Education of\n\nmentally deficient, and to the training of the deaf and blind, is very obvious.\nIf the eyesight is very weak and defective, there is sometimes more to be\ngained by first training some other sense than the eyesight, and most\nespecially by training all of the other senses. I am particularly desirous\nfully to emphasize this point. I have an electrically propelled tuningfork which for a period of a half hour gives a continuous amplitude of\nsound, and by carefully regulating the current by means of a voltmeter\nand ammeter a great sensitiveness and practically uniform loudness can be\nobtained. With this instrument I made several series of tests. When I\nbegan, the remotest distance at which I could hear this particular fork\nwas 206 feet. I did this during the stillness of the night, and at a time\nwhen no other sounds of that character were audible. I followed this\nwith three hours of daily training of touch, temperature, hearing, and\ntaste for five days. At the end of that time I could hear the fork when\nat a distance of 286 feet. I repeated this experiment upon two of my\nassistants, with similar results. I have a friend, sixty-eight years of age, who\nfor five years had not been able to.distinguish the difference between green\nand red. After careful tests I was fully satisfied that he could not tell\nthe difference. Nine days' training of the temperature sense and of\nsmell enabled him to distinguish the difference between the tints of red\nand green when the difference was only 8 per cent., and between all of\nthe pitches of red and green when the luminosities were only ten. I\nthink these experiments have a direct bearing upon the whole question of\ntraining the deaf and the mentally deficient.\nTHE\n\nSENSE\n\nSTAGE\n\nOF MIND\n\nBUILDING\n\nThe next point which I wish to make is that in the training of any\nsense every typical discriminable sensation should be at least four times\nrecognized by the pupil, so as to produce permanent structural changes in\nthe brain, which changes constitute the memory enregistrations of that\nsensation experience. Many of you here will recall an account of my\nbrain-building experiments upon dogs given in 1894 before the Geological\nand Anthropological Societies of Washington. These experiments have\nsince then been in several ways corroborated. Thus Professor Aurelio\nLui, in Stephano's laboratory in Italy, made experiments upon lower\nanimals, from which he concluded that as animals more and more acquire\nfacility in locomotion they get a correspondingly larger number of cells in\nthe motor regions of the brain, and that these cells acquire more dendrites,\nfilaments, and other structures. This is in corroboration of statements\nwhich I made a number of years before Lui's experiments. The general\nconclusion from these experiments was that every conscious mental experience causes, by its functional activity, in some definite part of the brain,\na series of distinct structural and chemical changes, and that the refunctioning of these structures is essential to the remembrance of that experience.\n\n"}
{"page": 1063, "printed_page": null, "text": "Defectives]\n\nBRAIN\n\nBUILDING\n\nAND\n\nMIND\n\nBUILDING\n\n1053\n\nAt present I need not dwell upon the methods that prove that mental\nfunctioning produces brain structures. Huxley, long ago, called attention\nto the fact that function precedes structure. What I insist upon in addition to this statement is that the functioning which produces structure is\nalways mental functioning. You are all acquainted with the general\ndistribution of the areas of functional localization over the brain. Much\nclinical evidence, as well as direct psychologic proof, has been adduced in\ndemonstration of this general truth. From my standpoint I would have\nyou think of these areas as places where mind activities produce structural\nchanges, and that these structural changes are memory structures, which,\nif they were removed, would cause the loss of corresponding memories ;\nthat is, mind activity produces brain building, and not, as has been stated\nin the title to my address in the published program, does brain building\nproduce mind building. Let us take some one typical sense in order to\nillustrate what I mean by the statement that every typical sensation within\nthe gamut of that sense should be several times recognized and discriminated by the pupil who is undergoing brain building by the mind-using\nprocess. I will select the hearing sense, because it is directly applicable\nto the subject under discussion. As you all know, the ear begins to\nrecognize sound when the oscillating body moves about sixteen vibrations\nper second, and that at about 30,000 to 70,000 oscillations per second the\nupper limit of hearing is reached. Both the upper and lower thresholds\nvary with different people. An untrained ear will think eighteen oscillations per second to be a continuous sound, but after some training that\nperson will be able to hear the separate beats of that tone, and then the\nlower limit of his hearing will have been raised. Some persons have\ntheir lower limit at twenty-seven oscillations per second, and others higher.\nMost people can hear beyond 30,000 oscillations per second, but there\nare a few who can hear up to 70,000, 75,000, and 80,000. Between this\nlower and upper limit we have from 30,000 to 75,000 and 80,000 possible\npitches, the range depending upon the person. Of course, in the brain building process the pupil must h§ar several times repeated each one of\nthese pitches. Then, again, each pitch may have different degrees of amplitude or loudness, and the pupil should be made to hear different degrees of\nthis loudness several times repeated. But there is still, from the standpoint of speech and deaf-muteism, a much more important quality of tone\nthan pitch and amplitude, namely, that of tone quality. Helmholtz long,\nago demonstrated that the emotional characteristics of a tone were produced bythe relative loudness of the harmonics or overtones present in the\nso-called fundamental tone. When you sound what you suppose to be a\nsingle note upon a musical instrument, there is present in that tone, in\naddition to the fundamental pitch, a certain number of higher pitches,\ncalled overtones. If the lower pitches of these overtones are present, the\ntone quality is sad ; if the higher pilches of these overtones are present,\n\n"}
{"page": 1064, "printed_page": null, "text": "I054\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Education of\n\nthe tone quality is cheerful ; and so on thru the gamut of the emotions.\nHelmholtz showed by an experimental demonstration that the different\nvowel sounds could be produced by varying the harmonics of a certain\nfundamental note. The error in his method consisted in the fact that\nthe tuning-forks which he used to represent simple pitches did not give\nsimple pitches, but compound pitches. It is probable that no one here\npresent has ever heard a fundamental pitch devoid of overtones. The\nfirst one I heard was when, several years ago, I made the first experiment\nwhich led to the making of the electric sonometer, I succeeded in getting a'tone of a single pitch. I accomplished it by placing between two\nelectro-magnets, whose poles were separated a quarter of an inch, a thin\nmetal disk, whose volume was such that its own pitch when struck was too\nhigh to fall within the limits of hearing. By interrupting, by means of a\ncommutator, the current passing thru one of these magnets I was enabled\nto make this disk oscillate any given number of times per second, and the\ntone was entirely free from harmonics. By means of a series of fourteen\nof these disks electrically operated I was able to repeat Helmholtz'\nexperiment with greater precision and much better results. Any one,\ntwo, or more of the overtones can by this device be sounded simultaneously with the fundamental tone, and all of the possible tone qualities\ncan thus be produced, and any of the overtones can be given any desired\ndegree of loudness. With this instrument it is possible to make all of\nthe 80,000 pitches with every variation of amplitude and with all of the\npossible tone qualities of each pitch. To omit from the training of a\nchild any group of pitches or tone qualities is to omit from the child's\nbrain structural changes which might have been put there as memory\nstructures, and it is to omit a certain amount of mind unfoldment in the\nchild. If there are tone qualities which the child has not recognized and\ndiscriminated several times, then a certain anatomical, psychological, and\nlogical completeness will be lacking. The way properly to train a child\nfor brain-building purposes is this : first, the training should take place\nat precisely the same hour each day, so as to take advantage of the wellknown phenomena of periodicity. After the third or fourth day a\nphysiological habit will put the blood in the functional parts of the brain\nat about the time that the lesson is to take place, just as we get hungry\nat certain times at which we have habitually eaten. This vaso-motor\ndominancy occurs shortly before the time of the lesson, and thoroly supplies nutriment and recuperation to the cells that are soon to be used, and\nit provides the cells with the materials of growth and carries away the debris\nof previous activity. More brain growth can be produced in the fourth\nthan in the three previous lessons because of the vaso-motor dominancy,\nand because of the establishment of a functional habit in those parts of the\nbrain. The next important point is that the child should have been completely rested, should have had sufficient sleep, and should have digested\n\n"}
{"page": 1065, "printed_page": null, "text": "Dcfectivesl\n\nBRAIN\n\nBUILDING\n\nAND\n\nMIND\n\nBUILDING\n\n1055\n\nthe previous meal. The lesson, of course, should take place in a manner\ncheerful to the child. Then it should be caused to hear, by means of the\nelectric sonometer, all of the pitches of sound, giving only the fundamental tones, and varying the amplitude of each tone so as to go from\nthe upper to the lower limit of loudness. And then the child should\nhear a glide from the lowest to the highest note, including thus every\npossible pitch, and it should be done with different degrees of loudness.\nThis will take some twenty minutes. It should be repeated every day at\nthe same hour for at least five days in normal children, and perhaps for\nseveral weeks in the mentally deficient and in mutes. Then should commence the tone qualities. To the fundamental pitches from lowest to\nhighest note should be added the first harmonic of different degrees of\nloudness. Thus, if you were to strike C of sixteen oscillations per second,\nyou then add the first harmonic of thirty-two oscillations per second, and\ngradually increase it in loudness until the limit of musical amplitude has\nbeen reached. Then take the next higher musical interval, and so on\nthru the entire scale. About two octavos may be taken for the lesson,\nand repeated daily as long as may be needed, and then follow by the next\nhigher two octaves, and so on until finished. Then the second octave\ncan be added, and then the third, and so on until they have all been\nheard and discriminated. Then comes the training in the hearing of\ngroups of harmonics, into which I need not now enter. In our present\nsystems of music every note upon the piano has a different tone quality,\nand no two voices have the same tone qualities. It will be considerable\nof a novelty to you all to hear the notes of a tonic chord when the tone\nqualities are all the same, and a still greater surprise to hear the tonic\nchord in each one of the fourteen possible tone-quality changes and in\neach of the eight distinct group-harmonic changes. To develop any\none part of the sense of hearing more than another part is to produce\nataxia in the brain cells and in the mind. When a part is underdeveloped, itstendency is to become diseased ; when a part is over-devel-.\noped, its tendency is also to become diseased, thru congestion and other\ncauses. Only an equable development can produce highest bodily health\nand highest mental soundness. In a normal child this training in the\nsense of hearing can be completed in four months, devoting to it twenty\nminutes per day.\nOnly when a function is developed as a whole can education normally\nand speedily take place. To omit any one logical or psychological part\nof the whole of a sense training is to introduce inexorable difficulties. I\nneed not now dwell upon the methods for training the other senses. This\nmethod puts into the corresponding areas of the brain the memory structures which constitute mind embodiment for these mental faculties. I\nwish again to emphasize the statement that normal psychologic functioning cannot take place in the brain from which one important set of struc-\n\n"}
{"page": 1066, "printed_page": null, "text": "1056\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Education of\n\ntures has been omitted; that such an omission causes continual difficulties\nin all subsequent stages of education ; that under-development of any one\npart of the cortex produces disease and psychologic incompleteness.\n\nTHE\n\nWISCONSIN\n\nBY ROBERT\n\nC. SPENCER,\n\nPUBLIC\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nDA Y SCHOOLS\n\nWISCONSIN\n\nMILWAUKEE,\n\nFOR\n\nPHONOLOGICAL\n\nTHE\n\nDEAF\n\nINSTITUTE,\n\nWIS.\n\nThe Wisconsin public day schools for the deaf grew out of the\nefforts of the Wisconsin Phonological Institute to promote the pure oral,\nor German, method of educating the deaf, the method favored by Horace\nMann in his report to Massachusetts on education in Europe.\nThe movement in Wisconsin began in 1877 i^^ ^ private day and\nboarding school in Milwaukee, which led to the enactment of a law in\n1885 for public day schools for the deaf in incorporated cities and villages with state aid, free to all deaf children in the state.\nAt the present time, 1898, no less than twelve of these schools are in\nsuccessful operation, located in Milwaukee, Sheboygan, Manitowoc, Marinette, Green Bay, Appleton, Oshkosh, Fond du Lac, Wausau, Black River\nFalls, Eau Claire, and Superior ; and others will be opened September\nI, 1898, in Oshkosh, Stevens' Point, Neillsville, and Oconto. They have\nan enrollment of 140 pupils, with twenty-four teachers and six normal\nstudents in the Milwaukee school, with an average of less than six pupils\nto a teacher.\nNormal students for the oral education of the deaf use the Milwaukee\ngraded school for observation and practice. They also attend classes in\nthe State Normal School. These schools are a part of the public-school\nsystem, and have the same course of study as schools for hearing children,\nfrom which they differ only in the development of speech thru sight and\ntouch. They generally occupy small class-rooms in buildings with hearing children, under the same management. Deaf and hearing children\nmingle on the playground, in manual-training classes, and elsewhere, with\nmutual profit and pleasure.\nIn these schools deaf children may commence their education at the\nage of four years, and continue to the age of twenty years or longer.\nThey live at home, where they enjoy the advantages of hearing children in\nnormal relations, avoiding the objections to institutions and institutionalism.\nAltho the law allows freedom as to methods, these schools are without\nexception taught by the purely oral, or German, method, and do not use the\nsign language or finger spelling.\nThis feature attracts the attention of\n\n"}
{"page": 1067, "printed_page": null, "text": "Defectives]\n\nCLOSING\n\nADDRESS\n\n1057\n\nteachers of the hearing, and others, who use the knowledge in teaching\nand dealing with pupils defective in articulation, hearing, and otherwise.\nNormal schools attach importance to these schools as object-lessons for\ntheir students who study and discuss them.\nThey are in close touch with the homes, in mutually helpful relations.\nThey obviate the necessity of removing the deaf from home during their\neducation, thus preserving and fostering domestic ties and affections, and\n.eave the support and care of deaf children with parents, instead of\nimposing it on the state.\nFinancially, the experience of Wisconsin with day schools for the\ndeaf has proven highly satisfactory. During the first ten years the saving\nto the state, as compared with the institutional plan, was for current\nexpenses over $100,000. From every point of view, the Wisconsin day\nschools for the deaf by the purely oral, or German, method have proven an\nunqualified success. Illinois and Ohio have enacted similar laws, and\nMinnesota and California are moving in the same direction, with strong\nprobability that the plan will become general.\nIn Wisconsin, day schools have not materially affected the attendance\nat the state school at Delaven, but have saved the necessity and cost of\nenlarging its accommodations or establishing another similar school.\nThey have stimulated speech teaching in the state school, have brought\nmore deaf children under instruction, and have greatly increased intelligent interest in, and sympathy for, the deaf.\nDr. Alexander Graham Bell, who is the highest authority on deafmuteism and deaf-mute education, pronounces the Wisconsin system of\npublic day schools for the deaf the most important movement of the century for the improvement of their condition, worthy to be studied and\ncopied by other states and countries.\n\nCLOSING\nBY ALEXANDER\n\nGRAHAM\n\nADDRESS\nBELL,\n\nWASHINGTON,\n\nD. C.\n\nWhen we study history, I think we can recognize events that form, as\nit were, milestones measuring progress. This gathering of teachers of the\ndeaf, teachers of the blind, and teachers of the mentally deficient, with\nthe great body of teachers of the country, is an event which forms a milestone in the progress of educational movement. It is the first time that\nwe have recognized that the instruction of these classes is a department\nof education. Now for the first time we come in an organized manner as\nan integral part of the great educational organization of this country, the\ngreat educational organization of the world.\nI am sure that teachers of\n\n"}
{"page": 1068, "printed_page": null, "text": "1058\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Education of\n\nthe deaf have learned much from the papers which have been read here\nregarding the mentally deficient, and from the papers relating to the\nblind. All of us have profited by these papers and addresses ; and this\nprofit has been afforded outside of this department to the general teachers\nin session in this city.\nLet us take a glance and see what seems to have been the usual trend\nof thought in regard to the condition of the deaf that has culminated in\nthis meeting, which forms not an end but a beginning of further progress.\nAt first it was thought that the deaf should be taken away from their\nhomes, separated from all their hearing companions and friends, and\nbrought into huge schools where they should meet no other than the deaf.\nIn fact, it was commonly thought that they could all be put into one large\nschool. But the census af 1890 revealed the fact that we had 19,975 deaf\nchildren under twenty years of age in the United States, and only 7,500\nin all the schools for the deaf. I do not know how it is with the blind\nand the feeble-minded, but these are the facts in relation to the deaf :\nafter half a century, or the greater portion of the century, with generous\ncontributions from the United States, and from the several states, we find\nthat out of some 20,000 deaf children under the age of twenty-one years\nonly 7,500 were to be found in all the schools for the deaf thruout the\ncountry. Indeed, even today there are only 9,700 in all our schools ; so\nthat our methods of reaching the deaf have failed to bring under instruction a large proportion of this class. The plan of providing schools,\ninstitutions, or boarding schools, all of them have failed ; but in the last\nfew years we have had a new policy whereby the state furnishes decentralization inthe instruction of the deaf, combining day schools with the\ncentral institutions, so that children can be reached at a younger age in\nthe day schools and in small numbers ; and those who cannot attend the\nday schools have the state institution to go to. All children cannot\nattend the day schools, all children cannot go to the institutions or boarding schools. We should have both ; the day school moving out into the\nsmaller centers of population, taking in children at a younger age than\nthey could be received into an institution. In Wisconsin, Illinois, and\nOhio legislation has provided means by which teachers can be sent to the\nchildren instead of the children to the teacher ; so that, if you find in a\nlittle place four or five little deaf children, with the machinery provided\nby legislation, teachers can be sent to them. They can live in their own\nhomes, can be taught at four, five, and six years of age ; and at a later\nperiod can either go on with their education in these day schools or go\nto an institution or boarding school.\nNow, all that I have said in relation to the deaf would be equally\nadvantageous to the blind and to the feeble-minded. We have in the\npublic-school system a large body of ordinary children in the same community. We have there children who cannot hear sufficiently well to\n\n"}
{"page": 1069, "printed_page": null, "text": "Defectives]\n\nCLOSING\n\nADDRESS\n\nI059\n\nprofit by instruction in the public schools, and we have children who cannot see sufficiently well to profit by instruction in the public schools, and\nwe have children who are undoubtedly backward in their mental development. Why should not these children form an annex to the public-school\nsystem, receiving special instruction from special teachers, who shall be\nable to give instruction to little children who are either deaf, blind, or\nmentally deficient, without sending them away from their homes or from\nthe ordinary companions with whom they are associated ? In fact, if there\nis one thing that seems to me clear, it is this, that the tendency of educational progress in regard to these classes is to keep to the normal environment of the child as closely as possible. A deaf child is born amidst\nhearing and speaking people ; it has got to live in that community, and\nhas got to be specially prepared to make a living in that community.\nNow, how are we going to prepare him to live in that community ?\nBy taking him away ? Are we going to prepare him to converse with\nhis hearing brothers and sisters, father and mother, uncles and aunts, by\ntaking him away from them ? Now, in the case of a deaf child, nature\ninterposes a barrier to communication with the rest of the community.\nWe are all dumb at birth, we were all once infants. And what does\ninfant mean ? It comes from two words, ///, \"not,\" and fans, \"talking.\"\nWe do not talk at birth. How do we learn to speak ? By hearing other\npeople speak, by imitation ; and if the little child happens to be born deaf,\nor even very slightly deaf, and the infant remains at home, it cannot be\ntaught to speak thru imitation without the help of a special teacher.\nBut one of the very best things we can do is to teach deaf children the\nlanguage of the people with whom they live. In our country, of course,\nthis is the English language. Now, all you who are not teachers of the\ndeaf may learn from our work ; I mean those of you who want to teach\nFrench or German to an ordinary child. The method of teaching language to the deaf may be of great assistance to you.\nNow, Mr. President, in these few remarks I merely wished to emphasize my feelings that this meeting should be regarded as a milestone in\nthe progress of education for the deaf, the blind, and the feeble-minded.\nAnd I feel that, instead of being an end, it is the beginning of a great\neducational movement.\n\n"}
{"page": 1070, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 1071, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIST OF LIFE AND ACTIVE\nARRANGED\n\nBY\n\nSTATES,\n\nCLASSES,\nRBVISBD\n\nAND\n\nYEARS\n\nTO DBCEHBBR\n\nOF\n\nMEMBERS\n\nCONTINUOUS\n\nMEMBERSHIP\n\nt, 1898\n\nIn preparing this list, the Secretary has found the records of annual membership\nvery imperfect, especially in the earlier years. Every effort has been made, with the\nassistance of the members, to correct all errors. It is too much to hope that this has been\nfully accomplished. Further corrections will be made as errors are discovered. All\nwhose names appear in the following list are invited to send to the Secretary, at once,\ncorrections of errors and omissions.\nMany early members of the association who have contributed largely to its growth\nand success are enrolled under recent dates because their membership has not been continuous, and no plan for indicating irregular memberships has been adopted. Many\nothers have paid the dues for omitted years, received the volumes of proceedings, and\nobtained credit from the earliest years of their attendance. This privilege is still extended\nto all who wish to avail themselves of it.\nAll active members are urged to co-operate with the Executive Committee in extending this list until it includes the leading educators of every state, to the end that the\nassociation may receive their active support, and may in turn render most efficient service\nthru its meetings, its organized plans for educational investigation, and its published\nreports.\nThe annual active membership fee will be due at the time of annual meeting, and\nmay be paid by a railroad membership coupon delivered to the Treasurer, by cash payment to the Treasurer during the annual meeting, or by cash remittance to the Secretary\nbefore September i of each year.\nThe marginal years indicate the date of the commencement of continuous annual\nmembership for those whose names immediately follow. The indented years indicate\ndate of appointment to present educational position. The names of deceased members\nare indicated by a *.\nExtra copies of this list may be obtained by remitting thirty cents to the Secretary,\nIrwin Shepard, Winona, Minn.\n\nALABAMA\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n1882.\n\nJulia S. Tutwiler.\nPrincipal Alabama Normal College for Girls, Livingston.\n1888. J. H. Phillips, A.M., Marietta Coll., O.; Ph.D., Southern Univ., Ala.\n1883. Superintendent of Schools, Park Ave. and aist St., Birmingham.\n1892. F. M. Roof.\n1887.\nPrincipal of Public Schools, 513, 19th St., Birmingham.\n1894. LuciEN V. La Taste.\nAgent University Publishing Company, Box 558, Montgomery.\nJohn Massey,\n';r5, LL.D.,\n'79. Univ.\nofAla.Female College, Tuskegee.\n1876.A.M.,\nPresident\nAlabama\nConference\n1895. Mary A. Cahalan.\n1884. Principal of the Powell School, 2311, 4th Ave., Birmingham.\nJ. B. Cunningham.\n1898.\nPrincipal of High School, 600 S. 27th St., Birmingham,\n*JoHN T. Gregory, C.E., '89, Alabama Polytechnic Inst.\n1894.\nPrincipal Grammar School, 996 Government St., Mobile.\nRobert A. Mickle, A.B., '86, Davidson Coll., N. Car.\nPrincipal Jefferson St. Grammar School, Mobile.\n*Died September ai, 1898.\nIO61\n\n"}
{"page": 1072, "printed_page": null, "text": "Io62\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Arkansas\n\nALABAMA— Co«/i««*rf\n1895.\n\n1897.\n189S.\n\nKate E, Moon.\n\nGrammar Department, Public Schools, no N. Conception St., Mobile.\nJames K. Powers,\nA.M., '73,\nLL.D., '97,\nUniv. of Ala.\n1897.\nPresident\nUniversity\nof Alabama,\nUniversity.\nCharles Ben Van Wie, Ph.M., Ph.D., '94, III. Wesleyan Univ.\n1888. Department of Pedagogy, State Normal College, Florence.\nJohn D. Yerbv, A.B., '79, Southern Univ. ; A.M., '96, Univ. of Ala.\n1894.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 996 Government St., Mobile.\nAlabama Polytechnic Institute.\nPresident, William Le Roy Brown; Librarian, Charles C. Thach, Auburn.\nRobert\nVenable\nAllgood, B.P., '88, B.S., '90, So. Univ., Greensboro;\nA.M., '93, Univ.\nNashville.\n1894.\nSuperintendent of Public Schools, sth Ave. E., Avondale.\nJ. F. Elliott.\n1897. Principal of High School, Brookwood.\nJ. A. Knight, B.C.,Superintendent\n'87, Keochie Coll.,\nLa.; B.S.,\n'95, Nat. Nor. Univ., Lebanon, O.\nof Schools,\nMt. Willing.\nARIZONA\nactive members\n\n1895.\n\nLydia L. Hunt.\n1894. Superintendent U. S. Indian Boarding School, Indian School, San Carlos.\nJames McNaughton, A.B., '62, A.M., '65, Ph.D., '87, Allegheny Coll.\n1895. Principal Territorial Normal School, Tempe.\nHorace E. Wilson.\n1898. Superintendent in charge of Supai Indians and School, Supai.\n1897. F. S. Hapford, A.B.,HealdsburgColl.,Cal.\n1897. Superintendent of Schools, Prescott.\n1898. T. E. Dalton,\nEx-Territorial Superintendent, Phoenix.\nARKANSAS\nactive members\n1887.\n\nThomas\n\nA. Futrall, A.M., Univ. of Tenn.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Marianna.\n1890. Josiah H. Shinn, A.B., A.M., '70, Northwestern Univ.\nEditor \"Southern School Journal,\" 2121 Cumberland St., Little Rock.\n1895. George B. Cook.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Hot Springs.\nAbbie W. Draughon.\nTeacher in 4th and sth Grades, Central School, 392 Grand Ave., Hot Springs.\nJ. L. HoLLOWAV, A.M., Missouri State Normal.\n1889. Superintendent of Schools, 12th and K Sts., Fort Smith.\nW. W. Rivers, A.B., '86, A.M., '89, Univ. of Miss.\n1894. Superintendent of City Schools, Helena.\n1896. Howard Gates.\n1891. Principal Kramer School, 20th and Cross Sts., Little Rock.\nJ. H. HiNEMON, A.M., '93, Arkadelphia Coll.\n1895. Superintendent of Schools, 618 W. 6th Ave., Pine Bluff.\nAlfred Lee Peacher, A.M., '92, Wooster Univ., O.\n1895. Superintendent of Schools, 806 Broadway, Van Buren.\n1897. Hendrix College.\nPresident, A. C. Millar, Conway.\n^\nJ. W. Parker.\nPrincipal of School, 8th and B Sts., Ft. Smith.\nJohn Hugh Reynolds, A.B., '93, Hendrix Coll. ; A.M., '97, Univ. of Chicago.\nProfessor of Education and History, Hendrix College, Conway.\n1898. Mrs. E. M. Blake, Ph.B.\nTeacher of English, Onachita Baptist College, Arkadelphia.\nJennie Boyd, M.E.L.\nTeacher in Public Schools, Hope.\nBel l e Bunzel.\n1\nTeacher in Public Schools, Little Rock.\nA. D. Garden, A.B., '90.\n1898. Superintendent of City Schools, Camden.\nA. H. Carter, A.B.\n1890. Principal Duval School, 401 S. i8th St., Fort Smith.\nJennie Cook.\nElmo.\nJ. C. CORBIN, A.B., 'S3, A.M., '60, Ohio Univ.\n1873.\nPresident Branch Normal College, Pine Bluff.\nEva L. Davis, B.L., Hardin Coll., Mexico, Mo.\n1898. Teacher in Public Schools, 1003 Poplar St., Pine Bluff.\nHattie Denison.\nTeacher in Public Sphools, Little Rock.\nLuLA May Futrall, A.B., '98, Galloway Coll.\n1897. First Assistant Jonesboro City Schools, Marianna.\nR. C. Hall.\n1898. Principal of Peabody High School, 1817 Broadway, Little Rock.\nMiss F. O. Hogg.\nPine Bluff.\nJ. H. Keel.\nNewport.\n\nof\n\n"}
{"page": 1073, "printed_page": null, "text": "California]\n\nLIFE\n\nAND\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n1063\n\nARKANSAS— C<J«^»«wtf</\n1898.\n\nEmma\n\nMann, M.E.L., 'ox, Memphis Con. Female Inst.\n1898.\nVice-Principal 6th Ave. School, 627 Walnut St., Pine Bluff.\n\nJohn E. Martineau,\nA.B., Public\n'96, Uni'v.\nof Ark.\nPrincipal\nSchool,\nArgenta.\nMary E. Mitchell.\nAssistant in High School, 713 State Line St., Texarcana.\nMaggie Murphy, M.E.L.\n1890. Teacher in Public Schools, Little Rock.\nT. P. MURREV,\nRepresenting American Book Co., Foft Smith.\nJessie Pollock, M.E.L.\n1895. Teacher in Publip Schools, Little Rock.\nJ. R. Rightsell.\nSuperintendent City Schools, Little Rock.\nCora Shbber.\n1894. Teacher in Public Schools, Hot Springs.\nJennie Mansfield Sherwood.\n1896. Primary Teacher Public Schools, Marianna,\nJulia Shivbs.\nTeacher in Public Schools, Van Buren.\nMiss Lbamy Teague.\nTeacher in Public Schools, Van Buren.\nLottie Webber, M.E.L., Arkadelphia Coll.\nTeacher in Public Schools, Arkadelphia.\nCALIFORNIA\nlife directors\n1881.\n1888.\n\nAndrew\n\nJ. Rickoff, A.M., LL.D., Univ. of Ohio.\n2429 Bancroft Way, Berkeley.\nLeRoy D. Brown, San\nA.B..Luis\n'79,Obispo.\nA.M., '82, Ohio Wesleyan Univ. ; Ph.D., '83, Baker Univ.\nlife members\n\n1870. *R. M. Manley.\n\n63s Grant Ave., San Diego.\nAnna Kalfus Spero.\nPublisher, N. McLaughlin Ave., near Santa Clara Ave., San Jose.\n1879. James H. Hoose, A.M., '64, Ph.D., '73, Syracuse Univ.\n255 S. Euclid Ave., Pasadena.\n1884. NathanC. Twining, A.B., '61, A.M., '6s, Milton Coll., Wis.\n1895. Principal of San Jacinto High School, 1224 Walnut St., Riverside.\n1886. C. y. Roop.\n1893. Principal of High School. Santa Barbara.\n1888. Rebecca F. English.\n1891. Critic Teacher, State Normal School, 141 S. loth St., San Jose.\n1889. Augusta W. Hobe.\n188&\nTeacher in Grammar Grade, 1633 Hyde St., San Francisco.\n1877.\n\nactive members\n1889.\n\nEdward T. Pierce, LL.B., '77, Union Univ. ; Pd.D., '94, N. V. Nor. Coll.\n1892. President State Normal School, Los Angeles.\n1891. Earl Barnes, M.S., '90, Cornell Univ.\nDepartment of Education, Leland Stanford Jr. University, Stanford University.\nElmer E. Brown, A.B., '89, Univ. of Mich. ; Ph.D., '90, Halle,\n1893. Prof, of Science and Art of Teaching, Univ. of Cal.,2341 Channing Way, Berkeley.\n1892. Frederic L. Burk. B.L., '83. Univ. of Cal. ; A.M., '92, Sanford Univ. ; Ph.D., '98, Clark Univ.\n1898.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Santa Barbara.\n1893. James A. Foshay, A.M., Univ. of So. Cal. ; Pd.D., '98, N. V. Nor. Coll.\n1895.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 2391 Scarff St., Los Angeles.\n1894. J. C. Templeton, B.S„\n'85, Nat. Nor. Univ., O.\nPalo Alto.\nCharles C. Van Liew, Ph.D., '93, Jena,\n1897. State Normal School, Los. Angeles.\n1895. D. R. Augsburg, B.P., '84, Syracuse Univ.\n1898. Director of Drawing, Public Schools, 1261, 6th Ave., East Oakland.\nLewis B. Avery, B.S., '83, Tabor Coll., la.\n1895.\nPrincipal Union High School, Redlands.\nWalter J. Bailey,\n1895, County Superintendent of Schools, 1067 Front St,, San Diego,\nSamuel T, Black,\n1898,\nPresident State Normal School, San Diego.\nTheodore B. Comstock, B.Ag., '68, Pa, State Coll,; B,S., '70, D.S., '86, Cornell Univ.\nS3S Stimson Block, Los Angeles.\nMelville Dozier, Ph.B., '67, Furman Univ., S. C.\n1895.\nVice-l'rincipal State Normal School, 829 W. nth St., Los Angeles.\nAllib M. Felker, Grad., '84, State Normal Sch., San Jose.\n1892.\nCritic Teacher, State Normal School, 468 S. 6th St., San Jose.\nCharles Edward Hutton, A.B., '53, A.M., '61, St. John's Coll., Md.\n1890.\nInstructor in State Normal School, 1007 W, aist St., Los Angeles.\nThomas J. Kirk.\nCounty Superintendent, Fresno Co,, 1637 N, J St,, Fresno.\n*Died September 16, 1897,\n\n"}
{"page": 1074, "printed_page": null, "text": "lo64\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Colorado\n\nCALIFORNIA— Co«tf«»*«/\ni8q«.\n\nJoseph Le Conte, A.B., '41, A.M., '45. LL.D., 79, Univ. of Ga. ; LL.D., '96, Princeton; M.D., '43,\nColl. of 1868.\nPhys. &Professor\nSurg., N.\nY. ; B.S.,\nUniv. of Cal., 2739 Bancroft Way Berkeley.\nGeology\nand '51,\nNat.Harvard\nHist., Univ.\n\nJ. B. MoNLUX,\nA.M.,\n'81, Iowa\nUniv. 250 E. 30th St., Los Angeles.\n1896.\nPrincipal\n28th State\nSt. School,\nUniversitv of California.\nPresident, Martin Kellogg, LL.D., Bushness PI. ; Librarian, J. C. Rowell, Berkeley.\n1896. E. Morris Cox, A.B., HaverfordColL, Pa.\n1897. Principal of Public Schools, P.O. Box 16, Santa Rosa.\nMrs. C. L. Place.\n1897. Principal Training Department, State Normal School, 129 E. Julian St., San Jos^.\n1897. Christine Benson.\n3i6Ji W. 3d St., Los Angeles.\nArthur H. Chamberlain.\n1896. Instructor in Pedagogy and Director of Sloyd, 377 N. Las Robles Ave., Pasadena.\nFree Public Library of San Francisco.\nPresident, Horace Davis ; Secretary, George A. Mullin, San Francisco.\nFlorence Lawson.\nDirector Kindergarten Department, State Normal School, Los Angeles.\nFernando Sanford.\n1891. Professor of Physics, Leland Stanford Jr. University, Stanford University.\nLeland Stanford Jr. University.\nPresident, Dr. D. S. Jordan; Librarian, H. C. Nash.\nState Normal School at Chico.\nPresident, Carleton M. Ritter, Chico.\nState Normal School at Los Angeles.\nPresident, Dr. Edward T. Pierce, Los Angeles.\n1898. Albert Lyser.\nSan Francisco.\nMrs. Louise Maitland, B.A., '89, Stanford Univ.\nTeacher in State Normal School, 245 W. San Carlos St., San Jose.\nHolmes MacDonald, Dalhousie Coll., Halifax, Novia Scotia.\n1885. Principal Lincoln Evening School, 407 Fair Oak St., San Francisco.\nCarl H. Nielsen.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Sonoima Co., Santa Rosa.\nAntrim Edgar Osborne, M.D., '77, Ph.D., '79.\n1886. Superintendent State Institute for Feeble -Minded; 1896, Professor Nervous and\nMental Diseases, College of Physicians and Surgeons, San Francisco; Eldridge.\nState Normal School Library, San Jos^.\nPresident, A. H. Randall ; Librarian, Ruth;Royce, San Jose.\n\nAlexander\n\ni888.\n\nAaron Gove.\n1874.\n\nCOLORADO\nLIFE director\nSuperintendent of Schools, High School, Denver.\nLIFE member\n\n1886. Frank Howard Clark., B.Didac, '83, Univ.'of Kan.\n1897. Superintendent of City Schools, 409 Petroleum Ave., Florence.\nactive members\n1884.\n\n1887.\n\n1890.\n1892.\n\n1893.\n\n1894.\n1895.\n\nJames H. Baker, A.B., '73, A.M., '76, LL.D., '92, Bates Coll.\n1892. President Uhiversity of Colorado, Boulder.\nRobert H. Beggs, B.S., '68, Illinois Coll.\n1880.\nPrincipal Grammar School, 2427 Ogden St., Denver.\nCharles V. Parker, B.S., '97, Denver Univ.\n1891.\nSuperintendent of City Schools, Fort Collins.\nZ. X. Snvder, B.S., '76, A.B., '78, Ph.D., '85, Waynesburg Coll., Pa.\n1891. President State Normal School of Colorado, Greeley.\nWarren E. Knapp.\n1897. Superintendent of Schools of Arapahoe Co., 37s Broadway, Denver.\nLewis C. Greenlee, Grad. State Nor. Sch., '78, Edinboro, Pa. ; A.M., '95, Waynesburg Coll., Pa.\n1890. Superintendent of Schools, Dist. No. 2, 549 S. Tremont St., Denver.\nWilliam Henry Smiley, A. B., '77, Harvard Univ.\n1892. Principal High School, Dist. No. i, 2112 Lincoln Ave., Denver.\nJames H. Van Sickle, A.B., '96, A.M., '98, Umv. of Colo.\n1891. Superintendent of Schools, North Side, 3247 Bryant St., Denver.\nHenrietta B. Ayres.\n1882.\nTeacher in Gilpin School, Denver.\nCharles A. Bradley. Grad., '77, U. S. Military Acad.\n1894.\nPrincipal Manual Training High School, 1341 Corona St., Denver.\nS. Arthur Johnson, B.S., '91, M.S., '95, Rutgers Coll.\n1896.\nInstructor in Math., High School, Dist. No. 2, 55 S. Washington Ave., Denver.\nH. M. Barrett, A.B., '90, A.M., '93, Allegheny Coll.\nTeacherof Latin and English, High School, 3325 Osceola St., Highlands Station,\nDenver; Editor \"Colorado School Journal.\"\nA. E. Beardsley, B.S., '78, Cornell Univ. ; M.S., '98, Univ. of Colo.\n1892. Professor of Biology, State Normal School, 1412, loth St., Greeley.\nHelen Mar Brown.\n1894. Principal Sheridan School, 1541 Race St., Denver.\nGeorgb Lyman Cannon, Jr.\n1887. Instructor in Geology and Biology, East Denver High School, Denver.\nWilliam V. Casey.\n1893. Superintendent of Schools, 820 Pine St„ Bpulder,\n\n"}
{"page": 1075, "printed_page": null, "text": "Connecticut]\n\nLIFE\n\nAND\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n1 065\n\nOaXXyViKOO— Continued\n1895. Ckarlbs Ernest\nA.B., of''at,\nKM...\n'93, Stanford\n1898. Chadsbv,\nSuperintendent\nGity\nSchools,\nDurango.; A.M., '94, Ph.D., '97, Columbia.\nFrbd Dick, A.M., Hamilton Coll., N. V.\nPrincipal Normal and Preparatory School, 1543-45 Glenarm St., Denver.\nJohn Dietrich.\n1893. Superintendent of City Schools, 1824 N. Nevada Ave., Colorado Springs.\nE. Waitk Elder, A.B., '91, A.M., '94, Princeton.\n1895. Science Master, State Preparatory School, Boulder.\nJohn B. Garvin, B.S., '86, Univ. of Illinois.\n1890. Instructor in Chemistry, High School, Dist. No. i, 3536 W. 34th St., Denyer.\nEdward F. Hermanns.\n1891. Principal of High School, DIst. No. 2, 425 Broadway, Denver.\nMrs. F. R. Houghan.\n1873. Principal of Gilpin School, Plymouth Place, Denver.\nJoseph P. Jackson, LL.B., '76, Iowa Univ.; A.M., '80, Oskaloosa Coll.\n1894. Superintendent of Schools, Box 743, Leadville.\nJohn F. Keating,\nA.B., '92, Ohio ofWesleyan\nUniv. Dist. No. 20, 1102 Lake Ave,, Pueblo.\n1896. Superintendent\nPublic Schools,\nCharles Joseph Ling, B.S., '90, Cornell Univ.\n1894.\nInstructor in Physics, Manual Training High School, Denver,\nClara Louise Little,\nTeacher in Public Schools, Delgany School, Denver.\nJ. S. McCLimc.\n1879. Superintendent of Schools, Dist, Np, i, 423, nth St., Pueblo.\nMiss A. N. Miller.\n1887. Principal Garfield School, 1037 S. 9th St., Denver.\nDora M. Moore.\n1893. Principal Corona School, 1031 Emerson St., Denver.\nC. M. Osenbaugh.\n1891. Principal Swansea School, 250 S. Clarkson St., Denver.\nCharles Skeblb Palmer, A.B., '79, A.M., '82, Amherst; Ph.D., '86, Johns Hopkins.\n1887.\nProfessor of Chemistry, University of Colorado, 1224 Pine St., Boulder.\nSidney Fuller Smith.\n•\nInstructor in Physics, High School, Dist, No, i, 1470 Steele St,, Denver,\nE, R. Snvder, B.Pd., '95, Colo. Nor. Sch.\n1897. Principal of Public Schools, New Windsor.\nJbssib Wing.\n1897. Teacher in Primary Department, 15 Block St., S. Pueblo.\nW. J. Wise, B.S., '84, A.M., '88.\n1893. Superintendent of Schools, 1864 S, Washington St,, South Denver,\n1896. O. J. Blakeslbv, B.S., Pd.D.\n1896. Superintendent of Schools, La Junta, Colo,\nIda Brock Haslup, Ph.B., III. Wes. Univ.\n1892. Principal of High School, 211 Broadway, Pueblo.\nMrs, Z. X, Snyder,\nGreeley.\n1897. Izora Scott,1894.\nA.B^Assistant\n'87, Kan.in Nor.\nHigh Coll.\nSchool, 435 Broadway, Pueblo.\nState Normal School at Greeley.\nPresident, Z. X. Snyder; Librarian, Joseph F. Daniels, Greeley.\n1898. Lola M. Miller.\n1895. Teacher 5th Grade, Lincoln School, 160 S, Denver Ave., Denver.\nH. W, ZiRKLE, A.B.,\n'83, A.M.,\n'95, Polytechnic\nInst.,\nVa. Ave., Denver.\nPrincipal\nof Elmwood\nSchool, 357\nLincoln\nCONNECTICUT\nLIFE MEMBER\n\n1884.\n\nHenry\n\nBarnard, A.B., '30, Yale; LL.D., '52, Yale, Harvard, and Union; L.H.D,, '87, Columbia,\nEx-U, S, Commissioner of Education 1866-70, 118 Main St., Hartford,\n\nactive members\nB. Hurd,\n1885. Supervising Principal Winchester School District, 59 Lake Place, New Haven,\nCharles W. Deane, A.M., '84, Ph.D., '92, Allegheny Coll.\n1893. Superintendent of Schools, 338 Main St., Bridgeport.\nDavid N. Camp, A.M., '53, Yale.\n1854. Ex-State Supt. of Schools, Manager of New Britain Library, 9 Camp St, New\nBritain.\nRachel King.\n1894. Principal Training Class and Supervisor of Free Kindergartens, 38 Howe St., Ne«\nHaven.\nFrederick A. Curtiss.\n1892. Principal High School, Old Saybrook.\n\n1888. George\n1889,\n1892.\n1893.\n1894.\n\n1895. Nathan L. 1877.\nBishop.\n_\n•\n_\nSuperintendent of Schools, Central District,\n7 Huntington\nPI., Norwich.\nCalvin N. Kendall, A.M.\n1895. Superintendent of Schools, 31 Center St., New Haven.\nMyron Tracy Scudder, A.B., '82, A.M., '86, Rutgers Coll.\n1897. Principal of Hillhouse High School, New Haven.\n1896. E. Herman Arnold, M.D., '94, Yale.\nDirector Anderson Normal School of Gymnastics, 46 York Square, New Haven,\nGeorge W. Gamble.\n1895.\nSuperintendent of Schools, New Canaan.\n\n"}
{"page": 1076, "printed_page": null, "text": "lo66\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nCONNECTICUT—\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Dist.ofCol.\n\nContinued\n\n1896. F. E. Howard.\n1890.\nSupervisor of Music, 8s Congress St., Bridgeport.\nEmma G. Olmstead.\nPrincipal of Training School, Bridgeport.\n1897. B. W. Tinker, A.M., Bates Coll.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Waterbury.\n1898. Wilbur Fisk Gordy.\n1884.\nSupervising Principal, 2d North School District, 104 Gillette St., Hartford.\nStuart H. Rowe, A.B., '95, Yale; Ph.D., '95, Jena Univ., Germany.\n1898.\nSupervising Principal, 30 Academy St., New Haven.\nSarah J. Walter.\n1895. Training Teacher State Normal School, Willimantic.\nDELAWARE\nactive members\n1891. Edwina\n\nB. Kruse.\n1876. Principal High and Grammar School, No. 16, 12th and Orange Sts., Wilmington.\n1892. Albert N. Raub, Newark.\nA.M., '67, Princeton; Ph.D., '79, Lafayette; LL.D., '95, Ursinus Coll.\n1896.\n\nA. H. Berlin, A.M., '88, Hamilton Coll.\n1888. Principal High School, 817 Adams St., Wilmington.\nDISTRICT\nLIFE\n\ni8s7.\n\nZalmon\n\nOF COLUMBIA\nDIRECTORS\n\nRichards, A.B., '36, A.M., '39.\n1301 Corcoran St., Washington.\n\n1876.\n\nWilliam Torrev Harris, A.M., '69, Yale; LL.D., '70, Univ. of Mo., '94, Univ. of]Pa., '95, Yale;\nPh'.D., '93, Brown Univ.\n1889. United States Commissioner of Education, Washington.\n1880. J. Ormond Wilson, A.M., '74, Dartmouth Coll.\n1892. Secretary American Colonization Society ; Custodian National Educational Association, 450 Pennsylvania Ave., N. W., Washington,\nlife members\n1880. John Hitz.\n1887.\nSuperintendent of Volta Bureau, cor. 3Sth and Q Sts., Washington.\n1884. Alex. Graham Bell.\n1331 Connecticut Ave., Washington.\n1889.\nRt. Rev. John J. Keane, D.D^ Laval ; LL.D., Harvard.\n1886.\nLate Rector Catholic University of America, Washington.\nactive members\n1889. W. F. Powell.\nMinister to Haiti, American Legation; address State Dept., Washington.\n1892. William Bramwell Powell, A.M., '66, Lombard Univ.\n1885.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Franklin School, Washington.\nMrs. Sara A. Spencer.\n1891.\nPresident of Spencerian Business College, 7th and D Sts,, Washington.\nr893. John Eaton, Ph.D., Rutgers Coll. ; LL.D., Dartmouth Coll.\nEx-U. S. Commissioner of Education, The Concord, Washington.\n1894. Susan Plessner Pollock, Grad. of Kg. Nor. Inst., Berlin.\nPrincipal Froebel Normal Institute and Kindergarten, 1426 Q St., N. W., Washington.\n1895. Allan Davis, B.S., '90, M.S., 96, Columbian Univ. ; LL.M., '93, Nat. Law School, Washington.\n1890. Principal Business High School, ist St., between BandCSts.,N.W., Washington.\nAnna Tolman Smith.\nEditorial Corps, Bureau of Education, Washington.\nCarrie E. Svphax.\n1889.\nDirector of Sewing, Public Schools, 1447 Pierce Place, Washington.\nBenaiah Longley Whitman, A.B., '87, A.M., '90, Brown Univ.; D.D., '94, Bowdoin Coll.\n1895.\nPresident of Columbian University, 2115 Bancroft Place, Washington.\n1896. Powhatan W. Robertson, M.Accts., '81, Eastman Nat. Bus. Coll.\n1894. Columbian University, 2232 Q St., N. W., Washington.\nRebecca Stoneroad, Graduate Oswego Normal School.\n1889. Director of Physical Training, Public Schools, Webster School, loth and H Sts.,\nWashington.\n1897. Court Foster Wood, LL.B., '84, LL.M., '86, Columbian Univ.\n1885. Principal of Wood's Commercial College, 311 E. Capitol St., Washington,\n1898. Job Barnard, LL.B., '67, Univ. of Mich.\nTrustee Public Schools, 500, 5th St., N. W., Washington.\nZue Hunter Brockett.\nTeacher of Physical Training in Public Schools, 3425 Holmead Ave., N. W.,\nWashington.\n'\nElias Brown.\n,\n\n1895. Teacher, Deanwood.\nElizabeth V. Brown.\nTeacher in Normal School, 34 B St., N. E., Washington.\nEllis W. Brown.\nSupervisor of Public Schools, Lincoln School, Washington.\nNathaniel P. Gage, A.B., '62, A.M., '65, Dartmouth Coll.\nSupervisor of Schools, 1126, 5th St., N. W,, Washington.\nEmma M. Gillett, LL.B., '82, LL.M., '83, Howard Univ.\nTrustee Washington College of Law, LeDroit Building, 8th and 5th Sts., N. W.,\nWashington,\n\n"}
{"page": 1077, "printed_page": null, "text": "Georgia]\n\n1898.\n\nLIFE\n\nAND\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n1 067\n\nDISTRICT OF COLUMBIA— C<7«/»««*«/\nMiss A. L. Grant.\nPrincipal of Brent School, 507 E. Capitol St., Washington. .\nWilliam Hamilton,\nA.B.,Bureau\n'84, Moravian\nColl., forBethlehem,\nPa. ; A.M.,\n'94, Columbian'.Univ.\n1890.\nAgent\nof Education\nAlaska, Bureau\nof Education,\nWashington.\nDavid H. Hazen, M.D.\nTrustee Public Schools, 407, 6th St., S. W., Washington.\nNora Hobgelsbbrger.\nTeacher of German, Central High School, Washington.\nLouise E. Hogan.\n1504 Q St., N. W., Washington.\nBernard T. Jannhy.\nSupervising Principal of Public Schools, 1671, 31st St., N, W., Washington.\nH. M. Johnson.\nPrincipal Eastern High School, Washington.\nLewis A. Kalbach, '83-'86, U. S. Naval Academy.\nSpecialist in Higher Education, Bureau of Education, Washington.\nArtemas\nPh.D., of\n'82,Science;\nRutgers; Member\nLL.D., of\n'85,the\nHillsdale;\n'87 ; Fellow\nthe Mathematical\nAmer. Assn.\nfor theMartin,\nAdvancement\nLondon, A.M.,\nEdinburgh,\nand N.of Y.\nSocieties.\nLibrarian U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, 1534 Columbia St., Washington.\nE. E. McCaslin. A.B.. \"92, A.M., '95, Antioch Coll.\nPrincipal of Schools, Industrial Home School, Washington.\nKelly Miller, A.B., '86, Harvard.\n1890.\nProfessor of Mathematics, Howard University, Washington.\nWiNFiBLD Scott' Montgomery,\nDartmouth.\nPrincipal High A.B.,\nSchool,'78,\nqth,\nloth, and nth Div., 1912, nth St., N. W., Washington.\nSophie F. E. Nussbaum, Grad. Teacher s Sem., Rostock, Meckl. Schwerin, and Conservatory of\nMusic, Dresden, Germany.\n1889. Bureau of Education, Washington.\nArthur A. O'Neill.\nSecretary Board of Trade, Washington.\nAlice N. Parker.\n1896. Director of Kindergarten, Buchanan School, The Concord, New Hampshire Ave.\nand S St., Washington.\nWarren W. Phelan, A.B., '94, A.M., '96, Columbia Coll.\nPrincipal National Capital University School, 822 Conn. Ave., N. W., Washington.\nLoviCH Pierce, A.B., '60, Emory Coll.\n1893. Clerk in Bureau of Education, Washington.\nMrs. Clinton Smith.\nMember of Scientific Temperance Committee, 720, 19th St., N. W., Washington.\n£. J. Somers.\nPrincipal of Mt. Vernon Seminary, nth and M Sts., N. W., Washington.\nAlex. Summers,\n76, A.M.,\nUniv. ofofEducation,\nTenn.\n1894. B.S.,\nStatistician\nU. S.'93,\nBureau\nWashington.\nMary C. Terrell.\n1936, 4th St., N. W., Washington.\nMrs. Miranda Tulloch.\nTrustee Public Schools, 121 B St., S. E., Washington.\nEdith C. Westcott.\n1890. Principal of Western High School, 1719 H St., Washington.\nJames W. Whelpley.\nPresident Board of Trustees Public Schools, 1405 G St., N. W,, Washington.\nJesse H. Wilson, A.B., '74, LL.B., '76, Columbian Univ.\nTrustee Public Schools, 319, 4}^ St., Washington.\nFLORIDA\nAcnvB\n\nmembers\n\n1893. William N. Sheats, A.B., '75, A.M., '76, Emory College, Ga.\n1892. State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Tallahassee.\n1894. Mrs. W. Schleppegrell-Keppler.\nPrincipal of Froebel Academy, 315 Laura St., Jacksonville.\n1895. O. Clutb, LL.D., Agri. Coll., Mich.\n1893. President of State Agricultural College, Lake City.\nJ. L. Hollingsworth, A.B., '88, Emory Coll., Oxford, Ga. _\n1893. County Superintendent of Public Instruction, Bartow.\n1898.\nL. W. BuCHOLZ, Nor. Sch., Pr. Friedland, Germany.\nSuperintendent of Public Instruction, Hillsboro Co., Tampa.\nGEORGIA\nLIFE member\n1890.\n\nW. H. Baker.\n1868.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, Chatham Academy, Savannah.\nactive members\n\n»887.\n1894.\n\nEuLER B. Smith,\n'82, Emory\nColl., Oxford,\nGa. School, Athens.\n1895. A.M.,\nDepartment\nof English,\nState Normal\nOtis Ashmore, A.M., Univ. of Ga.\n1896. Superintendent of Schools, Savannah.\nG. G. Bond, A.M., '95, Univ. of Ga.\nSuperintendent of City Schools, Dearing St., Athens.\nLawton B.Evans, A.M., Univ. of Ga.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 4x5 Mcintosh St., Augusta.\n\n"}
{"page": 1078, "printed_page": null, "text": "lo68\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nGEORGIA\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Illinois\n\n— Continued\n\n1894. William Martin Slaton, A.M., '91, Univ. of Ga.\n1892. Principal Boys' High School, 143 Jackson St., Atlanta.\n1895. Atlanta University.\nPresident, Rev. Horace Bumstead ; Dean, Rev. M. W. Adams, Atlanta.\nG. R. Glknn, LL.D., '98, Univ. of Nashville, and '98, Peabody Nor. Coll.\n1894. State School Commissioner, State Capitol, Atlanta.\nJoseph S. Stewart,\nA.B., '83,\nEmory\nColl.;\nA.M., '97,College,\nUniv. ofDahlonega.\nGa.\n1897. President\nNorth\nGeorgia\nAgricultural\nUniversitv of Georgia.\nChancellor, Dr. William E. Boggs ; Secretary, W. D. Hooper, Athens.\nThomas E. Williams.\n1892.\nCounty School Commissioner, Berrien County, Sparks.\n1896. D, Q. Abbott, A.M.,\n'78, Emory Coll.,\nGa. 654 Mulberry St., Macon.\nSuperintendent\nof Schools,\nMrs, Eva G. McClurken,\nAtlanta.\n\nGrad., '86, III. State Nor. Univ.\n\nN. E. Wake.\n1891.\nSuperintendent of Public Schools, Hawkinsville.\nH. C. White, B.Sc, C. & M.E.. '70. Ph.D., '87, Univ. of Va., F. C. S.\n1898. President National Agricultural College and Experiment Station; 207 Milledge\nAve., Athens.\nJ. H. WrrcHARD.\n1896. County School Commissioner, Terrell Co., Dawson.\nNathan Benjamin Young, A.B., '88, A.M., '91, Oberlin Coll.\n1897. Department of Pedagogy, State Industrial College, College, Chatham Co.\n1897. Ernest M. Benedict, A.B.. '85, Kenton Coll. ; D.B., '91, Epis. Theolog. Sch.\n1895. Principal of The Samuel Benedict Memorial School, Cedartown.\nL. M. Landrum, A.B.j '76, Univ. of Ga.\n1897. Assistant Superintendent of Schools, 105 Smith St., Atlanta.\nJOHN.N. Rogers.\nCounty School Commissioner, Sandersville.\nWilliam F. Slaton, A.M., '51, Emory Coll., and '94, Univ. of Ga.\n1879.\nSuperintendent of Public Schools, 336 Courtland St., Atlanta.\nJessie May Snyder.\n1898. Assistant Training Teacher, State Normal and 'Industrial College, Milledgeville.\nJohn Charles Woodward, A.B., '88; Grad. Student, Univ. of Chicago, '97.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Newnan.\n1898. C. B. Gibson, A.M.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Columbus.\nIDAHO\nAcnvB members\n1888.\n1898.\n\nJames C. Black, Pd.M., '94, Pd.D., '95, School of Pedagogy, Univ. of City of New York.\n1897. President State Normal School, Albion.\nJohn.W. Daniels, A.B , A.M.\n1898. Superintendent of City Schools, 204 Jefferson St., Boise.\nGeorge £. Knefper, A.M.\n1895. President of State Normal School, Lewiston.\nILLINOIS\nLIFE directors\n\n1884.\n\nAt3BRT G. Lane, A.M., '96, Dartmouth.\n1898. Assistant Superintendent of Schools, 430 W. Adams St., Chicago.\nNewton Charles Dougherty, A.M., Ph.D.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Peoria.\nCharles I. Parker.\nPrincipal South Chicago High School, 893, 71st Place, Chicago.\n1890, State Teachers' Association of Illinois.\nPresident, J. H. Collins, Springfield ; Secretary, Joel M. Bowlby, Metropolis.\n1891. Joshua Pike, A.M., '65, Univ. of Chicago.\n1874. Superintendent of City Schools, Jerseyville.\nlife members\n1870.\n1876.\n1880.\ni88a.\n1884.\n\nIra Wilder Allen, A.B., '50, Hamilton Coll., N. Y. ; A.M., '52, Antioch Coll., 0.; LL.B., '63,\nAlbany Law Sch. ; LL.D., '74, Union Christian Coll., Ind.\n612 W. 60th Place, Station O, Chicago,\nAlexander Forbes, A.M.\n315-321 Wabash Ave., Chicago.\nGeorge P. Brown.\nEditor \" School and Home Education,\" Bloomington.\nHarriet N. Morris, A.M., '86, Nat. Nor. Univ.\nUpper Alton.\nAugustus J. Cheney, B.S., '57, Dartmouth Coll.\nWestern Agent G. & C. Merriam Co., 316 N. Grove Ave., Oak Park.\nEmily A. Hayward, A.B., '74, A.M., '78, Antioch Coll., O.\nTeacher, 1233 Irving Park Boulevard, Substation 35, Chicago.\nEdwin C, Heweti.\nHenry\n\nAssociate Editor \" Public School Journal,\" Box 42, Normal.\nRaab, LL.D.\n\n229 S. His;h;;St., Belleville.\n\n"}
{"page": 1079, "printed_page": null, "text": "Illinois]\n1887.\n\nLIFE\n\nAND\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\nI069\n\nClara Conway, A.M., '88, Peabody Nor. Coll.\nFounder and Organizer of Clara Conway Institute, Memphis, Tenn.; University of\nChicago, Chicago.\nactive members\n\ni88o.\n\nFrancis W. Parker, A.M., Dartmouth Coll. ; LL.D., Lawrence Univ.\n1883. Principal Chicago Normal School, 6640 Honore St., Englewood, Chicago.\nAlbert R. Sabin.\n1887. Assistant Superintendent of Schools, 3509 Vernon Ave., Irving Park, Chicago.\nt886. Louis Milton Dillman. _\nEducational Publisher, 521 Wabash Ave., Chicago,\nDavid S. Gekr.\n1886. Official Stenographer Nat. Educa. Assn., 100 Washington St., Chicago.\n•William Jenkins, A.M., '86. Hamilton Coll.\n6031 Vernon Ave., Chicago.\n,\nA. F. Nightingale, A.B., '66, A.M., '69, Wesleyan Univ., Conn.; Ph.D., '91, Upper Iowa Univ.\n1892. Superintendent of High Schools, 2175 Sheridan Road, Station A, Chicago.\n1887. John C- Ellis\nEducational Publisher, 521 Wabash Ave., Chicago.\n1888. Thomas Charles, A.M., Antioch Coll., w.\nDealer in Kindergarten and other Educational Materials, 195-197 Wabash Ave.,\nChicago. >\nAndrew S. Draper, LL.B., '71, Union Univ. ; LL.D., '89, Colgate Univ.\n1894. President University of Illinois, President's House, Champaign.\n1889. O. F. Barbour.\n1866. Principal of Kent School, 512 N. Court St., Rockfoid.\nReed Savage.\n1895. Principal Graded School, Box 106, Paris.\nRobert G. Young, B.S., '74, Ph.B., '88.\n1896. Superintendent of Schools, Rock Island.\n1890. John E. Bradley, Ph.D., '79, Univ. of N. Y. ; LL.D., '93, Williams Coll.\n1892.\nPresident Illinois College, 1202 W. College Ave., Jacksonville.\nJohn Williston Cook, A.M., '86, Knox Coll. ; LL.D., '92, Blackburn Univ.\n1890.\nPresident Illinois State Normal School, Normal.\nHenry R. Corbett, B.S., '89, Hastings.\n1898. Graduate Student, University of Chicago, 5661 Washington Ave., Chicago.\nCharles Alexander McMurry, Ph.D., '87, Halle.\n1897. Principal of Training School, State Normal School, Normal^\nWilliam Lucas Steele, A.M., '80, Monmouth Coll., 111.\n1885.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 462 N. Cherry St., Galesburg.\nP. R, Walker.\n1884.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 716 N. Church St., Rockford.\n1891. F. J. Albrecht, F. R. G. S.\nEducational Publisher, Wabash Ave. and Randolph St., Chicago.\nHerbert F. Fisk, A.B., '60, A.M., '63, D.D., '88, Wesleyan Univ., Conn.\n1888. Prin. Academy and Prof, of Ped., Northwestern Univ., 1625 Judson Ave., Evanston.\nDana W. Hall, A.M., '93, Colby Univ., Me.\n1894. High School and College Department, Ginn & Co., 378 Wabash Ave., Chicago.\n1884.\n\n\" •■.,5.\n\nM. A. Whitney,\n'90, A.M., of\n'93,Schools,\nColby Univ.\n1896. A.B.,\nSupermtendent\nElgin.\n1892. C. M. Bardwell.\nSuperintendent of East Side Schools, 60 S. Lincoln Ave., Aurora.\nAlbert W. Clancy, Grad. National Normal School.\n1880. American Book Co., 531 Wabash Ave.; res., cor. Langley Ave. and 39th St., Chicago.\nMrs. M. E. Ferris Gettemy, M.L., '97, Knox Coll.\n1895. Assistant High School, 246 N. Academy St., Galesburg.\n1893. J. J. Allison.\n1898. Student, University of Chicago, 5835 Drexel Ave., Chicago.\nO. T. Bright.\nCounty Superintendent of Schools, 907 The Temple, Chicago.\nGeorge W. Brown.\nArchibald\n\nPresident Brown's Business College, Jacksonville.\nO. Coddington, M.L., '83, Univ. of 111.\nPrincipal Knickerbocker School, 1190 Sheffield Ave., Chicago.\n\nMrs, J, N. Crouse.\n\n1890. Director Kindeigarten College, 2331 Prairie Ave., Chicago.\nLincoln P. Goodhue.\n1889. Principal D. S. Wentworth School, 7029 Yale Ave., Chicago.\nWilliam O. Krohn, A.B., Western Coll., A.M., Ph.D., Yale.\n1897. Psychologist, Illinois Eastern Hospital for the Insane, Hospital.\nFred R. Nichols.\n1801.\nInstr. in Physics, Eng. High and Man. Train. Sch., 126 S. Jefferson St., Chicago.\nMrs. Auce H. Pittnam.\n1881. Superintendent Chicago Froebel Association, 4815 Kenwood Ave., Chicago.\nLlTCY S. SiLKE.\n1890. Assistant Special Teacher in Drawing, Public Schools, 3307 Rhodes Ave., Chicago.\nAlice E. Sollitt.\n1890.\nPrincipal Kenwood School, 4020 Prairie Ave., Chicago.\nCharles H. Thurber, Ph.B., '86, Cornell; A.M., '90, Haverford Coll.\n1895.\nDean Morgan Park Academy, Morgan Park.\nVolney Underhill,\nPh.B., Carpenter\n'71, LL.B.,School,\n'75, Univ.\nWis.\n1875.\nPrincipal\n296 S.of Paulina\nSt., Chicago.\n1894. C. H. Congdon.\nMusic Department, Scott, Foresman & Co., 378 Wabash Ave., Chicago.\nIra T. Eaton.\nPublisher, Eaton & Co., The Temple, 203 Michigan Ave., Chicago.\n* Died August, 1898.\n\n"}
{"page": 1080, "printed_page": null, "text": "1O70\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n1894.\n\nJoseph C. Hisey.\n1898.\nRepresentative, Ginn & Co., 378 Wabash Ave., Chicago.\nMrs. Frances Smallwood Lane, B.S., '65, Genesee Coll, ; M.S., '80, Syracuse Univ.\n430 W. Adams St., Chicago.\nL. D. VosE.\nAgent for D. C. Heath & Co., 355 Wabash Ave., Chicago.\n\n189s.\n\nJohn Nichols Adee, Ph.B., '91, Northwestern Univ.\n1898.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Sycamore.\nB. D. Bbrrv.\nEducational Publisher, 378-388 Wabash Ave., Chicago.\nJulia E. BuLKLEv, Ph.D., Zurich.\n1892. Associate Professor of Pedagogy, University of Chicago, Chicago.\nJames C. Burns,\n'75, Monmouth\n1888. A.M.,\nSuperintendent\nof CityColl.\nSchools, 1064 E. Boston Ave., Monmouth.\nS. Lillian Bvington.\n4894.\nDirector of Music, Public Schools, 1723, 6th Ave., Moline.\nFremont Luman Calkins, B.S., '81, N. Ind. Nor. Sch.\n1894.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Delavan.\nW. H. Campbell.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Joliet.\nJoseph H. Collins, A.B., '75, A.M., '78, La Grange Coll., Mo.\n1888. Superintendent of City Public Schools, 715 S. 7th St., Springfield.\nMrs. Julia H. Collins.\n715 S, 7th St., Springfield.\nHenry C. Cox, A.M., '731 Abingdon Coll.\n1884. Principal Froebel Grammar School, 850 W. 21st St., Chicago.\nMay M. Croqcett.\n1891. Principal Irving School, 1826 Maine St., Quincy.\nEdward C. Delano.\n1877.\nAssistant Superintendent of Schools, 59 Aberdeen St., Chicago.\nW. H: DUCKER.\nPublisher, 378 Wabash Ave., Chicago.\nJoseph Hewett Freeman, A.M., '88, Bates Coll.\n1898.\nState Superintendent of Public Instruction, Capitol, Springfield.\nEnoch A. Gastman.\n1862.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 464 W. North St., Decatur.\nWilliam M. Giffin, A.M., '82, Lawrence Univ., Wis. ; Pd.D., '94, State Nor. Coll., N. Y.\n1889. Vice -Principal Chicago Normal School, 7710 Emerald Ave., Chicago.\nNewell D. Gilbert, A.B., '79, A.M., '82, 111. Wes. Univ.\n1887. Superintendent of Public Schools, 413 N. Pine Ave., Austin.\nJohn H. Grossman.\n1886.\nCounty Superintendent of Schools, Lanark.\nR. A. Haight, A.B., '75, A.M., '78, Shurtleff Coll., 111.\n1881. Superintendent of Schools, 1129 Warren St., Alton.\nJohn A. Hancock, M.L., '90, Univ. of Wis. ; A.M., '93, Stanford Univ.\na\n5622 Ingleside Ave.. Chicago.\nWilliam\nR.\nHarper,\nA.B.,\n'70,\nMuskingum\nColl.;\nPh.D.,\n'75,\nYale;\nD.D.,\n'91,\nColby Univ.;\nUniv. of Nebr.\n\n[Illinois\n\nLL.D.,\n\n1890. President of University of Chicago, 59th St. and Lexington Ave., Chicago.\nElizabeth Harrison.\nPrincipal of Kindergarten College, 10 Van Buren St., Chicago.\nMary S. L. Hartigan.\n1893. Principal of Hoerner School, 7409 Morgan St., Chicago.\nMary Hartmann, A.M., '88, Lombard Univ.\n1882. Instructor in Mathematics, Illinois State Normal School, 109 Normal Ave., Normal.\n,\n, ^\nW. H. Hatch.\n1892. Superintendent of Schools, Oak Park.\nP. C. Hayden.\nTeacher of Music, Public Schools, 1826 Maine St., Quincy.\nHarry Helmer.\n315 Wabash Ave., Chicago.\nCharles Hertel,'M.S.,\nCent. Wes.\nColl., Warrenton,\n1894. Superintendent\nof Schools\nof St. ClairMo.\nCounty, Court House, Belleville.\nAmalie Hofer.\nEditor \" Kindergarten Magazine,\" 1207 Woman's Temple, Chicago.\nJ. A. Hornberger, A.B., '84, A.M., '87, Bucknell Univ., Pa. ; Ph.D., '89, Bellevue Coll.\n1895. Superintendent of Schools, 425 S. 7th St., Pekin.\nWilbur S. Jackman, A.B., '84, Harvard.\nHead of Dept. of Nat. Sci., Chicago Nor. School, Instructor in Pedagogy, University of Chicago, 6916 Perry Ave., Station O, Chicago.\nMrs. Nellie S. Kedzie, Grad. Kan. Agri. Coll., '77.\n1897. Professor of Household Economy and Hygiene, Bradley Polytechnic Institute, 214\nFredonia Ave., Peoria.\nFrancis Austin Kendall.\n1888. Principal Ellsworth Sch. ; 1894, Secretary 111. Pupils' Reading Circle, cor. Sleight\nand Mechanic Sts., Naperville.\nKendall, B.S., '78, Cornell Univ.\nGen'l Agent, Ginn & Co., 378 Wabash Ave., Chicago.\nEffie J. Kilbourne.\n1891. Head Assistant Kenwood School, 73, soth St., Chicago.\nVashti a. Lambert.\n1886. Teacher in Jefferson Park School, 4280 Milwaukee Ave., Chicago; res.. Palatine.\nLeslie Lewis, A.B., '66, A.M., '69, Yale.\n1890.\nDistrict Superintendent of Schools, 5605 Madison Ave., Chicago.\nWilliam S. Mack.\nWestern Manager, Prang Educational Co., 151 Wabash Ave., Chicago.\nFranklin Mason\n\nJ. J. McGlynn.\n\n1888.\n\nTeacher of Science, High School, 316 St. Louis Ave., East St. Louis.\n\n"}
{"page": 1081, "printed_page": null, "text": "Illinois]\n1895.\n\nLIFE AND\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n107 1\n\nA. L. McLaughlin.\nAgent for Sheldon & Oj., 315-321 Wabash Ave., Chicago.\nKate S. O'Leary.\n1882. Teacher in Public Schools, 208 S. Hickory St., Joliet.\nC. M, Parker.\nEditor of \" The School News,\" Taylorville.\nC. F. Philbrook.\n1893.\nSuperintendent of Public Schools, Rochelle.\nAlbert R. Robinson, A.M., Northwestern Univ.\n1891. Principal English High and Manual Training School, 126 S. Jefferson St., Chicago,\nErastvs H. Scott.\n,\nPublisher, 378 Wabash Ave., Chicago.\nOrion C. Scott, Ph.B., '78, B.D., '80, A.M., '81, Univ. of Iowa.\n1898.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Dist. No. 8, Cicero; res., 34th St. and Home Ave.,\nBerwyn.\nJames P. Slade, A.M., '72, Shurtleff Coll.\nifltti 9th St., EasfSt. Louis.\nW. S. Smyth, A.M., '66, Wesleyan Univ., Conn. ; Ph.D., '76, Syracuse Univ.\nEducational Publisher (D. C. Heath & Co.), 378 Wabash Ave., Chicago.\nLvDiA E. Snyder.\n1893. Teacher in Brentano School, 2622 Hartzell St., N. Evanston.\nLiLLiE S. Stephenson.\n1898, Teacher 6th Grade, Park Ridge School, 1028 Dempster St., Evanston.\nFrank D. Thomson, A. B., '92, A.M., '95, Knox Coll.\n1895. Principal of High School, 228 Tompkins St., Galesburg.\nJ. E. Turner,\nA.B.,Principal\n^94, A.M.,\n'^5, Lincoln\nUniv.Alby St., Alton.\n1896.\nof High\nSchool, 722\nEdwin O. Vaile.\nT. Veatch.Editor of the \" Intelligence,\" Oak Park.\n1887. Superintendent of Schools, Rushville.\nJ. W. Warr.\nEditor of \" Business Education,\" 1723, 6th Ave., Moline.\nW. E. Watt,\nNathan\n\n1896,\n\nPrincipal\nGraham School, Director Principals' Male Quartette, 4453 Emerald Ave,,\nChicago.\nCharles W. Weeks.\n1888. Supervisor of Music, 320 Congress St., Ottawa.\nOliver S. Westcott, A.M., '56, D.S., '92, Brown Univ.\n1883.\nPrincipal North Divison High School, Chicago; Maywood.\nDaniel A. White, A.B., '83, Harvard Univ. ; LL.B., '92, Lake Forest Univ.\n1896.\nPrincipal of Everett School, 3501 Wabash Ave., Chicago,\nHakry G. Wilson.\n1879. The American Book Co., 521 Wabash Ave,, Chicago,\nMary E. Ahern.\nEditor of \" Public Library,\" Library Bureau, 125 Franklin St., Chicago,\nC, J. Albert, B.S. and A.M., '78, Baldwin Univ.\nManager\nhurst, of the Albert Teachers' Agency, Central Music Hall, Chicago; res., ElmB. F. Armitage, A.B., '80, A.M., '84, Dartmouth Coll,\nSuperintendent of City Schools, 1317 Charleston Ave,, Mattoon,\n'Elizabeth Baumgartner,\nPrincipal Teachers' Training School, St. Nicholas Hotel, Springfield.\nAlfred Bayliss, M.S., '73, Hillsdale Coll., Mich.\nPrincipal of Township High School, Streator.\nS, S, Beggs, A,M,, N. E, Ohio Nor. Coll.\n1896.\nSuperintendent of City Schools, Beardstown,\nCharles A, Bennett, B,S., '86, Worcester Polytechnic Inst.\nHead of Department of Manual Arts, Bradley Polytechnic Institute, 211 S. Garfield\nAve., Peoria,\nR, W, Burton, A,M,, Beloit Coll,\nCounty Superintendent of Stephenson Co,, Court House, Freeport.\nWilliam J. Button.\nPresident of the Werner Book Co., 378-388 Wabash Ave,, Chicago.\nAnnice Bradford Butts, A.M.\nPrincipal of Kenwood Institute, 40 E. 47th St., Chicago,\nNellie M, Carpenter\nTeacher in Graham School, 6344 Stewart Ave,, Chicago,\nMrs. Elizabeth Blanchard Cook, A.M., Wheaton Coll.\nPresident Woman's Educational Union, 316 Washington Boul., Chicago.\nJambs W. Cupples, A.M., '89, Wesleyan Univ.\n1898.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 1086 Oak St., Galena.\nGeorge W. Davis,\n1893, Principal of Hawthorne School, 1430 Montrose Ave., Chicago.\nWilliam C, Dodge.\n1887,\nPrincipal of Franklin School, 3268 Kenniore Ave,, Station X, Chicago,\nMabel E, Dougherty.\nE. Bluff St., Peoria.\n•\nMrs, Millie Ryan 906\nEakins,\n\n1898. Chicago Normal School, 6233 Peoria St., Station O, Chicago.\nJohn H. Finley, A,B„ A,M., Knox Coll.; Ph.D., LL,D,\n1892,\nPresident of Knox College, Galesburg,\nH, A, FoRBSMAN, A,M,, '90, Lafayette Coll,\nPublisher (Scott, Foresman & Co.), 307 Wabash Ave,, Chicago.\nRobert Foresman.\nEducational Publisher (Silver, Burdette& Co.), 262-264 Wabash Ave., Chicago.\n♦Deceased.\n\n"}
{"page": 1082, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 072\ni8o6.\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Illinois\n\nH. L. Grant, M.S., Lawrence Univ.\n1889. Principal of Franklin School, 303 Chambers Ave., Peoria.\nG. Chari-bs Griffiths.\n1893.\nPrincipal of Schools, Park Ave. and S Boulevard, Austin.\nCharles W. Grovbs, '80, Univ. of 111.\n1897. Superintendent of Schools, 515 Peoria Ave., Dixon.\nLe Roy Halsev, A.B., A.M., '79, Univ. of Mich.\n1897. Agent of Henry Holt & Co., 378 Wabash Ave., Chicago.\nJohn W. Henninger, B.S., '81, M.S., '84, LL.B., '91, McKendree Coll.\n1896.\nSuperintendent of City Schools, 1127 W. Lafayette Ave,, Jacksonville.\nMargaret MacDonai-d.\n1886. Teacher in Pullman School, 6440 Ellis Ave., Chicago.\nJ. F. McCuLLOUGH.\nAgent for Silver, Burdette & Co., 378-388 Wabash Ave., Chicago.\nMrs. Lida B. McMurrv.\n1892. Training Teacher, Primary Department, State Normal Univ., NormaL\nAdda V. Meacham.\nTeacher in Public Schools, 601, 6th Ave., Peoria.\nO. L. Miller, A.B., '90, Univ. of Mich. _\n1898. Principal Township High School, Sterling.\nMrs. Sarah J. O'Keefe.\nPrincipal of Jefferson Park School, Chicago ; residence, Arlington Heights.\nF. B. Ormsbv.\nPrincipal Public Schools, Perkins Bass ; 7242 Perry Ave., Station O, Chicago.\nW. B. Owen.\nAgent, Publishing House, Ginn & Co., Chicago; residence, 851 Grove St., Jacksonville.\nR. S. Page, A.M.\n1895.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Brewster House, Freeport.\nBertha Payne.\n1895. Principal of Chicago Froebel Association, Chicago ; residence, Hinsdale.\nWilliam C. Payne.\n1890. Principal Gladstone School, Chicago; residence, Hinsdale.\nWilliam J. Pringle, A.M., Ph.B., LL.B.\n1898. Extension Work of Lewis Institute, 2953 Groveland Ave., Chicago.\nMary I. Purer.\n1893. Principal of La Fayette School, 1902 Barry Ave., Chicago.\nW. F. ROCHELEAU.\nSuperintendent of City Schools, Streator.\nD. Frances Sellars.\nSupervisor of Public Instruction, 3rd Ward, 715 S. Main St,, Jacksonville.\nMabel E. Smallwood.\n1892. Teacher of Biology.lEnglewoodHigh School, 322 W. 6sth St., Station O, Chicago\nE. E. Smith, A.B,, B.S.\n1898.\nManager\nEducational Department, Rand, McNally & Co., 166-168, Adams St.\nChicago.\n\n1897.\n\nW. W. Speer.\n1895. Assistant Superintendent of Schools, 6454 Armour Ave., Chicago.\nArnold Tompkins, A.M., '91. Univ. of Ind. ; Ph.D., '96, Univ. of Ohio, Athens.\nProfessor of Pedagogy, Univ. of Illinois, 410 John St., Champaign.\nFrank N. Tracy.\n1881.\nSuperintendent of City Schools, 316 Harrison Ave., Kankakee.\nCharles R. Vandervort, A.B., '80, A.M., '87, Eureka, 111.\n1885. Principal Greeley School, 519 N. Jefferson Ave., Peoria.\nRichard Waterman, Jr., B.S., '92, Mass. Inst, of Tech,\n1896. Secretary of the Educational Committee of the Civic Federation of Chicago, 26 Scott\nSt., Chicago.\nJ. D. Williams, A.M., '72, Hillsdale Coll., Mich.\nGeneral Agent, Maynard, Merrill & Co., 203 Michigan Ave., Chicago.\nFrancis M. Woods, A.B. and A.M., Northwestern Univ.\nManager, Educational Aid Association, 1278 Washington Boulevard, Chicago,\nEmma V. Bailey.\nTeacher in 7th Grade, 340 N. Oakley Ave., Chicago.\nWilliam J. Bartholf, A.B., Univ. of 111.; B.S., Ind. Nor. Sch.\n1888.\nPrincipal of Von Humboldt School, 11 Roslyn Place, Chicago.\nHomer Bevans.\n1884. La Salle School, 353 W. 6oth|Place, StationJO, Chicago.\nWilliam J. Black.\n1887.\nPrincipal of Sherwood School, 6620 Lafayette Ave., Station O, Chicago.\nEmanuel R. Boyer, A.B., Harvard.\n1890. Professor of Biology, Englewood High School, 536 W. 6rst St., Chicago.\nDelos Buzzell, M.S., '74, Univ. of Mich,\nPrincipal of Irving Park Grammar School, 2406 N. 42d Court, Chicago.\nTaylor C. Clendenen.\n1886. Superintendent of City Schools, 722 Center St., Cairo.\nE. G. CoOLEY, Ph.B.\n1893. Lyons Township High School, La Grange.\nEmma Coy.\nPrincipal of Hall School, 521 Walnut St., Rockford.\nMrs. Charles R. Crane.\nPresident\nof Parents' Educational Association of Chicago,\nChicago.\n\n2559 Michigan Ave.,\n\nJohn Dewey, A.B., '79, Univ. of Vt. ; Ph.D., '84, Johns Hopkins.\n1894. Professor of Philosophy, University of Chicago, Chicago.\nLetitia L, Doane.\n1898. Teacher Public Day Schools for the Deaf, 6350 Yale Ave,, Chicago,\nM, LuELLA Dodge,\n1752 W. Balmoral Ave., Forest Glen Station, Chicago.\n\n"}
{"page": 1083, "printed_page": null, "text": "Illinois]\n1897.\n\nLIFE\n\nAND\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n*^0-]l\n\nClarissa E. Ela.\nI 888. Drawing Department, State Normal School, Bloomington.\nF. D. Farb, A.B., 'ga. Univ. of Vt.\nState Agent for Silv.er, Burdette & Co., 263 Wabash Ave.. Chicago.\nM. Elizabeth Farson.\n1889. Principal of Brown School, 134 Warren Ave., Chicago.\nMary C. Footk.\n1891. Principal of School, 134 Auburn Place, Rockford,\nJ. M. Frost, A.M., Hobart Coll.\n1896. Superintendent of Schools.l^Hinsdale.\nMary Gillkspik.\n1893. Principal of High School. Winnetlca.\nNellie Gillespie.\n1893. Assistant in High School, Winnetlca.\nJoseph Clavbaugh Gordon, A.B., '66, A.M., '69, Ph.D., '92, Monmouth Coll.\n1897. Superintendent of State Institute for Education of Deaf, Jacksonville.\nA. V. Grbenman.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 331 Spruce St., Aurora.\nFrank H. Hall.\n1897. Superintendent of Institution for the Blind, Jacksonville.\nJames Hannan.\n1890. Assistant Superintendent of Schools, 5136 S. Park Ave., Chicago.\nSamuel A. Harrison, A.B,, '82, A.M.. '88, Univ. of 111.\n1892. Principal of Burroughs School, J104 S. Park Ave., Chicago.\nDtnJLEV Grant Hays, Graduate State Normal Univ.\n1896. Assistant\nScience Instructor, Chicago Normal School, 550 W. 6oth Place, Englewood\nChicago.\nSamuel H. Heidler.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Ottawa.\nMrs. Kate A. Henderson.\n1897. Superintendent of Schools, Barber Building, Joliet.\nR. M. Hitch.\n•\nPrincipal Dore School, 15T S. Robey St., Chicago.\nMrs. E. a. Hubbard.\nSupervisor of Primary Schools, 113 Battleson St., Joliet.\nA. W. Hussey. B.S., '78, Nat. Nor. Univ.\n1896.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Geneseo.\nG. OvBDLA Jacobs.\n1895.\nHead Assistant, 8th Grade, 170 N. Morgan St., Chicago.\nJohn Crerar Library, Chicago.\nPresident, Norman Williams ; Librarian, C. W. Andrews, Chicago.\nJ. A. Johnson.\nPrincipal Mark Sheridan School, 3300 Ellis Ave., Chicago.\nEmma F. Jones.\n1879, Assistant in High School, 1131 S. 6th St., Springfield.\nC. H. Kamman, B.L., Univ. of III.\nTeacher of Modem Languages in High School, 810, 6th Ave., Peoria.\nSarah A. Kirklev.\nT89S.\nPrincipal of Grant School, 738 Washington Boul., Chicago.\nHbnristtb \\I. Knispel.\n1871. Teacher in Public Schools, 308 S. Charles St., Belleville.\nCarl J. Kroh.\n1891. Head of Physical Training Department, Chicago Normal School, 6817 Honore St.,\nChicago.\nCephas H. Leach.\nPrincipal of A. H. Burley School, 523 Greenleaf Ave., Station Y, Chicago.\nLincoln University.\nPresident, A. E. Turner; Secretary, C. E. Conant, Lincoln.\nI. F. Mather, A.B.. A.M., Iowa Coll.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Centralia.\nMary McCowen.\nPrincipal Day Schools for the Deaf, 6550 Yale Ave., Chicago.\nFrancis M. McKay.\nPrincipal Anderson .School, 61 Alice Court, Chicago.\nAnna McKillop.\n1886. Head Assistant Graham School, 740 W. 47th Place, Chicago.\nWalter Reynolds Mitchell, B.S., '87, Univ. of III.\nDepartment of Biology, High School, 433, 57th St., Hyde Park, Chicago.\nDora Montgomery.\n1894. Oral Class for the Deaf, Public Schools, 4319 Drexel Boul., Station O, Chicago.\nA. C. Moore, A.B., '87, S. Car. Coll.\n1898. Graduate Student, Univ. of Chicago, 5829 Jackson Ave., Chicago.\nRoyal T. Morgan, A.B., '74, A.M., '77, Wheaton Coll.\n1886.\nCounty Superintendent of Schools, 710 College Ave., Wheaton.\nFrank L. Morse, A.B., '86, A.M., '89, Brown Univ.\nPrincipal of Hayes School, 393 Warren Ave., Chicago.\nFanny E. Oliver.\n1885. Principal of Montefiore School, 390 Washington Boul., Chicago.\nEdwin H. Owen.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Carlinville.\nHugh A. Owen, Graduate of State Normal School.\n1891.\nPrincipal of High School, Box 193, Maywood.\nDanibl Baldwin Parkinson, A.M., '74, Ph.D., '98, McKendree Coll.\n1898.\nPresident Southern Illinois Normal University, 335 Walnut St., Carbondale.\nMary Reid Pierce.\n1808.\nAgent American Book Co., 521-531 Wabash Ave., Chicago.\nFrederick W. Plapp, A.B., '85, Dartmouth Coll.\n1890. Assistant in High School, 3549 N. 42d Ave., Station 35, Chicago.\n\n"}
{"page": 1084, "printed_page": null, "text": "I074'\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nILLINOIS—\n\n1897.\n\n1898.\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indiana\n\nContinued\n\nMrs. Andrea\n\nHoFER Proodfoot.\nEditor \" Child Garden,\" 9333 Prospect Ave., Chicago.\n•John K. Rassweiler, A.M., '90, Northwestern Coll.\n1876.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Downer's Grove.\nLouise D. Rennick-.\nTeacher in Pullman School, 7142 Evans Ave., Station R, Chicago.\nRobert H. Rennie.\n1889. Principal of Gresham School, 817 W. 87th St., Chicago.\nJohn Richeson, M.S., '80; A.M. (honorary), '84, Ewing Coll.\n1897. Superintendent of City Schools, District No. i, 819 Ohio Ave., East St. Louis.\nGeorge A. Robbins.\n1891. Teacher of Woodwork, Public Schools, 6922 Union Ave., Chicago.\nH. L, Roberts.\n1895.\nSuperintendent of Public Schools, Farmington,\nJoseph L. Robertson.\n1894. County Superintendent of Schools, Court House, Peoria.\nJ. A. Root.\nTeacher, 3111 Michigan Ave., Chicago.\nGeorge H. Shornev.\nHope Publishing Co., 84 Wabash Ave., Chicago.\nEdward O. Sisson, B.S., '86, State Agr. Coll. ; A.B., '93, Univ. of Chicago.\n1897. Director of Bradley Polytechnic Institute, Peoria.\nEva a. Smedlev.\n1898. Principal of Noyes St. School, Evanston ; 138 Wells St., Chicago.\nE. R. Smith.\nGeneral Agent for D. C. Heath & Co., 378 Wabash Ave., Chicago.\nArthur J. Snyder.\n1897.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 523 E. Madison St., Belvidere.\nMrs. Helen E. Starrett.\nPrincipal of Scoville Place College Preparatory School for Girls, Lake St., Oak Park.\nJOHN'H. Stehman.\n1881.\nPrincipal of Avondale School, 1571 Kimball Ave., Station Y, Chicago.\nAlbert LeRoy Stevenson, B.S., '81, N. Ind. Nor. Sch.\n1885. Principal of Oakland Grammar School, 3995 Drexel Boul., Chicago.\nA. J. Tiffany.\nPublisher \" Natural Science Cabinet,\" 210 E. 40th St., Chicago.\nEmma J. Todd.\n283 Downer Place, Aurora.\nHenry L. Tolman, A.M., '69, Rochester Univ.\nProfessor of Medical Jurisprudence, School of Medicine, Univ. of 111., 929 Chicago\nOpera House Building, Chicago.\nWilliam Welton.\n1893.\nPrincipal Public Schools, Lansing.\nJohn F. Wicks.\n1890.\nPrincipal of School, Blue Mound.\n'\nJohn A. Forbes.\nWith Sheldon & Co., Educational Publishers, 315 Wabash Ave., Chicago.\nClyde Sloane, A.B.\n1890.\nPrincipal of Schools, Carrollton.\nINDIANA\nlife director\n\n1877.\n\nJames Henry Smart, A.M., '72, Dartmouth ; LL.D., '83, Ind. Univ.\n1883,\nPresident of Purdue University, 191 Columbia St., Lafayette.\nLIFE members\n\n1876.\n\nWilliam A. Bell, A.M., '63, Antioch Coll.\n1871.\nEditor of \"Indiana School Journal,\" 66J^ N. Penn St., Indianapolis.\nMoses Cobb Stevens, A.M., '83, Earlham Coll.\n1883.\nProfessor of Mathematics, Purdue University, 11 Waldon St., W. Lafayette.\n1880. John S. Irwin, A.B., '42, Western Univ. of Pa. ; M.D., '47, Univ. of Pa. ; LL.D., '75, Univ. of Ind.\n1203 E. Main St., Lafayette,\nactive members\n1885. Mary E. Nicholson.\nPrincipal of Normal School, 1222 Broadway, Indianapolis.\n1890. Anna Suter.\n1889. Principal of High School, 115, 4th St., Aurora.\n1891. W. S. Almond.\n1893. Superintendent of Schools, cor. Monroe and Willson Sts., Delphi.\nJesse H. Brown.\nLecturer on Art and General Educational Subjects, 1615 Broadway, Indianapolis.\nMiss N. Cropsey.\n1894. Assistant Superintendent of Schools, 1219 College Ave., Indianapolis.\n1892. Edward Ayres,\n'78, A.M., of\n'85,Schools,\nAmherst625Coll.\n1890. A.B.,\nSupermtendent\nFerry St., Lafayette.\n1893. William L. Bryan, Ph.D., '92, Clark Univ.\n1887.\nProfessor of Philosophy, 1893 ; Vice-President, Indiana University, Bloomington\nAlbert E. Humke.\ni8gi.\nSuperintendent of Public Schools, Vincennes.\nJoseph Swain, B.L., M.S., Ind. Univ. ; LL.D., Wabash Coll.\n1893.\nPresident of Indiana University, 328 Kirkwood Ave., Bloomington,\n* Died September, 1897.\n\n"}
{"page": 1085, "printed_page": null, "text": "Indiana]\n\nLIFE\n\nAND\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n1075\n\n1893. H. G. Woody, B.S., National Normal Univ.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Greencastle.\n1894. Gkorgk W. Benton, A.B., '84, A.M., '87, Wabash Coll.\n1888.\nInstructor in Chemisfry, Hich School, 2428 Broadway, Indianapolis.\nGeorge W. Hufford, A.M., '67, Antioch Coll.\n1892.\nPrincipal of High School, 1209 Park Ave., Indianapolis.\n1895. W. C. Belman.\n1883. Superintendent of Schools, 130 OG:den St., Hammond.\nEdward Boyle, A.B., Univ. of Mich.\n1888.\nSuperintendent of City Schools, Michigan City,\nH. B. Brown, A.M.\nPresident Northern Indiana Normal School, 53 Jefferson St., Valparaiso.\nGeorge\nStockton\nMariette\nColl. Burroughs, A.B., '73, A.M., '76, Ph.D., '84, D.D., '87, Princeton; LL.D., '95,\n1892.\nPresident of Wabash College, 506 S. Washington St., Crawfordsville.\nJ. A. Carnagey, A.B., '81, A.M., 84, Hanover Coll., Ind.\n1890.\nSuperintendent of City Schools, lojgFraniclin St., Columbus.\nT. F. FiTZGiBBONs, Grad., '90, Ind. St. Nor. Sch. ; A.B., '07, Ind. Univ.\n1890.\nSuperintendent of Public Schools, 1015 Main St., Elwood.\nW. B. Flick.\nStudent, 35 E. Washington St., Indianapolis.\nD. M. Geeting.\n1895.\nState Superintendent of Public Instruction, 2026 Central Ave., Indianapolis.\nDavid Kopp Goss, A.B., '87, Indiana Univ. ; Fellow in Cornell, '92-3.\n1894.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 2329 College Ave., Indianapolis.\nWilliam A. Hester, A.M., '83, De Pauw Univ.\n1894. Superintendent of City Public Schools, 428 Chandler Ave., Evansville.\nCyrus W. Hodgin, A.M., '88, Earlham Coll.\n1887. Prof, of History and Political Science, Earlham Coll., 30 Central Ave., Richmond.\nFrank L. Jones, B.S., '90, N. Ind. Nor. Sch. ; A.B., '98, Ind. Univ.\n1895. Superintendent of City Schools, W. Madison St., Tipton.\nG. F. Kenaston, A.B., '78, Dartmouth; A.M., '81, Univ. of Mich.\n1897. Superintendent of Schools, Crawfordsville.\nMary E. Rowe.\n1898. Author, Lecturer, and Normal Instructor, 2307 Talbot Ave., Indianapolis.\nW. S. Rowe, A.B., '92, De Pauw Univ.\n1895. Superintendent of Schools, Rising Sun.\nJambs F. Scull.\n1882.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Room 11, Central Building, Rochester.\nW. R. Snyder, A.M., Pennsylvania Coll.\n1887.\nSuperintendent of City Schools, 319 W. Adams St., Muncie.\nW. R. J. Stratford, A.B., '85, A.M., '89, Hanover Coll.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 62 E. 2d St., Peru.\nWabash College.\nPresident,'_George Stockton Burroughs; Sec, Henry Z. McLain, Crawfordsville.\nD. Weaver.\n1890.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Marion.\nF. Bass.\nManager \" Ind.-Young People's Reading Circle,\" 103 Commercial Club Building,\nIndianapolis.\nMrs. Eliza A. Blaker.\n1882.\nSuperiutendent Indianapolis Free Kindergartens, 2320 N. Meridian St., Indianapolis.\nHenry Willard Bowers, A.B., '77, A.M., '81. De Pauw Univ.\n1896. Superintendent of Schools, Union City.\nJohn Franklin Brown, Ph.B., '89, A.M., '95, Eariham Coll. ; Ph.D., '96, Cornell.\n1898.\nVice-President and Professor of Philosophy, Earlham College, Richmond.\nIsaac Vinton Busby, A.B., '91, Indiana Univ.\n1894.\nSuperintendent City Schools, 705 S. Harrison St., Alexandria.\nRobert I. Hamilton.\n1887.\nSui>erintendent City Schools, 53 Poplar St., Huntington.\nMiles W. Harrison, A.B., '79, Oberlin.\n1886.\nSuperintendent City Schools, 109 Sinclair St., Wabash.\nW. H. Hershman, A.B.J '98, Ind. Univ.\n1894.\nSuperintendent City Schools, cor. Bank and Spring Sts., New Albany.\nJ. R. Houston,\n'93, Moore's Public\nHill Coll.\n1896. M.S.,\nSuperintendent\nSchools, Aurora.\nJohn O. Lewellen, B.S., N. Ind. Nor. School.\n301 North St., Muncie.\nNannie C. Love.\n1881.\nSupervisor of Music, 401 £. Washington St., Muncie.\nWelford\n\n1896.\n\nGeorge\n\nC. M. McDaniel, Superintendent\nB.S., \"85, A.M.,of '93.\nSchools, Madison.\nWilliam A. Millis, A.M., Ind. Univ.\n1894.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Attica.\nB. F. Moore.\n1890. Superintendent of City Schools, Frankfort.\nThomas Abbott Mott, A.M., '98, Eariham Coll.\n1896.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Richmond.\nCharles N. Peak, A.B., '84, Moore's Hill Coll.; Ph.B., '86, Ind. Univ.\n1891. Superintendent of City Schools, Princeton.\nFlora Roberts, B.S., '87, M.S., '98, Purdue Univ.\n1894. Teacher in West La Fayette High School, Northwestern Ave., La Fayette.\nHoward Sandison.\nVice-President, Indiana State Normal School, 434 N. Center St., Terre Haute\nD. W. Thomas, A. B., '75, De Pauw Univ.\n1886. Superintendent of City Schools, 506 Pigeon St., Elkhart.\n\n"}
{"page": 1086, "printed_page": null, "text": "1076\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[lowa\n\nINDIANA— Co«tf«w#rf\n1896. William H.1869.\nWiley,Superintendent\nA.B., '64, A.M.,\n'67, Butler\nUniv.\nof Schools,\n451 N.\n7th St., Terre Haute.\nAlbert Henry Voder, A.B., '93, Ind. Univ._\n1896.\nPresident of Vincennes UniversitVj Vincennes.\nSteele\nBaylor, ofPh.B.,\nUniv.108of E.\nChicago.\n1888.\nPrincipal\nHigh '97,\nSchool,\nHill St., Wabash.\n\n1897. Adelaide\n\nJ. W. Carr, 1890.\nA.B., Superintendent\n'85, A.M., '90. of\nInd.City\nUniv.\nSchools, 178 W. 12th St., Anderson.\nJohn Cooper, A.M.\nPrincipal Ward School, 8 Brightwood Ave., Indianapolis.\nIndl/vna State Library.\nState Librarian, W. E. Henry, State House, Indianapolis.\nFrancis M. Merica, B.S., '96, Wm. Taylor Univ. ; Ph.B., '97, Univ. of Chicago.\nSuperintendent of Schools, La Grange.\nEdwin S. Monroe, Ph.B., '96, 111. Wesleyan Univ. ; A.M., '97, Hanover Coll.\n1895. Superintendent of City Schools, Box 552, Mt. Vernon.\nH. C. Montgomery, A.B., '80, Hanover Coll. ; A.M., '91, Univ. of Mich.\ni8q2.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Seymour.\nWill A. Myers, A.B., Indiana Univ.\n1898.\nGraduate Student, Indiana University, 609 N. Walnut St., Bloomington.\nNorthern Indiana Normal School Library.\nPresident, H. B. Brown ; Librarian, O. P. Kinsey, Valparaiso.\nRobert Alexander Ogg, B.S., '72, A.M., '92, Ind. Univ.\nSuperintendent of Schools, ICokomo.\nMay Wright Sewall, M.S., A.M., '69, Northwestern Univ.\n1882. School\nPrincipal\nGirls' Haute.\nClassical School, 635 N. Pennsylvania St., Indianapolis.\nState Normal\nat Terre\nPresident, W. W. Parsons, Terre Haute.\nJustin N. Study, A.M., '73, Ohio Wes. Univ.\n1896. Superintendent of Public Schools, Fort Wayne.\n1898. Harriet F. Case.\nSupervisor of Methods, Public Schools, Muncie.\nW. S. Hiser.\n, Director of Penmanship, Public Schools, 33 S. 13th St., Richmond.\nJohn A. Wood, A.B„ Ind. Univ.\nSuperintendent of Schools, La Porte.\nINDIAN\n\nTERRITORY\n\nactive member\n1898.\n\nLeonard Worcester Williams, A.B., '95, A.M., '98, Hanover Coll.\n1896. Teacher of Natural Science, Henry Kendall Coll.;\ngraduate work ; Muskogee.\n\n1898,\n-^\n\nat Princeton for post-\n\nIOWA\nlife director\n1886.\n\nJosiAH Little Pickard, A.B., '44, A.M., '47, LL.D., '94, Bowdoin Coll.\nEx-President. State University of Iowa, 419 N. Clinton St., Iowa City.\nLIFE members\n\n1884.\n\nHenry J. Taylor, A.B., '78, LL.B., '80, A.M., '84, Univ. of Wis.\nLawyer, 1635 Douglas St., Sioux City.\nW. A. Willis, A.M., '65.\nProprietor and Principal of Iowa City Academy, 308 Church St., Iowa City.\nactive members\n\n1884.\n\nHamline H. Freer, B.S., '69, M.S., '78, A.B., '80, A.M., '83. Cornell Coll., la.\n1872.\nProf, of Science and Art of Teaching and Polit. Econ., Cornell Coll., Mt. Vernon.\nWiLLLiAM Fletcher King, A.B., '57, A.M., '60, Ohio Wesleyan\nUniv.; D.D., '70, 111. Wesleyan\nUniv.; LL.D., '87. State Univ. of Iowa, Ohio Wesleyan Univ.\n1863.\nPresident of Cornell College, Mt. Vernon.\n1889. William Miller Beardshear, A.B., '76, A.M., '79, LL.D., '85.\n1891. President of Iowa State College of Agriculture and Mechanical Arts, Ames.\nHenry Sabin, LL.D., '93, Drake Univ. ; '94, Cornell Coll. ; '95, State Univ. of Iowa.\nEx -State\nSuperintendent of Public Instruction, 615 Iowa Loan and Trust Building,\nDes Moines.\nHomer H. Seerley, Ph.B., '73, B.D., '75, A.M., '76, State Univ. of Iowa ; LL.D., '98, Penn. Coll.\n1886.\nPresident State Normal School, 2403 Normal St., Cedar Falls.\n1890. H. E. Kratz, A.m., '77, Ph.D., '90. Univ. of Wooster, O.\n1891.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 805 Douglas St., Sioux City.\n1891. O. P. BosTWiCK, A.B., '78, Lombard Univ., 111.\n1889.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 313, 8th Ave., Clinton.\n1892. J. M. Mbhan.\n1884.\nPresident Capital City Commercial College, Y. M. C. A. Building, Des Moines.\n1893. Jacob Theodore Merrill, A.B., '62, A.M., '65, Otterbein Univ.\n1890.\nSuperintendent of City Schools, 518, 7th St., Cedar Rapids.\n1894. Frank B. Cooper.\n1891.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 753, 17th St., Des Moines.\nAshley Van Storm, Ph.B., '98, 111. Wesleyan Univ.\n1898.\nSuperintendent of City Schools, Cherokee.\n\n"}
{"page": 1087, "printed_page": null, "text": "Iowa]\n\nLIFE AND\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n1077\n\n1894. A. B. Warnkr.\n1896.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Mi<isouri Valley.\n1895. Jamks Johnson Billingsly, B.S., '93, N. Ind. Nor. School.\n1898.\nSuperintendent of Public Schools, Sanborn.\nM. E. Crosikr.\n1893.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Walnut.\nE. D. Y. CuLBERTSOS, B.D., '89, State Normal School, Cedar Falls, la.\n1895. Superintendent of Schools, Ames.\nO. E. FXKNCH.\n1895.\nSuperintendent of City Schools, 603 N. Maple St., Creston.\nLydia Hinman.\n1886. Principal E. Waterloo High School, Waterloo.\nO.J. Lavlander.\n1888.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 920 Main St.. Cedar Falls.\nJoseph Jasper McConnell, A.B., '76; B.Didac, '78, A.M., '80, State Univ. of Iowa.\n1891, Professor of Pedagogy, State University of Iowa, 331 Summit St., Iowa City.\nW. A. McCoRD.\n1898. Educational Department, Rand, McNally & Co., Des Moines.\n\n1896.\n\nJ. J, Nagel, 1870.\nPh.B.,Principal\n'98, Wesleyan\nUniv.,\nBloomington,\nGrammar\nSchool\nNo. 4, 906 111.\nW. Locust St., Davenport.\nEiXA L. Packer.\n1898. Teacher, Grand Forks, N. Dak. ; home address, 912, loth St., Sioux City.\nMary RoimKE, B.D.\n,\n1886. Principal of Schools, Farley.\nEtta Suplbe.\nSupervisor of Primary Training, State Normal School, Cedar Falls.\nFannib Suplbe.\n1893. Principal Grant School, West Des Moines, 1045, 9th St., Des Moines.\nJ. E. Williamson, A.M., '82, Wabash Coll.\n1892. Superintendent of City Schools, Fairfield.\nRichard C. Barrett, A.M., '94, Cornell Coll., la.\n1898. State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Des Moines.\nWiluam Bbal.\n1895. Principal of Hi?h School, Maynard.\nJambs J. Crosslev,Winterset.\nA.B., '91, A.M., '97, Univ. of Iowa.\nO. E, McFadon.\n124 W. 3d St., Davenport.\nC. F. McNbvin, B.S.,\nM.Acc't.\nClaremont.\nGborgb\n\nI. MiLLBR, B.S., '77, M.S., '97, Iowa State Coll.\n1886. Superintendent of Public Schools, 427 Story St., Boone.\nA. C. Nbwbll, B.S., '92, Univ. of Mich.\n1894. Instructor in Manual Training and Mechanical Drawing, 1304 Center St., Des Moines -,\nFkanklin T. Oldt, A.m.\n1805. Superintendent of City Schools, 1240 Locust St., Dubuque.\nA. N. Palmer.\n\n1897.\n\nPresident Cedar Rapids Business College and Editor of \"Western Penman,\" Cedar\nHattie A. Phillips. Rapids.\n1894. Supervisor of Kindergartens, 1013, 3ist St., Des Moines.\nF. E. Willard, B.S., '89, A.M., '92. Iowa Coll.\n1896. Supertntendent of Schools, 206 W. Grant St. , Marshalltown .\nJ. B. Young, A.B.. '61, A.M., '64, Middlebury Coll.\n1878. Superintendent of Schools, 432 E. 14th St., Davenport.\nC. C. Baumann.\nTeacher of French and German in High School, 15x1 Harrison St., Davenport.\nEuGBNB Brown, B.S., Iowa Agri. Coll.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Cerro Gordo Co., Mason City.\nJ. L. BuBCHELE, Ph.B., '86, Cornell Coll., Iowa.\n1896. Superintendent City Schools, Independence.\nH. T. BUSHNELL.\n1873. Principal of Grammar School No. 8, Famam St. and South Ave., Davenport.\nC. P. COLGROVE, A.M., Univ. of Chicago.\n1896. Assistant Professor of Pedagogy, State Normal School, 1907 Gay St., Cedar Falls.\nW. A. DORON, M.S.\nSuperintendent of Public Schools, Eldora.\nMrs. E. Dudley,\nA.B., '84, Principal\nA.M., '87,\nColl. Paullina.\n1893. Assistant\nin Cornell\nHigh School,\nJames F. Eaton, A. B.. B.D. .A.M., D.D.\n1894. Professor in Hull Educational Institute, HuIV.\nIrbnb Garrette.\nPrincipal of Jefferson School, 708, 3d Ave., Cedar Rapids.\nHerbert B. Haydbn.\n1898. Superintendent of Schools, 148 Glen Ave., Council Bluffs.\nB.J. HORCHEM.\n1898. Principal Audobon School, 315 Bluff St., Dubuqae.\nF. E. Lark.\n1896. Superintendent of Schools, Monona Co., Onawa.\nA. R. Sale.\n1893. Superintendent of City Schools, 326 W. 9th St. , Mason City.\nWilliam S. Shearer.\nAgent for Harper Bros., School Books, 3817 Cottage Grove St., Des Moines.\nJ. F. SMfTH.\n1895. County Superintendent of Schools, Waukon.\n■\"\"\"\nat Cedar Falls.\nStatb Normal School\nPresident. H. H. Seeriey,iCedar Falls.\n\n"}
{"page": 1088, "printed_page": null, "text": "1078\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kansas\n\nVy^ K— Continued\n\nState University Library of Iowa.\n1807\n^''\nLibrarian, Mrs. Bertha G. Ridgeway, Iowa City.\nCynthia Titus, B.D.\n1898. Principal of Lowell School, H02 Washington St., Waterloo.\nV. L. Wilson.\nAgent American Book Co., Ottumwa.\nF. M. Witter, B.S., A.M., '76, University of Iowa.\n1885.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 1314 Mulberry St. , Muscatine.\nC. F. Woodward, A.B., A.M., Cornell Coll.\n1898.\nCounty Superintendent of Schools, Eldora.\nAssoc.\nChicago ofFroebel\n1808. Cecilia Adams, '88,\nSupervisor\nKindergartens\nand Normal Teacher, 200 W, nth St., Dubuque.\nJ. M. Davis.\n\nSuperintendent of City Schools, 307 Jackson St., Sigourney.\n\nJ. D. Stout, 1894.\nB.D., Superintendent\n'82, B.S., '83, N.of Ind.\nNor. Forest\nSch. City.\nSchools,\nMary Ziek.\nPrincipal Van Buren School, 510, ist St. W., Cedar Rapids.\nKANSAS\nlife directors\n1886.\n\nA. V. Jewett, A.B.,\n'57, Middlebury Coll., Vt.\nAbilene.\n\nA. R. Taylor, Ph.D., '84, Lincoln Univ., 111.\n1882.\nPresident State Normal School, Emporia.\nlife members\n1886.\nBoard of Education, Abilene.\nPresident, Mrs. Mary Hamilton; Secretary, W, P. Gulick.\nBoard of Education, Dodge City.\nPresident, W. H. Chapman; Clerk, J. M. Kirkpatrick.\nBoard of Education, City of Ottawa.\nPresident, O. M. Wilber; Clerk, F. A. Wilkinson.\nBoard of Education, Sedgwick.\nPrincipal, E. L. Hillis ; Clerk, G. P. Schouten.\nAnderson Griffeth Campbell.\nCouncil Grove.\nNathaniel Coover.\nAssistant Principal of Public Schools, Wilson.\nEdward T. Fairchild,\nCounty Superintendent of Public Instruction, Ellsworth.\nHenry G. Larimer, LL.B., '81, Univ. of Mich.\nLawyer, 535 Kansas Ave., Topeka.\nA. N. Limerick.\nPrincipal of Public Schools, South Haven.\nJohn MacDonald.\nEditor \" Western School Journal,\" Topeka.\nPeter McVicar, A.B., '56, A.M., D.D., '71, Beloit Coll., Wis.\n1896.\nPresident Emeritus of Washburn College, Topeka.\nRiley Co. Educational Association,\nPresident, George K. Knipe, Manhattan; Secretary, Hannah Wetzig, Randolph.\nGeorge E. Rose, B.D., Univ. of Kan. ; M.S.. Kan. St. Agri. Coll.\n1893.\nPrincipal of High School, 2020 N. Walnut St., Kansas City.\nThomas A. Sawhill, A.B., '74, Amherst Col.\nPublisher of \"Concordia Empire,\" Concordia.\nAaron Schuyler, A.M., '60, Ohio Wes. Univ.;\nLL.D., '73, Otterbein; Ph.D., '98, Kan. Wes. Univ.\nProf, of Phil, and Higher Math.. Kan. Wesleyan Univ., 1316 S. Santa Fe St., Salina.\nEdmund Stanley, A.M., '91, Penn Coll., la.\n1898.\nPresident of Friends' University, Wichita.\nTeachers' Association of Cowley Co.\nPresident, Julia B. King; Secretary, Edna M. Glass, Winfield.\nD. C. TiLLOTSON.\n621 Filmore St., Topeka.\nPhilo Jesse Williams,\nA.M., '57, Madison Univ.; D.D., '76, Univ. of Kan.\nBaldwin.\nACTIVE\n\nmembers\n\n1884.\n\nJ. N. Wilkinson.\n1884.\nDirector of Training, State Normal School, 832 Merchant St., Emporia.\n1889. Emory M. Wood, A.M., '82, Ph.D., '93, Allegheny Coll.\n1887.\nProfessor of Mathematics, Baker University, 8th and King Sts., Baldwin.\n1890. William M. Davidson.\n1892. Superintendent of Schools, Topeka.\nArvin S. Olin, A.B., '92, Ottawa Univ. ; A.M., *94, Univ. of Kan.\n1894. Associate Professor of Pedagogy, Univ. of Kan., 1134 Louisiana St., Lawrence.\nWilliam C. Stevenson.\n1890.\nProfessor of Bookkeeping and Penmanship, State Normal School, 1017 Mechanic\nSt., Emporia.\nL. E. Wolfe.\ni8q8.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 921 Minnesota Ave., Kansas City.\n1891. Frank R. Dyer,\n'88, Ohio of\nNor.Schools,\nSch. ; A.M.,\nOhio Ave.,\nWesleyan\nUniv.\n1893. B.Pd.,\nSuperintendent\n609 N. '92,\nTopeka\nWichita.\nJ. D. Orr.\n1893.\n\n1890.\n\nPrincipal Main St. School, Fort Scott.\n\nFrancis Huntington\nSnow, Ph.D.,\n'81, LL.D.,\n'90, Princeton.\n1890.\nChancellor\nof University\nof Kansas,\nLawrence,\n\n"}
{"page": 1089, "printed_page": null, "text": "Kentucky]\n\nLIFE\n\nAND\n\nACTIVE\n\nKANSAS—\n\nMEMBERS\n\n1 079\n\nContinued\n\n1894. Etta I'Dbll Clarke.\nTeacher of Music, X035 Constitution St., Emporia.\nElVA\n\nEnOLA\n\nCtJlRKE.\n\n1893. Librarian of State Normal School, 1035 Constitution St., Emporia.\nO, P. M. McCuNTOCK.\n1897.\nPrincipal Clay School, 523 Van Buren St., Topcka.\n1895. M, A. Bailbv, A.m., '79, Wesleyan Univ. of Conn.\n1885. Teacher of Mathematics, State Normal School, 218 W. 12th Ave., Emporia.\nO. P. Barnes.\nWestern Agent, Ginn & Co., Leavenworth.\nJessie L. Clarke.\n1892. Supervisor of Music, Public Schools, 1203 N. Market St., Wichita.\nFenklla Dana.\n1889. Teacher in Public Sehools, 909 Tyler St., Topeka.\nM. E. Dolphin.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Leavenworth.\nLiDA H. Mills.\n1895. Assistant in High School, 1203 N. Market St., Wichita.\nMiss M. S. Mitchell, B.S., Geneva Coll., Penn.\n%\n1879.\nTeachei in Public Schools, 509 W, 6th St., Topeka.\nMtntLiN, A.B., '91, S.T.B., '92, De Pauw Univ.; D.D., '97, Cornell Coll. ; S.T.D., '97, Denver\n• L. H. Univ.\n1894. President Baker University, Baldwin.\nMiss C. S. Newell.\n1890. Teacher in Public Schools, 817 W. 14th St., Topeka.\nDavid F. Shirk.\n1893. Superintendent of City Schools, Cottonwood Falls.\n£. A. Simerwell.\n1892. Principal of Grant School, 1209 N. Western Ave., Topeka.\n1896. BvRON Dean Van Ostrand. B.S., 'Sij Cornell LJniv.\n1894. Superintendent of City Schools, Marion.\nJ. J. Wilkinson, Grad. 111. Nor. Univ. ; Ph.D., '98, Univ. of Leipzig.\n832 Merchants St., Emporia.\n1897. Mrs. Gaston Bovd.\nSupervisor of Music, Public Schools, and Director of the Department of Elocution and Physical Culture, Bethel College, Newton.\nCharles A. Boyle.\n1893. Director of Department of Music, State Normal School, 831 Constitution St.\nEmporia.\nL. L. L. Hanks, Ph.D., West Kentucky Coll.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Kansas City.\nL. A. LowTHER, A.B., '94, State Univ.\n1896. Superintendent of City Schools. 617 Exchange St., Emporia.\nH. B. Peairs.\nSuperintendent Haskell Institute, Indian Industrial Training School, Lawrence\nWalter G. Riste.\nPrincipal of County High School, Colby.\nFrank P. Smith, A.B., '78, Ind. Univ. ; A.M., '90. Baker Univ.\n1894. Superintendent of Schools, 900 Tennessee St., Lawrence.\nState Agricultural College of Kansas.\nLibrarian, Helen J. Wescott, Manhattan.\nMrs. E. Davidson Worden.\n1896.\nSuperintendent of The Topeka Kindergarten Association, 221 W. loth Ave. Topeka\nKENTUCKY\nLIFE\n\nDIRECTOR\n\nt886.\n\nGeorge T. Fairchild, LL.D., '93, Oberiin.\n1898.\nVice-President and Professor of English Literature, Berea College, Berea,\n\n1877.\n\nWilliam Henry Bartholomew.\nPrincipal of Girls' High School, 426 E. Gray St., Louisville.\nMrs. Laura 1881.\nL, Monsarrat.\n\nlife members\n\nPrincipal of Seventh Ward Public School, 316 W. Walnut St., Louisville.\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n1891. Charles H. Dietrich, B.S., '78, Ohio State Univ.\nAgent American Book Company, Hopkinsville.\nMcHenrv Rhoads, A.m., West Ky. Coll. ; Ph.M., Hartford Coll.\n1891. Superintendent of Schools, 317, 3d St., Frankfort.\n1892. J. D. Coleman, Ph.B., '91, Hartford Coll., Ky.\n1892. Principal of High School, 249, 5th St., Louisville.\nMary F. Dodson.\n1880.\nAssistant Principal High School, 327 N. 4th St., Paducah.\nGeorge O. McBroom, A.B., '85, Drake Univ., la.\n1890. Superintendent of Schools, 124 N. sth St., Paducah.\n1893. H. R. Blaisdell,\nEdgar H. Mark.\n1894.\nJambs McGinnis.\n1891.\n\nPh.D., '76.of High School, 66 E. 7th St., Covington.\nPrincipal\nSuperintendent of Schools, Center and Walnut Sts., Louisville.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 114 W. 4th St., Owensboro.\n\n"}
{"page": 1090, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nio8o\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Maine\n\nKENTUCKY— Co«^/»«(rrf\n1801\nSusie M. Bartholomew. „\n,\n. .„\n1894. ousm\n^^g g Q^^y gj^ Louisville.\nNor. School.\nKy.,\nGlasgow,\n'86,\nT M N. DOWNES, B.S.,\n'\n1894.\nSuperintendent of Bellevue Schools, 132 Taylor Ave., Newport.\nNat. Nor. Univ., O.\n'92.\nM.S.,\nB.S., '84,\nArthur C. Fleshman,\nInstitute Instructor, Bagdad.\n1898.\nMary K. Keating\nc. t\n• n\n1830. W. Jefferson St., Louisville.\n1805. Livingstone McCartney.\n, c i, 1 ti i,-n\n'^'\n189s. Superintendent of Schools, Hopkinsville.\nQ J- ij» Q Alley\n*^^\"\n\n■\nW\n\n'\n1896.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Dayton.\nJ. McCONATHY.\n189s. Principal of Normal School, 1454, 2d St., Louisville.\n1896.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, 829 Scott St., Covington.\n\n1895. Principal Montgomery School, 2427 W, Chestnut St., Louisville.\nEdward Taylor, A.M., Earlham Coll., Richmond, Ind.\n_\nSuperintendent of Schools, 1109 College St., Bowling Green.\nLouise A. Wiard.\nTeacher in 8th Grade, Public Schools, Frankfort.\nJ. G. Crabbe, A.B., A.m., Ohio Wes. Univ. ; M.Pd., Ohio Univ.\n1807\n^''\n1890.\nSuperintendent of City Schools, Winchester Ave. and 22d St., Ashland.\nGeorge Benjamin Raggett, B.S., '75, Grand River Inst.\n1876. Principal of Public Schools, 956, 5th St., Louisville.\nReuben Post Halleck, A.M., Yale.\nPrincipal of Boys' High School, 1240, 3d Ave., Louisville.\nG. Clinton Hanna, A.B., '70, A.M., '73, Calvert Coll., Md.\n1895.\nSuperintendent of City Schools, 207 Rose Hill Ave., Versailles.\n\n1898.\n\n•\n\n1887. Teacher in Sixth Grade, Duncan St. School, 2441 W, Chestnut St., Louisville.\nDora Snoboda.\n1889. Teacher in Primary Department, 2111 W. Chestnut St., Louisville.\nE. W. Weaver.\n1894. Superintendent of City Schools, Paris.\nA. C. Kuykendall,\nA.B., '91,\nBurrett Coll. South Kentucky Coll., Hopkinsville.\n1898. Teacher\nof Mathematics,\nWilliam H. Perry.\n2909 W. Walnut St., Louisville.\nLOUISIANA\nACTIVE\n\nJ889.\n\n1892.\n\nMEMBERS\n\nMiss Marion Brown.\n1895. Principal of New Orleans Normal School, 1538, 4th St., New Orleans.\nGeorge J. Ramse;y, A.M., Hampden Sidney Coll., Va. ; LL.D., Southwestern Univ.\n1885.\nPresident Silliman Collegiate Institute, Clinton.\nGeorge Soul^.\nPresident Soule Commercial College and Literary Institute, 603 St. Charles St.,\nNew Orleans.\n\nr894.\n\nMiss H. A. Suter.\n1878. Principal of McDonogh High School No. 2, 1426 St. Andrew St., New Orleans.\nEaston.\nSuperintendent of School, 1413, 3d St., New Orleans.\n1896. B. C. Caldwell.\n1896. President of State Norma! School, Natchitoches.\nKate Kelly.\n1890. Principal of McDonogh School No. i, 4428 Canal St., New Orleans.\nLizzie Kelly.\n1884.\nPrincipal of McDonogh School No. 4, 4428 Canal St., New Orleans.\n.\n1897. Clara G.Baer\n1891. Dir. of Physical Education, Newcomb Coll., 1532 Washington Ave., New Orleans.\nBrandt V. B. Dixon, A.M., LL.D.\nPresident of Newcomb College, 1730 H. Clay Ave., New Orleans.\nEveline A. Waldo.\nKindergarten Training Teacher, Normal School, 6106 St. Charles Ave.,\nNew\nOrleans.\n1895. Warren\n\nMAINE\nACTIVE\n\nmembers\n\n1890.\n\nM. C. Fernalu, A.B.,\n'61, A.M.,\n'64, Ph.D.,.'8i,\nBowdoin\nColl. University of Maine, Orono.\nProfessor\nof Philosophy\nand Logic,\nEmeritus,\n\n1892.\n\nW. J. CoRTHELL,\n'57, 4.M.,\nWaterville\nColl.Gorham.\n; LL.D., '92, Colby Univ.\n1879. A.B.,\nPrincipal\nof State'60,Normal\nSchool,\n\n.\n1895. John S. Locke\n1893.\nSuperintendent of Schools ; President York Institute, 42 Middle St., Saco.\nWilliam Wallace Stetson.\n1895. State Superintendent of Public Schools, 295 Minot Ave., Auburn.\n\n1898.\n\nCharles Fred.\nA.B.,Cony\n'91, St.\n1896.Cook,\nPrincipal\nHighLawrence\nSchool, Univ.\n52 State St., Augusta.\nAbram Harris, Sc.D., Bowdoiii,\n1893. President University of Maine, Orono,\nMary S. Snow, Ph.M., 'q6, Univ. of Maine.\n1889. Superintendent of Schools, City Hall, Bangor.\n\n"}
{"page": 1091, "printed_page": null, "text": "Magsachusetts]\n\nLIFE\n\nAND\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\nio8l\n\nMARYLAND\n1876.\n\nlife mbhbex\nSarah E. Richmond.\n1875, Vice-Principal State Normal School, 140a Pennsylvania Ave., Baltimore.\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBKRS\n\n1885.\n\nHenry A. Wise, Grad. of Virginia Military Inst.\n1883.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 409 St. Paul St., Baltimore.\n1891. John E. McCahan, A.M., '69, Dickinson Coll., Pa.\nAssistant Superintendent of Schools, 1719 Hollins St., Baltimore.\n1892. E. B. Prettvman, A.B., '48, A.M., '52. LL.D., '97, Dickinson Coll., Pa.\n1890.\nState Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1200 Lafayette Ave., Baltimore.\n1893. John D. Worthington.\nSuperintendent Harford County Public Schools, Belair.\n1894. Eli M. Lamb.\n'\n1864, Principal\nFriends' Elementary and High School, 937 and 1001-1003 McCulloh St.,\nBaltimore.\nRachel E. Lamb.\nTeacher in Friends' Elementary and High School, X109 Madison Ave., Baltimore.\n1895. William H. Shelley, A.M., Iowa Wesleyan Univ.\n1890. Principal of Girls' Latin School, St. Paul aiid 34th Sts., Baltimore.\n1896. Daniel C. Oilman. LL.D., Vale.\n1875.\nPresident Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore.\nHarry Marc Rowe, Ph.D.\nSecretary and Treasurer, Sadler, Rowe & Co., 13 N. Charles St., Baltimore.\n1897. Z. C. Ebaugh.\nMember\ntown. State Board of Education and Principal Franklin High School, Reisters1898. Susie S. Bouldin.\nAssistant in State Grammar School No. 43, 839 Aisquith St., Baltimore.\nE. E. Gates, A.B., '83, A.M., '88, Colby Univ.\n1897.\nPresident of Frederick College, Frederick.\nJohn T. Freeman, B.S., '83, M.S., '87, Dartmouth.\n1890.\nSupervisor, Washington Public Schools, Kensington.\nElmer Gates.\nIn charge of Laboratory of Psychology and Psychurgy, Chevy Chase.\nA. J. Gminder.\n1895.\nPrincipal in English-German Public School No. 7, mi Barclay St., Baltimore.\nHenry B. Gwynn, M.D., '88, Baltimore Univ.\nPrincipal of Male Grammar School No. i, 724 N. Gilmore St., Baltimore.\nSchuyler B. Moon, A.B. and C.E., '87, Washington and Lee Univ.\nTeacher in Public Schools, McDonogh.\nJ. H. N. Waring, A.M., Howard Univ. ; M.D.\nSupervising Principal of loth Division, Washington, D. C, Schools; Lindon.\nJohnColl.,\nThomas\nWhite,Pa.Grad., '78, Mercersburg Coll., ; A.B., '78, A.M., 84, Franklin and Marshall\nLancaster,\n1888.\n\nPrincipal of Alleghany County High School. 24 S. George St., Cumberland.\nMASSACHUSETTS\nLIFE directors\n\n1857.\n\n1887.\n\n1870.\n1884.\n1886.\n\nWilliam Evarts Sheldon, A.M., '69, Middlebury Coll., Vt.\n1877. Editor of \" American Teacher,'' and Business Department \"Journal of EUiucation,\"\n3 Somerset St., Boston.\nMrs. Mary H. Hunt.\n.\n. ,\nNational and International Superintendent of Scientific Temperance Instruction.\nW. C. T. U., 23 Trull St.. Boston.\nLIFE members\nDaniel W. Jones.\n185a\nMaster Lowell School, Boston; 4 Hawthorn St., Roxbury.\nJohn Bascom, LL.D, '73, Amherst Coll. ; D.D., '75, Iowa Coll.\n1891.\nProfessor of Political Science, Williams College, Williamstown.\nWilliam A. Mowry, A.M., Brown Univ. ; Ph.D., Bates Coll.\nLecturer and Writer, 17 Riverside Square, Hyde Park.\n\nactive members\nFrank A. FrraPATRicK.\n55 Franklin St., Boston.\n1890. Albert G. Bovden, A.M., '61, Amherst Coll.\ni860.\nPrincipal Slate Normal School, Bridgewater.\nMrs. Mary Dana Hicks.\n1887.\nDirector Prang Normal Art Classes, 646 Washington St., Boston.\nH. E. Holt.\n1868. Supervisor of Music, Boston Public Schools, Box 109, Lexington.\nArthur P. Smith.\n1868.\nMaster of South Grammar School, 11 High St., Waltham.\n1891. G. Stanley Hall.\nPresident of Clark University, 94 Woodland St., Worcester.\nD. C. Heath, A.B., '68, A.M., '71, Amherst Coll.\n1876.\nEducational Publisher, ifo Boylston St., Boston.\nAmy Morris Homans.\nDirector Boston Normal School of Gymnastics, Huntington Ave., Boston.\nRay Greene Huling, A.B., '69, A.M., '72, D.S., '04, Brown Univ.\n1893. Head Master of English High Scnool, loi Trowbridge St., Cambridge.\n\n1884.\n\n"}
{"page": 1092, "printed_page": null, "text": "Io82\n\n1801.\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nA. EuGBNK 1881.\nNoLEN,Teacher\nA.B., '67,\nA.M., and\n'70,Latin,\nYale. High School, 3 Wood\nof Greek\n\n[Massachusetts\n\nPlace, Fitchburg,\n\nAlvin F, Pease,\n'73, A.M., of'78,\nBrown 77\nUniv.\n1888. A.B.,\nSuperintendent\nSchools,\nRound Hill, Northampton.\nElizabeth H. Perry.\n18911. Teacher of Drawing, Normal School, Bridgewater.\nJohn Tilden1881.\nPrince,\nPh.D.,\n'8q, Leipzig.\nAgent\nMassachusetts\nBoard of Education, 15 Temple St., West Newton.\n1892. Orlando Merriam Baker.\nPublisher, 499 Main St., Springfield.\nMilton Bradley\nKindergarten Publisher, Springfield.\nJohn S. Clark.\nTreasurer, Prang Educational Co., 646 Washington St., Boston.\nCharles W. Eliot, A.B., '53, Harvard; LL.D., '69, Williams, Princeton, '70 Yale.\n1869.\nPresident of Harvard University, i7\"Quincy St., Cambridge.\nRobert C. Metcalf.\n1882. Supervisor of Schools, School Committee Rooms, Mason St., Boston; 17 Kenwood\nSt., Dorchester.\nWilliam W. Tapley.\nAssistant Manager, Educational Department, Milton Bradley Co., Springfield.\nGeorge A. Walton, A.M., Williams Coll.\n68 Chestnut St., West Newton.\nHenry N. Wheeler, A.B., '71, A.M., '7s, Harvard.\n1882.\nSupt. of Educational Department, Houghton, MifHin & Co., 4 Park St., Boston.\nArthur K. Whitcomb, A.B., '73, Dartmouth.\n1891. Superintendent of Schools, Lowell.\nAlbert Edward Winship, Lit.D., '98.\nEditor of \" Journal of Education,\" 3 Somerset St., Boston.\n1893. Francis Cogswell,\nA.M., '81, Harvard.\n1874.\nSuperintendent\nof Schools, 257 Prospect St., Cambridge.\nFrank Irving Cooper.\nDudley St., Newton Center.\nMary A. Grandy.\n1898.\nSupervisor of Music, 184 Maple St., Springfield.\nIda K. Greenlee, A.B., '84.\n1898. Teacher in High School, 184 Maple St., Springfield.\nErnest Henry Johnson, A.B., *gi, A.M., '92, Brown Univ.\n1896.\nMaster of Williams School, Chelsea; 32, 9th St. E., Providence, R. I.\nGeorge B. Kilbon.\n41 Orleans St., Springfield.\nGeorge H. Martin, A.M., '81, Amherst Coll.\n1892.\nSupervisor of Schools, Boston ; 388 Summer St., Lynn.\nWill S. Monroe, A.B., '94, Stanford Univ.\n1896. Department of Pedagogy and Psychology, State Normal School, Westfield.\nCharles C. Ramsay, A.B., '92, A.M„ '92, Harvard.\n1892. Principal of B. M. C. Durfee High School, 90 Winter St., Fall River.\nEdwin P. Seaver, A.M., LL.B., Harvard.\n1B80.\nSuperintendent of Schools, School Committee Rooms, Boston.\n1894. Fred W. Atkinson, A.B., '90, Harvard ; Ph.D., '93, Leipzig.\n1894. Principal of High School, 95 Elliott St., Springfield.\nFrederick Elmer Chapman.\n1891.\nDirector of Music, Cambridge Public Schools, 126 Oxford St., North Cambridge.\nJ. A. Russell.\n6 Allston St., Boston.\n1895. Sarah Louise Arnold.\n1895. Supervisor of Schools, Boston ; Newton Center.\nThomas M. Balltet.\n1887.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 47 Vernon St., Springfield.\nEugene Bouton, A.B., '75, A.M., '80, Yale; Ph.D.. '81, Syracuse.\n1894.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 60 Elizabeth St., Pittsfield.\nJ. E. Burke, A.B., '90, A.M., '93, Colby Univ.\n1894.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Lawrence.\nC. F. Carroll.\n1894. Superintendent of Schools, 666 Main St., Worcester.\nLaekin Dunton, LL.D., '80, Colby Univ.\n1872. Head Master of Boston Normal School, 16 Ashford St.. Allston, Boston.\nSamuel T. Dutton, A. IB., Yale.\n1890.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Brookline.\nRoland W. Guss, Grad., '81, State Nor. Sch., Pa. ; A.B., '88, A.M.. '91, Wesl. Univ., Conn.\n1897. Instructor in Natural Science, State Normal School, s Montana St., North Adams.\nIsaac Freeman Hall.\n1895. Superintendent of Schools, 4 Elmwood Ave., North Adams.\nPaul H. Han us, B.S\nAssistant Professor of History and Art of Teaching, Harvard University, Cambridge\nAlbert Bushnell Hart, A.B.. '80, Harvard; Ph.D., Freiburg, Baden.\n1897.\nProfessor of History, Harvard University, 15 Appian Way, Cambridge.\nHarvard College Library.\nPresident, Charles W. Eliot; Librarian, William C. Lane, Cambridge.\nFrank A. Hill, A.B., '62, A.M., '6s, Lit.D., '94, Bowdoin.\n1894.\nSecretary Stale Board of Education, 366 Harvard St., Cambridge.\nAustin H. Kenerson.\nAgent for Ginn & Co., Schoolbo*ks, 13 Tremont Place, Boston.\nCharles H. Keyes, A.B.. '78, St. John's Coll.\n1897.\nPrincipal of High School, Holyoke.\nAlonzo Meserve.\n1886.\nMaster of Bowdoin School, 87 Linden St., Allston Station, Boston.\n\n"}
{"page": 1093, "printed_page": null, "text": "Massachusetts]\n\nLIFE\n\nAND\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n'\n\n1083\n\n1895. Charles H. Morss, A.B., '80, A.M., '82, Harvard.\n1895.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Medtord.\nJames Phinnby Munroe, B.S., '8a, Mass. Inst, of Technology.\nAuthor, 179 Devonshire St., Boston.\nCharles W. Parmenter, A.B., '77. A.M., '86, Ph.D., '95, Tufts Coll.\n1894. Head Master of Mechanic Arts, High School, Boston; res., 80 Huron Ave., North\nCambridge,\nBaroness Rose Posse.\n1892. Director\nof Boston.\nPosse Gymnasium and Editor \" Posse Gymnasium Journal,\" 23 Irvington St.,\nCharles A. Sibley, A.B., '87, Amherst,\nMember of firm of Leach, Shewell & Co., 68 Chauncy St., Boston,\nJohn Gilbert Thompson, A.B., '86, A.M., '94, Dartmouth Coll.\n1895. Principal of State Normal School, 55 Garnet St., Fitchburg.\nAlfred Turner, B.S., '93, Amherst Coll.\n1897. Superintendent of Schools, Turner's Falls.\nHattie Twichell.\n1896. Kindergarten Training Teacher, 54 Court St., Springfield.\nWhittemore, A.B., '66, Dartmouth Coll.\n1898. Principal of State Normal School, Framingham.\n1896. Charles H. Ames, A.B., '70, A.M., '73, Amherst Coll.\nEducational Publisher, with D. C. Heath & Co., no Boylston St„ Boston ; res.. West\nNewton.\nGeorge P. Armstrong.\n1897. Superintendent of Schools of Belmont and Manchester, Belmont.\nWilliam C. Bates, A. B., '77, Harvard.\n1894.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 657 Highland Ave., Fall River.\nWallace C. Boyden, A.B., '83, A.M., '86, Amherst.\n1889.\nMaster Boston Normal School, 221 Walnut St., Newtonville.\nGeorge W. Brown.\n,\n1886.\nPrincipal Jackman School, 38 High St., Newburyport.\nElmer H. Capen, D,D., '77, St. Lawrence Univ.\n1875.\nPresident of Tufts College, 8 Professors' Row, Tufts College.\nJoseph G.- Edgerly.\n1875.\nSuperintendent of City Schools, 37 Atlantic Ave., Fitchburg.\nFrances H. Look.\n^892. Principal of Florence Kindergartens, 116 Elm St., Northampton.\nLincoln Owen, A,B., '89, A.M., '92, Colby Univ.\n1893. Master of Rice Training School, 53 Montview St., West Roxbury.\nWalter Scott Parker.\n1894. Supervisor, Boston Public Schools, School Com. Rooms, Mason St., Boston.\nMvRON T. Pritchard.\nMaster Everett School, Boston; 125 School St., Roxbury.\nDudley A. Sargent, A.B., '73, A.M., '87, S.D., '93, Bowdoin; M.D., '78, Yale.\n1879.\nDirector Hemenway Gymnasium, Harvard Univ., 27 Everett St., Cambridge.\nKirk N. Washburn.\nHenry\n\nOne of the Publishers of Webster's International Dictionary, 499 State St., Springfield.\nCollege Library.\nLibrarian, W. I. Fletcher, Amherst.\nS. F. Blodgett, A.m., '74, Yale.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 103 Union Ave., So. Framingham.\nJ. H. Carfrey, Ph.M., Syracuse Univ.\n1898. Superintendent of Public Schools, Northampton.\nBoston College.\nPresident, W. G. Read Mullan; Librarian, Eldward P. Spillane, 761 Harrison Ave.,\nBoston.\nArthur C. Boyden, A.M., Amherst.\nVice-Principal State Normal School, Bridgcwater.\nGeorge H. Conley, A.B., Holy Cross.\nSupervisor of Schools, Mason St., Boston.\nGertrude Edmund, Pd.D., '93, New York Univ.\nPrincipal of Normal Training School, 74 Huntington St., Lowell.\nWilliam E. Hatch, A.B., A.M., Bowdoin.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 168 William St., New Bedford.\nE. A. Kirkpatrick, B.S., '87, Ph.M., '89, Ames.\nPsychology and Child Study, State Normal School, 26 Atlantic Ave., Fitchburg.\nPerkins Institution and Massachusetts Schools for the Blind.\nPresident, F. H. Appleton ; Director, Michael Anagos, East Broadway, South Boston.\nLillian £. Rogers.\n1896.\nAssistant in 7th Grade, Brookline ; 37 Chesley Road, Newton Center.\nThomas E. Thompson.\n1895. Superintendent of Schools, Leominster.\nWestfield State Normal School.\nPrincipal, Charles S. Chapin, 8 Mill St., Westfield, Mass.\nWilliams College Library.\nLibrarian, Charles H. Burr, Williamstown.\n1898. George Wells FiTz, M.D., '91.\n1894.\nAssistant Professor Harvard University, 7 Scott St., Cambridge.\nFree Public Library of the City of Worcester.\nPresident, Rev. Almon Gunnison, D.D. ; Librarian, Samuel S. Green, Worcester.\nF. F. MuRDOCK.\nPrincipal State Normal School, North Adams,\nMrs, Ellen H. Richards.\nProfessor of Domestic Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston.\nState Library of Massachusetts.\nState Librarian, C. B. Tillinghast, State House, Boston,\n\n1897. Amherst\n\n"}
{"page": 1094, "printed_page": null, "text": "lo84\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Michigan\n\nMICHIGAN\nLIFE OIRBCTORS\n\n1805.\n\nHugh\n\nA. Graham, A.B., '87, A.M., '92. Albion Coll. ; A.B., '90. Univ. of Mich.\n1898. Superintendent of Public Schools, Clare.\nCharlbs G. White, A.B., '^^, A.M., '80, Ph.D., 'go-.\n1884. Superintendent of Schools, Lake Linden.\nactive members\n\n1884. Richard G. Boone, A.M., De Pauw Univ. ; Ph.D., Ohio Univ.\n,.^^9\n1893.\nPrincipal of State Normal College, 730 Forest Ave., Ypsilanti.\n.\nB. A. Hinsdale, A.M., ^71, Williams Coll. ; Ph.D., '87, Ohio State Univ. ; LL.D., '92, Ohio Univ.\n1887. Professor of Science and Art of Teaching, University of Michigan, 1414 Waslitenaw\nAve., Ann Arbor.\nf_\nJohn A. Stewart,\nA.B.j '75, Univ.of of\nMich, 517 Washington Ave., Bay City.\n1894. Superintendent\nSchools,\n1887.\n\nWilliam Austin Ellis, Grad. Mich. State Nor. Sch., '83; LL.B., '95, Detroit Coll. of Law; Grad\nMich. State Nor. Coll., '97.\n1885. Principal of Duffield Grammar School, 424, 2d Ave., Detroit.\n\n1889. J. L. Snyder,\n'86, Ph.D.,\n'91, Westminster\nColl.\n1896.A.B.,President\nMichigan\nState Agricultural\nCollege, Agricultural College.\n1890. Ferris S. Fitch, A.B., '77, Univ. of Mich.\nEx-State Superintendent of Public Instruction, 49 Williams St., Pontiac.\n1892. MvRA Jones.\n1883.\nSupervisor of Drawing, Windermere Apartments, Detroit.\nJohn B. Nvkirk, A.B., '85, A.M., '88, Hope Coll., Mich.\n1895. Professor of English Language and Literature, Hope College, 236 Columbia Ave.,\nHolland.\nHenry\nEdwjn\n\nR. Pattengill, B.S., '74, Univ. of Mich,\n1896k Editor and Publisher, 420 Townsend St., Lansing.\n\na. Strong, Professor\nA.B., '57,\n'61,Sciences,\nUnion Coll.\n_\n_ •\nof A.M.,\nPhysical\nState Normal College, 127 Normal St., Ypsilanti.\n1893. S. Emory Whitney. ■\n1885. Principal of Cass School, 83 Winder St., Detroit.\n1894. Richard Hardy, B.S., Univ. of Mich.\n1894.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Ishpeming.\nE. D. Palmer, A.B., '89, A.M., '92, Hillsdale Coll. ; A.M., '97, Univ. of Mich.\n1898.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Mason.\nH. M. Slauson, Ph.B., '77, Univ. of Mich.\n1898.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Ann Arbor.\nDoRAND William Springer, B.S., '86, Albion Coll.\n1893.\nDirector of Business Department, High School, 702 E. University Ave., Ann Arbor.\nEdwin C. Thompson, M.Pd., Mich. State Nor. Sch.\n1886. Superintendent of Schools, 1117 Court St., Saginaw, W. S.\nAllen S. Whitney, A.B., '85, Univ. of Mich.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 405 N. Warren St., Saginaw, E. S.\n1895. Frederick W. Arbury, A.B., '93, Univ. of Mich.\nEx -Superintendent of Schools, Battle Creek; 226 Warren Ave. W., Detroit.\nFrederick L. Bliss, A.B., '77, Univ. of Mich.\n1887. Prmcipal of Central High School, 69 Frederick Ave., Detroit.\nFrank W. Cooley, B.S., '81, M.S., '86, Lawrence Univ.\n1893.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 27 Mine St., Calumet.\nIra L. Forbes.\n1887.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 18 S. Main St., Vassar.\nH. H. Frost, A.B., '85, Univ. of Mich.\n1897. Teacher of Geometry, Central High School, 1302 John R St., Detroit.\nAustin George, A.B., '66, A.M., '69, Kalamazoo Coll. ; M.Pd., '93, Mich State Nor. Sch,\nSuperintendent of Public Schools, in Normal St., Ypsilanti.\nJason E. Hammond, B.S., '86, Mich. Agri. Coll,\nState Superintendent of Public Instruction, 419 Cherry St., Lansing,\nCarl C. Marshall,\n1895, Educational Author, 347 E, Main St., Battle Creek,\n1896, LE, Amidon, A.B., '92, Mich. Univ.\na\n1892.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Iron Mountain.\nW. E, Cokkling.\n1896. Superintendent of Schools, Dowagiac.\nAugustus E. Curtis, A.B., '66, A.M., '70, Union Coll.\n1896.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 113 W. Maumee St., Adrian.\nE. E. Ferguson, B.Pd.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 529 Bingham Ave., Sault Ste. Marie.\nS. B. Laird, M.S., '96, McKendree Coll., 111.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 215 Pine St. N., Lansing.\nWilliam Lightbouy, B.S., Mich. Agr. Coll.; B.Pd., Mich. Nor. Sch.\nPrincipal Higgins School, Woodmere; 439 Bagg St., Detroit.\nDavid MacKenzie, A.M., Univ. of Mich.\n1892. Superintendent of Schools, 208 W. Clay Ave., Muskegon.\nJames M. Mandeville, Grad. Mich. State Normal School.\n1891.\nPrincipal of Amos School, Military Ave., Detroit,\nLew, D. Remington.\n1890.\nPrincipal of High School, 1020 Adelaide St., Fenton.\nW. V, Sage. B.S., '84, Mich. Agri. Coll.\n1893. Superintendent of Schools, Decatur.\nJ, D, Schiller, A.M., '87. Hillsdale Coll.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Niles.\nAnna A. Schryver.\nTeacher Natural Science Dept., State Normal Coll., Ypsilanti; 617 Packard St.\nAnn Arbor,\n\n"}
{"page": 1095, "printed_page": null, "text": "Minnesota]\n\nLIFE\n\nAND\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n1085\n\nMICHIGAN-Co»»/»««<rrf\n1896. Harsibt\n\nM. Scott.\n1886. Principal Normal Training School, The Alhambra, Detroit.\nMrs. Emma A. Thomas.\nt886. Supervisor of Music, gi Watson St., Detroit,\nOmar D. Thompson.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Romeo.\nO. I. WOODLBY.\n1894. Superintendent of Schools, 6x7 Stephenson Ave., Menominie.\nL. L. Wright.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Ironwood.\n1897. E. T. Bradt.\nPresident of Board of Education, Ishpeminf.\nH. Z. Brock, B.S., '85, Univ. of Mich.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Hancock.\nFrancis D. Clarke, C.E., Univ. of Mich.\nSuperintendent of State School for the Deaf, Flint.\nDklos Fall, B.S., '75, M.S., '82, Univ. of Mich. ; D.S., '98, Albion Coll.\n1879. Professor of Chemistry, Albion Colleee, iioi Michigan Ave., Albion.\nW. H. Fort.\n,\nSuperintendent of Public Schools, Munising.\nPaul C. Frhkr, M.D., Ph.D.\n1889.\nProfessor in University of Michigan, 1410 Hill St., Ann Arbor.\nB. A. HOLDEN, B.S., '91, B.Pd., '94, Mich. Agr. Coll.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Hastings.\nC O. HOYT, A. M., Albion.\nAssistant Professor of Pedagogy, State Normal School, 502 Cross St., Ypsilanti.\nWarren C. Hull, Ph.M., '94. Albion ; B.Pd., '91, M.Pd., '96, Mich. Nor. Coll.\n1898.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 617 Grand Traverse St., Flint.\nHbkry C. Lott.\nSuperintendent of.Schools, Elk Rapids.\nW.F.Lyon.\n1887. Supervisor of Penmanship, 534 Greenwood Ave., Detroit.\nW. C. Martindalk, LL.B., Detroit Law Sch.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Detroit.\nCharles McKenny, B.S., '81, Mich. Agr. Coll. ; A.B., '89, A.M., '92, Olivet.\ni8q6.\nPrincipal Central Michigan State Normal School, Mt. Pleasant.\nFred Newton Scott, Ph.D., '89, Univ. of Mich.\nJunior Professor of Rhetoric, University of Michigan, 1113 College St., Ann Arbor.\nA. L. Shaw, B.S., '94, Olivet Coll.\nEx-Superintendent of Schools, Gobleville ; Decatur.\nGeorge C. Shepard.\n1880. Supervisor of Music, 15 N. Union St., Grand Rapids.\nThe Public Library of Detroit.\nLibrarian, H. M. Utley, Detroit.\nBelle M. Tower.\ni8g6. Critic Teacher, Wealthy^ Ave. Normal School, 531 Jefferson Ave., Grand Rapids,\nWilliam Hearts White, Ph.B., '89, Albion Coll.\nState Agent for the American Book Co., Grand Rapids.\n1898. General Library JLTniversitv of Michigan.\nPresident, James B. Angell ; Librarian, Raymond C. Davis.\nE. M. Hartman, M.L., Univ. of Mich..\n1895. Principal of Schools, Marlette.\nMINNESOTA\nLIFE DIRECTOR\n\n1870,\n\nWiLUAM\n\nF. Phelps, A.M., \"52, Union Coll, N. Y.\nDirector, State Normal Schools, 512 Washburn Boul., St. Paul,\n\n1864.\n\nCalvin Smith Pennbll, A.M., '50, Colby Univ.\nEx-Professor of Moral and Mental Phil., Washington Univ., St. Louis, Mo., 2245\nKnapp St., St. Anthony Park.\nBoard of Education. Independent School District No. 3, Northfield.\nPresident, W. A. Hunt, M.D. ; Secretary, S. Finkelson, Northfield.\n\nLIFE\n\n1890.\n\nACnVB\n\n1880.\n1883.\n1886.\n\nMEMBERS\n\nMEMBERS\n\nD. L. Kiehle, A.B., '61, A.M., '64, LL.D., '87, Hamilton Coll., N. Y.\n1893.\nProfessor of Pedagogy, Univ. of Minn., 2803 Portland Ave., Minneapolis.\nIrwin SnEPifRD, A.B., '71, A.M., '74, Ph.D., '93, Olivet Coll., Mich.\n1893.\nSecretary of National Educational Association. 118 W. Wabasha St., Winona.\nFrederick 1892.\nE. Stratton,\n'71, A.M.,Carleton\n'74, Williams\n; Ph.D., '9i> IH- Wesleyan Univ.\nPrincipalA.B.,\nof Academy,\nCollege,Coll.\nNorthfield.\n\n1890.\n\nRobert Eduard Denfeld, A.B., '76, A.M., '77, Amherst Coll.\n1885.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Central High School, Duluth.\n1892. Virgil G. Curtis, A.M., Tufts Coll.\n768 Goodrich Ave.. St. Paul.\n1893. Charles M. Jordan, Ph.D., '92, Tufts Coll.\n1892. Superintendent of Schools, 615 E. i8th St., Minneapolis.\nA. W. Rankin, A. B., '80, University of Minn.\n1895. State Inspector of Graded Schools, 1529 University Ave. S. E., Minneapolis.\nB. Aiton, A.B., '81, A.M., 'S^r, Univ. of Minn.\n1893. State Inspector of High Schools, 1601 University Ave. S. E., Minneapolis.\n\n1894. George\n\n"}
{"page": 1096, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nIo86\n\n' -^'\n\n■\n\n1886.\nJ. G. Hopkins.\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Minnesota\n\nSupervisor of Kindergartens and Primary Work, 631 Westminster St., St. Paul.\nPrincipal of Cleveland High School, 529 Case St., St. Paul,\n318 West King St., Winona.\n\nStenographer, State Normal School, 318 W. King St., Winona.\nIsabel Lawrence.\nor./-.,\n1879. Training Teacher in Normal School, 417, 2d Ave. S., St. Cloud.\nLivingston C. Lord.\n1888. President of State Normal School, Morehead.\nLucia M. Miller.\n.\n„\n„ „\n,\nPrincipal of Webster School, 631 Westminster St., St. Paul.\nMary L. Olds.\n., ^ , ,\n1889. Principal of Washington School, 301 E. 3d St., Duluth.\nWilliam Wirt Pendergast, A.M., '93, Bowdoin Coll., Me.\n1893. Superintendent of Public Instruction, St. Paul ; residence, Hutchinson.\nMrs. Louise Preece.\nTeacher of Elocution, Hotel Berkeley, Minneapolis.\nAlex M. Rowe, A.B., '^o, A.M., '79. Oberlin Coll.\n1897. Superintendent of Schools, Little Falls.\n1895. F. J. Bomberger, B.S.\n1894. Superintendent of Schools, Zumbrota.\nA. E. Engstrom, A.B., '78, A.M., '81, Carleton Coll.\n1881.\nCounty Superintendent of Schools, Cannon Falls.\nThomas J. Gray.\nUniversity of Minnesota, College of Medicine, 602 Nicollet Ave., Minneapolis.\nF. V. Hubbard.\n1896.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Red Wing.\nC. W. G. Hyde.\nAsst. State Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1983 St. Anthony Ave., St. Paul.\nGeorge R. Kleeberger.\n1895. President of State Normal School, St. Cloud.\nS. S. Parr.\n1889. Superintendent of City Schools, 520, 2d Ave. S., St. Cloud.\nSamuel J. Race, B.L., Univ. of Pa.\n1886.\nCounty Superintendent of Schools, Redwood Falls.\n*Edward Searing.\n1880. President State Normal'School, Mankato.\nW. A. Shoemaker, Pd.M., '98, N. Y. Univ.\n1881. Teacher of Mathematics and Methods, State Normal School, 921, loj^ Ave. S.,\nSt. Cloud.\nWillliam G. Smith,\nEditor '\"School Education,\" Secretary Educational Press Association, 26 Washington\nAve. S., Minneapolis.\nJames W. Strong, A.B., '58, A.M., '61. D.D.. '72, Beloit Coll.; LL.D., '96, 111. Coll.\n1870.\nPresident of Carleton College, 108 College Ave., Northfield.\nAdolph C. Tibbetts.\n1896. Superintendent of Schools, St. Charles.\nFrank A. Weld.\n1895. Superintendent of Schools, 515 S. 3d St., Stillwater.\n1896. C. A. Ballard, B.S., '94, Univ. of Minn.\n1894. Superintendent of Schools, Fergus Falls.\nJ. D. Bond, B.S., '72, M.S., '73, Milton Coll., Wis.\n1872. Assist. Superintendent in Public Schools, 451 Marshall Ave., St. Paul.\nClarence M. Boutelle, LL.D., '96, St. Stephen's Coll., Annondale, N. Y.\n1895. Superintendent of Schools, Marshall.\nMrs. Alice W. Cooley.\n1895. Supervisor of Primary Schools, 1674 Hennepin Ave., Minneapolis.\nR. W. Cranston.\n1898. Agent for Sheldon & Co., 1928 Portland Ave., Minneapolis.\nC. C. CuRTiss, A.M., Hamilton Coll.\nPresident of Curtiss' Commercial College, $06% Nicollet Ave., Minneapolis.\nJames J. Dow, A.B., '74, A.M., '78, Carleton Coll.\n1875.\nSuperintendent of School for the Blind, Faribault.\nEtta J. Fay.\n1892. Teacher Intermediate Grade, Washburn Memorial Orphan Asylum, Station D,\nMinneapolis; home address, Richfield.\nWaldo W. Hobbs.\n1892. Principal N. S. High School, 48 N. i6th St., Minneapolis.\nJanet H. Nunn.\n1891. Teacher of Latin, High School, 161 W. Wabasha St., Winona,\nBonnie E. Snow.\n_\n•\n1896.\n■ Supervisor of Drawing, Public Schools, 801 E. isth St., Minneapolis.\nHelen Ford Staples.\n1891. Teacher Primary Department, 127 E. Broadway, Winona.\nJ. A. Vandyke,\n'90, B.Pd., of\n'89,Schools,\nB.Ph., Wabasha.\n'87, Univ. of Iowa.\n1892.A.M.,\nSuperintendent\nWilliam Franklin Webster, A.B., '86, Univ. of Minn.\nPrincipal of East Side High School, 1025, 5th St., S. E., Minneapolis.\n1897. I. I. Bargen,\n_\n1890. County Superintendent of Schools, Mountain Lake.\nWilliam A. Bartlett, B.S., '87, A.M., '90, Iowa Coll.\n1896.\nPrincipal of High School, 214 W. Wabasha St., Winona.\n♦Died October 22, 1898,\n\n.\n\n"}
{"page": 1097, "printed_page": null, "text": "1087\n\nMissouri]\n\nLIFE AND\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\nM INNESOTA— Co«/»««f</\n1897. A. B. Christy, Ph.M.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Allen Ave. and Oak St., East Grand Forks.\nAnna H. Christy, Ph.M., '79.\nPrincipal of High School, Allen Ave. and Oak St., East Grand Forks.\nHerbbrt R. Edwards, Ph.B., '91, Alfred Univ.\n,\nPrincipal of High School, Wheaton.\nFrances A. Elmer.\nTeacher of Latin, State Normal School, 264 W. Wabasha St., Winona.\nLyman H. Ford, A.B., '92, A.M., '93, Univ. of Wooster.\n1893. Superintendent of Schools, Owatonna.\nGeorge A. Franklin, Grad., '77, Nor. Sch., Normal, 111.\n1894. Superintendent of Schools, 630 Main St., Faribault.\nLaura Hand.\n1893. Principal of Van Buren School, 598 Grand Ave., St. Paul.\nP. P. Kennedy, B.S., '90, Univ. of Minn.\n1895. Superintendent of Schools, Fairmont.\nMary A. Keyes.\nCritic Teacher, State Normal School, Winona.\nMary E. Lynch.\nPrimary Teacher, n8 Mark St., Winona.\nL. J. ROCHOLL.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Stearns Co., sn, 7th Ave. N., St. Cloud.\nC. L. Sawyer, A.M., '91, Dartmouth; LL.B., '97, Univ. of Minn.\n1892. Principal of South High School, 827, 15th Ave. S., Minneapolis.\nBertha Scofield.\nTeacher in Brownsville Schools ; Caledonia.\nHiram Worcester Slack, Ph.B., '95, 111. Wes. Univ.\n1876.\nPrincipal of Schools, 735 Olive St., St. Paul.\nAlma B. Stanford.\n1894. Principal of High School, Northfield.\nState Normal School at Moorhead.\nPresident, Livingston C. Lord; Librarian, Henry Johnson, Moorhead.\nState Normal School at St. Cloud.\nPresident, George R. Kleeberger, St. Cloud.\nState Normal School at Winona.\nLibrarian, Ida D. Aikins, Winona.\nJames A. Tormey, B.L., '95, Univ. of Wis.\n1896. Superintendent of Schools, Winona.\nMiss E. Walker.\nPrincipal of Lincoln School, The Portland, St. Paul.\nEllen F. Wheaton.\nPrincipal of Van Cleve School, 738 E. 16th St., Minneapolis.\n1898. George Lancaster.\n1896. Assistant in High School, Hutchinson.\nW. F. F. Selleck, Ph.B., '98, 111. Wes. Univ.\n1892. Superintendent of Schools, 804 Freeborn St., Austin.\nA. J. Smith, A.M.\n1898.\nSuperintendent of Schools, loth and Minnesota Sts., St. Paul.\nLillian M. Tompkins, A.B., '97, Ann Arbor.\n1897. Teacher of History and Civics, High School, 204 Wabasha St., Winona.\nG. O. ViRTtra;, A.M., '93. Ph.D., '97.\n1897. Instructor in History and Civics, State Normal School, 152 W. Wabasha St., Winona.\nMISSISSIPPI\n1890.\n1802.\n1894.\n1895.\n\n1897.\n\nactive members\nJ. R. Preston.\n1896.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Water Valley.\nDabnev Lipscomb, A.M., '81, Univ. of Miss.\n1895. Professor of English and of Belles-lettres, University of Mississippi. Oxford.\nRobert B. Fulton, A.B., '69, A.M., '74, Univ. of Miss. ; LL.D., '95, Univ. of Nashville.\n1875.\nProfessor of Phys. and Astronomy ; 1892, Chanc, Univ. of Mississippi, University\nE.E. Bass, B.L., '83, Mo. State Univ.\n1884.\nSuperintendent of City Schools, 509 N. Broadway, Greenville.\nA. A. KiNCANNON, A.B., M.S.. Lebanon, O.\n1896. State Superintendent of Education, Jackson.\nRichard M. Leavell, A.B., '59, Univ. of Miss. ; LL.D., '89, Miss. Coll.\n1890.\nProfessor of History and Philosophy, Univ. of Mississippi, University.\nJ. G. Deupree, A.B., A.M., Howard Coll., Ala.; LL.D., S. W. B. Univ., Tenn.\n1896.\nProfessor of Pedagogy, University.\nJohn Clayton Fant, A.M., '92, Emory and Henry Coll. ; Pd.M., '95, N. V. Univ.\n1896.\nSuperintendent of Schools, The Highlands, Meridian.\nW. I, Thames, Grad. N. Nor. Univ., A.B.\nPrincipal of High School, Poplarville.\nMISSOURI\nLIFE DIRECTORS\n\n1877.\n1886.\n\n187T.\n\nF. Louis Soldan, LL.D.,'83, South Carolina Univ.\n1895.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 3634 Flad Ave., St. Louis.\nJ. M. Greenwood, A.M., '73, Univ. of Missouri.\n1874. Superintendent of Schools, Room O, Public Library Building, Kansas City.\nlife members\nJames B. Merwin.\nEditor \" American School and College Jotimal,\" 3609 Palm St., St. Louis\n\n"}
{"page": 1098, "printed_page": null, "text": "I088\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Missouri\n\n1886. CHAiu.EsHBravEvAN8,A.M./78, William Jewell Coll., Litertv, Mo.\no\nr. r\n■\n1877.\nEditor of \"American College and Public School Directory,\" 915 Locust St., St. Louts.\nG. I. Harvey.\n\n1895.\n\n,\n\n^\n\n.\n\n,,\n\n^■\n\nPrincipal Switzer School, 2204Troost Ave., Kansas City,\n,\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n1887. Calvin Milton\n'60, Harvard\nUniv. ; Ph.D.,\n'84, Washington\nUniv.\n1870. Woodward,\nProfessor ofA.B.,\nMathematics\nand Applied\nMechanics;\n1879, Director\nManual Training\nSchool, Washington University, 3013 Hawthorne Boul., St. Louis. •\nJames U. White, B.S., '85, M.S.D.. Missouri State Nor..School.\n1892. Superintendent of City Schools, 410 Madison St., Jefferson City.\n1889. •George L. Osborne, A.M., '68, Waynesburg, Pa., Coll. ; LL.D., '85, Central Univ., Richmond, Ky.\n1875. President of State Normal School, 2d Dist., Warrensburg.\n1890. Mrs. Matilda Evans Riley.\n...\n1887. Director of Drawing. Public Schools, Board of Education Building, St. Louis.\n1891. John R. Kirk.\n1895. State Superintendent of Public Schools, Jefferson City.\nGeorge Thomas Murphy.\n_\n_\n.\n1890. Assistant Superintendent of Schools, 4946 Berlin Ave., St. Louis.\nF. D. Tharpe.\nX884. Principal of Webster School, ^216 Anderson Ave., Kansas City.\n1892. Richard Henry Jesse, LL.D., '91, Tulane Univ.\n189X. President of University of State of Missouri, Columbia.\nMary Clifton McCulloch.\n1880, Supervisor of Public Kindergartens, 3856 Washington Boul., St. Louis.\nFlorence McNeal.\n1896. Teacher in Public Schools, 310 E. loth St., Kansas City.\nC. W, ROBBINS.\n\nPresident, Central Business College, Massachusetts and 6th Sts., Sedalia.\n1893. James Underwood Barnard.\n1897. Principal of Webster School, 3038 E. 7th St., Kansas City.\nO. M. Wood.\n1883.\nPrincipal of L'Ouverture School, 3016 Caroline St., St. Louis.\n1894. George Victor Buchanan, A.M., '94, McKendree Coll., III.\n1893. Superintendent of Schools, 614 W. 7th St., Sedalia.\nEdwin D. Luckey, B.S.D., '87, State Normal School, Kirksville, Mo.\n1893. Principal Elleardville School, 1332 Union Boul., St. Louis.\nMrs. Mary V. Neet.\ni8q8.\nDirector of Study Hall, State Normal School, Warrensburg.\n1895. William H. Black, A.M.. '76, Waynesburg Coll. ; D.D., '88, Cumberland Univ.\n1889. President of Missouri Valley College, 312 College Ave., Marshall.\nIra I. Cammack, B.S., '84, Earlham Coll., Ind.\n1897. Vice -Principal Central High School, 528 Chestnut Ave., Kansas City.\nSarah Elizabeth Crouch.\n1890. Teacher in Longfellow School, 2910 Tracy Ave., Kansas City.\nArthur A. Dodd, M.S.D., '86, State Normal School, Warrensburg, Mo. ; B.S., '95, Harvard.\n1896.\nDir. of Math. Course, Man. Train. High School, 1203 Springfield Ave., Kansas City.\nMary Gilday.\nTeacher in Jefferson School, 1403 Wabash Ave., Kansas City.\nWilliam Henry Lynch, A.B., A.M., '68, Univ. of Missouri.\n1898. Superintendent of Public Schools, Mountain Grove.\nRichard C. Norton, A.M., LL.D.\n1893. Department of Didactics, State Normal School, Kirksville.\nJosephine Norville.\nChair of English, High School, 336 E, Webster St., Chillicothe.\nCharles B. Reynolds.\ni88i.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 321 Wabash Ave., Kansas City.\nLouis Theilmann, B.S., '85, M.S., \"90, Missouri Univ.\n1888. Associate Principal of Academy, Appleton City.\nMarie L. Turner.\n1891. Principal of Public School, Clayton,\nUniversity of the State of Missouri.\nPresident, R. H. Jesse ; Secretary, J. G. Babb ; Librarian. W. K. Stone, Columbia\nJohn A. Whiteford, M.S.D., '93, State Nor. Sch., Kirksville.\n1893.\nSuperintendent of City Schools, 835 W. Rollins St., Moberly.\n1896. Amelia C. Fruchte.\nFirst Assistant Normal and High School, 4296 Washington Ave., St. Louis,\nJosephine Heermans.\n1891. Principal Whittier School, 1803 E. 7th St., Kansas City.\nA, Isabel MuLFORD, A.M., Ph.D.\n1898. Teacher of Botany, High School, Missouri Botanical Gardens, St. Louis.\nOphelia A. Parrish.\n1896, Assist. Superintendent of Schools, 748 N. Main St., Springfield.\n1897. Z. R. AsHBAUGH, Grad., '72, Hillsdale Coll., Mich.\n1898.\nAgent for American Book Co., Midland Hotel, Kansas City.\nS. M. Barrett.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 423 N. Pleasant St., Independence.\nBenjamin Blewett, A.B., '76, A.M., '79, Washington Univ.\n1897. Assistant Superintendent of Schools, 9th and Locust Sts., St. Louis.\nJohn S. Collins, A.B.,\n'72, Divall\nUniv. of\nMiss. St. Louis; Kirkwood,\nPrincipal\nSchool,\nW. D. DoBSON, LL.D,\nPresident of State Normal School, 315 E. Jefferson St., Kirksville,\nR, S. Douglas.\n1896. Principal of High School, Maiden.\nGrace Geary.\n1896. Teacher in Superior Normal School, 1515 Campbell St., Kansas City.\n\n"}
{"page": 1099, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIFE AND\n\nNebraska]\n\nACTIVE MEMBERS\n\n1 089\n\nM ISSOU Rl - Continued\n1897. Peter Herzog.\n\nPrincipal Blair School, St. Louis.\nBenjamin F. Hoffman, A.M., '88, Univ..of Mo.\n1895.\nProfessor of German, University of Missouri, Columbia.\nG. B. LONGAN.\n1880.\nPrincipal of Schools, 1517 Michigan Ave., Kansas City.\nMrs. Sallib C. Maguire.\n1887. First Assistant, Lincoln School, 912 £. loth St., Kansas City.\nJohn S. McGhee, A.M.\nPresident State Normal School Board, Cape Girardeau.\n\nJame-; a. Merrill,Teacher\nB.S., '93,\nHarvard.Sciences, Manual Training School, Kansas City.\nof Natural\nSarah J. Milligan.\n1888. Principal of Public School, Webster Groves.\nAlex H. Noeu\n1883. Principal of Laclede School, 1518 S. Broadway, St. Louis.\nErmine Owen.\nTeacher in Normal School, Kirksville.\nH. W. Prentis.\n3968 W. Bell St., St. Louis.\nL. A. WiRiCK.\n1895. Superintendent of Schools, 313 Macon St., Brookfield.\n1898. G. W. Armstrong, B.S., '71, Eureka Coll., 111.\n1894.\nPrincipal of Bryant School, 3304 Lydia Ave., Kansas City.\nWilliam Prentice Evans, A.B., '84, Washington Univ.\n1893.\nPrincipal Lafayette School, 6437 Virginia Ave., St. Louis.\nGeorge Henrv Howe, Ph.B., '86, A.M.. '89, ill. Wes. Univ.\ni8q8.\nActing President State Normal School, 304 Tyler Ave., Warrensburg.\nIsaac H. Hughes, LL.B., '89, Cumberland Univ.; B.C., B.S., '95, Nat. Nor. Univ.;\nNor. Sch., New Mex. ; A.M., '97, Nat. Nor. Univ.\n1898.\nSuperintendent of Schools and Principal of High School, Bloomfield.\nG. W. Krall, B.S., Millersville Nor. Sch., Pa.\nTeacher, Manual Training School, St. Louis.\nWilliam Campbell Ridgeway.\n1898.\nPrincipal Scarritt School, 3035 E. 7th St., Kansas City.\nC. C. Thudium, A.m., M.S., O. Nor. Univ.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Hermann.\n\nPd.M., '97\n\nMONTANA\nlife member\nJ. E. Klock.\n1896. Superintendent of Schools, 703, 5th Ave., Helena.\nactive members\n1889.\nEverett E. Paxson.\n821 W. Granite St., Butte.\n1893. Oscar J. Craig, A.M., De Pauw Univ. ; Ph.D., Wooster Univ.\nPresident of Universi^^ of Montana, 318 W. sd St., Missoula.\n1895. James M. Hamilton, M.S., '90, Union Christian Coll.\n1889. Superintendent of Schools, Missoula.\nW. H. Johnson. A.M., '90, Univ. of Kansas.\n1896. Principal of High School, 819, 8th Ave., Helena\n\n1886.\n\nJames Reid, A.B. President\n'81, McGill\nColl.\nof Montana\nCollege of A. and M. Arts, Bozeman.\nCynthia Elizabeth Reiley.\nProfessor of Mathematics, University of Montana, Missoula.\nD. E. Sanders, A.M., '97, Kan. Nor. Coll.\n1897. President State Normal School, Dillon.\n1896. E. A. Stebre, B.S., '81, M.S., '95, Univ. of Wisconsin.\n1898. Superintendent of City Schools, Kalispell.\n1897. E. A. Carleton.\nState Superintendent of Public Instruction, Helena.\nMrs. M. S. Cummins, A. F. Seminary, Staunton, Va.\nEx-Professor of Modem Languages and Latin, Wesleyan University, Helena,\nFrank C. Patten.\nLibrarian, Public Library, Helena.\nMrs. Laura Zook.\nSuperintendent of Custer County, Miles City.\n1898. J. P. Hendricks.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 411 W. Quartz St., Butte.\nNEBRASKA\nufe\n1876.\n1880.\n1884.\n1886.\n\n1890.\n\nS. DeWitt\n\n,\n\nI\n\nmembers\n\nBeals.\n\nTeacher, and Librarian of High School, 3ii8 Davenport St., Omaha.\nMrs. Grace B. Sudborough.\n\n549 S. 36th Ave., Omaha.\n'\nCurry, A.B.,\n'48, A.M., '51, Jefferson Coll.; Ph.D., '73, Washington and Jefferson Coll.\nPalmyra.\nJ. H. Miller.\n1890. Editor and Publisher \" Northwestern Monthly,\" Lincoln.\nACTIVE members\nLizzie L. Banker.\n1890. Principal of Central Park School, 4736 N. 39th St., Omaha,\nRobert\n\n"}
{"page": 1100, "printed_page": null, "text": "lOQO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Nevada\n\nNEBRASKA— C<7«//«w<</\n' ^'\n' *\n1895.\n1802. W. K. Fowler.\niBqs.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, 508 City Hall, Omaha.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, Blair.\nA.B., '73, A.M., '76, Rochester Univ.\n1803. A. Wellington\n1898. Norton,\nChair of Pedagogy, Normal University, Lincoln.\n1894. D. C, O'Connor, A.B., '89, A.M., '93, Allegheny Coll., Meadville, Pa,\n1892.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Norfolk.\nAnna Tibbets.\n1892. Principal of Grammar School, 658 S. i^th St., Lincoln,\n1895. Charles Edwin Bessev, B.S., '69, M.S., '72, Mich. Agri. Coll. ; Ph.D., '79, Univ. of Iowa;\n'98, Iowa Coll. •\nor-..\n1884. Professor of Botany, the University of Nebraska, 1504 S St., Lincoln,\nEdwin J. Bodwell,Superintendent\nB.S.,'88, Dartmouth\nColl.Douglas Co., Court House, Omaha.\nof Schools,\nW. A. Clark, A.B., '72. A.M., '85, Pd.D., '94, National Normal Univ.\n1895. Psychology and History of Education, State Normal School, Peru.\nJames W. Crabtree, B.S., 90, Bloomfield Sci. Inst.\n1897.\nInspector of Nebraska High Schools, 1900 T St., Lincoln.\nIrwen Leviston, A.B., '82, A.M., '88, Dartmouth Coll.\n1896. Principal of High School, 312 N. 21st St., Omaha.\nG, W. A. Lockev, A.B., '94, Stanford Univ.\n1895.\nProfessor of Pedagogy, University of Nebraska, 1542 P St., Lincoln.\nJennie L. Redfield.\nPrincipal Lincoln School, 1826 N. i8th St., Omaha.\nA. A. Reed, A.B., Univ. of Neb.\n1893. Superintendent of Schools, Crete.\n*W. H. Skinner.\n1893. Superintendent of Schools, 319 N, nth St., Nebraska City.\nEmma Wheatlev.\nPrincipal Mason School, 2539 Capitol Ave., Omaha.\nKate M. Wickham.\nTeacher in Windsor School, 34th and Martha Sts., Omaha.\nWilliam J. Williams, B.S., '71, A.B., '71, A.M., '74, Denison Univ.\n1894. Superintendent of Schools, 510, 14th St., Columbus.\n1896. Howard Walter\nCaldwell,of Am.\nPh.B.,Hist,\n'80, and\nA.M.,\n'93, Univ.\nUniv. of\nof Neb.\n1892.\nProfessor\nCivics,\nNeb., 511 N. i6th St., Lincoln.\nH. E. Dawes, B.S., A.M., North Western Normal.\n1897. Superintendent of Nebraska School for the Deaf, Omaha.\nJ. G. Haupt.\n1898. Principal of Public Schools, Laurel.\nAlice E. Hitte.\nSupervisor of Drawing, 212 S. 25th St., Omaha.\nWilliam R. Jackson.\n1897. State Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1909 G St., Lincoln,\n\nX897.\n\n1898.\n\nJ, F. Savlor, B.S., '82, Iowa Agri. Coll.\n1895. Superintendent of City Schools, 1226 D St., Lincoln.\nA. H. Waterhouse.\n1896. Principal of High School, Grand Island.\nHarry Kirke Wolfe, A.B., '80, Univ. of Neb. ; A.M., Ph.D., '86, Leipzig.\n1898. Superintendent of Public Schools, South Omaha.\nS. P. Arnot.\n1896.\nSuperintendentof City Schools, Harvard.\nKate L. Brown.\n1896. Principal of Schools, 324 S. 26th St., Omaha.\nG. F. Burkett.\n1895. Superintendent of Schools, Schuyler.\nGeorge L. Farley.\nCounty Superintendent of Schools, Plattsmouth.\nAnna Foos.\nPrincipal of Schools, The Madison, Omaha.\nNora H. Lemon.\nPrincipal of Lothrop School, 1518 N. 26th St., Omaha.\nGeorge E. MacLean, A.B., A.M., LL.D., Williams; B.D., Yale; Ph.D., Leipzig.\n1895.\nChancellor, The University of Nebraska, Lincoln.\nUniversity of Omaha.\nPresident, David R. Kerr. Bellevue.\nHenry Baldwin Ward, A.B., '85, Williams; A.M., Ph.D., '92. Harvard.\n1893. Professor of Zoology, University of Nebraska, Lincoln.\nAllen C. Fling, A.B.,'94, .^.M., '98, Univ. of Neb.\n1898.\nSuperintendent of City Schools, 115 N. nth St., Nebraska City.\nJ. Irving Read, A.3.,\n'94, Dartmouth.\nInstructor\nin Latin and English, High School, 2615 Capitol Ave., Omaha.\nUniversity of Nebraska.\nChancellor, George Edwin MacLean; Librarian, J. O. Wyer, Jr., Lincoln.\nNEVADA\nactive members\n\n1895.\n\nWalter\n\nC. Gavhart, C.E.\n1894. Principal of High School and Public Schools, Austin.\n\nJ. E. Stubbs,1894.\nA.B.,President\n'73, A.M.,\n'76, D.D.,\n'90. of Nevada, Reno.\nof State\nUniversity\n\"■Died September, 1898.\n\nLL.D.\n\n"}
{"page": 1101, "printed_page": null, "text": "New Jersey]\n\n1876.\n\nLangdon\n\nLIFE\n\nAND\n\nACTIVE\nNEW\n\nJERSEY\n\nLIFE\n\nMEMBER\n\nMEMBERS\n\n1 09 1\n\nShook Thompson, A.M., '84, Marietta Coll., O, ; Pd.D., '91, Univ. of the City of New York.\n1889. Supervisor of Drawing, Public Schools ; 1893, Principal Metropolitan Normal Art\nSchool, la Park St., Jersey City.\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n1889. A. W. Moon,1897,\nA.B.,Principal\n'95, Indiana\nUniv. No. 2, Pleasantville.\nof School\n1890. Levi Seeley, A.M., '83. Williams Coll, ; Ph.D., '86, I^ipzig.\n1895. Professor of Pedagogy, State Normal School, 482 W. State St., Trenton.\n1891. Augustus Scarlett.\n1863. Principal of South 8th St. School, 56 S. nth St., Newark.\n1892. Sarah Y. Ely.\n1887.\nSupervisor in High and Grammar Departments of State Model School, 46 Carroll\nSt., Trenton.\nJambs M. Green, A.M., '84, Dickinson Coll. ; Ph.D., '90, 111. Wesleyan Univ.\n1889. Principal of State Norma! and Model Schools, Trenton.\nM. H. Kinsley. B.S., '88, St. Lawrence Univ.\n1895. Superintendent of Schools of Kearney, Belgrove Drive, Arlington.\nJane M. Lewis.\n1865. Principal of Primary School No. 8, 99 Mercer St., Jersey City.\nS. E. Manness, A.m., '96, Univ. of Tenn.\n1890. Supervising Principal ist District, 425 Chambers Ave., Camden.\nBrvon C. Mathews, A.B., '77, A.M., '92, Ph.D., '93, Syracuse Univ.\n1885. Instructor in Greek and Economics, High School, 36 Kearney St., Newark.\nHenry M. Maxson, A.M., '80, Amherst Coll.\n1892. Superintendent of Schools, 439 W. 6th St., Plainfield.\nAddison B. Poland, A.M., '76, Wes. Univ., donn. ; Ph.D., '90, Univ. of City of N. Y,\n1897. Superintendent of Schools, City Hall, Paterson.\nJames M. Ralston, A.M., '82, Dickinson Coll.\n1890. Superintendentof Schools, 707 Grand Ave., Asbury Park.\nEmily A. Rice, Pd.D., Albany Nor. Coll.\n32 Main St., Ocean Grove.\nRandall Sfaulding, A.B., '70, Yale.\n1874.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 14 Clinton Ave., Montclair.\nH. Brewster Willis.\n1886. Superintendent of Schools, Middlesex Co., 185 Livingston Ave., New Brunswick.\nWilliam E. Wright.\n1893. Principal of Franklin Public Schools, Nutley.\n1893. Martin LinnER Cox, Pd.M., '97, New York Univ.\n1893.\nCounty Superintendent of Schools, 4 Blackwell St., Dover.\nCharles M. Davis, A.B., '43, A.M., '45, Princeton.\n1891. Superintendent of Schools, 766 Avenue A, Bayonne.\nC. B. Gilbert.\n1896. Superintendent of Schools, City Hall, Newark.\nHbnry E. Harris.\n1870.\nPrincipal School No. i, 64 Trask Ave., Bayonne,\nLawrence C. Hull, A.B., '77, A.M., '97, Univ. of Mich.\n1887. Latin Master, Lawrenceville School, Lawrenceville.\nMiss S. M, Searle.\n1893. Principal Primary Department Public School No. 23, cor. Romaine and Pavonia\nAves., Jersey City.\nL. C. Wooley.\nPrincipal Tames Wood School, 136 E. Front St., Trenton.\n1894. William N. Barringer, A.M., Princeton ; Pd.D., Univ. of City of N. Y.\nSupervisor of Evening and Summer Schools, 1142 A. Broad St., Newark,\nRichako Case, A.M., '81, Brown Univ.\n1898. Superintendent of Schools, Point Pleasant.\nMary J. Donohoe.\n1895.\nPrincipal School No. ^, 33 Dodge St., Bayonne.\nBenjamin C. Gregory, A.B., Coll. of City of New York.\n~\n1888. Supervising Principal of Schools, 54 Chestnut Ave., Trenton.\nAnna J. Guden.\n1892. Assistant, School No. 4, 202 Avenue D, Bayonne.\nJ. F. D. Heineken. _\n1894. Principal No. i. Public Schools, Sayreville, Middlesex Co.\nGaius Hoffman.\n1881.\nPrincipal of Schools, Bound Brook.\nWilliam C. Ingalls, A.B., '84, A.M., '87, Brown Univ.\n1894.\nPrincipal Park Ave. Scnool, 160 Orient Way, Rutherford.\nCarl F. Kayser, Ph.D., '92, Univ. of City of New York.\n1897. First Assistant, Boys' High School, New York city; 21, 9th Ave., Newark.\nJambs Wilmer Kennedy.\n1889. Principal Miller Street Grammar School, 3 Emmett St., Newark.\nMiss H. S. Leslie.\n1885. Principal of Public Schools, Box 26, Blackwood, Camden Co.\nN. W. Pease.\n1867.\nPrincipal of Grammar School No. 2, 31 Morrell St., Elizabeth.\nJ. Albert wareReinhart,\nA.M., '77, Ph.D., '81, Syracuse Univ.; Ph.B., '76, A.M., '77, Ph.D., '81, DelaColl.\n1897, Principal of High School, 504 E, 27th St., Paterson.\nGeorge G. Ryan, A.B., '74, A.NI., '77. Middlebury Coll., Vt.\n1891. Superintendent of Schools, 71 Paterson St., New Brunswick.\n\n"}
{"page": 1102, "printed_page": null, "text": "1092\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nNEW\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[New Mexico\n\nJERSEY— Co«/»««<rf\n\nE. H. Schuyler, A.M., '92> Princeton Coll.\n1804\n^\nX884. Professor of Mathematics, Dr. Julius Sachs Collegiate Institute, 38 W. sgth St.\nNew York city; res., Hawortn.\nFrank H. Scobev.\n..,.\no\nxt\n101., t^\n1884.\nInstructor in Arithmetic and Algebra, State Normal school, Irenton,\nA.M., '88 Lafayette Coll.\nHenrySnyder,A.B.,'78,\n1892.\nSuperintendent of Public Schools, City Hall, Jersey City,\nMargaret I. Wade.\nTeacher of Mathematics, High School, 701 Grand Ave., Asbury Park.\n180S.\n\nWilson Farrand,\nA.B., '86, Master\nA.M., '89,\nPrinceton.\n1889. Associate\nNewark\nAcademy, 544 „High, r.\nSt., ^.\nNewark.\nAda Van Stone Harris.\n.\n.\n„,,.„,,,,\n1807. Supervisor of Primary Instruction, Public schools, Newark.\nLinn Marie Hawn.\n. c\n^\n1896. Superintendent of Music, Public Schools, 152 Mam St., East Orange.\nRobert Mezger, Graduate of the Univ. of Heidelberg, '90.\n1897. Instructor in German, High School, 295 Garside St., Newark.\n\nW. J. Shearer,\n'87, A.M., '90,\nDickinson\nColl.of Elizabeth and County of Union, 470 Monroe\n1895.A.B.,\nSuperintendent\nof Schools\nof City\nAve., Elizabeth.\n1896. Charles J. Baxter.\n1896. State Superintendent of Public Instruction, 930 Putnam Ave., Plainfield.\nMrs. Lvdia A. Bennett.\nPrincipal of School No. 2, Rideefield Park Township, Leonia, Bergen County.\nH. B. BoiCE, M.D., '88, Univ. Med. Sch., New York city.\n1891. State Normal School, 37 Southard St., Trenton.\nMrs. Orrell F. Elwell.\n1876. Teacher of Grammar School, 119 S, Stockton St., Trenton.\nD. H. Farley.\nTeacher in State Normal School, 119 S. Stockton St., Trenton.\nE. R. Johnstone.\n1898. Vice -Principal N. J. Training School for Feeble-Minded, Vineland.\nEdwin C. Merrill.\nPublisher, Maynard, Merrill & Co., 29-33 E. 19th St., New York;\nresidence, East\nOrange.\nF. E. Spaulding, A.B,, '89, Amherst; Ph.D., '94, Univ. of Leipzig.\n1897.\nSuperintendent of City Schools, 54 High St., Passaic.\nMiss M. J. B. Thomas, Pd.M., '93, N. Y. Univ.\n1889.\nPrincipal of High School, 425 Ave. E, Bayonne City.\nAlbert H. Wilson.\n1892. Principal of Elmwood School, iii Chestnut St., East Orange.\n1897. Margaret Bancroft.\nPrincipal Haddonfield Training School, The Lindens, Haddonfield.\nMiss Jean Cox.\nPrincipal Haddonfield TrainingjSchool, The Lindens, Haddonfield.\nAnna M. Fell, M.E.L., Pennington Seminary.\n892. Principal of Cadwalader Scho\n1892.\nSchool, 304 W. State St., Trenton.\nFree Public Library of Jersey City.\nLibrarian, E. E. Burdick, Jersey City.\nSarah Stubbs James.\n1896. Teacher, Montclair; Upper Montclair.\nMary A. Lyon.\nP. O. Box 352, Boonton.\nAndrew J. Rider.\nPresident Rider Business College, Ribsam Bldg., Trenton.\nE. K. Sexton, Pd.M., '92, New York Univ.\nPrincipal of Ann St. School, 64 Ninth Ave., Newark.\nState Normal School at Trenton.\nPresident, J. M. Green, Trenton.\nIra Winthrop Travell, A.B., 'go, Williams Coll.\n1893. Principal of High School, 815 College Place, Plainfield.\n• Thyrza C. Williams.\nAssociate Principal Haddonfield Training School, The Lindens, Haddonfield.\n1898, S. V. Arrowsmith.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 97 Maple Ave., Red Bank.\nArthur Grant Balcom.\nPrincipal Franklin School, 167 Prospect Ave., Newark.\nS. Olin Garrison, A.M., Wes. Univ., Middletown, Conn.\nPrincipal of the New Jersey Training School for Feeble-Minded Children, Vineland.\nPhoebus W. Lyon, A.M., Princeton.\nPrincipal West Jersey Academy, Bridgeton.\nClaude L. West.\n1897. Principal of Elementary School, 478 Ellison St., Paterson.\nNEW\n\nMEXICO\n\nactive members\nT891.\n\nHiram Hadley, A.M.\n1894. Vice-President, in charge of University of New Mexico, 321 S. Walter\nSt„\nAlbuquerque.\nARENCE T. Hagerty, B.S., '90, M.S., '95, Notre Dame Univ., Ind.\n1891.\nProfessor of Mathematics in New Mexico College of Agriculture and Mechanical\nArts, Las Cruces.\n\n"}
{"page": 1103, "printed_page": null, "text": "New York]\n\nLIFE\n\nAND\nNEW\n\n1895.\n\n1897.\n\nACTIVE\n\nUYXiZO— Continued\n\nE. Hodgin, Grad., '81, Ind. St. Nor, ; B.Pd., '93, Univ. of N. Mex.\n1897. Principal of Normal Department, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque.\nMrs. Elizabeth R. Jackson.\n1893. Member of Examining Board, Grant County, Silver City.\nC. M. Light, Ph.D.. Univ. of City of N. Y.\n1896.\nPrincipal of Normal School of New Mexico, Silver City.\nJambs Auhkus Wood, A.B., '77, A.M., '80.\n1898. Principal Las Vegas Business College, East Las Vegas.\nNEW\n\n1885.\n\n1093\n\nCharles\n\nLIFE\n\n1880.\n\nMEMBERS\n\nYORK\nDIRECTORS\n\nAlbert Prescott Marble, A.M., '63, Ph.D., '83, Colby Univ., Me.\n1896.\nAssociate Superintendent of Schools, 146 Grand St., New York.\nNicholas Murray Bittler, A.B., '82, Ph.D., '84, Columbia Coll. _\n1889. Professor of Philosophy and Education, Columbia University, 119 E. 30th St., New\nYork.\nEzEKiAL Hanson\nrence Univ.\nCaleb G. Hall.\n\n1890. Charles\n\nCook, A.B., '66, A.M., '68, Bowdoin Coll. ; Ph.D., '89, Colgate Univ. and St. Law33 Livingston Ave., Yonkers.\n\nNew Berlin.\nR. Skinner, A.M., Hamilton Coll. ; LL.D,, Colgate Univ.\n1895. State Superintendent of Public Instruction, 453 State St., Albany.\nLIFE members\n\n1857.\n\nJames Cruikshank, LL.D., '62.\n1875.\nPrincipal of Grammar School No. 12, and Evening High School, Secretary of\nCouncil of Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences, 206 S. Oxford St., Brooklyn.\n1870. OuvBR Cromwell Arev, A.M., '65, Union Coll.\n229 Averill Ave., Rochester.\n1871. John Jacob Anderson, A.M., '67, Rutgers Coll. ; Ph.D., '76, New York Univ.\nAuthor of School Histories and Historical Readers, 343 Adelphi St., Brooklyn.\n\n1876.\n\nCharles C. Rounds, B.S., '57, M'.S., '60, Dartmouth Coll.; A.M., Bowdoin Coll. and Waterville\nColl. ; Ph.D.,\nColl.Instructor\n'\n1896. Bates\nInstitute\nand Lecturer, 256 W. looth St., New York.\n\n1882.\n\nJosephine E. Hodgdon, Pd.M., '91, Univ. of City of New York.\n1898.\nPrincipal of Primary School No. no, 80 Willoughby St., Brooklyn.\nMenco Stern.\n1879.\n\n1884. Mrs. Georgiana\n\nProfessor of German Language and Literature, Stem's School of Language, 37 E\n44th St., New York.\nVan Aken.\n\n1858. Principal of Day School, Ladies' Home Mission, 63 Park St., New York.\nHunter, A.M., '66, Columbia Coll. ; Ph.D., '77, Williams Coll. ; LL.D.. N. Y. Univ.\n1869. -President of Normal College, Park Ave. and 68th St., New York.\n1891. Mrs. M. J. B. Wylie.\n261 Hampshire St., Buffalo.\n1893. University of State of New York.\nSecretary, Melvil Dewey, Albany.\n1885. Thomas\n\nactive members\nS. Goodnough.\n1890. Director of Drawing, Borough of Brooklyn, 267a Lewis Ave., Brooklyn.\n1884.\nEdward N. Jones, A.B., A.M., Ph.D., Hamilton Coll.\n1898.\nThe New York Traming School^ for Teachers, Henry and Oliver Sts., New York\ncity; res., 50 Church St., White Plains.\n1886. Charles L, Patton.\nUniversity Publishing Co.. 43 E. loth St., New York.\n1887. Loins H. Galbreath, B.L., \"oo, Cornell Univ.\n1898.\nFellow in Teachers' College, Columbia University, 528 W. 123d St., New York.\nGussiE Power.\n1882.\n\nWalter\n\n1889.\n\nCharles\n\n1800.\n\n1880.\nTeacher, 535 Warren St., Hudson.\nDeGarmo, Ph.D., 'i86, Halle.\n1898.\nProfessor of Science andJArt of Education, Cornell University, Ithaca.\nT. F. Kane, A.B.. '92, Cornell Univ.\n1898.\nPrincipal of High School, East Aurora.\nGratia L. Rice.\n1892.\nState Director of Drawing, P. O. Box 321, Buffalo.\nC. W. Bardben, A.B., '69, Yale.\n1874. Editor of \" School Bulletin,\" 406 S. Franklin St., Syracuse.\nA. B. Blodgett.\n\n1889.\nSuperintendent of School, 127 Burnet Ave., Syracuse.\nJohn T. Buchanan, A.B., '72, A.M., '74, Central Coll.\n1897. Principal of \"Boys' High School, New York city, 592 Greene Ave., Brooklyn.\nJohn W. Chandler, Ph.D., '77, Univ. of State of New York.\n1894. Superintendent of Schools, Ellenville.\nEdward D. Farrell, A.M., '67, Coll. of the City of New York.\n1889.\nAssistant Superintendent of Schools, 163 E. 124th St., New York.\nMary A. Fleming.\n1878. Teacher in Grammar School No. 13, 13 W. Chippewa St., Buffalo.\nAmos M. Kellogg, A.M., '57, Hamilton Coll.\nEditor of \" School Journal,\" 61 E. 9th St., New York.\nJames M. Milne. A.M.. '83, Rochester Univ. ; Ph.D., '85, Colgate Univ.\n{888.\nPrincipal State Normal School, Oneonta.\n\n•\n\n"}
{"page": 1104, "printed_page": null, "text": "I094\n\ni8go.\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[New York\n\nA.M., '63, Ph.D., '79, Univ. of Rochester.\nA.B., '58,\nPalmef,Principal\nFrancis B. 1878.\nof State Normal School, Central Ave., Fredonia.\nCharles B. Scott, Instructor\nA.M., '87,inRutgers\nNature Coll.\nStudy Methods, Geology, and Geography, State Nor. School,\nOswego.\n\nIsaac H. Stout, A.M., '88, Hobart Coll.\n1887. State Conductor of Teachers' Institutes, 58 Genesee St., Geneva.\n1891. Vincent Aldridge, A.M., '81, Syracuse.\n1889. Teacher of Mathematics, Boys' High School, z6 Clarkson St., Brooklyn.\nFrancis John Cheney, A.B., '72, A.M., '75, Ph.D., '89, Syracuse Univ.\n1892.\nPrincipal of State Normal School, 45 Church St., Cortland.\nA. S. Downing, A.M., Pennsylvania Coll.\n,\n1898. Principal Training School for Teachers, Boroughs of Manhattan and the Broux,\nHenry and Oliver Sts., New York.\nMatthew J. Elgas, A.B., '62, A.M., '63, Montreal Coll. ; Ph.D., '69, St. Johns Coll.\n1896. Associate Superintendent of Public Schools, 121 W. 87tn St., New York.\nHarlan P. French, A.B.,'68, A.M., '71, Amherst Coll.\nAlbany.\n1895. Member\nBoard\nof Education, Manager Albany Teachers' Agency, 24 State St.,\nGeorge D. Hale, A.B., '70, A.M., '73, Univ. of Rochester.\n1871.\nPrincipal of Hale's Classical and Scientific School, 409 Lake Ave., Rochester.\nOssiAN H. Lang.\n1895. Managing\nEditor\" School Journal \" and \" Educational Foundations,\" 61 E.9th St.,\nNew York.\nM. Leipziger, A.M., Coll. of City of N. Y. ; Ph.D., Columbia Coll.\n1896. Supervisor of Free Lectures, New York, 324 E. 50th St., New York.\nAlbert Leonard, A.B., '88, A.M., '91, Ohio Univ. ; Ph.D.. '94, Hamilton Coll.\n1897. Dean of College of Liberal Arts and Professor of Pedagogy, Syracuse University\nSyracuse.\nJohn M. Milne, A.M., '79, Rochester Univ. ; Ph.D., '90, Univ. of State of N. Y.\n1889.\nPrincipal of State Normal School, Geneseo.\nAlexander A. Munro, A.B., '84, Univ. of Neb.\n989 Amsterdam Ave., New York.\nThomas B. Stowell, A.M., '65, Genesee Coll. ; Ph.D., '8' Syracuse Univ.\n1889.\nPrincipal of State Normal and Training School, 6 Le Roy St., Potsdam.\n1892. Thomas O. Baker, A.M., '92, Ph.D., Univ. of City of New York.\n1895.\nPrincipal of High School, Yonkers.\nElias J. Beardslev, C.E., A.B., '55; A.M., Union Coll.\n1889.\nSuperintendent of Schools, City Hall, Lake and Church Sts., Elmira.\nEmmet Belknap, A.B., '80, A.M., '83, Marietta Coll.\n1889.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 206 East Ave., Lockport.\nW. H. Benedict, A.B., '75, A.M., '78, Hamilton Coll.\n1889. Principal School No. 8, 508 W. 3d St., Elmira.\nA. Hall Burdick.\n1898. Principal of Public School No. 14, and High School, 4 Harrison St., Stapleton.\nCharles W. Cole, A.B., A.M., Ph.D., Hamilton Coll.\n1878.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 354 Hudson Ave., Albany.\nMelvil Dewey, A.B., '74, A.M., '77, Amherst.\n1888.\nSecretary of University of State of New York, RM;ents' Office, Albany.\nWilliam B. Friedberg, B.S., '73, Coll. of New York; LL.B., '77, Columbia Law School.\n1890. Principal of Grammar School No. 95, 21-23 E. 125th St., New York.\nWilliam B. Harison.\nEducational Publisher, 3 and 5 W. 18th St., New York.\nH. E. Hayes.\n1890.\nManager Educational Department, D. Appleton & Co., Publishers, 72, 5th Ave.,\nNew York.\nMary F. Hyde.\nHenry\n\nAuthor of \"Lessons in English,\" 208 Main St., Binghamton.\nJames Lee, M.D., '86, \" The Univ. and Bellevue Hospital Medical Coll.\"\n1892.\nAssociate Superintendent of Schools, 235 E. 124th St., New York.\nWilliam H. Maxwell, A.B., '72, A.M., '74, Queen's Univ., Ireland.\nSuperintendent of Public Instruction, 131 Livingston St., Brooklyn.\nWilliam J. Milne, Ph.D., Rochester Univ. ; LL.D., DePauw Univ.\nPresident State Normal College, 94 Willett St., Albany.\nR. V. K. Montfort, M.D., '56, Albany Med. Coll.\n1859.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 22 Montgomery St., Newburgh.\nS. S. Packard.\nPresident of Packard's Business College, loi E. 23d St., New York.\nOscar D. Robinson, Ph.D., '87, Dartmouth Coll.\n1886.\nPrincipal of High School, 501 State St., Albany.\nHenry Talbot.\n1897.\nSpecial Teacher of Manual Training, Public Schools, 244 W. 14th St., New York.\n'\n1893.\n\nJames Winne,\n^-jp, Hamilton\nColl.\n1886. A.M.,\nPrincipal\nof High School,\n30 Hooker Ave.. Poughkeepsie.\nHenry P. Emerson. A.B., A.M., Univ. of Rochester.\nSuperintendent of Education, 122 College St., Buffalo,\nJohn Arthur Greene.\n1896.\nManager American Book Co., 100 Washington Square, New York.\nGeorge Griffith, A.B., '77, Hamilton Coll.; Ph.D., '93, 111. Wesleyan.\n1892.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 40 Jewett Place, Utica,\nMary F. Hall.\nEx-Supervisor of Primary Work, Milwaukee, Wis. ; Spencer.\nJenny B. Merrill, Pd.D., '92, New York Univ.\n1896.\nSupervisor of Kindergartens, Boroughs of Manhattan and the Bronx, 112 E. 8ist St.\nNew York.\nJosephine E. Rogers. _\nPrincipal of Public School No, 75, 25 Norfolk St,, New York,\n\n"}
{"page": 1105, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIFE AND\n\nNew York]\n\n1893. Edward\nArthur\n\nACTIVE MEMBERS\n\nRichard Shaw, B.L., '78, Del. Coll. ; Ph.B., '81, Lafayette Coll. ; Ph.D., '90. N. Y. Univ.\n1894.\nDean of School of Pedagogy, NeV York University, University Building, Washington Sq., New York.\nMerrill Wright, A.B., '72, A.M., '80, Hamilton Coll.\nSupervisor,\nBureau of. Compulsory Education, Department of Public Instruction\nWatervillc.\n\n1894. J. W. Babcock, A.B.,'78, ComellUniv.\n1881. Superintendent of Schools, 627 Washington Ave., Dunkirk.\nFrank D. Beattys, A.B., '85, A.M., '88, Weslcyan Univ.\nManager, Silver, Burdette & Co., 29-33 E- ^9'^ St., New York.\nMrs. B. Ellen Burke.\n1895. Exiucational Lecture Bureau, 91, 5th St., New York,\nFrancis R. Clair.\n1893.\nSchool Commissioner, Queens County, College Point.\nCHARms Nkwbll Cobb, A.B. '77, and A.M., '80, Syracuse Univ.\n1893.\nInspector of University of State of New York, 26 N. Pine Ave., Albany.\nFlorence Browning Himes.\n1894. State Instructor in Drawing, 126 Chestnut St., Albany.\nLogan D. Howell, A.B., '89, Univ. of N. C.\n1898. Teacher of English, Bronx High School, 157th St. and 3d Ave., New York.\nRichard Jones, A.M., '81, Iowa Coll. ; Ph.D., '93. Heidelberg, Germany.\n1898. Professor\nof Literature, Syracuse\nUniversity, 604 University Ave., Syracuse.\nCynthia Lagomarsino.\nTeacher in Ladies' Home Mission School, 63 Park St., New York.\nWilliam A. 1884.\nMackev.\n1898.\nPrincipal Grammar School No, 35, 43 Vernon St., Buffalo.\nCharles E. Merrill.\nEducational Publisher, 29-31 E. 19th St., New York.\nFrederick Monteser, Ph.D., '85, Univ. of Vienna, Austria; Pd.D., '93, N. Y. Univ.\n1893. Lecturer,\nPedagogy,\nNew Station,\nYork University;\nSchool,School\nNew of\nYork\ncity; Caryl\nYonkers. 1897, Teacher in Boys' High\nMrs. Agnes O'Brien.\nPrincipal School No. 151, 91st St. and 1st Ave.,*New York.\nW. F. O'Callaghan, A.B., Harvard Univ.\n1894. First Assistant Grammar No. 29, Washington and Albany Sts., New York.\nGeorge A. Plimpton.\nPublisher, 70, sth Ave., New York.\nHester A. Roberts.\n1886.\nPrincipal of Primary Department No. 10, 149 W. 128th St., New York.\nEdgar O. Silver, A.B., '83, A.M., '86, Brown Univ.\nPublisher,\nPresident of the Corporation Silver, Burdette & Co., 29-33 E. 19th St.\nNew York.\nJoseph S. Taylor, Pd.D., '92, New York Univ.\n1885. Principal Public School No. 19, Sedgwick Park, Fordham Heights, New York.\nMartha Van Rensselaer.\n1894. School Commissioner, Second District, Cattaraugus Co., Randolph.\n1895. H. T. Ambrose.\nBook publisher, Washington Square, New York.\nIda C. Bender,M.D., '90, Univ. of Buffalo (Med. Dept.).\n1893.\nSupervisor of Primary Grades, 731 EllicottiSt., Buffalo.\nN. L. Benham.\n1890. Sui>erintendent of Schools, 539, 4th St., Niagara Falls.\nC. C. Birchard.\nAgent American Book Co., 100 Washington Square, New York.\nAnnie M. Bissell.\n1882. Assistant Grammar School No. 6a, 265 Alexander Ave., New York.\nColumbia University.\nPresident, Dr. Seth Low ; Secretary, W. H. H. Beebe, New York.\nFannie S. Comings.\n1893. Principal Primary Department, Grammar School No. 77, 42 Macon St., Brooklyn.\nJuuA Ettie Crane.\no\nTeacher of Vocal Music, State Nrmal School, and Director of Crane Normal Institute of Music, 91 Main St., Potsdam.\nJohn W. Davis.\n1886. Public School No. 81, Bedford Park, New York.\nH. T. Dawson, A.B., '82, 111. Wesleyan Univ.\n43 E. loth St., New York.\nGeorge W. 1881.\nFrench,\nLL.B.,of'78,\nColumbia\nPnncipal\nPublic\nSchools,Coll.\nJamaica Ave., opp. Enfield St., Brooklyn.\nMrs. Anna Eggleston Friedman.\n1898.\nInstructor in Primary Work, Teachers' Institutes, 45 Wadsworth St., Buffalo.\nRuFUS Henry Halsev, A.B., '77, Williams Coll.\n1896. Superintendent of Schools, 228 Main St., Binghamton.\nEdward Havward, Ph.D., '00. Union Coll.\n1892. Principal of High School, 177 Genesee St., Lockport.\nWelland Hbndrick, A.B., '80, A.M., '83, Colgate Univ.\n1898. Assistant Principal, New York Training School for Teachers, 85 W. iiSth St.,\nNew York.\nWalter\n\nL, Hervey, A.B., A.M., Ph.D., '93, Princeton.\n1898.\nExaminer of Board of Education, 146 Grand St., New York.\n\nSamuel\nWiLBER\n\nB. 1865.\nHowe, Superintendent\nA.M., '65, Ph.D.,\n'87, Union\nof Schools,\n615 Coll.\nUnion St., Schenectady.\nW. Howe.\n1891. Superintendent of Schools, Whitehall.\n\nMrs. Sara D. Jenkins.\n\n1895. Teacher\nof English, High School, Editor of \"Popular Educator,\" 3 Huestis St.\nIthaca.\n\n"}
{"page": 1106, "printed_page": null, "text": "1096\n1895.\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[New York\n\nThomas R. Knkil, A.B., '75, A.M., V8, Wesleyan Univ., Middletown, Conn.\n1893. Superintendent of Schools, High School Building, Saratoga Springs.\nLouise M. Lapey.\nDepartment Principal of School No. 16, 731 Ellicott St., Buffalo.\nCharles D. Larkins, Ph.B., '81, Alfred Univ.\n1893. Principal of Manual Training High School, 76 Court St., Brooklyn.\nSethPrinceton.\nLow, LL.D., '89, Amherst; '90, Univ. of State of N. Y., Univ. of Pa., Harvard, Trinity; '96,\n1889. President of Columbia University, New York.\nKate Palmer Macdona.\nPrincipal's Assistant in Public School No. 6, Hunt's Point, Station R, New York.\nJ. MiLFORD McKEE.Ph.B., '95. 111. Wesleyan Univ.\n1891. Ph.D;,\nPrincipalJena.\nof^ Union School, Silver Creek.\nF. M. McMuRRV,\n1898.\nH. D. Newson.\n\nProfessor of Theory and Practice of Teaching, Teachers' College, Columbia University, New York.\n\nManager Educational Department, Harper Bros., Franklin Square, New York.\nV. V. Raymond, A.B., '75, D.D., '86, Union Coll. ; LL.D., '94, Williams Coll.\n1894. President of Union College, College Hill, Schenectady.\nJ, M. Rice, M.D., '81, Coll. of Phys. and Sur., New York.\nEducational Writer, EUlitor of the \" Forum,\" 1245 Madison Ave., New York.\nRoviLLUs R. Rogers, A.B., Oberlin Coll.\n1890. Superintendent of Schools, 627 E. 6th St., Jamestown.\nJames E. Russell, A.B., '87, Cornell ; Ph.D., '94, Leipzig.\n1898.\nDean of Teachers' College, Columbia University, 120th St. W., New York.\nHenry R. Sanford,State\nA.M.,\n'64, Genesee\nColl.Penn\n; A.M.,\nInstitute\nConductor,\nYan.'73, Syracuse Univ. ; Ph.D., '94, Union Coll.\nAlfred T. Schauffler, A.B., '65, A.M., '68, Williams.\n1898. Associate Superintendent of Schools, Boroughs of Manhattan and the Bronx, New\nYork city; 23 Woodland Ave., New Rochelle.\nJane A. Schermerhorn.\n1889.\nKindergartner in Union Free School, Hillside Ave., White Plains.\nHenry G. Schneider, B.S., '87, Coll. City of New York.\nThird Assistant Grammar School No. 90, 610 W. 47th St., New York.\nS. R. Shear.\nAndrew\n\n1897. Superintendent of Schools, 23 Court St., White Plains.\nHerbert J. Smith,Oswego.\nA.B., '88, A.M., '91, Colgate Univ.\nJ. Mace Smith, B.S., '82, Michigan Agri. Coll.\n1897. Principal of St. John Ave. School, 122 LeRoy St., Binghamton.\nStevens, Jr., B.S., '88, Coll. City of New York.\n1898. Assistant Principal Public School No. 81, 2126 Washington Ave., New York.\nJohn H. Walsh, A.B., '73, A.M., '89, Georgetown Coll., D. C. ; LL.B.. '80, Columbia Coll.\n1889. Associate Superintendent of Public Instruction, 39, 3d Place, Brooklyn.\nFrank E. Welles, Ph.B., '86, A.M., '92, Ph.D., '97, III. Wesleyan Univ.\n1889. Professor of Latin and Greek, State Normal School, Geneseo.\nCharles F. Wheelock. B.S., '73, Cornell Univ.\n1891. Head Inspector, University State of New York, Canaioharie.\nJ.S.Adams.\nAgent for Ginn & Co., 70, sth Ave., New York.\nMrs. Amelia D. Alden, Graduate, '68, State Nor. Sch., Albany, N. Y.\n1895. Vice-Principal Westerleigh Collegiate Institute, West New Brighton.\nMrs. Fannie Schwedler Barnes.\nPlowdon\n\n1896.\n\nEditor of \" The Mother's Voice,\" 141 W. 24th St., New York.\nJohn Elmer Brandegee, B.A., '74, Trinity.\n1896. Member of School Board, 30 Geneva St., Utica.\nE. N. Bristol.\nBook Publisher, 29 W. 23d St., New York.\nKate G. Broderick.\ni88t.\nPrincipal of Public School No. 76, E. 68th St., New York.\nFrank S. Capen, A.B., '68, A.M., '71, Rochester Univ. ; Ph.D., '87, Colgate Univ.\nPrincipal State Normal School, New Paltz.\nEugene C. Colby.\n1885. Principal\nRochester Athenseum and Mechanics' Institute, 38 S. Washington St.\nRochester.\nLe Roy C. Cooley, A.M., Ph.D.\n1874.\nProfessor of Physics, Vassar College, 2 Reservoir Sq., Poughkeepsie.\nCornell University Library.\nPresident, J. G. Schurman ; Librarian, George W. Harris, Ithaca.\nHenry M. Crist.\nManager New York Office; Milton Bradley Co., 11 E. i6th St., New York.\nBOOTHE\nUniv. CoLWELL Davis, A.B., '90, A.M., '93, AHred Univ. ; B.D., '93, Yale; Ph.D., '96, Nat. Nor.\n1895. President Alfred University, 8 Terrace St., Alfred.\nS. Davis.\n1888.\nAssociate Superintendent of Schools, 146 Grand St., New York.\nWilliam R. Eastman, A.B., Yale; B.S., Univ. of N. Y.\nInspector of Pub. Libraries, Univ. of State of New York, State Library, Albany.\nA. W. Edson, A.B., '78, A.M., '81, Dartmouth Coll.\n1897. Associate Superintendent of Schools, 146 Grand St., New York.\nElla C. Elder.\n1892, Superintendent of Buffalo Free Kindergarten Assoc, 86 Delaware Ave., Buffalo.\nHenry W. Ellsworth, Grad. Fredonia Acad., N. Y.\nAuthor and Publisher of Schoolbooks, 127 Duane St., New York.\nJames A. Estee, A.M., Alfred Univ.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 17 Marshall Ave., Gloversville.\nGeorge\n\n"}
{"page": 1107, "printed_page": null, "text": "New York]\n1896.\n\nLIFE\n\nAND\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n1097\n\nMrs. E. D. Farrell.\n163 E. ia4th St., New York.\nFsnton.\nAgent American Book Co., Broadalbin, Fulton Co,\nCharles E. Gorton.\n1883. Superintendent of Schools, 55 Hawthorne Ave., Yonkers.\nElbert W. Griffith, Ph.B., 111. Wes. Univ. ; A.M., Wes. Univ., Conn.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 94 E. Main St., Norwich.\nWalter B. Gunnison, A.B., '7s. A.M., '78, Ph.D., '93.\nPrincipal Erasmus Hall Hig^h School, Flatbush Ave., Brooklyn.\nAlfred Hallam.\nSuperintendent of Music, 116 N. 9th Ave., Mt. Vernon,\nMary E. Harris\n1895. Principal of Intermediate Department, State Normal School, New Paltz.\nCaroline T. Haven.\n1884. Principal Kindergarten Department, Ethical Culture Schools, 109 W. 54th St., New\nYork.\nFrances C. Haves.\n1898. Supervisor\nYork city; residence.\nFlushing.of Kindergartens, Borough of Queens, New\nGborgb\n\nF. J. Heiermanm.\nPrefect of Studies, Canisius College, 65T Washington St., Buffalo.\nWilliam\nC. 1897.\nHess, Principal\nB.S,, '67,ofM.S.,\n'71,School\nColl. ofNo.\nCity30,of and\nN. Y.(1896) Principal East Side Evening High\n,\nPublic\nSchool, 439 E, ix8th St., New York,\nW, D, Hewes.\n1893. Principal of High School, Shortsville,\nJ, W. Jenks, Ph.D.. '85, Halle.\n1891. Professor of Political Science, Cornell University, Ithaca.\nL. C, JiTOD, B.S.\nAgent Ginn & Co., 70, 5th Ave., New York.\nAlphbus B. Kenvon, B.S., '74, M.S., '77, Alfred Univ.\n1874. Professor\nAlfred.of Mathematics and (1891) Registrar of Alfred Univ., 33 S. Main St.,\nRoland\n\nS. Keyser, A. B., '72. Ph.D., '81, Syracuse Univ.\n1898.\nDepartment of English, Normal School, Jamaica.\nMrs. Maria Kraus-Boelt^.\n1873. Principal of Kraus Seminary for Kindergartners, Hotel San Remo, Central Park,\nWest, New York.\nCharles E. Lawton.\n1889.\nPrincipal of Central Grammar School, 7 Franklin St., Auburn.\nLouise A. Lounsberry.\n1896. Teacher of Music and Drawing, St. Johnsville.\nThomas B. Lovell, A.B., '62, A.M., '65, Univ. of Rochester.\n1892. Principal of High School, 1018 South Ave., Sta. A, Niagara Falls.\nHoward Lyon, M.S., '00, Lafayette; A.B., '93, Harvard.\n1893. Teacher of Science, State Normal School, 35 Cedar St., Oneonta.\nMary A. Magovern.\n1876.\nHead of Department, Public School No. 8, 29 King St., New York.\nNathalie Mankell, Graduate Central Royal Institute, Sweden.\nTeacher in Gymnastics Id Franklin School, 85 Mariner St., Buffalo.\nJ. Edman\n\nMassee, A.B., '73, A.M., '76, Hamilton Coll.\n1897. Superintendent of City Schools, 145, i6th St., Watervliet.\nM. Mavcock, M.P., Syracuse Univ., '75.\nTeacher in State Normal School, 220 Jersey St., Buffalo..\nClarence E. Melenev, A.B., '76, A.M., '79. Colby Univ.\n1896.\nAssistant Superintendent of Schools, 146 Grand St., New York.\nMark\n\nGurdan R. 1893.\nMiller,Principal\nPh.B., of\n'93,Union\nSyracuse\nUniv.\nSchool,\nMatteawan.\nOtis Montrose.\nPrincipal of Haldam Union School, Coldspring.\nCharles M. Ryon.\n1875. Superintendent of Schools, and Secretary of Board of Education, 130 Elmendorf St.,\nKingston.\nElisa a. Sargent.\n1889. Director of the Prang Normal Art Classes of New York, 3 W. i8th St., New York.\nSara A. Saunders, Grad., '73, Cortland State Nor. Sch.\n1895.\nMethod Teacher, State Normal School, 40 South Ave., Brockport.\nJ. G. Schurman, A.B., '771 A.M., '78, London Univ. ; D.Sc, '78, Edinburgh ; LL.D., Columbia.\n1892. President, Cornell University, Ithaca.\nCharles D. Seely, A.M., '79, Amherst Coll.\n1885. Department of Latin and Greek, State Normal School, Brockport.\nMary V. Squire.\nAssistant in School No. 39, 19 Marigold Ave., Buffalo.\nHenry Morse Stephens, A.M., '92, Oxford.\n1894. Professor of History, Cornell University, Ithaca.\nEdward Walmsley\nStitt, M.S.,\n'q8,CoII.\nNewLenox\nYork;\n'97, N.\nUniv.\n1880.\nPrincipal\nof Public\nSchoolCity\nNo. of89,\nAve.Pd.M.,\nand 134th\nSt.,Y.New\nYork.\nAda Frances Thayer.\n1893. Supervisor of Physical Training, Public\nSchools, Board of Education Rooms,\nSyracuse.\nAmelia Earle Trant, M.D., '94, Univ. of Buffalo.\n1890. Principa^\nBoys' Department, Instructor of Physiology,\nMasten Park High\nSchool, ofBuffalo.\nEmma S. Waite.\nSuperintendent of Training in Nebraska State Normal School ; i Chestnut St.,\nPotsdam.\n\n"}
{"page": 1108, "printed_page": null, "text": "NA\n\nTIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nNEW\n\n1896.\n\nTIONAL\n\nASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[New York\n\n\\QiViYi— Continued\n\n'92, Syracuse Univ.\n'So, A-M.,\nM. H. Walrath.\n1896. A.B.,\nPrincipalof\nHigh School, Paiolmg Ave., Troy.\n\nDirector of Physical Culture, Albany Female Academy, Training School No. 7\nAlbany, and Woman's Athletic Club, Hudson, 163 Hamilton St., Albany.\n,897.\nMvKTiLLA Avery, A.B., '91, Wellesley; B.L., '96, N.Y. State Univ.\n^ , c» . t -u\n^'\n1892. Director's\nDepartment, New\nVork state Library\nAlbany.Assistant, Home Education\nPrincipal of City Training Class, 39 S. Hamilton St., Poughkeepsie.\nJessie Bancroft.\n\n.,,„..\n\nx^,,.\n\n„,,\n\n-, ■ •\n\not.,,\n\n1893. Director of Physical Training, Public Schools, 131 Livingston St., Brooklyn.\nC. L. Barstow, A.B., Union Coll. .,_,\n^\n_\n„„\nv.xt\nManager Educational Department, Longmans, Green & Co., 93, sth Ave., New\nYork.\nAnna Gertrude Childs, A.B., A.M., Iowa Coll.\n1889. Teacher in State Normal School, 28 Ford Ave., Oneonta.\n*Dr. Henrv Clark Coon, A.B., '68, A.M., '71, Ph.D., '92, Alfred Univ.\n1872.\nProfessor of Physics and Chemistry, Alfred University, 35 S. Main St., Alfred.\nEnoch Henry Currier, A.M., Nat. Coll. of the Deaf.\n1893. Principal New York Institute for Instruction of the Deaf and Dumb, 163d St. and\nnth Ave., Station M, New York.\nEditors' Library, American Book Co.\nLibrarian, L. H. Peet, Washington Square, New York.\nHenry W. Jameson, B.A., Yale.\nAssociate Superintendent of Schools, 47 W. 119th St., New York.\n(■Frederic Allison Lyman, Associate of the College of Musicians, '86.\n1888.\nSupervisor of Music in Public Schools, 421 Warren Ave., Syracuse.\nMiss L. A. Melhinch, Grad. St. Nor. Sch.\n1898. Teacher of English Literature, Academy Ogdensburg.\nA. L. Peck.\n1880. Librarian of Free Library, Gloversville.\nJ. H. Thiry.\nIntroducer of the School Savings Bank System, 181 Academy St., Long Island City\nHenry H. Vail, A.B., '60, LL.D., '96, Middlebury Coll.\nPublisher, 322 W. 75th St., New York.\nZ. F. Westervelt, LL.D., '95, Rochester Univ.\n1876.\nSuperintendent\nRochester. of Western N. Y. Institution for Deaf-Mutes, 945 N. St. Paul St.,\nJessie M. Winterton.\n1891. Director Kindergarten Dept. and Training Class, Merington School, 118 W. 75th\nSt., New York.\n1898.\n\nArthur Deerin Call,\nPh.B.,\n'96, Brown\nUniv.\nPrincipal\nGrammar\nSchool\nNo. 3, 324 W. Gray St., Elmira,\nMary H. Carroll.\nPrivate Teacher, Church St., Kingsbridge.\nSusan F. Chase, B.L., Wis. Univ. ; D.Pd., Teachers' Coll., Buffalo Univ.\nTeacher of Literature and History, State Normal School, 139, 14th St., Buffalo.\nI. O. Crissy.\n18915. Assistant to Director, University Southern New York, 137 Eagle St., Albany.\nGeorge B. Germann, A.B., Columbia Univ.\nFellow in Education, Columbia University, 90 Norman Ave., Brooklyn.\nCharles C. Holden, Pd.M.\n1893.\nFirst Assistant M.D., (Public School No. 39, Manhattan ; 39 W. i32d St., New York.\nJohn F. Hughes.\nChairman Board of Education, 35 Charlotte St., Utica.\nArthur Marvin, B.A., '91, M.A., '96, Yale.\n1897. Principal Union Classical Institute, 832 Union St., Schenectady.\nEdward Beverly Nelson, A.B., '73, A.M. (honorary), '94, Harvard Univ.\nPrincipal Central N. Y. Institution for Deaf-Mutes, 711 N. Madison St., Rome.\nMilton Noves.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Free Academy Building, Rochester.\nVinton S. Pressler, Civil and Mech. Eng.\nPrincipal Barton School of Industrial Arts, 23 Walnut St., Binghamton.\nC. N.Richards, B.S.\nDirector\nYork. Manual Arts Department, Teachers' College, Columbia University, New\nW. F. Vroom.\n1893.\nJ. C. Witter.\n\nTeachers' College, 896 West End Ave., New York.\nEditor \" Art Education,\" 76, 5th Ave., New York.\nNORTH\nLIFE\n\nCAROLINA\nmembers\n\nEmily M. Coe.\nRobert\n\n1894.\n\nPrincipal of Normal Department, Red Springs Seminary, Red Springs.\nBingham, A.M., '60, LL.D., '90, Univ. of N. C.\n1873.\nSuperintendent of Bingham School, Asheville.\nactive members\n\nEdwin A. Alderman, Ph.B., Univ. of N. C. ; D.C.L., Univ. of the South.\n1892.\nPresident of University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill.\n♦Died May 9, 1898.\n\nt Died July 17, 1898.\n\n"}
{"page": 1109, "printed_page": null, "text": "Ohio]\n\nLIFE\n\nAND\n\nNORTH\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\nX099\n\nCAROLINA— 0»/i»r«#rf\n\n1895. John J. Blair, A.B., '85, Haverford Coll., Pa.\n1890. Superintendent of Schools, Winston.\n1896. Charles D. McIvkr, A.B., '81, D.L., .'93, Univ. of N. C.\nPresident of State Normal and Industrial College, Greensboro.\nDora B. Rogbrs.\n1898. Teacher of History, Literature, and Sciences, Kinsey Seminary, Wilson.\n1898. Philander P. Claxton, A.M., '86, Univ. of Tenn.\nProfessor of Pedagogy, State Normal and Industrial College, Greensboro.\nG. A. Grimslky.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 217 £, Lee St., Greensboro.\nJ. y. JOVNER.\nProfessor of English Literature, State Normal and Industrial College, Greensboro.\nD. Matthew Thompson, A.M., Butterford Coll.\n1891. Superintendent of Schools, Statesville.\nNORTH\n\nDAKOTA\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n1894. Walter\n\nL. Stockwell, B.S., '89, Univ. of Minn,\n1891. Superintendent of Schools, Grafton.\nH. Stockwell, B.L., Univ. of Minn.\nGrafton.\n•\n1895. George A. McFarland, B.S., '83, M.S., '86, Hiram Coll.\n1892. PiincipaJ State Normal School, Valley City.\nWebster Merrifield, A.B., '77, A.M. ,'92, Yale.\n1891. President of State University of North Dakota, University, Grand Forks Co.\nLura L. Perrine, A.B., '80, Albion Coll., Mich.\n1892. Teacher of Natural Sciences, State Normal School, Valley City.\n1896. Ralph H. Burns, A. B., Yale.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Bathgate.\nEducational Association of North Dakota.\nPresident, Superintendent E. J. Taylor, Grand Forks ; Secretary, Superintenden\nA. M. Simpson, Forman.\nJoseph Kennedy, B.S., Univ. of Minn.\n1893. Professor of Pedagogy and Principal of Normal Department, University of North\nDakota, 1102 Broadway, Grand Forks.\n1897. L. H. Allen, A.B., '87, E. Ind. Normal School.\n•\nSuperintendent of Schools of Richland Co., Wahpeton.\nAnna Baknum.\nCritic Teacher in State Normal School, Mayville.\nJ. G. Halland, A.m., Luther Coll., la.\nState Superintendent of Public Instruction, Bismarck.\nW. E. Hoover, M.S., O. W. Univ.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Park River,\nRosalie Pollock.\nState Institute Instructor, 210, 8th St. S., Fargo.\nMrs. Helen\n\nOHIO\nlife directors\nr87o.\n1884.\nx888.\n\nEmerson\n\nElbridge White, A.M., Western Reserve Coll. ; LL.D., '76, Ind. Univ. and Marietta Coll.\nAuthor and Lecturer, 387 E. Broad St., Columbus.\nJames H. Canfield, A.B., '68, A.M., '77, LL.D., '94, Williams Coll.\n1895. President of Ohio State University, 1873 N. High St., Columbus.\nL. W. Day, A.M., '82, Hillsdale Coll. ; Ph.D., '84, Baldwin Univ.\n1895.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 506 High St., Canton.\nLIFE members\n\ni866.\n1870.\n\nUlysses T. Curran, A.B., A.M., Miami Univ.\nEx -Superintendent of Schools, 622 Columbus Ave., Sandusky,\nMrs. Delia Lathrop Williams, Pd.D., '94, N. Y. State Nor. Univ.\n1880.\nInstructor in English Literature and Normal Work, Ohio Wesleyan University,\n62 S. Liberty St., Delaware.\n\n1879. fRBUBBN McMillan, A.M., '67, Western Reserve Coll. ; Ph.D., Franklin Coll., New Athens, O.\nCx- Superintendent of Schools of Voungstown, Canfield.\n1880. •Hampton Bennett.\n1897.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Kings Mills.\nJ. J. Burns, A.M., Washington and Jefferson Coll. ; Ph.D., '76. Ohio State Univ.\n1896. Superintendent of Schools, 60-2 Washington St., Defiance.\nCharles E. Davidson, A.M., '87, Ohio Univ.\n1891. Trustee Ohio University, 59 W. Ely St., Alliance.\nBbttik a. Dittton.\n1870.\nPrincipal of Kentucky Street School, 94 State St.. Cleveland.\nMrs. Reuben McMillan.\nS. Broad St., Canfield.\nLewis Miller.\nPresident Chautauqua University, Oak Place, Akton.\nJohn\nBradley\nPeaslee, A.B., '63, A.M., '66. Dartmouth; LL.B., '67, Cincinnati Law Coll •\n'\nPh.D., '78, Ohio State Univ.\n189s.\nDirector of University of Cincinnati ; 1898, Member Union Board of High Schools,\n330 W. 4th St., Cincinnati.\n\n"}
{"page": 1110, "printed_page": null, "text": "IIOO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Ohio\n\n1880.\n\nEsther A. Widner.\n3X Maple St., Dayton,\n1882. James A. Robert, A.M., '67, Yale; Ph.D., '83, Denison Univ.\n230 Sunset Ave., Dayton.\n1883. E. W. Gov, A.M., '58, Brown Univ. ; Ph.D., '86, Princeton.\n1873. Principal of Hughes High School, Cincinnati.\n1884. C. W. Bennett, A.B., '66, A.M., '69, Ohio Wesleyan Univ. ; Ph.D., '89, Moores Hill Coll., Ind.\n1874. Superintendent of Schools, 218 W. Ash St., Piqua.\n1894. J. A. Shawan, A.B., '80, A.M., '83, Oberlin Coll. ; Ph.D., '93, Muskingum Coll.\n1889.\nSuperintendent of City Schools, 1122 Bryden Road, Columbus.\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n1879.\n1884.\n\nWilliam Nicholas Hailmann, A.M., '64, Univ. of Louisville; Ph.D., '85, Ohio State Univ.\n1898.\nSuperintendent of Instruction, Steele High School, Dayton.\nE. A. Jones, A.M.\n1869. Superintendent of Schools, 138 E. Tremont St., Massillon.\n1886. Christine Gordon Sullivan, A.M., Ph.D.\n1885. Supervisor of Art Instruction, Public Schools, cor. Harvey and Park Aves., Walnut\nHills, Cincinnati.\n1887. Oscar T. Corson, A.M., '87.\n1891. State Commissioner of Common Schools, The Marion, Columbus.\n1889. Edwin B. Cox,\n'ta^, Ohio Wesleyan\nUniv.\n1881. A.B.,\nSupermtendent\nof Schools,\n205 W. Church St., Xenia.\nNathan L. Glover.\n1872.\nTeacher of Music, Public Schools, 627 E. Mill St., Akron.\nL. H. Jones.\n1894.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 190 Euclid Ave., Cleveland.\n1890. Louis D. Bonebrake, A.M., Ph.D.\n1898.\nCommissioner of Schools of Ohio, 1315 Forsythe Ave., Columbus.\nMrs. Ada E. Laird.\n1892. Principal of Waverly School, 265 Franklin Ave., Cleveland.\nAnna M. Osgood.\n1893. Principal of Avondale School, 1348 Oak St., Columbus.\nJ. P. Sharkey.\n1885. Superintendent of Schools ; 1893, Member of State Board of Examiners, Van Wert.\nSophie Vance.\n1876. Grammar Department, P. O. Box 463, Van Wert.\nArthur Owen Jones.\n1890. Teacher of Drawing, Public Schools, 2315 Highland Ave., Walnut Hills, Cincinnati.\nR. Anna Morris, Grad., '88, Anderson Nor. Sch. of Physical Training.\n1894. Special Teacher of Physical Culture, Public Schools, 34 Granger St., Cleveland.\nEllen G. Revelev, Pd.D., '94, State Nor. Coll., Albany, N. Y.\n189B.\nSupervisor of Public Schools, 190 Euclid Ave., Cleveland.\nCharles W. Super, A.B., '66, Dickinson Coll. ; A.M., '82, Syracuse Univ. ; Ph.D., '74, 111. Wesleyan\nUniv.; LL.D., '94, Dickinson Coll.\n1883.\nPresident of Ohio University ; 1896, Professor of Greek, ibid.. Dean of Faculty, 110\nUnion St., Athens,\nF. Treudley, A.B., '78, Univ. of Ind.\n1885. Superintendent of Schools, 623 Elm St., Youngstown.\nW. J. White.\n1410 E. 3d St., Dayton.\n1892. C. C. Miller, A.B., '83, Ohio State UniV.\n1893.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 719 W. North St., Lima.\nN. CoE Stewart, F.C.M.\n1867.\nDirector of Music, Public Schools, 71 Jennings Ave., Cleveland.\nMatilda L. Walke.\ntSgi.\n\n^\n,\nTwenty-sixth District School, 471 Riddle Road, Clifton Heights, Cincinnati.\n1893. Charles Haupert, A.B., '80, A.M., '83, Heidelberg Univ.\n1893.\nSuperintendent of Schools, and (1894) Member State Board of Examiners, 9\nCollege Ave., Wooster.\nM. A. Kimmel.\n1880.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Poland.\nMrs. Caroline Newhall Lathrop.\nPrincipal of Normal School, 9th St., w. of John, Cincinnati.\nH. H. Raschig.\n1874.\nPrincipal of loth District School, 618 Prospect Place, Avondale, Cincinnati.\nS. D. Sanor, A.M., '98, Western Reserve Univ.\n1897.\nStudent\nin Graduate School, Western Reserve University, 150 Hawthorne Ave.,\nCleveland.\nJames W. Scott, A.B., Duquesne Coll.\n1890.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Loudonville.\nWilliam H. Scott, A.M.. '65, Ohio Univ. ; LL.D., '84, Ohio Univ. and Ohio Wesleyan Univ.\n1883.\nProfessor of Philosophy, Ohio State University, 131, 15th Ave., Columbus.\nLucia Stickney, A.M., '95, Oberiin Coll.\n. 1877. Hughes High School, Cincinnati.\n1894. James W. Bashford, A.B., '73, A.M., '76, Univ. of Wis.; S.T.B., '76, Ph.D., '81, Boston Univ.;\nD.D., '90, Northwestern Univ.\n1889.\nPresident of Ohio Wesleyan University, 23 Oak Hill Ave., Delaware.\nJ. Remsen Bishop, A.B., '82, Harvard.\n,\nPrincipal of High School, Alpine Place, Walnut Hills, Cincinnati.\nW. W. Boyd, A.B., '84, A.M., '86, Marietta Coll.\n1891,\nSuperintendent of Schools, Paynesville.\nC. J. Britton.\nSuperintendent of Schools, De Graff,\nEmma C. Davis.\n1893. Supervisor of Public Schools, 190 Euclid Ave., Cleveland,\n\n"}
{"page": 1111, "printed_page": null, "text": "Ohio]\n\nLIFE AND\n\nACTIVE MEMBERS\n\nIIOI\n\n1894. Arnold J. Gamtvoort.\n1844. Professor of Music, G>IIege of Music, Cincinnati,\nEdward L. Harris, A.B.. A JVl,, Ph.B.\n1889. Principal\nHarriet L. Kekler, A.B., '70, Obcrlln Coll.\n1878.\nAssistant, Central High School, 93 Olive St., Cleveland.\n*\nCharles P. Lynch, A.B., '86, A.M., '8g, Ph.D., '97, Allegheny Coll.\n1891. Teacher of Latin, Central High School, 146 Hawthorne Ave., Cleveland.\nE. E. Richards.\nPrincipal of High School, 34 E. Church St., Newark.\nWilliam O. Thompson, D.D., '91, Muskingum Coll. ; LL.D.\n1891.\nPresident of Miami University, Oxford.\nGeorge R. Twiss, B.S., '83, Ohio State Univ.\nHead Science Teacher, Central High School, 142 Cornell St., Cleveland,\nAnna J. Wright, A.B., '72, Oberlin Coll.\nWest High School, 94 State St., Cleveland.\n1895. C. G. Ballou, B.S., O. Wes. Univ.\nPrincipal of High School, n6 Floyd St., Toledo.\nCharles S. Barrett, B.S.. '8s, Hopedale Coll., O.\n1887.\nPrincipal 5th Ave. School, 78 W. 9th Ave., Columbus.\nMary Blakiston, Ph.B., '93, Ohio State Univ.\n1898.\nHead of JJepartment of Latin, East High School, 1117 Oak St., Columbus.\nWillis Boughton, A.B., Univ. of Mich. ; A.M., Dickinson Coll.\n1890. Professor of Rhetoric and English Literature, Ohio Univ., Athens.\nWilliam Paxton Burris, Ph.B.. '91, A.M., '94, DePauw Univ.\n1898.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Salem.\nC. E. Carey, Ph.B.\n1897. Superintendent of Public Schools, J05 Mahoning Ave., Warren.\nWilliam\nState Wallace\nNormal. Chalmers, A. B., '87, Univ. of Mich. ; A.M., '89, Eureka Coll.; B.Pd.. '91, Mich\n1898. Superintendent of Instruction, Toledo.\nS. T. Dial, A.B., '80, A.M., '84, Ohio Wes. Univ. ; Ph.D., '94, Syracuse Univ., N. Y.\n1890.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Lockland.\nClayton L. Dickey.\n1883. Superintendent of Schools, Clinton, Sharon, and Perry Townships, Worthington.\nGeorge A, Howard.\nWith American Book Co., Cincinnati.\nAnne H. King, B.L., '92, Univ. of Cincinnati.\n1894. Teacher in Public School, 3716 Morris Place, Cincinnati,\nJulia C. Kolbe,\n1896\nPrimary Teacher, 337 Milton St., Cincinnati.\nAnnie Laws.\nSecretary International Kindergarten Union, 818 Dayton St., Cincinnati.\nS. Herrick Layton, B.S., '92, O. N. W.\n1896.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 49 Main St., Mechanicsburg.\nWilliam R. Lazenbv, B.Agri., Cornell; M.Agri., Iowa Agri. Coll.\n1881.\nProfessor of Horticulture and Forestry, Ohio State University, Columbus.\nCharles L. Loos, Jr., A.B., '69, A.M., '71, Bethany Coll., W. Va.\n1888.\nHead of English Department, Steele High School, 133 Salem St., Dayton.\nJ. S. Lowe, A.M., '67.\n1891.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 24 Henry St., Ashtabula.\nS. H. Maharry, A.m., '90, Muskingum Coll., New Concord, O,\n1896. Superintendent of Schools, Millersburg, Holmes Co.\nS. K. Mardis, Ph.B., Pd.B., '03, Ohio Univ., Athens.\n1881.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Uhrichville.\nG. C. Maurer, Ph.M., '90, Univ. of Wooster.\n1893.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 409 W. Ray St., New Philadelphia.\nM. R. McElroy, A.B., '95, Univ. of Wooster.\n1897. Representative of The John Church Co., Cincinnati,\nW. W. McIntire, Ph.B., '96, Univ. of Wooster.\n1897.\nManager School Music Department, The John Church Co., Cincinnati,\nHenry N. Mertz, A.B., '70, A.M., '80, Bethany Coll.\n1891. Superintendent of Public Schools, La Belle Ave., Steubenville.\nMiami University.\nPresident, William O, Thompson; Secretary, Anna J. Bishop, Oxford.\nCarrie E. Moores.\n1896. Teacher in College, College Hill, Hamilton Co.\nW.H.Morgan.\nSuperintendent of Schools, City Hall, Cincinnati.\nHenry M. Parker, A.B., '59, A.M., '65, Marietta Coll., O.\n1873.\nSuperintendent of Public Schools, Elyria.\nJ. W. Pfeiffer, B.S., Hopedale C0II..O.\nt888.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 141 Wooster Ave., Canal Dover.\nE. H. Prichard.\n1897\nPrincipal Third Int. (Gram.) School, Cincinnati; residence, Wyoming.\nR. E. Rayman.\nSuperintendent of Public Instruction, East Liverpool.\nW. S. Robinson, B.S., '91, M.S., '93, Mt. Union Coll.\n1897.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 28 Washington St., Ashland,\nWilliam C. Skinner.\n1896.\nSuperintendent of ManOal Training, 2145 Ashland Ave., Toledo.\nHorace A. Stokes, A.B., '87, Ohio Wesleyan Univ. ; A.M., '96, DenisonUniv.\n1807.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 70 Lincoln Ave., Delaware.\nMargaret W. Sittherland.\n1889. Principal of Normal School, 1160 Neil Ave., Columbus.\nCharles F. Thwing, D.D., '88, Chicago Theo. Sem. ; LL.D., '94, III. Coll. and Marietta Coll.\n1890. President Adelbert College and Western Reserve University, Cleveland.\n\n"}
{"page": 1112, "printed_page": null, "text": "II02\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Oh\n\nA.M., '98, Univ. of Mich.\nJ. S. Young,1898.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 301 Tiffin St., Fostona.\nP. J. Anderson.\n„ , ,\n„ ,\n„\n^ ,\n,\ntSgs. Principal of Felton Ave. School, 648 E. Long St., Columbus.\nA.B.. '81, A.M., '86, Oberlin Coll.\nJ.J. Bliss, 1895.\n* Superintendent of Schools, 512 E. Rensselaer St., Bucyrus.\nG. B. BOLENBAUGH.\n^\n. .\n1897. Principal of High School, Station C, Cincinnati.\nMarie L. Bruot.\n1889. Teacher of Elocution and Oratory, Central High School, Cleveland.\nHoward Champlin.\n1892. Superintendent of Writing, Public Schools, Station D, Walnut Hills, Cincinnati.\nTressa M. Corcoran.\n1886. Assistant Principal, 8th District, Normandie Apartments, Dayton.\nE. S. Cox, Lit.D.\n1894.\nSuperintendent of Public Schools, Sidney.\nF. B. Dyer, A.B.\n1886.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Madisonville\nAugust F. Foerste, A.M., Ph.D., '90, Harvard Univ.\n1893. Teacher of Physics, Steele High School, Dayton.\nW. L. Fulton, B.S., '95, Ohio Wes. Univ.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Clyde.\nJennie Gifford, B.S., '67, A.M., '80, Nat. Nor. Univ., Lebanon, O.\n1874.\nPrincipal of Preparatory Department, Buchtel Coll., 107 S. Union St., Akron.\nAlfred E. Gladding, A.M., '91, Bethany; Ph.D., '98, Mt. Hope.\n1894. Superintendent of Schools, LaRue.\nJ. P. GORDV, Ph.D., Leipzig Univ., LL.D.\nProfessor of Pedagogy, Ohio State University, Columbus.\nLemira W. Hughes.\n1892. Principal Normal Training School, The Lennox, Cleveland.\nJ. W. Jones, B.S., N. Nor. Univ. ; B.P., O. Univ.\nSuperintendent of the Ohio Institute for the Deaf, Columbus.\nFrederick Alwin King, A.M.\nTeacher of Latin and Greek, Hughes High School,, no Huntington Place, Mt.\nAuburn, Cincinnati.\nMrs, Frances W. Leiter.\nSuperintendent Physical Education Department of The National W. C. T. U., 220\nW. Park Ave., Mansfield.\nAnna E. Logan.\n1896. Teacher in Intermediate Grade, Westwood, Cincinnati.\nJ. V, McMillan.\n1893. Superintendent of Schools, Dennison.\nGeorge M. Plumer.\nPrincipal of Ward School, 623, 4th St., Marietta.\n♦Wilbur V. Rood, A.B., '73, A.M., '76, Oberlin Coll.\n1880. Principal of High School, 1x3 Adolph Ave., Akron.\nS. L. Rose.\n1895. Superintendent of Schools, 219 N. 2d St., Hamilton.\nJohn H. Rowland, A.M.\nGeneral Agent, American Book Co., 240 N. Main St., Delaware.\nJoseph H. Snyder, A.M., Heidelberg Coll., O.\n1890. Superintendent of Schools, 169 Monroe St., Tiffin.\nMary E. Stockleman.\nBuchtel College, Akron.\nHarriet E. Terrel.\n1890. Principal of Scranton Schools, 381 Jennings Ave., Cleveland.\nR. S. Thomas, Ph.B., Madison Univ. ; Ph.D., '98, Nit. Hope Coll.\n1898.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 210 N. Prospect St„ Akron.\nAnna M. P. Tucker.\nPrincipal of Anna M. P. Tucker School of Ethical and Physical Culture, 878 Case\nAve., Cleveland.\nCharles Liggett Van Cleve, A.B., A.M., O. Wes. Univ., Delaware.\nSuperintendent of Public Schools, Troy.\nWilliam M. White, A.B., McNeely Nor. Sch.\n1868.\nSuperintendent Union Schools, Mt. Pleasant.\nIda M. Windgate, A.B., O. W. Univ.\nPrincipal High School, Delaware.\n1897. Ella Beistle.\n1888.\nPrincipal loth District, 31 E. McOwen St.. Dayton.\nCharlotte J. Caldwell.\nStation K, Cincinnati.\nCleveland Public Library.\nPresident, John C. Hutchins; Librarian, William H. Brett, Cleveland.\nCora M. Gayer.\nSpecial Teacher of German, 135 Miles Ave., Cleveland.\nIsabella A. Kolbe,\nNorwood Public School Teacher, 1891 Walker St., Cincinnati.\nRose Morrison.\n1894. Teacher in Normal School, 257 Kennard St., Cleveland.\nOhio State University Library.\nPresident, James H. Canfield; Librarian, Olive Jones, Columbus.\nMabel L. Pray.\nDirector of Physical Training, 1727 Summit Ave., Toledo.\nJohn C. Ridge.\n1877. With the American Book Co., 2322 Nelson Ave., Mt. Auburn, Cincinnati\n♦Died June 21, 1898.\ni8os.\n1806.\n\n"}
{"page": 1113, "printed_page": null, "text": "Pennsylvania]\n\nLIFE AND\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\nOHIO— Co«rt««*rf\n1897.\n\ni8q8.\n\nSylvester Scovhl, A.B., '^3, A.M., '56, Hanover.\n1898. Ex-Presidentand Professor of Morals and Sociology, University of Wooster.Wooster.\nJUUA C. SiLCOX.\nTeacher in 8th Grade, 137 Miles Ave., Cleveland.\nEdward M. Van Cleve, A.B., '86, A.M., '89, Ohio Wes. Univ.\n1802.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Bamesville.\nMary-Belle Westfall.\nPrincipal nth District, Dayton.\nPbrla G. Bowman.\n1897. Associate Professor\nDomestic\nScience, Ohio\nState University,\nHayes\nHall,\nColumbus.\nRobert Brown Ewing, B.S., '85, Nat. Nor., Lebanon, O.\n1895.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Gallipolis.\nV. Merrick, A.B., '80, A.M., '83, Mt. Union Coll.\n1888.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Cadiz.\nJames E. Randall.\n1897,\nSuperintendent of Schools, Camden.\nP. N. Sigler.\n1897. Member of Board of Education, 424 Grand Ave., Dayton.\n\n, Harvey\n\nJ. F. Smith, 1888.\nA.B., Prmcipal\n'85, A.M.,High\n'90, School,\nKenyon. 130 Hancock St., Findley.\nRalph Richard Upton, A.B., Yale; LL.B., LL.M., Columbian.\n1898. Principal High School, Chillicothe.\nIsaac Newton Van Tassel,\nSuperintendent of Schools, 33 N. Prospect St., Bowling Green,\nMary Walter.\nPrimary Teacher, Public Schools, Pomeroy,\nMiss M, A. Woodmansee.\n. 205 N, Broadway, Dayton.\nOKLAHOMA\nACTIVE\n189a.\n1895.\n1898.\n\nMEMBERS\n\nDavid R. Boyd, A.B., '78, A.M., '81, Univ. of Woostcr.\n1892.\nPresident of University of Oklahoma, Norman.\nH.E. Thompson, B.S.\nPrincipal of Preparatory Department, A. and M. College, Stillwater.\nL. W. Cole, B.Pd., S. W. Kan. Coll.\n1897.\nSuperintendent of Schools, El Reno.\nS, N. Hopkins.\nTerritorial Superintendent of Public Instruction and ex-oflScio Auditor, 411 N. Broad\nSt., Guthrie.\nEdmund D. Muroaugh.\nPresident Territorial Normal School of Oklahoma, Edmond.\nOREGON\nlife director\n\n888.\n\nCharlesWes.\nCarroll\nUniv. Stratton, A.M., Willamette Univ. ; D.D., '79, Northwestern Univ., and '80, Ohio\nPortland University, University Park.\nLIFE member\n\n1884.\n\nHenry\n\nM. James, A.B., '61, A.M., '64, Williams Coll.\n370, 14th St., Portland.\nactive members\n\n1892.\n\nEdwin DeVore Ressler, A.B., '91, Otterbein Univ. ; A.M., '97, Ohio State Univ.\n1897. Superintendent of Public Schools, Eugene.\nJ, H. Ackerman.\n1898. State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Portland.\nE, B. McElrOy, A.m., '83, Christian Coll.; Ph.D., '84, Willamette Univ.\n1895. Professor of Ethics, University of Oregon, Eugene.\n1897. Charles Fribdel, Ph.D., '95, Leipzig.\nProfessor of Physics in University of Oregon, Eugene.\n1898. Frank Rigler.\n1896. Superintendent of Schools, 533 Yamhill St., Portland.\n1895.\n\nPENNSYLVANIA\nlife director\n1879.\n\nTeachers' Institute.\nPresident, Dr. William H. Samuel ; Secretary, Mary Wallace, Philadelphia.\nRepresentative for 1898, Andrew J. Morrison, 1430 N. 7th St., Philadelphia.\nLIFE members\n\n1876.\n\nEdward\n\nBrooks, A.M., '58, Union Coll. ; Ph.D., '76, Lafayette Coll.\n1891.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 713 Filbert St., Philadelphia.\n\n"}
{"page": 1114, "printed_page": null, "text": "II04\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Pennsylvania\n\n1879. Rachel Foster Avery.\nSomerton.\nSimon Gratz, A.M., Univ. of Pa.\nPresident of Board of Eklucation, 1919 Spruce St., Philadelphia.\nEdward Shippen.\nEx-President Board of Education, 532 Walnut St., Philadelphia.\n1880. Edgar Arthur Singer, Ph.D., '96, Univ. of Pa.\n...\n1887. Assistant Superintendent of Schools, 4662 Penn St., Station F, Philadelphia.\n1884. Sarah A. Stewart.\n1615 Chestnut St., Philadelphia.\n1891. Eliphalet Oram Lvte, M.S., Millersville; A.M., Ph.D., Franklin and Marshall Coll.\n1887. Principal Pennsylvania First State Normal School, Millersville.\nACTIVE\n\n1879.\n\nMEMBERS\n\nGeorge\n\nMorris\n'74, Normal\nPh.D., '84,\nBucknell\n•\n1881. Philips,\nPrincipalA.M.,\nof State\nSchool,\nWest Univ.\nChester.\nJ. Morrison.\n1883. Assistant Superintendent of Schools, 1430 N. 7th St., Philadelphia.\nGeorge H. Stout.\n1888. Supervising Principal of Boys' Grammar School, 3746 Powelton Ave., Philadelphia.\nNathan C. Schaeffer, LL.D., '95, Wesfem tJniv. of Pa.\n1893. State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Harrlsburg.\n\n1881. Andrew\n1884.\n1887.\n\n1891. E. Mackev, A.B., '78, Mercersburg Coll.\ni8g6.\nBoys' High School, Reading.\n1892. Eliza A. Bishop.\n211 Pine St., Harrisburg.\nR. K. Buehrle,\n'78, Ph.D., of'87,\nFranklin\nMarshall\nColl.. Pa.\n1880. A.m.,\nSuperintendent\nSchools,\n408 and\nManor\nSt., Lancaster.\nW. WiLBERFORCE Deatrick, A.B., '76, A.M., '79, Mercersburg Coll.\n1891.\nProfessor of Psychology and Pedagogy, Keystone State Normal School, Kutztown.\n, Mrs.. Constance Mackenzie Durham.\nFormerly Director of Public Kindergartens, 4816 Florence Ave., Philadelphia.\nH. W. Fisher, Grad. State Nor. Sch., Millersville, Pa.\n1875. Supervisor 17th Ward Schools, 350 Lehigh Ave., Pittsburgh.\nJoseph K. Gotwals, A.M.\n1872. Superintendent of Schools, 19 E. Chestnut St., Norristown.\nMary J. Lamberton.\n1891.\nSupervising Principal of George W. Childs School, 4403 Osage Ave., West Philadelphia.\nE. C. Lavers, A.m., Pd.D., Ph.D.\nPrincipal of High School, 324 Cattell St., Easton.\nHerman T. Lukens, A.M., '85, Univ. of Pa. ; Ph.D., '91, Jena.\n1898.\nHead Training Teacher, State Normal School, California.\nJohn A. M. Passmore, M.S., '62, State Nor. Sch., Millersville, Pa.\n1890.\nAgent American Book Co., 318 S. 42d St., Philadelphia.\nS. C. Schmucker, A.m., '85, M.S., '90, Muhlenberg Coll., Pa. ; Ph.D., '93, Univ. of Pa.\nProfessor of Biological Sciences, State Normal School, 610 S. High St., West\nChester.\n18? _\nH. H. Spavd.\nJ. Liberty Tadd.\n\nPrincipal of Public Schools, P. O. Box 310, Minersville.\n\nDirector of Industrial Art School, 319 N. 32d St., Philadelphia.\n1893. C. A. Babcock, A.M., '71, LL.B., '83, Hamilton Coll.\n1883.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 313 Petroleum St., Oil City.\nM. G. Brumbaugh, A.M., '93, Ph.D., '94, Univ. of Pa.\n1893. President of Juniata College, and (1894) Professor of Pedagogy, University of\nPennsylvania, 311 S. 40th St., Philadelphia.\nJames A. Dewey, M.E., '84, State Nor. Sch., Mansfield.\n1890.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Newport Township, Wanamie.\nLoyal Freeman Hall, M.E.D., State Nor. Sch., Indiana, Pa.\nPrincipal of First Ward Schools, Springdale and McKean Sts., Butler.\nWilliam Henry Samuel, Ph.D., '92, Univ. of Pa.\n1878.\nSupervising Principal Public Schools, 2505 N. 12th St., Philadelphia,\nAndrew Thomas Smith, Pd.D., '93, School of Pedagogy, Univ. of N. Y.\n1885.\nProfessor of Pedagogy, State Normal School, West Chester.\nPauline W. Spencer.\n1893. Teacher of Literature, Girls' Normal School, 3421 Race St., Philadelphia.\nJ. Longstreth, M.E., '76, State Nor. Sch., West Chester, Pa.\n1894. Teacher of History, Girls' High School, 1416 Euclid Ave., Philadelphia.\nMiss M.J. McCracken.\n1887. Assistant Principal, Franklin School, 4632 Center Ave., Pittsburgh,\nFranklin B. Sawvel, A.M., Hopedale Coll. ; Ph.D., '86, Wittenberg Coll.\n1890. Professor of English Literature and Philosophy, \"Diiel College, Greenville.\n*James F. C. Sickel.\n1883.\nAssistant Superintendent of Schools, 637 N. 40th St., Philadelphia.\nHenry T. Spangler, A.B., '73, A.M., '76, Ursinus Coll.; D.D., '94, Heidelberg Univ., O.\n1893.\nPresident Ursinus College, Collegeville.\nCharles K. Witmer, A.B., '88, A.M., '91, Franklin and Marshall Coll.\n1893.\nPrincipal of High School, United States Hotel, Lebanon.\n1895. S. H. Albro, Ph.D., Colgate Univ.\nPrincipal of State Normal School, Mansfield.\n\n1894. Emma\n\nA. D. Colegrove, A.M.J '84, Allegheny Coll.\n1883,\nSuperintendent of City Schools, 73 Euclid St., Corry.\n*Died September, 1898.\n\n"}
{"page": 1115, "printed_page": null, "text": "Pennsylvania]\n\nLIFE AND\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n1895. W. G. Cans.\n„. .\n1898. Principal of Union High School, Turtle Creek ; East PituburK.\nMary Heins, B.E., '87, Keystone Nor. Sch., Kutztown.\n1887. Teacher in Public Schools, Eshbach.\n.\n.\nBrown Univ. ; LL.B., Univ. of N. Y. ; OflScier d' Academic, Pari*.\nLL.D.,\nA.M., of\nAlistkr,\nJames Mac 1890.\nPresident\nDrexel Institute, Philadelphia.\nMrs. Mary E. Mumford.\nMember of Board of Public Education, 1401 N. 17th St.. Philadelphia.\nB. F. Patterson.\nSuperintendent of Schools, iii George St., Pottsville.\nThed Pershing, A. B., Princeton.\nRepresentative of Publishing House of Ginn & Co., 1229 Arch St,, PJuladelphta.\nRev. J. W. Shanahan.\n1894.\nSuperintendent of Parochial Schools, 48th St. and Lancaster Ave., Philadelphia.\nSydney T. Skidmore, A.M., '85, Amherst Coll.\n1893.\nProfessor of Natural Sciences, Normal School, 1706 N. 18th St., Philadelphia.\nH. M. Trask.\nAgent for Silver, Burdette & Co., 1328 Arch St., Philadelphia.\n1896. J. George Becht, M.S., Lafavette Coll.\n1893.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Lycoming County, Muncy,\nR. M, Cargo.\n1868. Principal Mt. Washington School, 127 Sycamore St., Pittsburgh.\nWatson Cornell.\nSupervising Principal Logan Grammar School, 1725 N. i6th St., Philadelphia.\nL.O. FoosE, A.M., '78, Penn. Coll., Gettysburg.\n1879.\nSuperintendent of City Schools, 123 Chestnut St., Harrisburg.\nJohn Arthur1896.\nGibson,\nA.B., '01, Allegheny\nSuperintendent\nof Schools, Coll.\n418 N. McKean St., Butler.\nGeorge Howell.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 1007 Scranton St., Scranton.\nW. L. MacGowan, A.B., Allegheny Coll. ; Ph.B. and Ph.M.\n1890. Superintendent of Schools ; office, East St. Building, Warren,\nC. B. McCabe,\nPrincipal of North Braddock Borough Schools, 1019 Halkett Ave., Braddock.\nS. R. McClure,\n'94, Ph.D.,\nGrove 616City\nColl.Ave., North Braddock.\n1893. A.M.,\nPrincipal\nof High '97.\nSchool,\nJones\nTheodore B. Noss, A.M., '82, Ph.D., '83, Syracuse Univ.\n1883. Principal of State Normal School, California.\nW. Riddle.\nExlucational Author, 314 N. Lime St., Lancaster.\nJ. N. Smith.\n1875.\nPrincipal of 6th Ward School, 18 Franklin St., Allegheny City,\nJiTOSON Perry Welsh, A.M., '84, Ph.D., '93, Lafayette Coll., Easton, Pa.\n1890.\nPrincipal of State Normal School, Bloomsburg.\nMargaret Catharine Zillafro, M.E.D., State Nor. Sch., Edinboro.\n1893.\nPrimary Teacher, 4th Ward Schools, 56 Kennedy St., Bradford.\n1897. Francis Burke Brandt, A. B., '92, Harvard; Ph.D., '95, Columbia.\n1896. Professor of Pedagogy, Central High School, 1637 S. isth St., Philadelphia.\nC. E. Ehinger, M.D.\nPhysical Director State Normal School, 15 Normal Ave., West Chester.\nThe Free Library op Philadelphia.\nLibrarian, John Thomson, 12x7-1221 Chestnut St., Philadelphia.\nHenry Houck.\nDeputy State Superintendent, Harrisburg.\nN. P. McNelis.\nInspector\nof Parochial Schools, St. Bernard's Church, Indiana.\nSchool\nat Millersville.\nPrincipal, E. Oram Lyte, Millersville.\nState Normal School Library, Mansfield.\nPrincipal, S. A. Albro, Mansfield.\n1898. D. H. Bergey, A.m., 111. Wes. Univ. ; M.D., Univ. of Va. ; B.S., Univ. of Pa.\n1895-. First Assistant, Laboratory of Hygiene, University of Virginia, 34th and Locust\nSts., Philadelphia.\nState Normal\n\nAnna Bodler, M.S., '95, Mansfield, Pa., State Nor. Sch.\n1893.\nSuperintendent of Schools of Potter County, Coudersport.\nA. J. Davis, M.S.\n1887.\nPrincipal State Normal School, Clarion, Pa.\nFranklin Spencer Edmonds, A.M., Cen. H. S., Philadelphia; Ph.B., Univ. of Pa.\nAssistant Professor of Political Science, Central High School, 1538 Centennial Ave.,\nPhiladelphia.\nJ. R. FuCKiNGER,\nA.B., '77,State\nA.M.,Normal\n'80, Princeton.\n,\n1896. Principal\nSchool, Edinboro.\nH. W. Golden, B.Didac, '90, M.Didac.,'92, Edinboro State Normal.\n1897. Principal 5th Ward Public Schools, Allegheny City; 8 Dawson Ave., Bellevue.\nJohn W. Lansinger.\nState Normal School, Millersville.\nWilliam A. Mason.\n1892.\nDirector of Drawing in Schools, aia W. Chelton Ave., Germantown.\nJesse H. Michener, Ph.D., Univ. ofPa.\nPrincipal Grammar School, 4512 Regent St., Philadelphia.\nRev, Eugene Murphy.\nDirector of St. John the Baptist Parochial School, 146 Rector St., Manayunk,\nPhiladelphia.\nWilliam Smith Murray, B.S., '88, M.S., '93, Syracuse Univ.\nPrincipal of Graded and High School, Troy, Bradford Co.\nR. H. Pratt. Major U. S. A. ; LL.D., '98, Dickinson Coll.\nSuperintendent Indian Industrial School, Carlisle.\n\n"}
{"page": 1116, "printed_page": null, "text": "llo6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPENNSYLVANIA—\n1898.\n\n(South Dakota\n\nContinued\n\nEli M. Rapp.\n\n. Superintendent of Berks County Schools, 115, 4th St., Hamburg.\nEdward Weldon.\n1898.\nPresident Bethlehem Borough School Board, 127 Wall St., Bethlehem.\nLiGHTNER WiTMER, Ph.D., '91, Leipzig, Germany.\n1893. Professor of Psychology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.\nRHODE\nLIFE\n\n1882.\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nThomas\n\nISLAND\nDIRECTOR\n\nW. Bicknell, A.M., '60, Brown Univ. ; '78, Amherst Coll. ; LL.D., '84, Drury Coll.\n719-721 Industrial Trust Building, Providence.\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n1891. Thomas\n\nB. Stockwell, A.M., '65, Brown Univ.\n1875.\nCommissioner of Public Schools, Box 1432, Providence.\nHorace S. Tarbell, A.M., '62, Weslevan Univ. ; LL.D.,'96, Brown Univ.\n1884.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 169 Power St., Providence.\n\n1892. Benjamin Baker,\nA.M., '78, Brown\nUniv.\n1890. Superintendent\nof Schools,\nto Mt. Vernon Court, Newport.\nGeorge E. Church, A.B., '72, A.M., '78, Amherst Coll.\n1889.\nPrincipal Peace Street Grammar School, 37 Adelaide St., Providence.\nGiLMAN C. Fisher, A.B., '60, A.M., '86, Colby Univ.\n1892. Superintendent of Schools, no Central Ave., Pawtucket.\n1894.\n\nWalter Ballou Jacobs, A.M., '85, Brown Univ.\n1895.\nAssociate Professor of Pedagogy, Brown University, 362 Point St., Providence.\nAbby L. Marlatt, B.S., '88, M.S., '90, State Agri. Coll., Kan.\n1894. Teacher of Domestic Science Manual Training, High School, 261 Benefit St.,\nProvidence.\n\n1896. Victor Frazee, A. B., '89, Dalhousie Coll., Halifax.\n1893. Teacher in East Side High School, 98 Prospect St., Providence.\nHenry Dwight\nA.B., '89,\n,\"96,80 Denison\nUniv.,\nGranville, O.\n1898. Hervey,\nSuperintendent\nof A.M.\nSchools,\nLyon St.,\nPawtucket.\nEllen Le Garde.\n1893.\nPhysical Director of Schools, 10 Mawney St., Providence.\nMrs. Ella M. Pierce.\n1891. Supervisor of Grammar and Primary Schools, 19 Lester St., Providence.\nBessie M. Scholfield.\nSupervisor of Primary Work in Public Schools, 83 Vernon St., Providence.\nW. R. Whittle, A.B, '83, A.M., '88, Colby Univ.\n1891. Principal of Schools, 56 Elm St., Westerly.\n1897. The Rhode Island Normal School.\nPrincipal, Fred Gowing, Providence.\nSOUTH\n\nCAROLINA\n\nlife member\n1891.\n\nMartha\n\nSchofield.\n1868.\nFounder and General Manager of Schofield Normal and Industrial School, Aiken.\nactive\n\n1895. WiNTHROP\n\nNormal\n\nMEMBERS\n\nand Industrial College.\nPresident, D. B. Johnston, Rock Hill.\n\n1896. E. S. Dreher,\nA.m.,\n'93, Roanoke of Coll.,\nSalem,\nVa.\n1895.\nSupermtendent\nSchools,\nColumbia.\nW. H. Hand.\n1893.\nSuperintendent of City Schools, Chester.\n1897. C. A. Graeser, A.m., Charleston Coll.\n1898.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Bennettsville,\n1898. J. Frank Fooshe.\n1897. Superintendent of Schools, Blackville.\nJ, S. Marquis,\nA.B.,\n'87, A.M.,\n'93, Lafayette\n1892.\nPrincipal\nBrainerd\nInstitute, Coll.,\nP. O. Easton,\nBox 235,Pa.\nChester.\nSOUTH\n\nDAKOTA\n\nactive members\n1890. William H. H. Beadle, A.B., '61, A.M., '64, LL.B., '67, Univ. of Mich.\n1889.\nPresident of State Normal School, Madison.\n1894. Mattie Jones.\nTeacher in Indian Industrial School, Flandreau.\nKate Taubman.\n1895.\nPrincipal of High School, 514 S. Jay St., Aberdeen.\n1895. Frank Crane, B.S., Galesville Univ.\nSuperintendent of Public Instruction, Pierre.\nAnna B. Herrig, Grad. Oswego Normal School.\n1898. Superintendent, Training Department, State Normal School, Madison.\nGeorge M. Smith, A.B., '73, A.M., '77, Colby Univ.\nProfessor of Greek and Pedagogy, University of South Dakota, Vermillion.\nEdmund J. Vert, Pd.D., '94. Ph.B., '96.\n1895.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 502 Lynn St., Yankton.\n\n"}
{"page": 1117, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIFE AMD\n\nTexas]\n\nSOUTH\ni8g6.\n1897.\n\nACTIVE MEMBEHS\nYikYJOTK— Continued\n\nA. H. Avery,\n1894.\nPrincipal Public Schools, Woonsocket.\nAlbxander Strachan, A.m., '8a, Univ. of Rochester.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 71 Forest Ave., Deadwood.\nTENNESSEE\nLIFE\n\n1886.\n1889.\n\nDIRECTOKS\n\nWilliam Robertson Garrett, A.M., '57, William and Mary Coll. ; Ph.D., \"91, Univ.of Nashville.\n1895.\nProfessor of American History, Peabody Normal College, 813 S. Summer St.,\nNashville.\nBoard of Education of Nashville.\nPresident, J. L. Weakley; Secretary, William R. Payne, Nashville.\nACTIVE\n\n1887.\n1889.\n1892.\n1894.\nj895.\n1896.\n1897.\n\nWharton\n\nMEMBERS\n\nStewart Jones, A.B., '73, Kentucky Univ.\n1881. Principal of Memphis Institute, 501 VanceSt., Memphis.\n\nW. T. White, A.B., '77, A.M., '93, Univ. of Tenn.\n1885. Principal of Girls' High School, 508 Broad St., Knoxville.\nWilliam H. Payne,\nLL.U., Univ.\nof Mich. of; Ph.D.\",\nUniv.\nNashville.\nChancellor\nof University\nNashville\nand ofPresident\nof Peabody Normal College, 16\nLindsley Ave., Nashville.\nA. T. Barrett, LL.D., '81, S. W. Univ.\n1891. Superintendent of City Schools, looi E. 9th St., Chattanooga.\nJohn Braden, A.B., A.M., Ohio WesWan Univ. ; D.D., Iowa Wes. Univ.\n1867.\nPresident of Central Tennessee College, 82 Maple St., Nashville.\nJames A. Henry, A.B., '83, Atlanta Univ.\n1886. Principal of Hip;h School, 207 Grove St, Chattanooga.\nJames C. Blasingame, A.B., Univ. of Ga.\nPresident Holbrook Normal College, Fountain City.\nCity.\nJ. M. Guilliams,\nCentral\nNor. Coll.\n; A.M., and\n\"^qS. History, Holbrook Normal College, Fountain\n1898. A.B.,\nProfessor\nof English\nGrammar\nJ. H. McCallie, B.S., Grant Univ.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 233 Deaderick St., Knoxville.\nH. C. Weber.\n1897.\nSuperintendent of Schools, cor. Broad and Spruce Sts., Nashville.\nWilliam Riley Payne.\n1892. Secretary and Treasurer of Peabody Normal College; 189s, Secretary\nEklucation, City of Nashville, 16 Lindsley Ave., Nashvilie.\n\nBoard of\n\nTEXAS\nactive members\n1874.\n\nAlexander 1892.\nHogg, Superintendent\nA.M., '57, Randolph-Macon\n; '74,\nWilliam\nand Mary Coll ; '89, Univ. of Ala.\nof Schools, 303Coll.\nLamar\nSt.,\nFort Worth.\nJoseph Baldwin, A.B., '52, A.M., '56, LL.D., '90, Bethany Coll.\nProfessor of Pedagogy, University of Texas, 1801 Congress Ave., Austin.\n1892.\nH. C. Pritchett, A.M., '78, Pritchett Institute, Glasgow, Mo.\n1891.\nPrincipal of Sam. Houston Normal Institute, Huntsville.\n1894. Oscar Henry Cooper, A.B., '72, Yale; A.M., LL.D., '91, Univ. of Nashville.\nCarthage.\nA. H. WlLKINS.\nRepresentative of American Book Co., 418 Main St., Dallas.\n1895. D. S. Bodenhamer, A.B., '70, A.M., '73, B.D., '74, Ph.D., '84, C.E., '92, Cumberland Univ.\nProfessor of Mathematics, Trinity University, Tehuacana.\nJames\nM. Carlisle, A. B., '98, Cumberland Univ.; A.M., '78, Emory Coll., Ga. ; LL.D.,'98, Univ.of.\nNashville.\n1883.\n\n1891.\nState Superintendent of Public Instruction, Austin.\nJ. M. Fendley, A.B., '82, Univ. of Nashville.\n1885. County Superintendent and Principal\nof Avenue\nGalveston.\n\nL\n\nSchool,\n\n3202\n\nAvenue\n\nT. G Harris, A.B., '76, A.M., '80, Carson Coll., Tenn.\n1895. Superintendent of Schools, Austin.\nH. S. Parsons, A.B., '86, N. Ind. Nor. Sch.\n1896. Vice-President of Grayson College, Whitewright.\nW. S. StnTON, A.M., '84, Arkansas Univ.\n1897. Professor of Pedagogy, University of Texas, 1812 Congress Ave., Austin.\n1896. J. L. Long.\nSuperintendent of Public Schools, High School, Dallas.\nGeorge Tavloe\n'^4, Cornell\n; A.M., Austin.\nDavidson Coll. ; LL.D., Trinity.\n1896. Winston,\nPresident B.L.,\nof University\nof Texas,\n1897. Charles T. Alexander.\n. Superintendent of Schools, 1122 Columbus St., Waco.\nN. J. Clancy, Grad. State Nor. Sch.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Mansfield.\nC. E. Foster, B.S., E, Tex. Nor.\nPrincipal of School, Handlej-.\nJohn A. Moldstad, A.B., '94, Luther Coll., Decorah, la.\nPrincipal of Lutheran College, Clifton,\n\nN,\n\n"}
{"page": 1118, "printed_page": null, "text": "1I08\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Washington\n\nl^yiK^— Continued\n1898.\n\nJ. K. McBride, F.I.,\nPeabodjr\nNor. School,\nColl. ; Greenville.\nA.B., '93, Univ. of Nashville.\nPrincipal\nSalem\nR. E. Miller, A.B., Nat. Nor. Univ.\nPresident of Jefferson Davis College and Superintendent of Schools, Pittsburg.\nUTAH\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n1892.\n\nAllen Allensworth. A.M.\n1886.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 23 Fountain Square, Fort Douglas.\n1895. William Jasper Kerr, B.S., D.B.\n1894. President of Brigham Young College, Logan.\nJ. F. Millspaugh, A.B., '89, Univ. of Mich. ; M.D., '83. Univ. of Pa.\n1890.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 209. 13th East St., Salt Lake City.\nUniversity of Utah.\nPresident, J. T. Kingsbury; Secretary, David R. Allen, Salt Lake City.\n1896. M. Adelaide Holton.\n1897.\nSupervisor Primary School, 6 Thornton Ave., Salt Lake City.\n1597. A. O. Clark.\nPrincipal of High School, 1059, 3d St., Salt Lake City.\nJoseph M. Tanner.\nPresident of Agricultural College, Logan.\nVERMONT\nLIFE\n\nT889.\n\nEdmund\n\nMEMBER\n\nWentworth Wright, A.B., '66, A.M., '69, Harvard Coll.\nTeachers' Examiner, Lunenburg.\nactive members\n\n1894,\n1896.\n\nMason S. Stone, A.B., '83, Univ. of Vt.\n1892. State Superintendent of Education, Montpelier.\nHerbert J. Jones, Ph.B., '94, Cornell Univ.\n1897\nSuperintendent of Schools, St. Johnsbury,\nVIRGINIA\nactive members\n\n1894.\n\nJohn H. Bader.\n1893. Superintendent of Schools, Staunton.\nWilliam F. Fox, A.M., '58, Richmond Coll.\n1889.\nSuperintendent of Schools, City Hall, Richmond.\nE. C. Glass.\n1893.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 622 Madison St., Lynchburg.\nMaximilian P. E. Groszmann. Pd.D., '93, New York Univ.\n\" Montebello,\" University of Virginia, Charlottesville.\n1896. Albert H. Tuttle, M.S, '68, Penn. Coll.\n1888.\nProfessor\nof Biology, University of Virginia, i West Lawn, University of Virginia,\nCharlottesville.\n1897. Celestia S. Parrish, Ph.B., '96, Cornell Univ.\n1893.\nProfessor\nof Mathematics and Pedagogy in Randolph Macon Woman's\nLynchburg.\n1898. Bessie Crawford Anderson.\n16 S. Coulter St., Staunton.\nM. M. Lynch.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Winchester.\n\nCollege,\n\nWASHINGTON\n\n1891.\n\nLIFE\n\nMEMBER\n\nactive\n\nMEMBERS\n\nJohn Hull, A.M., '76, 111. Wes. Univ.\nUrban, Sinclair Island.\n\n1890. William E. Wilson, A.M., '75, Monmouth Coll., 111.\n1898.\nPresident Washington State Normal School, Ellensburg.\n1891. Frank J. Barnard.\n1890.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Seattle.\n1893. J. T. Forrest, Ph.B., '83, Central Univ. of Iowa.\n1885.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Chehalis.\nM. G. Royal, A.B., '75, A.M.. '78, W. Univ., Salem, Ore.\nOlympia.\n1896.\nReuben S. Bingham, A.B., A.M., Hamilton Coll.\n1896.\nSuperintendent of City Schools, 616 Tacoma Ave., Tacoma.\nCharles F. Reeves, B.S., '78, M.S., '81, Pa. State Coll.\n1B94.\nProfessor\nof Modern\nLanguages,\nUniversity of Washington, Seattle;\nColumbia\nCity.\n\nresidence.\n\n"}
{"page": 1119, "printed_page": null, "text": "Wisconsin]\n\nLIFE\n\nAND\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n1 1 09\n\nWASHINGTON— Co«/f««*rf\n1897. Statk Normal\n\nSchool at Ellbksburg.\nPresident, W. E. Wilson, Ellensburg.\n\n1898. O. C. Whitney, B.L., '96, Puget Sound Univ.\n1895. Principal Bryant School, 704 S. I St., Tacoma.\nWEST\n\nVIRGINIA\n\nlife director\n1877.\n\nT. Marcellus\n\nMarshall.\nGlenville.\n\n1870.\n\nWilliam H. Cole, A.B., A.M., Ohio Wesleyan Univ.\n1898. Superintendent of Schools, Huntington.\n\nLIFE MEMBER\n\nACnVB\n\nMEMBERS\n\n1890. W. H. Anderson, A.M., '89, Bethany Coll.\n1885.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 45, 14th St., Wheeling,\n1891. J. Walter Barnes, A.M., West Virginia Univ.\n1892. Principal of State Normal School, Fairmont.\nBvRD Prillerman, B.S., '89, Knoxville Coll. ; A.M., '94, Westminster Coll.\n1895.\nProfessor of English Language, West Virginia Colored Institute, Charleston.\n1894. Robert A. Armstrong, A.M., '90, West Virginia Univ.\n1893. Professor of English Literature, and (1897) Vice-President, West Virginia University, Morgantown.\n1895. D. M. Willis.\nPrincipal Commercial Department, West Virginia University, Morgantown.\n1896. J. N. Deahl, A.B.,Grafton.\n'93, Harvard.\nCharles W. Evans.\n1897. Superintendent of Schools, Walnut Ave., Fairmont.\nLucy Robinson.\nSupervisor of Music, 36 Virginia St., Wheeling.\n1897. George S. Laidlev, A.B., West Va. Univ.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Charleston.\nFrederic\nW. Chicago.\nSandkrs, A.B., '83, Coll. of City of N. Y. ; A.M., '92, Harvard Univ.; Ph.D., '95\nUniv. of\n1897.\nAssistant Professor of European History, West Virginia University, Morgantown.\nJ. R. Trotter, A.M., '96, Harvard.\nState Superintendent of Free Schools, Charleston.\nWISCONSIN\nUFB\n\nMEMBERS\n\n1884, *George Sumner Albee, A.B., '64, Univ. of Mich.\n'\n1871.\nPresident of State Normal School, Oshkosh.\nALimNi Association, State Normal School at Milwaukee.\nPresident, Lutie E. Steams; Secretary, Annette Rosenthal, Milwaukee.\nJohn Arthur Avlward, B.A., '84; B.L. (Law), '90. Univ. of Wis.\nVilas Block, Madison.\nGeorge Beck, M.S., '63, Univ. of Mich.\n514N. Elm St., Platteville.\nBeloit City School Board.\nPresident, F. E. Converse; Secretary, A. N. Bort, Beloit.\nBoard of Education of the City of Janesville.\nPresident, James Shearer; Clerk, Fred. L. Clemons, Janesville.\nBoard of Education, La Crosse.\nPresident, J.J, Fruit ; Secretary, John P. Bird, La Crosse.\nBoard of Education, Oshkosh.\nPresident, J. Howard Jenkins; Clerk, Dan Witzel, Oshkosh.\nBoard of Education. Watertown.\nBoard of Regents, State Normal Schoocs.\nPresident, A. E. ITiompson, Oshkosh; Secretary, S. S. Rockwood, Portage.\nBoard op School Directors, Milwaukee.\nPresident, Frank M. Hoyt, 222 Prospect Ave. ; Secretary, Henry E. Legler, City\nHall, Milwaukee.\nCity Superintendents' and Supervising Principals' Association of Wisconsin.\nPresident, L. A. Williams, Fond du Lac ; Secretary. J. H. Derse, Black River Falls,\nJairus Harolin\nVale; LL.D.,\n'76, Univ.\nWis.\n1868. Carpenter,\nProfessor ofA.M.,\nLaw, '74,\nUniversity\nof Wisconsin,\n315 of^\nWisconsin\nAve., Madison.\nWiLLARD\n\nH. Chandler.\n\n1895.\nState Inspector of High Schools, Madison\nLewis Herbert Clark.\n1892.\nProfessor of Mathematics, State Normal School, River Falls.\nCoiWTY Teachers' Association, Milwaukee County.\nPresident, Herbert J. Piper, Bay View; Secretary, John E. Roch, S. Milwaukee.\nPhilip Eden, Ph.B., '72, Univ. of Wis.\n6or Pine St., Platteville.\nJohn Q. Emery, A.M., Ph.B.\n1895.\nState Superintendent of Public Schools, Madison.\n\n"}
{"page": 1120, "printed_page": null, "text": "mo\n1884.\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Wisconsin\n\nJohn T. Flavin.\n1874.\nCounty Superintendent of Schools of Dodge County, Watertown.\nLorenzo Dow Harvey, Ph.D., '91, Milton Coll.\n1892. President of State Normal School, 225, 23d St., Milwaukee.\nAndrew J. Hutton.\n1879.\ninstitute Conductor, State Normal School, 1105 Main St., Whitewater.\nCharles H. Nye.\n1893. County Superintendent of Schools of Grant County, 212 N. Adams St., Lancaster.\nW. D. Parker, A.M., tfniv. of Wis.\nRiver Falls.\nJohn Barber Parkinson, A.B., A.M., Univ. of Wis.\n1885. Vice-President and (1867) Professor of Constitutional and International Law, University ofWisconsin, 803 State St., Madison.\nPublic School Teachers of Janesville.\nSuperintendent, D. D. Mayne ; Secretary, Lizzie A, Paterson, Janesville,\nSamuel Shaw, A.M., '75, Univ. of Wis.\nDistrict Attorney, Crandon, Forest Co,\nRobert Closson Spencer.\n1863.\nPresident of Spencerian Business College, Broadway and Wisconsin St., Milwaukee.\nJoshua Stark, A.B,, '48, Union Coll., Schenectady, N. Y.\n355 Farwell Ave., Milwaukee.\nState Historical Society of Wisconsin.\nPresident, John Johnston, Milwaukee; Secretary, Reuben G. Thwaites, Madison ;\nLibrarian, Isaac S. Bradley, Madison.\nState Normal School at Platteville.\nPresident, Duncan McGregor; Secretary, Carol Goff, Platteville.\nJohn William Stearns, A.B., '60, A,M,, '64, Harvard ; LL.D., '74. Chicago Univ.\n1888.\nProfessor of Philosophy and Pedagogy, and (1897) Director of School of Education,\nUniv. of Wis., 512 Wisconsin Ave., Madison.\nI, N, Stewart, B,S., '62, Univ. of Wis,\nEditor, Staff of Milwaukee \" Daily Journal,\" Box 124, Milwaukee,\nTeachers* Association of Wisconsin.\nPresident, G. G. Williams, West Superior; Secretary, W. H. Cheever, Milwaukee.\nRev.Illinois,\nWilliam C, Whitford, A,B,, '53. A.M., '58, Union Coll., N, Y.; D,D., '85, Blackburn Univ,,\n\nN\n\n1858,\n\nPresident of Milton College, Milton, Rock Co,\nactive members\n\n18S4,\n\nMrs. Eva D. Kellogg,\nEditor of \"Primary Education,\" 237 Langdon St., Madison.\n1887. Albert Salisbury, Ph.D., Milton Coll., Wis.\n1885.\nPresident of State Normal School, Whitewater.\nr889. Sanford A. Hooper, A.B.,'72, A.M., '82, Beloit Coll.\n1893. Principal South Side High School, Milwaukee.\n1890. JuDSON E. Hoyt, A.B., '80, Univ. of Wis.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 512 Wilson Ave., Menomonie.\n1891. Marie Doyle,\n1894. Supervisor of Practice, State Normal School, West Superior.\n1892. Mrs. Ella N. Allen.\n1897. Supervisor of Practice, State Normal School, Platteville\nI. C. McNeill,\n1896,\nPresident State Normal School, West Superior.\nMrs. I. C. McNeill.\nWest Superior.\nM. V. O'Shea, B.L., '92, Cornell.\n1895. Professor of the Science and Art of Education, University of Wisconsin, 431 Lake\nSt., Madison.\nA. W. Tressler, A.B., '91, Univ. of Mich.\n1898. Principal of Schools, Ripon.\n1893. William George Bruce.\nEditor of \" American School Board Journal,\" 435 Hanover St., Milwaukee.\n1894. BuEL T, Davis,\n1896, Superintendent of Schools, 71 Washington St,, Oshkosh.\nR, B, Dudgeon, A.B., '76, Univ. of Wis.\n1891. Supenntendent of Schools, 520 Jefferson St., Madison.\nD. D. Mayne.\n1893.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 226 S. Main St., Janesville.\nGeorge P. Perry.\nPrincipal of 7th District School, 1218 Caledonia St., La Crosse.\nTheron B. Pray, A.M., '72, Univ, of Chicago.\nPresident of State Normal School, 402 Pine St., Stevens' Point.\n1895. G. L, Bowman,\n1896, Teacher of Mathematics and Reading, State Normal School, 1713 Hughitt Ave,,\nWest Superior.\n\nWarren J. Brier.\n1898.\nPresident of State Normal School, River Falls.\nC. E. Brown.\n1034 Spaight St., Madison.\nC, R. Cross.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Oconomowoc.\nW. H. Elson, A.B., Univ. of Ind.\nSuperintendent of Schools, West Superior.\nSilas Y. Gillan, A.M., '87, 111. Wesleyan Univ.\n1892. Editor \" Western Teacher,\" 141 Wisconsin St., Milwaukee.\nJonathan Piper, A.B., Iowa State Univ. ; A.M., Bowdoin Coll.\nInstitute Instructor, Honey Creek.\n\n"}
{"page": 1121, "printed_page": null, "text": "Wisconsin]\n\nLIFE\n\nAND\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n1 11 1\n\n1895. Ellen C. Sabin, A.M., '95, Univ. of Wis.\n1895. President of Milwaukee -Downer College, 614 Milwaukee St., Milwaukee.\nH. O. R. SiKFKRT.\n1896. Superintendent of Schools, City Hall, Milwaukee.\nH. A. SiMONDS, A.B., '8^, A.M., '86, Apiherst Coll.\n1890. Superintendent of Schools and Principal High School, 934 Clark St., Stevens' Pointy\nCarrie J. Smith.\n1894. Instructor in General History and English, State Normal School, River Falls.\nRose C. Swart, A.M., '95, Univ. of Wis.\n1884.\nInspector of Practice Teaching, State Normal School, 37 Elm St., Oshkosh.\nSamuel B. Todd, Ph.B.\nI E. Main St., Madison.\nE. V. Wernick.\n1895. President of Board of Exlucation, Hillsboro.\nCharles F. A. Zimmerman, Ph.B., '96, 111. Wes. Univ. ; A.M., '96, Charles City Coll.\n1888.\nPrincipal of 17th District School, 622 Otjen St., Milwaukee.\n1896. Walter Allen.\n1883. Principal lath District School, 502 Greenbush St., Milwaukee.\nWilliam H. Beach.\nProfessor of History and Civics, East Side High School, 229 Pleasant St., Milwaukee.\nWilliam O. Brown.\n1894. Principal of East Side High School, 414 Stewart St., Green Bay.\nArthur Burch.\nAssistant Superintendent of Public Schools, 116, 32d St., Milwaukee.\nW. H. Cheever.\n1893.\nState Institute Conductor, 229, 23d St., Milwaukee.\nOtis C. Gross, B.S., '90, Univ. of Minn.\n1896. Superintendent of Schools, 338 Oxford Ave., Eau Claire.\nMary Hill.\n1891. Assistant Teacher, 3d District, 881 Mound St., Milwaukee.\nHarriett B. Merrill, B.S., '90, M.S., '93, Univ. of Wis.\nKate S. Nelson. Instructor of^ Biology in High School, 661 Jackson St., Milwaukee.\nGrade Teacher, no Park Ave., Janesville.\nMae E. Schreiber.\nTeacher of Reading, Literature, and Director of Library, Normal School, Milwaukee.\nEmma Willard Shrieves.\n1895. Physical Training Department, State Normal School, 2834 Cedar St.; Milwaukee.\nGeorge C. Shutts, Ph.M.\nTeacher of Mathematics and History, State Normal School, 306 Main St., AVhitewater.\nJ. L. Thatcher, B.L., '93, Univ. of Wis.\n1898.\nPrincipal of City Schools, Waupaca.\nR. A. Waterburv.\n,\n933 Ruse St., N. La Crosse.\n1897. R. L. Barton.\n1893.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Chippewa Falls.\nMrs. Helen E. Bateman.\nTeacher of Literature in National German -American Teachers' Seminary, 558-568\nBroadway, Milwaukee.\nJohn P. Bird.\n1897. Superintendent of Schools, 904 Cass St., La Crosse.\nJulia Campbell.\n1880. Assistant Teacher in Public Schools, 7th Grade, 202, 24th St., Milwaukee.\nC. P. Carv.\nSupervisor of Practice Teaching, State Normal School, 1703 Cedar St., Milwaukee\nR. L. Clark.\n1897.\nPrincipal of School, 508 Washington St., Oshkosh.\nW. G. Clough, A.B., '75.\nTeacher in High School, Portage.\nF. E. Converse, B.L., '88, Univ. of Mich.\n1897.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Prospect Ave., Beloit.\nG. £. Cin.vER.\n1893.\nEber Dafoe.\nF. E. Doty, B.L.\n1897.\nJ. T. Edwards.\nMrs. J. Q. Emery.\n\nTeacher of Physical Science, State Normal School, 1103 Main St., Stevens' Point,\nPrincipal of High School, Plainfield.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Sparta.\nSuperintendent of City Schools, Marinette.\nAlbion.\n\nA. L. EwiNG, M.S., '8s, Cornell Univ.\nProfessor of Natural Science, State Normal School, River Falls.\nMrs. Medora Dodge Gammon, Grad. Froebel Asso., Chicago.\n1898.\nTraining Department, State Normal School, 1x16, i8th St., Milwaukee.\nAlbert Gihtman.\n1886. Principal of Schools, Manitowoc.\nN. A. Harvey, Ph.D.\n1896. Teacher in State Norma! School, 2007 Hughitt Ave., West Superior.\nMrs. p. H. Hewitt.\n1897. Teacher in 3d Grade, 612 St. Clair St., Manitowoc.\nEllbn C. Lloyd Jones.\nProprietor of Home School, Hillside.\nJank Lloyd Jones.\n1887. Principal and Proprietor of Home School, Hillside.\n\n"}
{"page": 1122, "printed_page": null, "text": "1112\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTIONAL\n\nASSOCIA 7 ION\n\n[Wyoming\n\nWISCONSIN— Ctf«^i««*<^\n' '''\n\n' '\n*\nSuperintendent of Schools, Washburn.\nWilliam T. Langley, B,S., Mich. Agr. Coll.\nAssistant Principal of High School, 2130 John Ave., West Superior.\nMrs. W. T. Langley.\n2130 John Ave., West Superior.\nJ, W. Livingston, Grad. State Normal School.\n1897. Institute Conductor in State Normal School, 419 Pine St., Stevens' Point.\nEmma J. Luebke.\n1895. Principal of loth District Primary School No. i, 872, loth St., N. W. Station, Milwaukee.\nMary L. Lugg.\n1893. Teacher in 17th District School, 219 Austin St., Milwaukee.\nHarriet Cecil\nMt. Holyoke\n'82. School, Oshkosh.\n1884. Magee,\nDirectorGrad.\nof Drawing,\nState Coll.,\nNormal\nC. O. Marsh.\n1893. Principal of High School, and (1898) Superintendent of Schools, 103 Clermont St.,\nAntigo.\nE. C. Meland, B.L.,\n'89, Univ.\nof Wis. High School, De Forest.\nPrincipal\nof Windsor\nCharles O. Merica, A.M.\n1898. Superintendent Wisconsin Industrial School for Boys, Waukesha.\nThomas B. Mills.\nSenator nth District, West Superior.\nJohn G. Nageler.\n1896. Principal of Primary School, 2517 Elm St., Milwaukee.\nOliver Needham, Grad., '96, State Normal School.\nStudent in Normal School, P. O. Box 30, Midway.\nRichard J.1892.\nO'Hanlon.\nPrincipal of 21st District School, 959, ist St., Milwaukee.\nFrank Ostrander.\nRegent of Normal Schools, West Superior.\nJ. P. Peterson.\n1894. Superintendent of Schools, Polk County, West Denmark.\nLorenzo D Roberts.\n•1889. County Superintendent of Schools, Shawano.\nJ. F. Sims.\n1896. Teacher of Geography and Civics in State Normal School, River Falls.\nEdwin R. Smith.\nCounty Superintendent, Manitowoc.\nHarriet E. Smith, Grad. Oshkosh Nor. Sch.\n1892. Principal of i6th District Primary School, 2409 Cedar St., Milwaukee.\nLizzie P. Swan.\n_\n_\n•\n1897. Librarian of State Normal School, Whitewater.\nJ. W. Swiler.\n1880.\nSuperintendent of State School for the Deaf, Delavan.\nState Normal School at Oshkosh.\nPresident,\nOshkosh.\nMiss J. L. Terry.\nTeacher in Model Department, State Normal School, River Falls.\nJ. M.JTURNER.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Burlington.\nE. W. Walker.\nInstitute Conductor, State Normal School, 1910 John Ave., West Superior.\nEdith M. Watson.\n1896.\nKindergartner, 1611, 14th St., West Superior.\nA. W. Weber.\nPrincipal of High School, Fort Atkinson.\n\n♦Ellen\n\n1898.\n\nG.\n\nWeeks.\n\n720 Ontario Ave., Sheboygan.\nAllen B. West, Grad., '84, Whitewater State Nor. Sch.\n1893.\nPrincipal of High School, Lake Mills.\nH. A. Whipple.\nPrincipal of High School, Whitewater.\nWilliam Hill Williams, A.B., '84, A.M., '87, Williams Coll.\nTeacher of Mathematics in State Normal School, Platteville.\nElizabeth Fleming.\n1896. Model Teacher Grammar Grade, River Falls.\nThomas Higdon Gentle.\n1898. Assistant Professor of Psychology aud Pedagogy, State Normal School, Platteville\nJohn Henry Mason,\nB.S., Stout\n'82, Worcester\nPolytechnic\nInst.,Menomonie.\nMass.\nPrincipal\nManual Training\nSchool,\nA. H. Sage, B.S., '86, Cornell Univ.\n1893. Teacher of Physics in Normal School, Oshkosh.\nGuy Allan Tawney, A.B., '93, A.M., '94, Princeton; Ph.D., '96, Leipzig.\n1897. Associate Professor of Mental Science, 674 College Ave., Beloit.\nWYOMING\nactive members\n\n1894. Estelle Reel.\n1894. State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Capitol, Cheyenne.\nMerz, B.S., A.M., Blackburn Univ.\n1888. Professor of Philosophy and Social Science, University of Wyoming, 407, gth St.,\nLaramie.\n\n1895. Henry\n\n"}
{"page": 1123, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nLIFE\n\nAND\n^\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n1113-\n\n'WiGWi^Q— Continued\n1895.\n1897.\n\nEmanuel Stuvkr, B.S., '77, M.S., '85, Nat. Nor. Univ., Lebanon, O. ; M.D., '80, Ohio Med. Coll. ;\nPh.D., '95, Wyo. Normal and Scientific Coll.\n1895.\nPresident Wyoming Normal and Scientific College, Rawlins.\nJ. O. Churchill.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 2504 Ferguson St., Cheyenne.\nLibrary, University of Wyoming.\nPresident, Frank Pierrepont Graves ; Librarian, Grace Rajrmond Hebard, Laramie\nALASKA\nactive member\n\n1895.\n\nCassia Patton.\n1894.\n\nTeacher of School No. 3, Sitka, Alaska.\nCANADA\nactive members\n\n1890. James L. Hughes.\nInspector of Schools, cor. York and Richmond Sts. ; 58 Henry St., Toronto.\n1891. Samuel Bower Sinclair, A.M., '93, Univ. of Toronto.\n1893.\nVice-Principal of Normal School, Ottawa.\n1895. Mrs. Ada M. Hughes,\nSuperintendent of Kindergartens, Public Schools, 58 Henry St., Toronto.\nHUNGARY\nactive\n1893.\n\nMEMBER\n\nB^la Kr]£csy, State High School Teacher's Diploma, '81.\nState High School, 6th District at Budapest, VI Lovag Utca 18, Budapest, Hungary.\nMEXICO\nactive\n\n1897.\n\nMEMBER\n\nMrs. Olive E. Weston, Grad., '85, of Froebel Kindergarten Asso.\n1896. Principal of Normal Kindergarten Department in Denny School, Puente de Alvarado,\n1441, City of Mexico.\nCORRESPONDING\n\nMEMBERS\n\n[See Minutes of Meeting of Board of Directors, Washington\ntion, p. i] Meeting, p. 38; also Art. Ill, sec. 2, ConstituMiss Dorothea Bbale, Principal of Ladies' College, Cheltenham, London, England.\nSiGNOR LuiGi Bodio, Direttore Generate della Statistica del Regno, Roma, Italia.\nProfessor Ferdinand Buisson, Professor of Education at the Sorbonne, Paris, France.\nGabriel CoMPAVRfi, Rector of the University at Lyons, France.\nSir Joshua G. Fitch, LL.D., formerly Her Majesty's Inspector of Training Colleges and Lecturer on\nEducation at the University of Cambridge, 13 Leinster Sq., Bayswater, W., London, England.\nS. S. Laurie, LL.D., Professor of the History and Institutes of Education in the University of Edinburgh,\nScotland.\nDr. E. Levasseur, Professor at the College of France, President of the Statistical Commission for\nPrimary Instruction.\nFriedrich PAtn-SEN, Ph.D., Professor of Philosophy and Education in the University of Berlin,\nGermany.\nMichael Sadler, A.M., Director of Special Inquiries and Reports, Department of Education,\nWhitehall, S. W., London, England.\nHon. E. Lyulph Stanley, Member of the London School Board.\n\n"}
{"page": 1124, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX\n\nTO\n\nLIST\n\nOF\n\nLIFE DIRECTORS, LIFE AND ACTIVE MEMBERS\n[Capital letters following years indicate : D, Life Director ; L, Life\nMember ; A, Active Member.]\n[Deceased members are indicated by a *.]\nAbbott, D. Q., Ga., 1896, A.\nAckennan, J. H., Ore., 1895, A.\nAdams, Cecilia, Iowa, 1898, A.\nAdams. J. S., N. Y.. 1896, A.\nAdee, J. N.. III., 1895, A.\nAgricultural Coll., Kan., 1897, A.\nAhem. M. E., 111.. 1896, A.\nAiton, George B., Minn., 1894, A.\nAla. Polytechnic Insti., Ala., 1897, A.\n*AIbee, George Sumner, Wis., 1884, L.\nAlbert, C. J., 111., 1896, A.\nAlbrecht, F. J., 111., 1891, A.\nAlbro, S. H., Pa., 1895, A.\nAlden, Mrs. Amelia D., N. Y., 1896, A.\nAlderman, E. A., N. C, 1894, A.\nAldridge, Vincent, N. Y., 1891, A.\nAlexander, Charles T., Tex., 1897, A,\nAllen, Mrs. Ella N., Wis., 1892, A,\nAllen, Ira W., 111., 1870, L.\nAllen, L. H., N. D., 1897. A.\nAllen, Walter. Wis., 1896, A.\nAUensworth, Allen, Utah, 1892, A.\nAlley, F. S.. Ky., 1896, A.\nAllgood, Robert V., Ala., 1898, A.\nAllison, J. J., 111., 1893, A.\nAlmond, W. S., Ind., 1891, A.\nAlumni Asso.. Milwaukee, Wis., 1884, L.\nAmbrose, H. T., N. Y., 1895, A.\nAmes, Charles H., Mass., 1896, A.\nAmherst Coll. Library, Mass., 1897, A.\nAmidon, L. E., Mich., 1896, A.\nAnderson, Bessie C, Va., 1898, A.\nAnderson, John J., N. Y., 1871, L.\nAnderson, P. J., Ohio, i8q6, A.\nAnderson, Mrs. P. J., Ohio, 1896, A.\nAnderson, W. H., W. Va., 1890, A.\nArbury, Frederick W., Mich., 1895, A. .\nArey, Oliver C, N. Y., 1870, L.\nArmitage, B. F., 111., 1896, A.\nArmstrong, George P., Mass., 1896, A.\nArmstrong, G. W., Mo., 1898, A.\nArmstrong, Robert A., W. Va., 1894, A.\nArnold, E. Herman, Conn., 1896, A.\nArnold, Sarah L., Mass., 1895, A.\nArnot, S. P., Neb., 1897, A.\nArrowsmith, S. V., N. J., 1898, A.\nAshbaugh, Z. R., Mo., 1897, A.\nAshmore, Otis, Ga., 1894, A.\nAtkinson, Fred W., Mass., 1894, A.\nAtlanta Univ., Ga., 189s, A.\nAugsburg, D. R., Cal., 1895, A.\nAvery, A. H., S. D., 1896, A.\nAvery, Lewis B., Cal., 1895, A.\nAvery, Myrtilla, N. Y., 1897, A.\nAvery, Rachel F., Pa., 1879, L.\nAylward, John A., Wis., 1884, L.\nAyres, Edward, Ind., 1892, A.\nAyres, Henrietta B., Colo., 1893, A.\nBabcock, C. A., Pa., 1893, A.\nBabcock, J. W., N. Y., 1894, A.\nBader, John H., Va., 1894, A.\nBaer, Clara G., La.. 1897, A.\nBailey, Emma V., 111., 1897, A,\nBailey, M. A., Kan., 1895, A.\nBailey, Walter J., Cal., 1895, A.\nBaird, Mrs. J. H., N. Y., 1897, A.\nBaker, Benjamin, R. I., 1892, A,\n\nBaker, James H., Colo., 1884, A.\nBaker, O. M., Mass., 1892, A.\nBaker, Thomas O., N. Y^., 1892, A.\nBaker, W. H., Ga., 1890, L.\nBalcom, Arthur G., N. J., 1898, A.\nBaldwin, Joseph, Tex., 1883, A.\nBallard, C. A., Minn., 1896, A.\nBalliet, Thomas M., Mass., 1895, A.\nBallou, C. G., Ohio, 1895, A.\nBancroft, Jessie, N. Y., 1897, A.\nBancroft, Margaret, N. J., 1897, A.\n.\nBanker, Lizzie L., Neb., i8go, A.\nBarbour, O. F., III., 1889, A.\nBardeen, C. W., N. Y., 1890, A.\nBardwell, C. M., 111., 1892, A.\nBargen, I. I., Minn., 1897, A.\nBarnard, Frank J., Wash., 1891, A.\nBarnard, Henry, Conn., 1884, L.\nBarnard, James U., Mo., 1893, A.\nBarnard.Job, D. C, 1898, A.\nBarnes, Earl, Cal., 1891, A.\nBarnes, Mrs. F. S., N. Y., 1896, A.\nBarnes, J. Walter, W. Va., 1891, A.\nBarnes, O. P., Kan., 189s, A.\nBarnum, Anna, N. D., 1897, A.\nBarrett, A. T.,Tenn., 1894, A.\nBarrett, Charles S., Ohio, 1895, A.\nBarrett, H. M., Colo., 1895, A.\nBarrett, R. C, Iowa, 1896, A.\nBarrett, S. M., Mo., 1897, A.\nBarringer, William N., N. J., 1894, A\nBarstow, C. L., N. Y., 1897, A.\nBartholf, William J., 111., 1897, A.\nBartholomew, Susie M., Ky., 1894, A.\nBartholomew, W. H., Ky., 1877, L.Bartlett, William A., Minn., 1897, A.\nBarton, R. L., Wis., 1897, A.\nBascom, John, Mass., 1884, L.\nBashford, James W., Ohio, 1894, A.\nBass, E. E., Miss., 1895, A.\nBass, George F., Ind., 1896, A.\nBateman, Mrs. H. E., Wis., 1897, A.\nBates, William C, Mass., i8g6, A.\nBaumann, C. C, Iowa, 1897, A.\n*Baumgartner, Elizabeth, 111., 1896,\nBaxter, Charles J., N. J.. 1896, A.\nBayliss, Alfred, 111., 1896, A.\nBaylor, Adelaide S., Ind., 1897, A.\nBeach, William H., Wis., 1896, A.\nBeadle. William H. H., S. D., 1890, A.\nBeal, William, Iowa, 1896, A.\nBeals, S. DeWitt, Neb., 1876, L.\nBeardshear, W. M.. Iowa, 1889, A.\nBeardsley, A. E.. Colo., 1895, A.\nBeardsley, Elias J., N. Y., 1892, A.\nBeattys, Frank D., N. Y., 1894, A.\nBecht, J.George, Pa., 1896, A.\nBeck. George, Wis.. 1884, L.\nBeggs, Robert H., Colo., 1884, A.\nBeggs, S. S., 111.. 1896, A.\nBeistle. Ella, Ohio, 1897, A.\nBelknap, Emmet, N. Y., 1892, A.\nBell, Alexander Graham, D. C, 1884, L.\nBell, William A.. Ind., 1876, L.\nIII4 Belman, W. C, Ind., 1895. A.\nBeloit City School Board, Wis., 1884, L.\nBender, Ida C, N. Y., 1895, A.\n\n"}
{"page": 1125, "printed_page": null, "text": "1115\n\nINDEX\n\nTO LIFE AND\n\nBenedict, £. M., Ga., 1897, A.\nBenedict. W. H., N. Y., 1892, A.\nBenham, N. L., N. Y.. 1895, A.\nBennett, Charles A., III., 1896, A.\nBennett, C. W., Ohio. 1884, L.\n♦Bennett, Hampton, Ohio, 1880. L.\nBennett, Mrs. Lydia, N. J., 1896, A.\nBenson, Christine, Cal., 1S97, A.\nBenton, George W., Ind., 1894, A.\nBereey, D. H., Pa., 1898, A.\nBerlin, A. H., Del., 1896, A.\nBerry, B. D., 111^ 1895, A.\nBessey, Charles E., Neb., 1895, A.\nBevans, Homer, 111., 1897, A.\nBicknell, Thomas W., R. I., 1882, D.\nBillingsly, J. J., Iowa, 189s, A.\nBingham, Reuben S., Wash., 1896, A.\nBingham, Robert, N. C, 1884, L,\nBirchard, C. C, N. Y., 1895, A.\nBird, John P., Wis., 1897, A.\nBishop, Eliza A., Pa., 1892, A.\nBishop, J. Remsen, Ohio, 1894, A.\nBishop, Nathan L., Conn., 1895, A.\nBissell, Annie M., N. Y.. 1895, A,\nBlack, James C, Ida., 1888, A.\nBlack, S. T., Cal., 1895, A.\nBlack, William H., Mo., 1895, A.\nBlack, William J., 111., 1897, A.\nBlair, John J., N. C, 1895, A.\nBlaisdell. H. R., Ky., 1893, A.\nBlake, Mrs. E. M., Ark., 1898, A.\nBlaker, Mrs. E. A., Ind., 1896, A.\nBlakesley, O. J., Colo., 1896, A.\nBlakiston, Marjs Ohio. 1895, A.\nBlasingame, J. C., Tenn., 1897, A.\nBlewett, Benjamin, Mo., 1897, A.\nBliss, Frederick L., Mich., 1895, A.\nBliss, J. J., Ohio, 1896, A.\nBlodgett, A. B.,N. Y., 1890, A.\nBlodgett, S. F.. Mass., 1897, A.\nBoard of Ed., Abilene, Kan., 1886, L.\nBoard of Ed., Dodge City. Kan., 1886, L.\nBoard of Ed., Janesville, Wis., 1884, L.\nBoard of Ed., La Crosse, Wis., 1884, L.\nBoard of Ed., Milwaukee, Wis.. 1884, L.\nBoard of Ed., Nashville, Tenn., 1889, D.\nBoard of Ed., Northfield, Minn., 1890, L.\nBoard of Ed., Oshkosh, Wis., 1884, L.\nBoard of Ed., Ottawa, Kan.. 1886, L.\nBoard of Ed., Sedgwick, Kan., 1886, L.\nBoard of Ed.. Watertown, Wis., 1884, L.\nBoard of Regents, State Nor. Sch., Wis,, 1884, L.\nBodenhamer, D. S., Tex., 1895, A.\nBodler, Anna, Pa., 1898, A.\nBodwell. Edwin J., Neb., 1895, A.\nBoice, H. B., N. J., 1896, A.\nBolenbaugh, G. B., Ohio, 1896, A,\nBombeiger, F. 1., Minn., 1895, A.\nBond, G. G., Ga., 1894, A.\nBond, J. D., Minn., 1896, A.\nBonebrake, Lewis D., Ohio, 1890, A.\nBoone, Richard G., Mich., 1884, A.\nBoston College, Mass., 1897, A,\nBostwick, O. P., Iowa, 1891, A.\nBoughton, Willis, Ohio, 1895, A.\nBouldin, Susie S., Md., 1898, A.\nBoutelle, C. M., Minn.. 1896, A.\nBouton, Eugene, Mass., 1895, A.\nBowers, H. W,, Ind., 1896, A.\nBowman, G. L., Wis., 1895, A.\nBowman, Perla G., Ohio, 1898, A.\nBoyd, David R., Okla., 1892, A.\nBoyd, Mrs. Gaston, Kan., 1897, A.\nBoyd, Jennie, Ark., 1898, A.\nBoyd, W. W,, Ohio, 1894, A.\nBoyden, Albert G., Mass., 1890, A.\nBoyden, Arthur C, Mass., 1897, A.\nBoyden. Wallace C, Mass., 1896, A.\nBoyer, E. R., 111., 1897, A.\nBoyle, Charles A., Kan., 1897, A.\nBoyle, Edward, Ind., 1895, A.\nBraden, John, Tenn., 1895, A.\nBradley, 'Charles A., Colo., 1893, A,\nBradley, John E., 111., 1890, A.\nBradley, Milton, Mass.. 1892, A.\nBradt, E. T.. Mich., 1897, A,\nBrandegee, J. E., N. Y., 1896, A.\nBrandt, F. B., Pa., 1897, A.\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\nBright, O.T..n J.,\n111.,Wis.,iS\n1893, A.\nBristol, E. N., N. Y., 1896, A.\nBritton, C. J., Ohio, 1894, A.\nBrock. H. Z., Mich., 1897, A.\nBn>ckett, Zue H.. D. C, 1898, A.\nBroderick. Kate G., N. Y., 1896, A.\nBrooks, Edward, Pa., 1876, L.\nBrooks, Sarah C, Minn., 1894, A.\nBrown, C. E., Wis., 189s, A.\nBrown, Elias, D. C, 1898, A.\nBrown, Elizabeth V., D. C, 1898, A.\nBrown, Ellis W.. D. C, 1898, A.\nBrown, Elmer E., Cal., 1891, A.\nBrown, Eugene, Iowa, 1897, A.\nBrown, George P.. 111., 1880, L.\nBrown, George W., 111., 1893, A.\nBrown, George W., Mass., 1896, A.\nBrown, H. B., Ind^ 1895, A.\nBrown, Helen M., Colo., 1895, A.\nBrown, Jesse H., Ind., 1891, A.\nBrown, lohn F., Ind., 1896, A.\nBrown, Kate L.. Neb., 1897, A.\nBrown, LeRoy D., Cal., 1888, D.\nBrown, Miss Marion, La., 1889, A,\nBrown, William O., Wis., 1896, A.\nBruce, William G., Wis., 1893, A.\nBrumbaugh, M. G., Pa., 1893, A.\nBruot, Marie L., Ohio, 1896, A.\nBryan, William L,. Ind., 1893, A.\nBuchanan, George V., Mo., 1894, A.\nBuchanan, John T., N. Y., i8y>, A.\nBucholz, L. W., Fla., 1898, A.\nBuechele, J. L., Iowa, 1897, A.\nBuehrle, R. K., Pa., 1892, A.\nBulkley. Julia E., 111., 1895, A.\nBunzef. Belle, Ark., 1898, A,\nBurch, Arthur, Wis., 1896, A.\nBurdick, A. Hall, N. Y., 1892, A.\nBurk, Frederic L., Cal., 1892, A.\nBurke, Mrs. B. Ellen, N. Y., 1894, A.\nBurke, J. E., Mass., 189s, A.\nBurkett, G. F., Neb., 1897, A.\nBums, James C., III., 1895, A.\nBums, J. J., Ohio, 1880, L.\nBurns, Ralph H., N. D., 1896, A.\nBurris, William P., Ohio, 1895, A.\nBurroughs, George S., Ind., 1895, A.\nBurton, R. W., III., 1896. A.\nBusby, Isaac V., Ind., 1896, A.\nBushnell, H. T., Iowa, 1897, A.\nButler, Nicholas M., N. Y., 1885, D.\nButton, William J., 111., 1896, A.\nButts, Annice B., 111., 1896, A.\nBuzzell, Delos, 111., 1897, A.\nByington, S. Lillian, 111., 1895, A,\nCahalan, Mary A.. Ala., 1895, A.\nCaldwell, B. C., La., 1896. A.\nCaldwell, Miss C. J., Ohio, 1897, A.\nCaldwell. H. W., Neb., 1896, A.\nCalkins, F. L., 111., 1895. A.\nCall, A. D., N. Y., 1898, A,\nCammack, Ira I., Mo., 1895, A.\nCamp, David N., Conn., 1892, A.\nCampbell, A. G., Kan., 1886, L.\nCampbell, Julia. Wis., 1897, A.\nCampbell, W. H.. III., 1895, A.\nCanficld, James H., Ohio, 1884, D.\nCannon, George L., Colo., 1895, A.\nCapen, Elmer H., Mass., 1896, A.\nCapen, Frank S., N. Y., 1896, A.\nGarden, A. D., Ark., 1898, A.\nCarey, C. E., Ohio, 189.S, A.\nCarfrey, J. H., Mass.. 1897, A.\nCargo, R. M., Pa., 1896, A.\nCarlisle, James M., Tex., 1895, A.\nCarlton, E. A., Mont., 1897, A.\nCamagcy, J. A., Ind., 1895, A.\nCarpenter, I. H., Wis.. 1884, L.\nCarpenter, \"Nellie M., 111., 1896, A.\nCarr,J. W., Ind., 1897, A.\nCarroll, C. F., Mass., 1895, A.\nCarroll, Mary H., N. Y., 1898, A.\nCarter, A. H., Ark., 1898, A.\nGary, C. P., Wis., 1897, A.\nCase, Harriet F., Ind., 1898, A.\nCase, Richard, N. J., 1894, A.\nCasey, W. V., Colo., 1895, A.\n\n"}
{"page": 1126, "printed_page": null, "text": "iii6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nGates, E. E., Md., 1898, A.\nChadsey, Charles E., Colo., 1895, A.\nChalmers, W. W., Ohio, 1895, A.\nChamberlain, A. H., Cal., 1897, A.\nChamplin, Howard, Ohio, 1896, A.\nChandler, John W., N. Y., 1890, A.\nChandler, Willard H., Wis., 1884, L.\nChapman, Frederick E., Mass., 1894, A.\nCharles, Thomas, 111., i888, A.\nChase, Susan F., N. Y., 1898. A.\nCheever, W. H., Wis., 1896, A.\nCheney, Augustus J.. 111.. 1884, L,\nCheney, Francis J., N. Y., 1891, A.\nChilds, Anna G., N. Y., 1897, A.\nChristy, A. B., Minn., 1897, A.\nChristy, Anna H., Minn., 1897, A.\nChurch. George E., R. I., 1892, A.\nChurchill, J. O., Wyo., 1897, A.\nClair, Francis R., N. Y., 1894, A.\nClancy, Albert W.. 111., 1892, A.\nClancy, N. J., Tex., 1897, A.\nClark, A. O., Utah, 1897, A.\nClark, Frank H., Colo., 1886, L.\nClark, John S.. Mass., 1892, A.\nClark, L.H., Wis., 1884, L.\nClark, R. L., Wis., 1897, A.\nClark, W. A„ Neb., 1895, A.\nClarke, Elva E., Kan., 1894, A.\nClarke, Etta I., Kan., 1894, A.\nClarke, Francis D., Mich., 1897, A,\nClarke, Jessie L., Kan., 1895, A.\nClaxton, P. P., N. C, 1898, A.\nClendenen, T. C, 111., 1897, A.\nCleveland Pub. Library, Ohio, 1897, A.\nClough, W. G., Wis., 1897, A,\nClute, Oscar, Fla., 1895, A.\nCobb, Charles Newell, N. Y., 1894, A,\nCoddington, A. O., 111., 1893, A.\nCoe, Emily M., N. C, 1880, L.\nCogswell, Francis, Mass., 1893, A.\nColby, E. C, N. Y., 1896, A.\nCole, Charles W., N. Y., 1892, A.\nCole, L. W., Okla., 1898, A.\nCole, William H., W. Va., 1870, L.\nColegrove, A. D., Pa., 1895, A.\nColeman, J. D. Ky., 1892, A.\nColgrove, C. P., Iowa, 1897, A.\nCollins, J. H., 111., i8gs, A.\nCollins, John S.. Mo., 1897, A.\nCollins, Mrs. Julia H., 111., 1895, A.\nColumbia University, N. Y., 1895, A.\nComings, Fannie S., N. Y., 1895, A.\nComstock, Theodore B., Cal., 1895, A.\nCongdon, C. H., 111., 1894, A.\nConkling. W. E., Mich., 1896, A.\nConley, George H., Mass., 1897, A.\nConverse, F. E., Wis., 1897, A.\nConway, Clara, 111., 1887, L.\nCook, Charles F., Me., 1898, A.\nCook, E. H., N. Y., 1872, D.\nCook, Elizabeth B., 111., 1896, A.\nCook, George B., Ark., 1895, A.\nCook, Jennie, Ark., 1898, A.\nCook, John W., 111., 1890, A.\nCooley, Mrs. Alice W., Minn., 1896, A.\nCooley, E. G., 111., 1897, A.\nCooley, Frank W., Mich., 1895, A.\nCooley, Le Roy C, N. Y., 1896, A.\n*Coon, H. C, N. Y., 1897, A.\nCooper, Frank B., Iowa, 1894, A.\nCooper, Frank Irving, Mass., 1893, A.\nCooper, John, Ind., 1897, A.\nCooper, Oscar H., Tex., 1894, A.\nCoover, Nathaniel, Kan., 1886, L.\nCorbett, Henry R., 111., 1890, A.\nCorbin, J. C, Ark., 1898, A.\nCorcoran, Tressa M., Ohio, 1896, A.\nCornell Univ. Library, N. Y., 1896, A.\nCornell, Watson, Pa., 1896, A.\nCorson, O. T., Ohio, 1887, A.\nCorthell, W. T., Me.. 1892, A.\nCo. Teachers Asso., Milwaukee, Wis., 1884, L.\nCox, Edwin B., Ohio, 1889, A.\nCox, E. Morris, Cal., 1896, A.\nCox, E. S., Ohio, 1896, A.\nCox, Henry C, 111., 1895, A.\nCox, Jean, N. J., 1897, A.\nCox, Martin Luther, N. J., 1893, A.\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nCoy, Emma, 111.. 1897, A.\nCoy, E. W., Ohio, 1883, L.\nCrabbe. J. G., Ky., 1897, A.\nCrabtree, J. W., Neb., 1895, A.\nCraig, Oscar J., Mont., 1892, A.\nCrane, Mrs. Charles R.. 111., 1897, A.\nCrane, Frank, S. D., 1895, A.\nCrane, Julia E., N. Y., 1895, A.\nCranston, R. W., Minn., i8gi6, A.\nCrissy, I. O., N. Y., 1898, A.\nCrist, Heniy M.. N. Y., 1896, A.\nCrockett, May M., 111., 1895, A,\nCropsey, Miss N., Ind., 1891, A.\nCrosier, M. E., Iowa, 1895, A.\nCross, C. R., Wis., 1895, A.\nCrossley, J. J., Iowa, 1895, A.\nCrouch, Sarah E., Mo., 1895, A.\nCrouse, Mrs. J. N., 111., 1893, A.\nCruikshank, James, N. Y., 1864, L.\nCulbertson, E. D. Y., Iowa, 1895, A.\nCulver, G. E., Wis., 1897, A.\nCummins, Mrs. M. S., Mont., 1897, A.\nCunningham, J. B., Ala., 1895, A.\nCupples, J. W., III., 1896, A.\nCurran, tflysses T., Ohio, 1866, L.\nCurrier, E. H., N. Y., 1897, A.\nCurry, Robert, Neb., 1884, L,\nCurtis, A. E. Mich., 1896, A.\nCurtis, C. C, Minn., 1896, A.\nCurtis, Virgil G., Minn., 1892, A.\nCurtiss, Frederick A., Conn., 1894, A.\nDafoe, Eber, Wis., 1897, A.\nDalton, T. E., Ariz., 1898, A.\nDana, Fenella, Kan., 1895, A.\nDaniels, J. W., Ida., 1898, A.\nDavidson, Charles £., Ohio, 1880, L.\nDavidson, William M., Kan., 1890, A.\nDavis, A. J., Pa.. 1898, A.\nDavis, Allan, D. C, 1895, A.\nDavis, Booth C, N. Y., 1896, A.\nDavis, Buel T., Wis., 1894, A.\nDavis, Charles M., N. J., 1893, A.\nDavis, Emma C, Ohio, 1894, A.\nDavis, Eva L., Ark., 1898. A.\nDavis, George S., N. Y., 1896, A.\nDavis, George W., 111., 1896, A.\nDavis, John W., N. Y., 1895, A.\nDavis. J. M., Iowa, 1898, A.\nDawes, H. E., Neb., 1896, A.\nDawson, H. T., N. Y., 1895, A.\nDay, L. W., Ohio, 1888, D.\nDeahl, J. N., W. Va., 1896, A.\nDeane, Charles W., Conn., 1889, A.\nDeatrick, W. W., Pa., 1892, A.\nDe Garmo, Charles, N. Y., 1889, A.\nDelano, Edward C, 111., 1895, A.\nDenfeld, Robert E., Minn., 1890, A.\nDenison, Hattie, Ark., 1898, A.\nDeupree, J. G., Miss., 1897, A.\nDewey, James A., Pa., 1893, A.\nDewey, John. 111., 1897, A.\nDewey, Melvil, N. Y., 1892, A.\nD ial, S. T, Ohio, 1895, A.\nDick, Fred., Colo., 1895, A.\nDickey, C. L., Ohio, 1895, A.\nDietrich, Charles H., Ky., i8gi, A.\nDietrich, John, Colo., 1895, A.\nDillman, L. M., III., 1886, A.\nDixon, B. V. B., La., 1897, A.\nDoane, Letitia L., 111., 1897, A.\nDobson, W. D., Mo., 1897, A.\nDodd, Arthur A., Mo., 1885, A.\nDodge, M. Luella, 111., 1897, A.\nDodge, William C, 111.. 1896, A.\nDodson, Mary F., Ky., 1892, A.\nDolphin, N. E., Kan., 1895, A.\n, Donohoe, Mary J., N. J., 1894, A\nDoron, W. A., Iowa, 1897, A.\nDoty, F. E., Wis., 1897, A.\nDougherty, Mabel E., IIl.,t 89\nDougherty, N. C, 111., 1887, D,\nDouglas, R. S., Mo., 1897, A.\nDow, J. J., Minn., 1896, A.\nDownes, J. M. N., Ky., 1894, A.\nDowning, A. S., N. Y., 1891, A.\nDoyle, Marie, Wis., 1891, A.\nDozier, Melville. Cal., 1895, A.\nDraper, Andrew S., 111., 1888, A.\n\n"}
{"page": 1127, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 1 17\n\nINDEX\n\nTO LIFE\n\nDraughan, Abbie W., Ark., 1895, A.\nDreher, E. S., S. C, 1896, A.\nDucker, W. H., III., 7895, A.\nDudgeon. R. B., Wis., 1894, A.\nDudley, Mrs. E., Iowa, 1897, A.\nDunton, Larkim Mass., 1895, A.\nDurham, Mrs. C. M., Pa., 189a, A.\nDuttOD, Bettie A., Ohio, 1880, L.\nDutton, S. T., Mass., 1895, A.\nDyer. F. B., Ohio, 1896, A.\nDyer, Frank R., Kan., 1891, A.\nEakins, Mrs. Millie R., 111., 1896, A.\nEastman, William R., N. Y., 1896, A.\nEaston, Warren, La., 1895, A.\nEaton, Ira T., 111., 1894, A.\nEaton, James F., Iowa, 1897, A.\nEaton, John, D. C, 1893, A.\nEbaugh, Z. C., Md., 1897, A.\nEden, Philip, Wis., 1884, L.\nEklgerly, Joseph G., Mass., 1896, A,\nEd. Assoc., N. D., 1806, A.\nEditor's Library, N. Y., 1897, A.\nEdmonds, F. S., Pa., 1898, A.\nEdmund, Gertrude, Mass., 1897, A.\nEdson, A. W. N. Y., 1896, A.\nEdwards, H. R., Minn., 1897, A.\nEdwards, J. T., Wis., 1897, A.\nEhinger, C. E., Pa., 1897, A.\nEla, Clarissa E., 111., 1897, A.\nElder, Ella C, N. Y., 1896, A.\nElder. E. W., Colo., 1895, A.\nElgas, Mathew J., N. Y., 1891, A.\nEliot, Charles W., Mass., 1892, A.\nElliott, J. F., Ala., 1898, A.\nEllis, John C, 111., 1887. A,\nEllis, William Austin, Mich., 1887, A.\nEllsworth, Henry W., N. Y., 1896, A.\nElmer, Frances A., Minn., 1897, A.\nElson, W. H., Wis., 1895, A.\nElwelt. Mrs. O. F., N. J., 1896, A.\nEly, Sarah Y., N. J., 1802, A.\nEmerson, Henry P., N. Y., 1893, A.\nEmery, John Q., Wis., 1884, L.\nEmery, Mrs. J. Q., Wis., 1897, A.\nEnglish, Rebecca F., Cal., 1888, L.\nEngstrom, A. E., Minn., 1895, A.\nEstee, James A., N. Y., 1896, A.\nEvans, Charles H., Mo., 1886, L.\nEvans, Charles W., W. Va., 1896, A.\nEvans, Lawton B., Ga., 1894, A.\nEvans, William P., Mo., 1898, A.\nEwing, A. L., Wis., 1897, A.\nEwing, R. B., Ohio, 1898, A.\nFairchild, E. T., Kan., 1886, L.\nFairchild, George T., Ky., 1886, D.\nFall, Delos, Mich, 1897. A.\nFant, John C, Miss., 1897, A.\nFarley, D. H., N. J., 1896, A.\nFarley, George L., Neb., 1897, A.\nFarnsworth, S. A., Minn., 1894, A.\nFarr, F. D., 111., 1897, A.\nFarrand, Wilson, N. J., 1895, A.\nFarrell, Edward D., N. Y., 1890, A.\nFarrell, Mrs. E. D., N. Y., 1896, A,\nFarson, M. Elizabeth, 111., 1897, A.\nFay, Etta J., Minn., 1896, A.\nFelker, Alfie M., Cal., 1895, A.\nFell, Anna M., N. J., 1897, A.\nFendley, J. M., Tex., 1895, A.\nFenton, George, N. Y., 1896, A.\nFerguson, E. E., Mich., 1896, A.\nFernald, M. C, Me., 1890, A.\nFinley, John H., 111., 1896, A.\nFisher, Oilman C., R. I., 1892, A.\nFisher, H. W., Pa., 1892, A.\nFisk, Herbert F., 111., 1891, A.\nFitch, Ferris S., Mich., 1890, A.\nFitz, George W., Mass., 1898, A.\nFitzgibbon, T. F., Ind., 1895, A.\nFitzpatrick, Frank A., Mass., 1884, A.\nFlavin, John T., Wis., 1884, L.\nFleming, Elizabeth, Wis., 1898, A.\nFleming, Mary A., N. Y., 1890, A.\nFleshman, Arthur C, Ky., 1894, A.\nFlick, W. B., Ind., 1895, A.\nFlickinger, J. R., Pa., 1898, A.\nFling, Allen C, Neb., 1898, A.\nFoerste, A. F., Ohio, 1896, A.\n\nAND\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\nFoos, Anna, Neb., 1897, A,\nFoose, L, O., Pa., 1896, A.\nFooshe, J. Frank, S. C, 1898, A.\nFootc, Nfary C, 111., 1897, A.\nForbes, Alexander, 111., 1876, L.\nForbes, Ira L., Mich., 1895, A.\nForbes, John A., 111., 1898, A.\nFord, Lyman H., Minn., 1897, A.\nForesman, H. A., 111., 1896, A.\nForesman, Robert, 111., 1896, A.\nForrest, J. T., Wash., 1895, A.\nFort, W. H., Mich., 1897, A.\nFoshay, James A., Cal., 1893, A.\nFoster, C. E., Tex.. 1897, A.\nFowler, W. K., Neb., 1892, A.\nFox, William F., Va., 1894, A.\nFranklin, George A., Minn., 1897, A.\nFrazee, Victor, R. I., 1896, A.\nFree Pub. Lib'yi Jersey City, N. J., 1897, A.\nFree Pub. Lib'y, Philadelphia, Pa., 1897, A.\nFree Pub. Lib'y, San Francisco, Cal., 1^7, A.\nFree Pub. Lib'y, Worcester, Mass., 1898, A.\nFreeman, J. H., 111., 1895, A.\nFreeman, John T., Md., 1898, A.\nFreer, H. H., Iowa, 1884, A.\nFreer, Paul C, Mich., 1897, A.\nFrench, George W., N. Y., 1895, A.\nFrench, Harlan P., N. Y., 1891, A.\nFrench, O. E., Iowa, 1895, A.\nFriedberg, William B., N. Y., 1892, A.\nFriedel, Charles, Ore., 1897, A.\nFriedman, Anna E., N. Y., 1895, A.\nFrost, H. H.,Mich., 1895, A.\nFrost, J. M., 111., 1897, A.\nFruchte, Amelia C, Mo., 1896, A.\nFulton, Robert B., Miss., 1894, A.\nFulton, W. L., Ohio, 1896, A.\nIfutrall, Lula M., Ark., 1898, A.\nFutrall, ITiomas A., Ark., 1887, A.\nGage, Nathaniel P., D. C, 1898, A.\nGalbreath, L. H., N. Y., 1887, A.\nGamble, George W., Conn., 1896, A.\nGammon, Mrs. M. D., Wis., 1897, A.\nGans, W. G., Pa., 1895, A.\nGantvoort, A. J., Ohio, 1894, A.\nGarrett, William R., Tenn., 1886, D,\nGarrette, Irene, Iowa, 1897, A.\nGarrison, S. Olin, N. J., 1898, A.\nGarvin, John B., Colo., 1895, A.\nGastman, E. A., 111., 1895, A.\nGates, Elmer, Md., 1898, A.\nGates, Howard, Ark., 1896, A.\nGayer, Cora M., Ohio, 1897, A.\nGayhart, Walter C, Nev., 1895, A.\nGeary,\nGrace,S.,Mo.,\nGeer, David\n111., 1897,\n1886, A,A. '\nGeeting, D. M., Ind., 1895, A.\nGentle, T. H., Wis., 1898, A.\nGeorge, Austin, Mich., 1805, A.\nGermann, George B., N. Y., 1898, A.\nGettemy, Mrs. Mary E., HI., 1892, A.\nGibson, C. B., Ga., 1898, A.\nGibson, John A., Pa., 1896, A.\nGiffin, W. M., Ill,, 1895, A.\nGifford, Jennie, Ohio, 1896, A.\nGilbert, C. B., N. J., 1893, A.\nGilbert, Newell D., 111.. i89s,«A.\nGilday, Mary, Mo., 1895, A.\nGillan, Silas Y., Wis., 1895, A.\nGillespie, Mary, 111., 1897, A.\nGillespie, Nellie, 111., 1897, A,\nGillett, Emma M., D. C, 1898, A.\nGillman, Daniel C, Md., 1896, A.\nGladding, A. E., Ohio, r896, A.\nGlass, E. C, Va., 1894, A.\nGlenn, G. R., Ga., 1895, A.\nGlover, Nathan L., Ohio, 1889, A.\nGminder, A. J., Md., 1898, A.\nGolden, H. W., Pa., 18^, A.\nGoodhue, Lincoln P., 111., 1893. A.\nGoodnough, Walter S., N, Y., 1882, A.\nGordon, Joseph C, 111., 1897, A.\nGordy, J. P., Ohio, 1896, A.\nGordy, W. F.. Conn., 1898, A.\nGorton, Charles E., N. Y., 1896, A.\nGoss, David K., Ind.. 1895, A.\nGotwalls, Joseph K., Pa., 1892, A.\nGove, Aaron, Colo.. 1888, D.\n\n"}
{"page": 1128, "printed_page": null, "text": "ii8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nGraeser, C. A., S. C. 1897, A.\nGraham, Hugh A., Mich., 1895, D.\nGrandy, Mary A., Mass., 1893, A.\nGrant, Miss A. L., D. C, 1898, A.\nGrant, H.L, 111., 1896, A.\nGratz, Simon, Pa., 1879, L.\nGray, Thomas J., Minn., 1895, A.\nGreen, James M.. N. J., 1892, A,\nGreene, John A., N. Y., 1893, A.\nGreenlee. Ida K., Mass., 1893, A.\nGreenlee, L. C, Colo., 1892, A.\nGreenraan, A. V., 111., 1897, A.\nGreenwood, J. M., Mo., 1886, D.\nGregory, Benjamin C, N. J., 1894, A.\n♦Gregory, John T., Ala., 1895, A.\nGriffith, E. W., N. Y., 1896. A.\nGriffith, George, N. Y., 1893, A.\nGriffiths, G. C., 111., 1896, A.\nGrimsley, G. A., N. C, 1898, A.\nGross, Otis C.Wis., 1896, A.\nGrossman, John H., 111., 1895, A.\nGroszmann, M. P. E., Va., 1894, A.\nGroves, Charles W., HI., 1896, A.\nGuden, Anna J., N. J., 1894, A.\nGuilliams, J. M., Tenn., 1897, A.\nGunnison, Walter B., N. Y., 1896, A.\nGurnea, Jennie E., 111., 1897, A.\nGuss, Roland W., Mass., 1895, A.\nGuttmann, Albert, Wis., 1897, A.\nGwynn, Henry B., Md., 1898, A.\nHadley, Hiram, N, Mex., 1891, A.\nHafford, F; S., Ariz., 1897, A.\nHagerty, C. T.,N. Mex., 1895, A.\nHaggett, George B., Ky., 1897, A.\nHaight, R. A., 111., 189s, A,\nHailmann, W. N., Ohio, 1879, A.\nHale, George D., N. Y., 1891, A.\nHall, Caleb G., N. Y., 1885, D.\nHall, Dana W., 111., 1891, A.\nHall, Frank H., 111., 1897, A.\nHall, G. Stanley, Mass., 1891, A.\nHall, Isaac Freeman, Mass., 1895, A.\nHall, Loyal Freeman, Pa., 1893, A.\nHall, Mary F., Wis., 1893, A.\nHall, R. C., Ark , 1898, A.\nHallam, Alfred, N. Y., 1896, A.\nHalland, J. G., N. D., 1897, A,\nHalleck, R. P., Ky., 1897, A.\nHalsey, L. R., III., 1896, A.\nHalsey, R. H., N. Y., 1895, A.\nHamilton, James M., Mont., 1895, A.\nHamilton, R. I., Ind., 1896, A.\nHamilton, William. D. C, 1898, A.\nHammond, Jason E., Mich., 1895, A.\nHancock, John A., 111., 1895, A.\nHand, Laura, Minn., 1897, A.\nHand, W. H., S. C, 1896, A.\nHanks, L. L. L., Kan., 1897, A.\nHanna, G. C, Ky., 1897, A.\nHannan, James, 111., 1897, A.\nHanus, Paul H., Mass., 189s, A.\nHardy, Richard, Mich., 1894, A.\nHarison, W. B., N. Y., 1892, A.\nHarper, William R., 111., 1895, A.\nHarris, Abram, Me., 1898, A.\nHarris, Ada Van Stone, N. J., 1895, A.\nHarris, Edward L., Ohio, 1894, A.\n\nHarris, William T., D. C, 1876, D.\nHarrison, Elizabeth, 111., 1895, A.\nHarrison\", Miles W., Ind., 1896, A.\nHarrison, S. A., 111., 1897, A.\nHart, Albert Bushnell, Mass., 1895, A.\nHartigan, Mary S. L., 111., 1895, A.\nHartman, E. M., Mich., 1898, A.\nHattman, Mary, 111., 1895, A.\nHarvard Coll. Library, Mass., 1895, A.\nHarvey, G. I., Mo., 1886, L.\nHarvey, L. D., Wis., 1884, L.\nHarvey, N. A., Wis., 1897, A.\nHaslup, Ida B., Colo., 1896, A.\nHatch, W. E., Mass., 1897, A.\nHatch, W. H., 111., 1895, A.\nHaupert, Charles, Ohio, 1893, A.\nHaupt, J. G., Neb., 1896, A.\nHaven, Caroline T., N. Y., 1896, A.\n\nMl>aCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nHawn, Linn Marie, N. J., 1895, A.\nHayden, H. B., Iowa, 1897, A.\nHayden, P. C.,Ill.,i89S, A.\nHayes, Frances C, N.Y., 1896, A.\nHayes, H. E., N. Y., 1892, A.\nHays, Dudley G., 111., 1897, A.\nHayward, Edward, N. Y., 1895, A.\nHayward, Emily A., 111., 1884, L.\nHazen, David H., D. C, 1898, A.\nHeath, D. C, Mass., 1891, A.\nHeermans, Josephine, Mo,, 1896, A.\nHeidler, S.H.,111., 1897, A.\nHeiermann, F. J., N. Y., 1896, A.\nHeineken, J. F. D., N. J., 1894, A.\nHeins, Mary, Pa., 1895, A.\nHelmer, Harry, 111., 1895, A.\nHenderson, Mrs. Kate A., 111., 1897, A.\nHendrick, Welland, N. Y., 1895, A.\nHendricks, J. P., Mont., 1898, A.\nHendrix College, Ark., 1897, A.\nHenninger, J. W., 111., 1896, A.\nHenry, James A., Tenn., 1896, A.\nHermanns, Edward F. , Colo., 1895, A.\nHerrig, Anna B., S. D., 1895, A,\nHershman, W. H., Ind., 1896, A.\nHertel, Charles, III., 1895, A.\nHervey, Henry D , R. I., 1896, A.\nHervey, Walter L., N. Y., 1895, A.\nHerzog, Peter, Mo., 1897, A.\nHess, William C, N. Y., 1896, A.\nHester, W. A., Ind., 1895, A.\nHewes, Wi D., N. Y., 1896, A.\nHewett, Edwin C.,111., 1884, L.\nHewitt, Mrs. P. H., Wis., 1897, A.\nHicks, Mrs. Mary Dana, Mass., 1890, A.\nHill, Frank A., Mass., 1895, A.\nHill, Mary, Wis., 1896, A.\nHimes, Florence B., N. Y.,1894, A.\nHinemon, J. H., Ark., 1896, A.\nHinman, Lydia, Iowa, 1895, A.\nHinsdale, B. A., Mich., 1884, A.\nHiser, W. S., Ind., 1898, A.\nHisey, Joseph C, 111, 1894, A.\nHitch, R. M., 111., 1897, A.\nHitte, Alice E., Neb., 1896, A.\nHitz, John, D. C, 1880, L.\nHobbs, W. W., Minn., 1896, A.\nHobe, Augusta W., Cal., 1889, L.\nHodgdon, Josephine E., N. Y., 1882, L.\nHodgin, Charles E., N. Mex., 1895, A.\nHodgin, Cyrus W., Ind., 1895, A.\nHoegelsboer^er, Nora, D. C, 1898, A.\nHofer, Amalie, 111., 1895, A.\nHoffman, Benjamin F., Mo., 1897, A.\nHoffman, Gains, N. J., 1894, A.\nHogan, Louise E., D. C, 1898, A.\nHogg, Alexander, Tex., 1874, A.\nHogg, Miss F. O., Ark., 1898, A.\nHolden, B. A., Mich., 1897, A.\nHolden, C. C, N. Y., 1898, A.\nHollingsworth, J. L., Fla., 1895, A.\nHolloway, J. L., Ark., 1895. A.\nHolt, H. E., Mass.. 1890, A.\nHolton, M. Adelaide, Utah, 1896, A.\nHomans, Amy Morris, Mass., 1891, A.\nHooper, Sanford A., Wis., 1889, A.\nHoose, James H., Cal., 1879, L,\nHoover, W. E., N. D., 1897, A.\nHopkins, J. G., Minn., 1894, A,\nHopkins, L, Grace, Minn., 1894, A,\nHopkins, S. N., Okla., 1898, A,\n'Horchem, B. J., Iowa, 1897, A.\nHornberger, J. A., 111., 1895, A.\nHouck, Henry, Pa., 1897, A.\nHoughan, Mrs. F. R., Colo., 1895, A.\nHouston, J. R., Ind., 1896, A.\nHoward, F. E., Conn., 1896, A.\nHoward, George A., Ohio, 1895, A.\nHowe, George H., Mo., 1898, A.\nHowe, S. B., N. Y., 1895, A.\nHowe, Wilbur W., N. Y., 1895, A.\nHowell, George, Pa., 1896, A.\nHowell, Logan D., N. Y., 1894, A.\nHoyt, C. O., Mich., 1897, A.\nHoyt, Judson E., Wis., 1890, A.\nHubbard, Mrs. E. A., 111., 1897, A.\nHubbard, F. V., Minn., 1895, A.\nHufford, George W., Ind,, 1894, A,\n\n"}
{"page": 1129, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX\n\nTO LIFE AND\n\nHughes, Mrs. Ada M., Can., 1895, A.\nHughes, Isaac H., Mo., 1898, A.\nHughes, James L., Can., 1890, A.\nHughes, John F., N. Y., 1898, A.\nHughes, Lemira W,, Ohio, 1896, A.\nHuling, Ray Greene, Mass., 1891, A.\nHull, John, Wash., 1891, L.\nHull, Lawrence C, N. J., 1893, A.\nHull, Warren C, Mich., 1897, A.\nHumke, Albert E., Ind., 1893, A.\nHunt, Lydia L., Ariz., 1895, A.\nHunt, Mary H.,Mass., 1887, D,\nHunter, Thomas, N. Y., 1885, L.\nHurd, George B., Conn., 1888, A.\nHussey, A. W. 111., 1897. A.\nHutton, A. J., Wis., 1884, L.\nHutton, Charles E., Cal., 1895, A.\nHyde, C. W. G., Minn., 1895, A.\nHyde. Mary F., N. Y., 1892, A.\nIndiana State Library, Ind., 1897, A,\nIngalls, Will C, N. J., 1894, A.\nIrwin, John S., Ind., ,1880, L.\n'ackman, Wilbur S., 111., 1895, A.\nackson, Mrs. E. R., N. Mex., 1895, A.\nJackson, Joseph P., Colo., 189S, A.\nJackson, William R., Neb., 1896, A.\nJacobs, G. Ovedia, 111., 1897, A.\nJacobs, Walter Ballou, R. I., 1894, A.\nJames, Henry M., Ore.. 1884, L.\nJames, Sarah S., N. J., 1897, A.\nJameson, H. W.. N. Y., 1897, A.\nJanney, B. T., D. C, 1898, A.\nJenkins, Sara D., N. Y., 1895, A.\nMenkins, William, 111., 1886, A.\nJenks. J. W.. N. Y.. 1896, A.\nJesse, Richard H., Mo., 1892, A.\n[ewett, A. v., Kan., 1886, D.\nJohn Crerar Library, 111., 1897, A.\n'ohnson, Ernest\nMass.,A.1893,, A.\nH. M., Henry,\nD. C, 1898,\nJohnson, J. A., 111., 1897, A.\nJohnson, S. Arthur, Colo., 1894, A.\nJohnson, W. H., Mont., 1895, A.\nJohnstone, E. R., N. J., 1896, A.\nJones, Arthur O., Ohio, 1891, A.\nJones, Daniel W., Mass., 1870, L.\nJones, E. A., Ohio, 1884, A.\nJones, E. C. Loyd, Wis., 1897, A.\nTones, Edward N.,N. Y., 1884, A.\nJones, Emma F., 111., 1897, A.\nTones, Frank L., Ind., 1895, A.\nJones, Herbert J., Vt., 1896, A.\nJones, Jane Lloyd, Wis., 1897, A.\nJones, J. W., Ohio, 1896, A.\nJones, L. H., Ohio, 1889, A,\nJones, Lizzie P., Mont., 1897, A.\nJones, Mattie, S. D., 1894, A.\nJones, Myra, Mich., 1892, A.\nJones, Richard, N. Y., 1894, A.\nJones, Wharton S., Tenn., 1887, A.\nJones, W. W., Wis., 1897, A.\nJordan, Charles M., Minn., 1893, A.\nJoyner, J. Y., N. C, 1898, A.\nJudd, L. C, N. Y.,1896, A.\nKalbach, l^wis A.. D. C, 1898, A.\nKamman, C. H., 111., 1897, A.\nKane, T.F.,N. Y.,1889, A.\nKayser, Carl F., N. J., 1894, A.\nKeane, John J., D. C., 1889, L.\nKeating, J. F., Colo., 1895, A.\nKeating, Mary K., Ky., 1894, A.\nKedzie, Mrs. Nellie S.. 111., 1895, A.\nKeel, J. H., Ark., 1898, A.\nKeeler, Harriet L., Ohio, 1894, A.\nKellogg, Amos M., N. Y., 1890, A.\nKellogg. Mrs. Eva D., Wis., 1884, A.\nKelly, Kate, La., 1896, A.\nKelly, Lizzie, La., i89is, A.\nKenasion, G. F., Ind., 1895, A.\nKendall. C. N., Conn., 1895, A.\nKendall, F. A.. III., 1895, A.\nKendall, F. M., 111.. 189^, A.\nKenerson, Austin H., Mass.. 1895, A.\nKennedy, James W., N. J., 1894, A,\nKennedy, Joseph. N. D. , 1896, A.\nKennedy, P. P., Minn., 1897, A.\nKenyon, Alpheus B., N. Y., 1896, A.\nKeppler, Mrs. W. S., Fla., 1894, A.\n\nACTIVE MEMBERS\nKerr, William J., Utah, 1895, A.\nKeyes, Charles H., Mass., 1895, A.\nKeyes, Mary A., Minn., 1897, A.\nKeyset, Roland S., N. Y., 1896, A.\nKiehle, D. L., Minn., 1880, A.\nKilbon, George B., Mass., 1893, A.\nKilbourne, Effie J.. 111., 1895, A.\nKimmel. M. A., Ohio, 1893, A.\nKincannon, A. A., Miss., 1896, A.\nKing, Anna H., Ohio, 1895, A.\nKing, F. A.. Ohio. 1896. A.\nKing, Rachel, Conn., 1893, A.\nKing. William F., Iowa, 1884. A.\nKinsley, M. H.. N, J., 1892, A.\nKirk, John R., Mo., 1891, A.\nKirk, Thomas J., Cal., 1895, A.\nKirkley, Sarah A., 111., 1897, A.\nKirkpatrick, E. A., Mass.^ 1897, A.\nKleebereer, George R., Minn., 1895, A.\nKlock, J. E., Mont., 1886, L.\nKnapp, Warren E., Colo., 1890, A.\nKneil, Thomas R., N. Y., 1895, A.\nKnepper, George E., Idaho, 1898, A.\nKnight, J. A., Ala., 1898, A.\nKnispel. Henriette M., III.. 1897, A.\nKolbe, Isabella A., Ohio, 1897, A.\nKolbe, Julia C, Ohio, 1895, A.\nKrall, G. W., Mo., 1898, A.\nKratz, H. E., Iowa, 1890, A.\nKrausBoelte, Mrs. Maria, N. Y., 1896, A.\nKrecsy, Bela, Hungary, 1893, A.\nKroh, Karl J., 111., 1897, A.\nKrohn, William O., III., 1893, A.\nKruse, Edwina B., Del., 1891, A.\nKuykendall, A. C, Ky., 1898, A.\nLagomarsino, Cynthia, N. Y., 1894, A.\nLaidley, George S., W. Va., 1897, A.\nLaird, Mrs. Ada E., Ohio, 1890, A.\nLaird, S. B.. Mich., 1896, A.\nLamb, Eli M., Md., 1894, A.\nLamb, Rachel E., Md., 1894, A.\nLambert, Vashti A., 111., 1895, A.\nLamberton, Maiy J., Pa., 1892, A.\nLancaster, G., Minn., 1898, A.\nLandrum, L. M., Ga., 1897, A.\nLane, Albert G., 111., 1884, D.\nLane, Mrs. F. S., 111., 1894, A.\nLang, Ossian H., N. Y., 1891, A.\nLangley, William T., Wis., 1897, A,\nLangley, Mrs. William T., Wis., 1897, A.\nLansinger, J. W., Pa., 1898, A.\nLapey, Louise M., N. Y., 1895, A.\nLarimer, Henry G., Kan., 1886, L.\nLark, F. E., Iowa, 1807, A.\nLarkiM, Charles D.,N. Y., 1895, A.\nLa Taste, Lucien V., Ala., 1894, A.\nLathrop, Mrs. C. N., Ohio, 1893, A.\nLavers, E. C, Pa., 1892, A. 0\nLawrence, Isabel, Minn., 1894, A.\nLaws, Annie, Ohio, 1895, A.\nLawson, Florence, Cal., 1897, A.\nLawton, Charles E., N. Y., 1896, A.\nLaylander, O. J., Iowa, 1895, A, .\nLayton, S. Herrick, Ohio, 1895, A\nLazenby, William R., Ohio, 1895, A.\nLeach, Cephas H., 111., 1897, A.\nLeavell, Richard M., Miss., 1896, A.\nLe Conte, Joseph, Cal., 1895, A.\nLee, James, N. Y., 1892, A.\nLe Garde, Ellen, R. I., 1896, A.\nLeipziger, Henry M., N. Y., 1891, A.\nLeiter, Mrs. Frances W., Ohio, 1896, A.\nLeIand Stanford Univ., Cal., 1897, A.\nLemon, Nora H., Neb., 1897, A.\nLeonard, Albert, N. Y., 1891, A.\nI>eslie, Miss H. S., N. J., 1894, A.\nLeviston, Irwen, Neb., 1895, A.\nI^wellen, John O., Ind.. 1896, A.\nLewis, Leslie, III.. 1895, A.\nLibrary, Univ. of Mich., 1898, A,\nLibrary, Univ. of Wyo., 1897, A.\nLight, C. M.. N. Mex., 1895, A.\nLightbody, William, Mich., 1896, A.\nLimerick, A. N., Kan., 1886, L.\nLincoln Univ., Ill„ 1897, A.\nLing, Charles J., Colo., 1895, A.\nLipscomb, Dabney, Miss., 1892, A.\nLittle, Clara L., Colo., 1895, A.\n\n"}
{"page": 1130, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\nLiringston, J.W,, Wis., 1897, A.\nLocke, John S., Me., 1895, A.\nLogan, Anna E., Ohio, 1896, A.\nLong, J. L., Tex., 1896, A.\nLongan, G. B., Mo., 1897, A.\nLongstreth, Emma J., Pa., 1894, A.\nLook, Frances H., Mass., 1896, A.\nIx)OS, Charles L., Ohio, 1895, A.\nLord, L. C, Minn., 1894, A.\nLott, H. C, Mich., 1897, A.\nLounsbery, Louise A., N. Y., 1896, A.\nLove, Nannie C, Ind., 1896, A.\nLovell, Thomas B., N. Y., 1896, A.\nLow, Seth, N. Y., 1895, A.\nLowe, J. S., Ohio, 1895, A.\nLowther, L. A., Kan., 1897, A.\nLuckey, Edwin D., Mo., 1894, A.\nLuckey, G. W. A., Neb., 1895, A.\nLuebke, Emma J.. Wis., 1897, A.\nLugg, Mary L., Wis., 1897, A.\nLukens, Herman T., Pa., 1892, A.\n♦Lyman, F. A., N. Y., 1897, A.\nLynch, Charles P., Ohio, 1894, A.\nLynch, Mary E., Minn., 1897, A.\nLynch, M. M., Va., 1898, A.\nLynch, William H., Mo., 1895, A.\nLyon, Howard, N. Y., 1896, A.\nLyon, Mary A., N. J., 1897, A.\nfcyon, P. W., N. J., 1898, A.\nLyon, W. F., Mich., 1897, A.\nLyser, Albert, Cal., 1898, A.\nLyte, E. Oram, Pa., 1891, L.\nMacAlister, James, Pa., 1895, A.\nMacdona, Kate P., N. Y., 1895, A.\nMacDonald, A. H., Cal., 1898, A.\nMacDonald, John, Kan., 1886, L.\nMacUonald, Margaret, III., 1896, A.\nMacGowan, W. L., Pa., 1896, A.\nMack, William S., 111., 1895, A.\nMackenzie, David, Mich., 1896, A.\nMackey, E., Pa., 1891, A.\nMackey, William A., N. Y., 1894, A.\nMacLean, George E., Neb., 1897, A.\nMagee, Harriet C, Wis., 1897, A.\nMagovern, Mary A., N. Y.. 1896, A.\nMaguire, Mrs. S. C, Mo., 1897, A.\nMaharry, S. H., Ohio, 1895, A.\nMaitland, Mrs. Louise, Cal., 1898, A.\nMandeville. James M., Mich., 1896, A.\nMankell, Nathalie M.,N. Y., 1896, A.\n*Manley, R. M., Cal., 1870, L.\nMann, Emma, Ark., 1898, A.\nManness, S. E., N. J.. 1892, A.\nMarble, A. P., N. Y., 1880, D.\nMardis, S. K., Ohio, 1895, A.\nMark, E. H., Ky., 1893, A.\nMarlatt, Abby L., R. I., 1894, A.\nMarquis. J, S., S. C, 1898, A.\nMarsh, C. O., Wis., 1897, A.\nMarthall, Carl C, Mich., 1895, A.\nMarshall, T. Marcellus, W. Va., 1877, D.\nMartin, Artemas, D. C, 1898, A.\nMartin, George H., Mass., 1893, A.\nMartindale, W. C, Mich., 1898, A.\nMartineau, J. E., Ark., 1898, A.\nMarvin, Arthur, N. Y., 1898, A.\nMason, J. H., Wis., 1898, A.\nMason, William A., Pa., 1898, A.\nMassee, J. Edman, N. Y., 1896, A.\nMassey, John, Ala., 1894, A.\nMather, I. F., 111., 1897, A.\nMathews, Byron C, N. J., 1892, A.\nMaurer, G. C, Ohio, 1895, A.\nMaxson, Henry M., N. J., 1892, A.\nMaxwell, William H., N. Y., 1892, A.\nMaycock, Mark M., N. Y., 1896, A.\nMayne, D. D., Wis., 1894, A.\nMcBride, J. K., Tex., 1898, A.\nMcBroom, George O., Ky., 1892, A,\nMcCabe. C. B., Pa., 1896, A.\nMcCahan, John E., Md., 1891, A.\nMcCallie, J. H., Tenn., 1897, A.\nMcCartney. Livingston, Ky., 1895, A.\nMcCaslin, E. E., D, C. 1898, A.\nMcClintock,0. P. M., Kan., 1894, A.\nMcClung, J. S., Colo., 1895, A.\nMcClure, S. R., Pa., 1896, A.\nMcClurken, Mrs. E. G., Ga., 1896, A.\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nMcConathey, W. J., Ky., 1896, A.\nMcConnell. J. J., Iowa, 1895, A.\nMcCord, W. A., Iowa, 1895, A.\nMcCowen, Mary, 111., 1897, A.\nMcCracken, Miss M.J., Pa., 1894, A.\nMcCulloch, Mary C, Mo., 1892, A.\nMcCullough, J. F., 111., 1896, A.\nMcDaniel, C. M., Ind., 1896, A.\nMcElroy, E. B., Ore., 1895, A.\nMcEIroy, M. R., Ohio, 1895, A.\nMcFadon, O. E., Iowa., 1896, A.\nMcFarland, George A., N. D., 1895, A.\nMcGhee, John S., Mo., 1897, A.\nMcGinniss. James, Ky., 1893, A.\nMcGlynn, J. J., 111., 1895, A.\nMclntire, W. W,, Ohio, 1895, A.\nMclver, Charles D., N. C, 1896, A.\nMcKay, F. M., 111., 1897, A.\nMcKee, J. Milford, N. Y., 1893, A.\nMcKenny, Charles, Mich., 1897, A.\nMcKillop, Anna, III., 1897, A.\nMcLaughlin, A. L., 111., 1895, A.\nMcMillan, J. v., Ohio, 1896, A.\n♦McMillan, Reuben, Ohio, 1879, L.\nMcMillan. Mrs. Reuben, Ohio, 1880, L.\nMcMurry, Charles A., 111., 1890, A.\nMcMurry, F. M., N. Y., 1895, A.\nMcMurry, Mrs. Lida B., 111., 1896, A,\nMcNaughton, James, Ariz., 1895, A.\nMcNeal, Florence, Mo., 1892, A.\nMcNeill, I. C, Wis., 1892, A.\nMcNeill, Mrs. I. C, Wis., 1892, A.\nMcNeils, N. P., Pa., 1897, A.\nMcNevin, C. F., Iowa, 1896, A.\nMcVicar, Peter, Kan., 1886, L.\nMeacham, Adda V„ 111., 1896, A.\nMehan, J. M., Iowa, 1892, A.\nMeland, E. C, Wis., 1897, A.\nMeleney, Clarence E., N. Y., 1896, A.\nMelhinch, Miss L. A., N. Y., 1897, A.\nMerica, C. O., Wis., 1897, A.\nMerica, F. M., Ind., 1897, A.\nMerrick, H. V., Ohio, 1898, A.\nMerrifield, Webster, N. D., 1895, A.\nMerrill, Charles E., N. Y., 1894, A.\nMerrill, Edward C, N. J., 1896, A.\nMerrill, Harriet B., Wis., 1896, A.\nMerrill,\nA., Mo.^\n0., 1897,\n1097, A\nPi\nMerrill, J.\nJennj\n, N. Y., I\nMerrill, J. T., Iowa, 1893, A.\nMertZj Henry N., Ohio, 1895,\n893,A.A.\nMerwin, J. B., Mo., 1871, L.\nMerz, Henry, Wyo., 1895, A.\nMeserve, Alonzo, Mass., 1895, A.\nMetcalf, Robert C., Mass., 1892, A.\nMezger, Robert, N. J., 1895, A.\nMiami University, Ohio, 1895, A.\nMichener, J. H., Pa., 1898, A.\nMickle, Robert A., Ala., 1895, A.\nMiller, Miss A. N., Colo., 1895, A.\nMiller, C. C, Ohio, 1892, A.\nMiller, George I., Iowa, 1896, A.\nMiller, G. R., N. Y., 1896, A.\nMiller, J. H., Neb., 1886, L.\nMiller, Kelly, D. C, 1898, A.\nMiller, Lewis, Ohio, 1880, L.\nMiller, Lola M., Colo., 1898, A.\nMiller, Lucia M., Minn., 1894, A.\nMiller, O. L., III., 1896, A.\nMiller, R, E., Tex., 1898, A.\nMilligan, Sarah J., Mo., 1897, A.\nMillis, William A., Ind., 1896, A.\nMills, Lcida H., Kan., 1895, A.\nMills, T. B., Wis., 1897, A.\nMillspaugh, J. F., Utah, 1895, A.\nMilne, James M., N. Y., 1890, A.\nMilne, John M., N. Y., 1891, A.\nMilne, William J., N. Y., 1892, A.\nMiner, J. Perry, Neb., 1896, A.\nMitchell, Mary E., Ark., 1898, A.\nMitchell, M. S., Kan., 1895, A.\nMitchell, W. R., 111., [897, A,\nMoldstad, John A., Tex., 1897, A.\nMonlux, J. B., Cal., 189s, A.\nMonroe, E. S. Ind., 1897, A.\nMonroe, Will. S., Mass., 1893, A.\nMonsarrat, Mrs. Laura L., Ky., 1877, L.\nMonteser, Frederick, N. Y., 1894, A.\n\n"}
{"page": 1131, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX\n\nTO LIFE AND\n\nMontfort, R. V. K., N. Y., 189a, A.\nMontgomery, Dora, III., 1897, A.\nMontgomery, H. C, Ind., 1897, A.\nMontgomery, W. S., D. C, 1898, A.\nMontrose, Otis, N. Y., 1896, A.\nMoon,A. W.,N. J., 1889, A.\nMoon, Kate E., Ala., 1895, A.\nMoon, Schiiyler B., Md., 1898, A.\nMoore, A. C., III., 1897, A.\nMoore, B. F., Ind., 1896, A.\nMoore, Dora M., Colo., 1895, A.\nMoores, Carrie E., Ohio, 1895, A.\nMorgan, R. T., 111., 1897, A.\nMorgan, W. H., Ohio, 1895, A.\nMorris, Harriet N., III., 1882, L.\nMorris, John, Ky.. 1896, A,\nMorris, R. Anna, Ohio, 1891, A.\nMorrison, Andrew J., Pa., 1881, A.\nMorrison, Rose, Ohio, 1897, A.\nMorse, Frank L., III., 1897, A.\nMorss, Charles H., Mass., 1895, A.\nMolt, T. A., Ind., 1896, A.\nMowry, William A., Mass., 1886, L.\nMulford, A. Isabel, Mo., 1896, A.\nMumford, Mrs, M. E., Pa., 1895, A.\nMunro, Alexander A,, N, Y,, 1891, A,\nMunroe, James Phinney, Mass., 1895, A,\nMurdaugh, E, D„ Okla., 1898, A.\nMurdock, F, F„ Mass,, 1898, A.\nMurlin, L. H„ Ran,, 1895, A.\nMurphy, Eugene, Pa., 1898, A.\nMurphy, George T,, Mo,, 1891, A.\nMurphy, Maggie, Ark., 1898, A,\nMurray, William S., Pa., 1898, A,\nMurrey. T. P., Ark., 1898, A.\nMyers. Will A„ Ind.. 1897, A.\nNagel, J. I., Iowa, 1895, A.\nNageler, J, G., Wis,, 1897, A,\nNeedham, O., Wis,, 1897, A,\nNeet, Mrs. Mary V,. Mo., 1894, A.\nNelson, E. B., N. Y., 1898. A.\nNelson, Kate S.. Wis., 1896, A,\nNewell, A, C, Iowa, 1896, A,\nNewell, Miss C, S„ Kan.. 1895, A,\nNewson, H. D.. N, Y„ 1895, A,\nNichols, Fred R,, III,, 1893, A.\nNicholson, Mary E,, Ind,, 1885. A.\nNielsen, Carl H,, Cal,, 1898, A,\nNightingale, A, F., 111., 1886, A.\nNoel, Alex H., Mo., 1897, A,\nNolen, A. Eugene, Mass,, 1891, A,\nN. Dak, Ed, Assoc,, N. D,, 1896. A,\nN, Ind. Nor. Sch. Library, Ind., 1897, A,\nNorton, A. W., Neb,, 1893, A,\nNorton, R, C, Mo,, 1895, A.\nNorville, Josephine, Mo., 1895, A,\nNoss, Theodore B,, Pa,, 1896, A,\nNoyes, Milton, N, Y,, 1898, A.\nNunn, Janet H,, Minn,, 1896, A.\nNussbaum, Sophie F. E„ D. C, 1898, A.\nNye, Charles H., Wis., 1884, L.\nNykirk, John B., Mich., 1892, A,\nO'Brien, Mrs. Agnes, N. Y,, 1894, A,\nO'Callaghan, W, F,, N, Y,, 1894, A.\nO'Connor, D. C, Neb., 1894, A.\nOgg, R. A., Ind., 1897, A.\nO'Hanlan, R. J., Wis., 1897, A,\nO'Keefe, Mrs, S, J,, 111., 1896, A.\nOlds, Mary L., Minn., 1894, A.\nOldt, K. T., Iowa, 1896, A.\nO'Leary, Kate S., 111., 1895, A.\nOlin, Arvin S., Kan., 1890, A.\nOliver, Fanny E., 111., 1897, A.\nOlmstead, Emma G., Conn., 1896, A.\nO'Neill, A. A., D, C, 1898, A.\nOrmsby, F. B., III., 1896, A,\nOrr, J. D., Kan., 1891, A.\nOsborne, A. E., Cal., 1898, A.\n♦Osborne, George L., Mo., 1889, A,\nOsenbaugh, C. M,, Colo., 1895, A.\nOsgood, Anna M., Ohio, 1890, A,\nO'Shea, M. V., Wis., 1892, A.\nOstrander, Frank, Wis., 1897, A.\nOwen, E. H., Ill,, 1897, A.\nOwen, Ermine, Mo., 1897, A,\nOwen, H. A,, III., 1897, A.\nOwen, Lincoln. Mass., 1896, A\nOwen, W. B., III., 1896, A.\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\nPackard, S. S., N. Y., 1892, A.\nPacker, Ella L., Iowa, 1895, A.\nPage, R. S.. 111., 1896, A.\nPalmer, A. N., Iowa, 1896, A.\nPalmer, Charles S., Colo., 1895, A.\nPalmer, E. D., Mich., 1894, A.\nPalmer, Francis B., N. Y., 1890, A,\nParker. Alice N., D. C, 1898, A,\nParker, Charles I., Ill,, 1887, D,\nParker, Charles V., Colo., 1887, A,\nParker, C. M., 111., 1895, A.\nParker, Francis W,, III,, 1880, A,\nParker, Henry M,, Ohio, 1895, A,\nParker, J. W., Ark., 1897, A,\nParker, W. D., Wis., 1884, L,\nParker, W, S., Mass., 1896, A,\nParkinson, D. B., 111., 1897, A.\nParkinson, John B., Wis., 1884, L.\nParmenter, Charles W., Mass., 1895, A,\nParr, S. S., Minn,, 1895, A,\nParrish, Celestia S., Va., 1897, A.\nParrish, Ophelia A., Mo., 1896, A.\nParsons, H. S., Tex., 1895, A,\nPassmore, John A. M,, Pa., 1892, A,\nPatten, Frank C, Mont., 1897, A,\nPattengill, Henry R., Mich., 1892, A.\nPatterson, B. F,, Pa,, 1895, A,\nPatton, Cassia, Alaska, 1895, A.\nPatton, Charles L,, N, Y., 1886, A,\nPaxson, Everett E,, Mont., 1889, A.\nPayne, Bertha, 111., r896, A.\nPayne, W. C., III., 1896, A.\nPayne, William H.,Tenn., 189a, A,\nPayne, William R., Tenn., 1898, A,\nPeacher, A. L,, Ark,, 1896, A,\nPeairs, H. B., Kan., 1897, A,\nPeak, Charles N,, Ind., 1896, A.\nPearse, C. G,, Neb., 1891, A.\nPease, Alvin F.. Mass., 1891, A,\nPease, N, W,, N, J 1894, A,\nPeaslee, John B.. Ohio, 1880, L.\nPeck, A, L,, N, Y,, 1897, A,\nPendergast, W, W,, Mmn., 1894, A.\nPennell, Calvin S,, Minn,, 1864, L,\nPerkins Institution, Mass., 1897, A,\nPerrine, Lura L., N. D., 1895, A,\nPerry, Elizabeth H., Mass., 1891, A,\nPerry, George P,. Wis,, 1894, A.\nPerry, William H., Ky., 1898, A.\nPershing, Thed., Pa., 1895, A.\nPeterson, J, P,, Wis,, 1897, A,\nPfeiffer, J, W., Ohio. 1895, A.\nPhelan, W, W„ D. C., 1898, A.\nPhelps, William F., Minn,, 1870, D,\nPhilbrook, C, F„ 111,, 1895, A.\nPhilips, George M,, Pa., 1879, A,\nPhillips, Hattie A,, Iowa, 1886, A.\nPhillips, J. H., Ala., 1888, A,\nPickard, Josiah L., Iowa, 1886, D.\nPierce, Edward T., Cal., 1887, A,\nPierce, Mrs. Ella M., R. I., 1896, A.\nPierce, Lovich, D. C, 1898, A.\nPierce, Mary R., 111., 1897, A.\nPike, Joshua, III,, 1891, D,\nPiper, Jonathan, Wis,, 1895, A,\nPlace, Mrs, C, L., Cal,, 1896, A,\nPlapp, F. W., 111., 1897, A,\nPlimpton, George A,, N.Y., 1894, A.\nPlumer, George M,, Ohio, 1896, A,\nPoland, A, B., N. L, 1892, A.\nPollock, Jessie, Ark.. 1898, A.\nPollock, Rosalie, N. D, 1897, A.\nPollock, Susan P„ D. C, 1892, A.\nPosse, Baroness Rose, Mass., 1895, A.\nPowell, W. B., D. C, 1892, A.\nPowell, W. F., D. C„ 1889, A,\nPower, Gussie, N, Y„ 1887, A.\nPowers, James K,, Ala., 1895, A.\nPratt, R. H.. Pa., 1898, A.\nPray, Mabel L., Ohio, 1897, A,\nPray, T, B,, Wis., 1894, A,\nPteece, Mrs. Louise, Minn., 1894, A,\nPrentiss, H. W,, Mo,, 1897, A,\nPressler, V. S., N, Y,, 1898, A.\nPreston, J, R,, Miss,, 1890, A.\nPrettyman, E, B,, Md,, 1892, A.\nPrichaid, E, H,, Ohio, 1895, A,\nPrilJeittan,Byrd,W. Va., 1891, A.\n\nI 121\n\n"}
{"page": 1132, "printed_page": null, "text": "I 122\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPrince, John T., Mass., 1891. A.\nPringle, William J., 111., 1896, A.\nPritchard, M. T., Mass., 1896, A.\nPritchett, H. C, Tex., 1892, A.\nPvudfoot, Mrs. A. K.,I11., 1897, A.\nPub. Librar>' of Detroit, Mich., 1897, A.\nPublic-School Teachers, Janesville, Wis., 1884, L.\nPurer, Mary I., 111., 189(3, A.\nPutnam, Mrs. Alice H., 111., 1893, A.\nRaab, Henry, 111., 1884, L.\nRace, S. J., Minn., 1895, A.\nRalston, James M., N. J., 1892, A.\nRamsay, Charles C, Mass., 1893, A.\nRamsey, George T., La., 1889, A.\nRandall, J. E., Ohio, 1898, A.\nRankin, A. W., Minn., 1893, A.\nRapp, Eli M., Pa., 1898, A.\nRaschig, H. H., Ohio, 1893, A.\n•Rassweiler, J. K., III., 1897, A.\nRaub, A. N., Del., 1892, A.\nRayman, R. E., Ohio, 1895, A.\nRaymond, Andrew V. V., N. Y., 1895, A.\nRead, J. I., Neb., 1898, A.\nRedfield, Jennie L., Neb., 1895, A.\nReed, A. A., Neb., 1895, A.\nReel, Estelle, Wyo., 1B94, A.\nReeves, C. E., Wash., 1896, A.\nReid, James, Mont., 1895, A.\nReiley, Cynthia E., Mont., 1895, A.\nReinhart, J. Albert, N. J., 1894, A.\nRemingtOH, Lew. D., Mich., 1896, A.\nRennick, Louise D., III., 1897, A.\nRennie, Robert H., 111., 1897, A.\nRessler, Edwin D., Ore., 1892, A.\nReveley. Ellen G., Ohio, 1891, A.\nReynolds, Charles B., Mo., 1895, A.\nReynolds, J. H., Ark., 1897, A.\nRhoads, McHenry, Ky., 1891, A.\nRice, Emily A., N. J., 1892, A.\nRice, Gratia L., N. V., T889, A.\nRice, J. M., N. Y., 1895, A.\nRichards, C. N., N. Y., 1898, A.\nRichards, E. E., Ohio, 1894, A.\nRichards, Mrs. E. H., Mass., 1898, A.\nRichards, Zalmon, D. C. 1857, D.\nRicheson, J., 111., 1897, A.\nRichmond, Sarah E., Md., 1876, L.\nRickoff, Andrew J., Cal., 1881, D.\nRiddle, W., Pa., 1896, A.\nRider, Andrew J., N. J., 1897, A.\nRidge, J. C, Ohio, 1897, A.\nRidgeway, William C, Mo., 1898, A.\nRightsell, J. R., Ark., 1898, A.\nRigler. Frank, Ore., 1898, A.\nRiley Co. Ed. Assoc, Kan., 1886, L.\nRiley, Mrs. Matilda E., Mo., 1890, A.\nRiste, W. G., Kan., 1897, A.\nRivers, W. W., Ark., 1895, A.\nRobbins, C. W., Mo., 1892, A.\nRobbins, George A., III., 1897, A.\nRobert, James A., Ohio, 1882, L.\nRoberts, Flora, Ind., 1896, A.\nRoberts, Hester A., N. Y., 1894, A.\nRoberts, H. L., 111., 1897, A.\nRoberts, L. D., Wis., 1897, A.\nRobertson, J. L., 111., 1897, A.\nRobertson, Powhatan W., D. C, 1896, A.\n.\nRobinson, Albert R., 111., 1895, A.\nRobinson, Lucy, W. Va.. 1896, A.\nRobinson, Oscar D., N. Y., 1892, A.\nRobinson, W. S., Ohio, 1895, A.\nRocheleau, W. F., 111., 1896, A.\nRocholl, L. J., Minn., 1897, A.\nRogers, Dora B., N. C, 1896, A.\nRogers, J. N., Ga., 1897, A.\nRogers, Josephine E., N. Y., 1893, A.\nRogers, Lillian E., Mass., 1897, A.\nRogers, Rovillus R., N. Y., 1895, A.\n*Rood, Wilbur v., Ohio, 1896, A.\nRoof, F. M., Ala., 1892, A.\nRoop, C. Y., Cal., 1886, L.\nRoot, J. A., Ill,, 1897, A.\nRose, George E., Kan., 1886, L.\nRose, S. L., Ohio, 1896, A.\nRoth, Anna C, Ky., 1897, A.\nRounds, Charles C., N. Y., 1876, L.\nRourke, Mary, Iowa, 1895, A.\nRowe, Alex M., Minn., 1894, A.\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nRowe, H. M., Md., 1896, A.\nRowe, Mary E., Ind., 1895, A.\nRowe, Stuart H., Conn., 1898, A.\nRowe, W. S.,Ind., 1895, A.\nRowland, J. H., Ohio, 1896, A.\nRoyal, M. G., Wash., 1896, A,\nRudolf, Ida, Ky„ 1896, A.\nRussell, James E., N. Y., 1895, A.\nRussell, J. A., Mass., 1894, A.\nRyan, George G., N. J., 1894, A.\nRyon, C. M., N. Y., 1896, A.\nSabin, Albert R., 111., 1884, A.\nSabin, Ellen C, Wis., 1895, A.\nSabin, Henry, Iowa, 1889, A.\nSage, A. H., Wis., 1898, A.\nSage, W. v., Mich., 1896, A.\nSale, A. R., Iowa, 1897, A.\nSalisbury, Albert, Wis., 1887. A.\nSamuel, William H., Pa., 1893, A.\nSanders, D. E., Mont., 1895, A.\nSanders, F. W., W. Va., 1897, A.\nSandison, Howard, Ind., 1896, A.\nSanford, F., Cal., 1897, A.\nSanford, Henry R., N. Y., 1895, A.\nSanor, S. D., Ohio, 1893, A.\nSargent, Dudley A., Mass., 1896, A.\nSargent, Elisa A., N. Y., 1896, A.\nSaunders, Sara A., N. Y., 1896, A.\nSavage, Reed, HI., 1889, A.\nSawhill, Thomas A., Kan., 1886, L.\nSawvel, Franklin B., Pa., 1894, A.\nSawyer, C. L., Minn., 1897, A.\nSaylor, J. F., Neb., 1B96, A.\nScarlett, Augustus, N. J., 1891, A.\nSchaeffer, Nathan C, Pa., 1887, A.\nSchauffler, Alfred T., N. Y., 1895, A.\nSchermerhorn, Jane A., N. V., 1895, A.\nSchiller, J. D., Mich.,>i896, A.\nSchmucker, S. C, Pa., 1892, A.\nSchneider, Henry G.^ N. Y., 1895, A.\nSchofield, Bertha, Minn., 1897, A.\nSchofield, Martha, S. C, 1891, L.\nScholfield, Bessie M., R. I., 1896, A.\nSchreiber, Mae E., Wis.. 1896, A.\nSchryver, Anna A., Mich., 1896, A.\nSchurman, J. G., N. Y., 1896, A.\nSchuyler, Aaron, Kan., 1886, L.\nSchuyler, E. H., N. J., 1894. A.\nScobey, Frank H., N. J., 1894, A.\nScott, Charles B., N. Y., 1890, A.\nScott, E. H., 111., 189s, A.\nScott, F. N., Mich., 1897, A.\nScott, Harriet M., Mich., 1896, A.\nScott, Izora, Colo., 1897, A.\nScott, James W., Ohio, 1893, A.\nScott, O. C, 111., 1895, A.\nScott, W. H., Ohio, 1893, A.\nScovel, Sylvester, Ohio, 1897, A.\nScudder, Myron Tracy, Conn., 1895, A.\nScull, James F., Ind., 1895, A.\n*Searing, Edward, Minn., 1895, A.\nSearle, Miss S. M., N. J., 1893, A.\nSeaver, Edwin P., Mass., 1893, A.\nSeeley, Charles D., N. Y., 1896, A.\nSeeley, Levi, N. J., 1890, A.\nSeerley, H. H., Ixjwa, 1884, A.\nSellars, D. Francis, 111., 1896, A.\nSelleck, W. F. F., Minn., 1898. A.\nSewall, May W., Ind., 1897, A.\nSexton, E. K., N. J., 1897, A.\nShanahan, Rev. J. W., Pa., 1895, A.\nSharkey, J. P., Ohio, 1890, A.\nShaw, A. L., Mich., 1897, A.\nShaw, Edward R., N. Y., 1893, A.\nShaw, Samuel, Wis., 1884, L,\nShawan, J. A., Ohio, 1894, L.\nShear, S. R., N. Y., 1895, A.\nShearer, W. J., N. J., 1895, A.\nShearer, W. S., Iowa, 1897, A.\nSheats, W. N., Fla., 1893, A.\nSheber, Cora, Ark.. 1898, A.\nSheldon, William E., Mass., 1857, D.\nShelley, W. H., Md., 1895, A.\nShepard, George C, Mich, 1897, A.\nShepard, Irwin, Minn., 1883, A.\nSherwood, Jennie M., Ark., 1898, A.\nShinn, Josiah H., Ark., 1890, A.\nShippen, Edward, Pa., 1879, L.\n\n"}
{"page": 1133, "printed_page": null, "text": "1123\n\nINDEX\n\nTO LIFE AND\n\nShirk, David F., Kan., 1895, A.\nShives, Julia, Ark., 18^8, A.\nShoemaker, W. A., Minn., 1895, A.\nShorney, George H., 111., 1897, A.\nShrieves, Emma, Wis., 1896, A.\nShutts, George C, Wis., 1896, A.\nSibley, Charles A., Mass., 1895, A.\n•Sickel,!. F. C, Pa., 1894, A.\nSiefert, H. O. R., Wis., 1895, A.\nSigler, P. N., Ohio, 1898, A.\nSilcox, Julia C, Ohio, 1897, A.\nSilke, Lucy S., 111., 1893, A.\nSilver, Edgar O., Mass., 1894, A.\nSimenvell, E. A., Kan., 1895, A,\nSimonds, H. A., Wis., 1895, A.\nSims, J. F., Wis., 1897, A.\nSinclair, S. B., Can., 1891, A.\nSinger, Edgar A., Pa., 1880, L.\nSisson, E. O., 111., 1897, A,\nSkidmore, Sydney T., Pa., 1895, A.\nSkinner, Charles R., N. Y., 1890, D.\nSkinner, William C, Ohio, 1895, A.\n•Skinner, W. H., Neb., 189s, A.\nSlack, H. W., Minn., 1897, A.\nSlade, James P., 111., 1895, A.\nSlaton, W. F., Ga., 1897, A.\nSlaton, W. M., Ga., 1894, A.\nSlauson,H. M., Mich., 1894, A.\nSloane, Clyde, 111., 1898, A.\nSmallwood, Mabel E., 111., 1896, A.\nSmart, James H., Ind., 1877, D.\nSmedley, Eva A., 111., 1897, A.\nSmiley, William H., Colo., 1892, A.\nSmith, A. T., Minn., 1898, A.\nSmith, Arthur P., Mass., 1890, A.\nSmith, A, Thomas, Pa., 1893, A,\nSmith, Anna T., D. C, 1895, A.\nSmith, Carrie J., Wis., 1805, A.\nSmith, Mrs. Clinton, D. C., 1898, A.\nSmith, Edwin R., Wis., 1897, A.\nSmith, E. E., 111., 1896, A.\nSmith, E. R., 111., 1897, A.\nSmith, Euler B., Ga., 1887. A.\nSmith, F. P., Kan., 1897, A.\nSmith, George M., S. D., 1895, A.\nSmith, Harriet E., Wis., 1897, A.\nSmith, H.j.,N.y., 189s, A.\nSmith, J. F., Iowa, 1897, A.\nSmith, J. F., Ohio. 1898, A.\nSmith, J. Mace, N. Y., 1895, A.\nSmith, J. N., Pa., 1896, A.\nSmith, Sydney F., Colo., 1895, A.\nSmith, William G., Minn,, 1895, A.\nSmyth. W.S., 111., 189s, A.\nSnoboda, Dora, Ky., 1897, A.\nSnow, Bonnie E., Minn., 1896, A.\nSnow, Francis H., Kan., 1893, A.\nSnow, Mary S., Me., 1898, A.\nSnyder, A. J., 111., 1897, A.\nSnyder, E. R., Colo., 1895, A.\nSnyder, Henry, N. J., 1894, A.\nSnyder. Jessie M., Ga., 1897, A.\nSnyder. J. H., Ohio, 1896, A.\nSnyder, J. L., Mich., 1889, A,\nSnyder, Lydia E., 111., 1895, A.\nSnyder, W. R., Ind., 1895. A.\nSnyder, Z. X., Colo., 1887, A.\nSnyder, Mrs. Z. X., Colo., 1896, A.\nSofdan, F. Louis, Mo., 1877, D.\nSollitt, Alice E., 111., 1893, A.\nSomers, E. J., D. C, 1898, A.\nSoule, George, La., 1892, A.\nSpangler, H. T., Pa., 1894, A.\nSpaulding, F. E., N. J., 1896, A.\nSpaulding, Randall, N. J., 1892, A.\nSpayd, H. H., Pa., 1892, A.\nSpeer, W. W., 111. 18^, A.\nSpencer, Pauline W., Pa., 1893, A.\nSpencer, Robert C, Wis., 1884, L.\nSpencer, Mrs. Sara A., D. C, 1893, A.\nSpcro, Anna K., Cal., 1877, L,\nSpringer, Durand W., Mich., 1894, A.\nSquire, Mary V., N. Y., 1896, A.\nStableton, J. K., Mass., 1892, A.\nStanford, Alma B., Minn., 1897, A.\nStanley, Edmund, Kan., 1886, L.\nStaples, Helen F.. Minn., 1896, A.\nStark, Joshua, Wis., 1884, L.\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\nStarrett, Mrs. H. E., 111., 1897, A.\nState A^ri. Coll., Kan., 1897, A.\nState Historical Society, Wis., 1884, L.\nState Library> Mass., 1898, A.\nState Nor. School, Cedar Falls, Iowa, 1897, A.\nState Nor. School, Chico, Cal., 1897, A,\nState\nWash.,\nState Nor.\nNor. 'jchool,\nSchool, Ellensbui|;^,\nGreeley, Colo.,\n1897,1897,\nA. A.\nState Nor. School, Los Angeles, Cal., 1897, A.\nState Nor. School, Mansfield, Pa., 1897, A.\nState Nor. School, Millersville, Pa., 1897, A.\nState Nor. School, Moorhcad, Minn., 1897, A.\nState Nor. School, Oshkosh, Wis., 1897, A.\nState Nor. School, Platteville, Wis., 1884, L.\nState Nor. School, Providence, R. I., 1897, A.\nState Nor. School, San Jos^, Cal., 1898, A.\nState Nor. School, St. Cloud, Minn., 1897, A.\nState Nor. School, Terre Haute, Ind., 1897, A.\nState Nor. School, Trenton, N. J., 1897, A.\nState Nor. School. Westfield, Mass., 1897, A.\nState Nor. School, Winona, Minn., 1897, A.\nState Teachers' Association of 111., 1890, D.\nState Univ. Library, Ohio, 1897, A.\nStearns, J. W., Wis., 1884. L.\nSteele, William L., 111., 1890, A.\nSteere, E. A., Mont., 1896, A.\nStehman, J. H., 111., 1897, A.\nStephens, H. Morse, N. Y., 1896, A.\nStephenson, Lillie S., III., 1895, A.\nStem, Menco, N. Y., 1882, L.\nStetson, W. W., Maine, 1895, A.\nStevens, Moses C, Ind., 1876, L.\nStevens, Plowden, Jr., N. Y., 1895, A.\nStevenson, A. L., 111., 1897, A.\nStevenson, William C, Kan., 1890, A.\nStewart, I. N., Wis., 1884, L.\nStewart, John A., Mich., 1884, A.\nStewart, Joseph S., Ga., 1895, A.\nStewart, N. Coe, Ohio, 1892, A.\nStewart, Sarah A., Pa., 1884, L,\nStickney, Lucia, Ohio, 1893, A.\nStitt, E.W.,N. Y,, 1896, A.\nStockleman, Mary E., Ohio, 1896, A.\nStockwell, Mrs. Helen H., N. D., 1894, A.\nStockwell, Thomas B., R. I., 1891, A.\nStockwell, Walter L., N. D., 1894, A.\nStokes, Horace A., Ohio, 1895, A.\nStone, Mason S., Vt., 1894, A.\nStoneroad, Rebecca D., D. C, 1896, A.\nStorm, A. v., Iowa, 1894, A,\nStout, George H., Pa., 1884, A.\nStout, Isaac H., N. Y., 1890, A.\nStout, J. D., Iowa, 1898, A.\nStowell, Thomas B., N. Y., 1891, A.\nStrachan, Alexander, S. D., 1897, A,\nStratford, W. R. J., Ind., 1895, A.\nStratton,C. C, Ore., 1888, D.\nStratton, Frederick E., Minn., 1886, A.\nStrong, Edwin A., Mich., 1892, A.\nStrong, James W., Minn., 1895, A.\nStubbs, J. E., Nev., 1895, A,\nStudy, }. N., Ind., 1897, A.\nStuver, E. Wyo., 1895, A.\nSudborough, Mrs. Grace B., Neb., 1880, L.\nSullivan, Christine, Ohio, 1886, A.\nSummers, Alexander, D. C, 1898, A.\nSuper, Charles W., Ohio, 1891, A.\nSuplee, Etta, Iowa, 1895, A.\nSuplee, Fannie, Iowa, 1895, A.\nSupts. and Princ. Assoc, Wis., 1884, L,\nSuter, Anna, Ind., 1890, A.\nSuter, Miss H. A., La., 1894, A.\nSutherland, Margaret W., Ohio, 1895, A.\nSutton, W. S., Tex., 1895, A.\nSwain, Joseph, Ind., 1893, A.\nSwan, Lizzie P., Wis., 1897, A.\nSwart, Rose C, Wis., 1895, A.\nSwiler, J. W., Wis., 1897, A.\nSyphax, Carrie E., D. C., 1895, A.\nTadd, J. Liberty. Pa., 1892, A.\nTalbot, Henry, N. Y., 1892, A.\nTanner, T. M., Utah, 1897, A.\nTapley, William W., Mass., 1892, A.\nTarbell, Horace S., R. I., 1891, A.\nTaubman, Kate, S. D., 1894, A.\nTawney. Guy A., Wis., 1898. A.\nTaylor, A. R., Kan., 1886, D.\nTaylor, Cordic, Mo., 1895, A.\n\n"}
{"page": 1134, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 1 24\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nTaylor, Edward, Ky., 1896, A.\nTaylor, Henry J.. Iowa, 1884, L.\nTaylor, J. F., Neb., 1896, A.\nTaylor, Joseph S., N. Y., 1894, A.\nTeachers' Asso. of Cowley Co., Kan., 1886, L.\nTeachers' Asso. of Rilev Co., Kan., 1886, L.\nTeachers' Association, Wis., 1884, L.\nTeachers' Institute. Philadelphia, Pa., 1879, D.\nTeague, Leamy, Ark., 1898, A.\nTempleton, J. C, Cal.. 1894, A.\nTerrel, Harriet E., Ohio, 1896, A.\nTerrell, Mary C, D. C, 1898, A.\nTerry, Miss J. L., Wis., 1897, A.\nThames, W. I., Miss, 1897, A.\nTharpe, F. D.. Mo., 1891, A.\nThatcher, J. L., Wis., 1896, A.\nThayer, Ada F., N. Y., 1896, A.\nTheilman, Louis, Mo., 1895, A.\nThiry,J. H.,N. Y.,1897, A.\nThomas, D. W., Ind., 1896, A.\nITiomas, Mrs. Emma A., Mich., 1896, A.\nThomas, Miss M. J. B., N. J., 1896, A.\nThomas, R. S.,Ohio, 1896, A.\nThompson, D. M., N. C, 1898, A.\nThompson, E. C. Mich., 1894, A.\nThompson, H. E., Okla., 1895, A.\nThompson, John G., Mass., 1895, A.\nThompson, Langdon S., N. J., 1876, L.\nThompson, O. U., Mich., 1896, A.\nThompson, T. E., Mass., 1897, A.\nThompson, William O., Ohio, 1894, A.\nThomson, Frank D., 111., 1895, A.\nThudium, C. C, Mo., 1898, A.\nThurber, Charles H., 111., 1893, A.\nThwing, Charles F., Ohio, 1895, A.\nTibbfts, Anna, Neb., 1894, A.\nTibbetts, A. C, Minn., 1895, A.\nTiffany, A. J.. 111., 1897, A.\nTillotson, D. C, Kan., 1886, L.\nTinker, B. W., Conn., 1897, A.\nTitus, Cynthia, Iowa, 1897, A.\nTodd, Emma J , 111., 1897, A.\nTodd, Samuel B., Wis., 1895, A.\nTolman, Henry L., 111., 1897, A.\nTompkins, A.. 111., 1896, A.\nTompkins,\nM., Minn.,'\nTormey, J. Lillian\nA., Minn.,\n1897, A.1898, A.\nTower, Belle M., Mich., 1897, A.\nTracy, Frank N., 111., 1896, A.\nTrant, Amelia Earle, N. Y., 1896, A,\nTrask, H. M., Pa., 1895, A.\nTravell, Ira W., N. J., 1897, A.\nTressler, A. W., Wis., 1892, A.\nTreudley, F., Ohio, 1891, A.\nTrotter, J. R., W. Va., 1897, A.\nTucker, Anna M. P., Ohio, 1896, A.\nTulloch, Mrs. M., D. C. 1898, A.\nTurner, Alfred, Mass., 1895, A.\nTurner, J. E., 111., 1895, A.\nTurner, J. M., Wis., 1897, A.\nTurner, Marie L., Mo., 1895, A.\nTuttle, Albert H., Va., 1896, A.\nTutwiler, Julia S., Ala., 1882, A.\nTwichell, Hattie, Mass., 1895, A.\nTwining, Nathan C, Cal., 1884, L.\nTwiss, George R., Ohio, 1894, A.\nUnderbill, Volney, 111., 1893, A.\nUniversity of California, 1895, A.\nUniversity of Georgia, 1895, A.\nUniversity of Iowa, 1897, A.\nUniversity of Michigan, 1898, A.\nUniversity of Missouri, 1895, A.\nUniversity of Nebraska, 1898, A.\nUniversity of Omaha, Neb., 1897, A.\nUniversity of State of N. Y., 1893, L.\nUniversity of Utah, 189s, A.\nUpton, R. R., Ohio, 1898, A.\nVail, Henry H., N. Y., 1897, A.\nVaile, E. O., 111., 1895, A.\nVan Aken, Mrs. G., N. Y., 1894, L.\nVance, Sophie, Ohio, 1890, A.\nVan Cleve, C. L., Ohio, 1896, A.\nVan Cleve, Edward M., Ohio, 1897, A.\nVandervort, C. R., 111., 1896, A.\nVandyke,\nA., Minn.,\n1896,1894,\nA. ' A.\nVan Liew, J.Charles\nC, Cal.,\nVan Ostrand, B. D., Kan., 1896, A.\nVan Rensselaer, Martha, N. Y., 1894, A.\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nVan Sickle, James H., Colo., 1892, A.\nVan Tassel, L N., Ohio, 1898, A.\nVan Wie, Charles B., Ala., 1895, A.\nVeatch, Nathan T., 111., 1895, A.\nVert, Edmund J., S. D., 1895, A.\nVirtue. G. O., Minn., 1898, A.\nVose,L. D., 111., 1894, A.\nVroom, W. F., N. Y., 1898. A.\nWabash College, Ind., 1895, A,\nWade, Margaret I., N. J., 1894. A.\nWaite, Emma S„ N. Y., 1896, A.\nWaldo, Eveline A., La., 1897, A.\nWalke, Matilda L., Ohio, 1892, A.\nWalker, E. W., Wis., 1897, A.\nWalker, Miss E., Minn., 1897, A.\nWalker, P. R., 111., 1890, A.\nWalrath, M. H., N. Y., 1896, A.\nWalsh, J. H., N. Y., 1895, A.\nWalter, Mary, Ohio, 1898, A.\nWalter, Sarah J., Conn., 1898, A.\nWalton, George A., Mass., 1892, A.\nWard, Henry B., Neb., 1897, A.\nWare, N. E., Ga., 1896, A.\nWaring. J. H. N., Md., 1898, A.\nWarner, A. B., Iowa> 1894, A.\nWarr,J. W., 111., 1895, A.\nWashburn, Kirk N., Mass., 1896, A.\nWaterbury, R. A., Wis., 1896, A.\nWaterhouse, A. H., Neb., 1896, A.\nWaterman. Richard, 111., 1896, A.\nWatson, Edith M., Wis., 1897, A.\nWatt, W. E., 111., 189s, A.\nWeaver, E. W., Ky., 1897, A.\nWeaver, W. D., Ind., 1895, A.\nWeber, A. W., Wis., 1897, A.\nWeber, H. C, Tenn., 1897, A.\nWebber, Lottie, Ark., 1898, A.\nWebster, W. F., Minn., 1896, A.\nWeeks, C. W., 111., 1895, A.\n♦Weeks, Ellen G., Wis., 1897, A.\nWeld, Frank A„ Minn., 189s, A.\nWelles, Frank E., N. Y., 1895, A.\nWelsh, J. P., Pa., 1896, A.\nWeldon, Edward, Pa., 1898, A.\nWelton, William, 111., 1897, A.\nWentz, Etta L., N. Y., 1896, A.\nWernick, E. V., Wis., 1895, A.\nWest, Allen B., Wis., 1897, A.\nWest, Claude L., N. J., 1898, A.\nWestcott, Edith, D. C., 1898, A.\nWestcott, O. S., 111., 189s, A.\nWestervelt, Z. F., N. Y., 1897, A.\nWestfall, Mary B., Ohio, 1897, A.\nWeston, Mrs. O. E., Mex., 1897, A.\nWheatley, Emma, Neb., 1895, A.\nWheaton, Ellen F., Minn., 1897, A.\nWheeler, Henry N., Mass., 1892, A.\nWheelock, Charles F., N. Y., 1895, A.\nWhelpley, J. W.. D. C, 1898, A.\nWhipple, H. A., Wis., 1897, A.\nWhitcomb, Arthur K., Mass., 1892, A.\nWhite, Charles G., Mich., 1895, D.\nWhite, Daniel A., 111., 1895, A.\nWhite, Emerson E., Ohio, 1870, D.\nWhite,\nHue, H.\nxi. C,\n»^., Ga.,\nvjra., 1896,\n1090, A.\ni\\.\nWhite,\nIiite, J. T., Md., 1898, A.\nJ. U., Mo., 1887, A.\nWh lite,\nlite, W. H., Mich., 1897,■ A.\nWhite, ----White, W.\nWilliam\nM., Ohio,\nWhite;\nJ., Ohio,\ni89i',A1896, A.\nWhite, W. T., Tenn., 1889, A.\nWhiteford, J. A., Mo., 1895, A.\nWhitford, William C. Wis., 1884, L.\nWhitman, B. L., D. C, 1895, A.\nWhitney, Allen S., Mich., 1894, A.\nWhitney, M. A., 111., 1891, A.\nWhitney, O. C, Wash., 1898, A.\nWhitney, S. Emory, Mich., 1893, A.\nWhittemore, Henry. Mass., 1895, A.\nWhittle, W. R., R. I., 1896, A.\nWiard, Louise A., Ky., 1896, A.\nWickham, Kate M., Neb., 1895, A.\nWicks, John F., 111., 1897, A.\nWidner, Esther A., Ohio, 1880, L.\nWiley, William H., Ind., 1896, A.\nWilkins, A. H., Tex., 1894, A.\nWilkinson, J. J., Kan., 1896, A.\nWilkinson, J. N., Kan., 1884, A.\n\n"}
{"page": 1135, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX\n\nTO LIFE AND\n\nWjllard, F. E., Iowa, 1806, A,\nWilliams Coll. Library, Mass., 1897, A.\nWilliams, Mrs. Delia, Ohio, 1870, L.\nWilliams, J. D., 111., 1896. A,\nWilliams,!. W., Ind. T.. 1898, A.\nWilliams, Philo J., Kan., 1886, L.\nWilliams, T. E., Ga., 1895, A.\nWilliams. Thyrza C, N. J., 1897, A.\n1897, A.\nX, Wis.. 18\nWilliams,'\nWilliam J.,\nrf., Neb., 1895, A.\nWilliams, William\nWilliamson, J. E., Iowa, 18105, A.\nWillis, D. M., W. Va.-, 189s, A.\nWillis, H. B., N. J., 1892, A.\nWillis, W. A., Iowa, 1884, L.\nWilson, A. H., N. J., 1896, A.\nWilson, Harry G., 111., 1895, A.\nWilson, H. E., Ariz., 1895, A.\nWilson, J. H., D. C, 1898, A.\nWilson, J. Ormond, D. C., 1880, D.\nWilson, V. L., Iowa, 1897, A.\nWilson, William E., Wash., 1890, A.\nWindgate, Ida M., Ohio, 1896, A.\nWing, Jessie, Colo., 1895, A.\nWinne, James, N. Y., 189a, A.\nWinship, Albert E.. Mass., 1892. A.\nWinston, George T., Tex., 1896, A.\nWinterton, Jessie M., N. Y., 1897. A.\nWinthrop Nor. Sch., S. C, 1895, A.\nWirick, L. A., Mo., 1897, A.\nWise, Henry A.. Md., 1885, A.\nWise, W. J., Colo., 189s, A.\nWitchard, T. H., Ga.. 1896, A.\nWitmer, Charles K., Pa., 1894, A.\nWitmer, Lightner, Pa., 1898, A.\nWitter, F. M., Iowa, 1897, A.\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\nWitter, T. C, N. Y., 1898, A.\nWolfe, H. K., Neb., 1896. A.\nWolfe, L. E., Kan., 1890, A.\nWood, Court F., D. C, 1897. A.\nWood, Emory M., Kan., 1889, A.\nWood, James A., N. Mex., 1897, A.\nWood, John A., Ind., 1898, A.\nWood, O. M.. Mo.. 1893, A.\nWiwdley, O. I., Mich., 1896, A.\nWoodmansee, Miss M. A., Ohio, 1898, A,\nWoods, Francis M., Ill,, 1896, A.\nWoodward, C. F., Iowa, 1897, A.\nWoodward, C. M., Mo., 1887, A.\nWoodward, J. C, Ga., 1897, A.\nWoody, H. G., Ind.. 1893, A.\nWooley, L. C, N. J., 1893, A.\nWorden, Mrs. E. D., Kan., 1897, A.\nWorthington, John D., Md., 1893, A.\nWright, A. M., N. Y., 1893, A.\nWright, Anna J., Ohio, 1894, A.\nWright, Edmund W., Vt., 1889, L.\nWright, L. L., Mich., 1896, A.\nWright, William R., N. J., 189a, A.\nWylie, Mrs. M. J. B., N. Y., 1891, L.\nYerby, John D., Ala.. 1895, A.\nYoder, A. H., Ind., 1896. A.\nYoung, J. B., Iowa, 1896, A.\nYoung, J. S., Ohio, 1895, A.\nYoung, Nathan B., Ga., 1896, A.\nYoung, Robert G., 111., 1889, A.\nZiek, Mary, Iowa, 1898, A.\nZillafro, Margaret C, Pa., 1896, A.\nZimmerman, Charles F. A., Wis., 1895, A.\nZirkle, H. W., Colo., 1898, A.\nZook, Mrs. Laura, Mont., 1897, A.\n\n"}
{"page": 1136, "printed_page": null, "text": "CLASSIFIED\n\nMEMBERSHIP\n\nBY STATES\n\nIN THE\n\nNATIONAL\nFOR\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nTHE\n\nMEETING)\n\nYEAR\n\n1898 — (WASHINGTON\n\nActive Membership\nState or Territory\n\nLife\nDirectors\n\nLife\nMembers\n\nActive\nMembers\n\nship\nTotal\n143\nActive\n139\n\nAssociate\n\nTotal\n\nMember-\n\nMember-\n\n10,654\n264\n\nMember-\n\nTotal,\n\n.\n\n1,95214\n\n...\n\nNorth Atlantic DivisionMaine,\n....\nNew Hampshire,\nVermont,\nMassachusetts,\nRhode Island,\nConnecticut,\n.\n.\n.\nNew York,\nNew Jersey,\n,\nPennsylvania,\n\n22319\n\nI20\n\n8S\n38\n\n4,886\n\n521\n\n971\n\n16\n\n73\n\n996\n\n286\n\n412\n509\n\n237\n473\n99\n\n=•35 172\n\n6\n60\n\n2299\n80\n\n77\n3\n\n66\n\n44\n\n129\n\n5,882\n\n93\n208\n\nDelaware,\nMaryland,\nDistrict of Columbia,\nVirginia,\nWest Virginia,\nNorth Carolina,\nSouth Carolina,\nGeorgia,\nFlorida,\n....\n\n257\n\n135\n116\n\n69\n6S\n63\n\nSouth Central Division —\n.\n..\n\n72\n13\n233\n\n247\n14\n\n13\n\nNorth Central DivisionOhio,\n....\nIndiana, ,\n.\n'\nIllinois, ....\nMichigan,\nWisconsin,\n.\n.\nIowa,\n....\nMinnesota,\nMissouri,\nNorth Dakota,\n\n1,492\n159\n1,589\n1,146\n\n8,s8i\n85\n\n138\n\nSouth Atlantic Division —\n\nKentucky,\n.\n. '\nTennessee,\n.. '■\nAlabama, ,.\nMississippi,\nLouisiana,\nTexas,\n....\nArkansas,\nOklahoma,\nIndian Territory,\n\nI.44S\n1,007\n\n126\n\nS\n\n14\n\n15\n17\n\n133\n\nNorth Atlantic Division,\nSoutli Atlantic Division,\nSoutli Central Division,\nNortli Central Division,\nWestern Division,\nForeign\nUnclassified,\n.\n\nship\n\nship\n\n55\n\n261\n\n377 64\n\n558\n248\n\n212\n13\n\n6413\n\n332\n238\n225\n\n2\n\n1.313\n132\n103\n164\n60\n408\n\n73\n\n132\n\n59\n61\n102\n75\n39\n9\n\nSouth\nDakota, . ' .\nNebraska,\nKansas,\n....\nWestern Division —\nMontana,\nWyoming,\nColorado,\nNew Mexico, .\nArizona,\nUtah\nNevada,\n....\nIdahOj\n....\nWashington,\n.\nOregon,\n....\nCalifornia,\nAlaska\nCanada\n\n314\n\n136\n\n55\n45\n34\n5\n43\n6\n5\n7\n\n76\n\n319\n\n86\n50\n\n26\n795\n383\n60\n518\n327\n\n91\n45\n591\n\n216\n\n5\n\n3\n\n6\n5\n7\n\n151\n731\n16\n18\n\n196\n361\n\n2\n\n3\n9\n7\n44\n\nHunsrary,\nnexico\nArgentine,\n\n1,340\n379\n\n43\n9\n\n36\n382\n\n95\n55\n1,163\ni»0937\n\n150\n\n.\n\n54\n100\n146\n\n78\n\n382\n\n36\n\nII26\n\n"}
{"page": 1137, "printed_page": null, "text": "if\n\nOF MEMBERSHIP\n\nBY STATES\n\n■3\n\nRECORD\n\n■>\n\nIN THE\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nFOR EACH\n\nYEAR\n\n•3\n\nFROM\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n1884-98, INCLUSIVE,\n\nExcepting for 1893, when no regular meeting was held.\nHeavier numbers show membership\nrom the state in which the meeting for the year was held.\n\nf\n\n1^\n\n8,739\n\nTotal,\n\n.• .\n\n.\n\nNorth Atlantic Div —\n\nSouth Atlantic DIv —\n\nKentucky,\n. .\nTennessee,\n. .\nAlabama, . . .\nMississippi, , .\nLouisiana.\n. .\nTexas,\n. . .\nArkansas,\n. .\nOklahoma,\n. .\nIndian Territory,\n\nNorth Central Div —\n\nWestern\nDiv —\nMontana, . . ._\n\nMiscellaneous, • •\nCanada\n\n21\n\n43\n\n6\n8\n\n143\n\ns\n\n27\n31\n10\n\n370 II\n\n5\n\n159\n28\n\n211\n\n35\n121\n\nSO\n40\n\n40\n4\n3\n\n3\nS\n\n4\n7\n3 •6\n\n2\n12\n\n18\n\n2\n2\n\nI\n2\n\n13\n123\n\nI\n\n67\n\n16\n\n22\n\n15\n\n33\n\n151\n62\n\n9\n127\n223\n\nI\nI\n\nI\n2\n\n7\n\n8\n\n67\n167\n\nIS\nI\n\n55\nII\n\n8\n\n22\n\n164\n\n607\n\n87\n\n16\n3\nI\n12\n\n18\n119\n\n64977\n625\n149\n18 1,7!)0\n418\n581\n1,146\n73\nII\n634\n20\n\n5\n\nI\n\n46\n486\n\n12\n\n30\n6\n625\n13 7\n204\n\nII\n46I\n2\n2\n\n19U\n9\n8\n\nI\n3\n\nn\n\n3\n\n3\n\nI\n\nI\nI\nI\nI\n\nII\n\n4\n\n18\n\nI\n\n3\n5\nII\n\n28\n16\n\n68\n\n124\n\n8\n71\n37\n127\n\n4\n8\n\n45\n36\n\n%'.:!hia\n\nV. Tr\n\n147\n443\n275\n\n-> ■1\n\n40\n\n\\ 99\n\n5\n\n37\n5\n96\n58\n\n3\nI\n\n'.13'\n4.278 , .\n\nI\n\n8\n\nV\n\n37\n\n24\n\nI\n\n118\n\nno\n\n114\n\n16\n54\n20\n\n330\n\n126\n\n320\n\n9\n4\n5\n593\n8\n\n1434\n164I\n\n35\n\n258\n871\n127\n\n42\n86\n41\n435\n8\n990\n9\n\n3\n3\n\n3\n\n5\n185\n\nS\n\n31\n\n10\n\nI\n\n651\n\n77\n57\n\n366\n\n412\n\n- 80\n\nno\n57\n8\n\n193\nIS\n1,495\n\n1,174\n\n1.138\n\n6\n\nII\n72\n\n407\n\n75\n3829\n703\n6229\n2,786\n345\n3\n210\n\n5\n\n588\n\n419\n\n10\n411\n23\n\n257\nS.701\n\n4\n7\n16\n9\n\n261\n\n386\nI.3SS\n1.573\n408\n147\n\n9\n\n558\n248\n\n205\n\n54\n100\n146\n83\n\n449\n\n6\n\n3\n112\n\n54\n\n755\n\n54\n34\n\n219\n31\n\n132\n\n13\n60\n1,313\n164\n\nII\n\n27\n\n760\n1,066\n\n3\n28s\n31 36\n\nS\n\n7423\n536\n\n10\n37\n16\n\n9\n\n•>\n\n\", 31 ^\n6\n\n21\n\n33\n\n3\n\nI\n\n- « '\n\n175\n\n559\n60\n4\n7\n25\n408\n379 2.738 415\n357\n59\n52\n103\n196\n350 52 78s\n198\n1.340\n187\n9,895\n565\n42\n589 327 89\n707\n347\n76\n45\n413\n387\n543\n4.864\n188\n470\n31 0\n87\n3\n333\n26 2.786\n133\n303\n3,059\n145\n1,870\n53\n28\n1,113 51\n2.834\n5.808\n14\n383\n1,08636 177\n795\n339\n98\n41\n98 14\n325\n118\n592 363 251\n5.432\n64\n15s\n202\n321\nSQi\n43\n34\n285\n1,171\n4,748 42\n2,123\n40\nS8 20\n252\n41\n32\n16\n26\n8\n10\n4067\n9\n41\n361\n578\n196\n\nI\n322\n\n,3\nV , \\—\n. .?\n\ne263\n\n16\n\n25\n\n25\n5092\n5\n172\n25 1,698\n129\n\n84\n\n99\n\n204\n\n4\n\n10\n\n56\n\n176\n\n*l'*\n\n13\n7\n6\n19 6 2,425\n942 5.882\n220\nII\n10\n129\n\n.0.\n\n199\n134\n13\n19\n\n120\n\n49\n\n7\n8\n\nII27\n\n232\n63\n9\n1.588\n1,072\nI30\n47,378 3.384\n\n66\n108\n\n285\n82\n155\n\n.6'M\n\nI\nI\n\n43\n52\n\n6S\n\nIII\n\n7\n\n62\n294\n2\n\n7\n\n383127\n\n21\n14\n\n5\n\n57\n\n322\n278\n\n25\n\n521\n49\n\n128\n20 6\n\n4\n189\n178\n\n159\n304\n\n7,111\n12\n\nIt\n\nSI\n\nS3\n47\n\n42\n\n3 3J\n\n31\n\n35\n\n437\ni6a 2,132\n325\n\n31\n\n343\n\n14\n\n5564\n\n45\n8\n\n20\n\n21\n214\n\n189\n\n3.079\n1,146 14,216\n15\n8,225 5.752\n6,038\n173\n159\n\n172\n\n19\n\n25\n3260\n3\n124\n\n149\nS3 259 9\n33\n\n1797\n15 K\n\n17\n\n26\n\n6\n5\n49\n49 40 322\n8 3 2\n\n18\n4\n\n16\n\n7,211\n\n12\n\n163\n\n933\n361\n\n572\n\n40\n\n16\nL 143 ;\"«i\n\nI\n\n206\n249\n\n40\n13\n\n134\n\n4\n6\n\n3\n\nt37\n\n7 (109\n10\n\nI 960204\n\nI\nI\n\n133\n57\n\n23\nV\n\n1.492\n\n377\n43 5.315\n187\n\ne2\n\n969\n323\n\n35\n\n197\n5.083\n\n33\n\n611\n\n355\n64 666\n13\n\n233\n\nX09\n\n5\n\n32\n\n442\n359\n\n273I\n\n15\n\n214\n\n13\n\n2,940\n419\n9.072\n\n191\n\n23\n\n18\n\n38\n\n39 89 79\n57\n97\n\n7\n\n225\n10\n\n60\n33\n\n7\n\n45\n\n121\n\n2312\n18\n\n213\n99\n7\n\nI\n\n16\n41\n\n10\n\n8\n5\n\n39\n\n257\n20\n14\n212\n\n13\n\n3\n\n1,462\n1,403\n17\n\n5\n4607\n4\n\n10\n\n9\n4\n\n132\n87\n19\n89\n326 380\n6\n4\n12\n3 29 2 29134\n43\n114\n4\n10\n\n6\n8\n\n8\n\n913\n\n2\n\n304\n132\n\n1324\n24\n\n16\n\n3\n1\n83 4\n\n10\n\n4\n\n43I\n\n6228\n\n23 63\n\n1,711\n\n426\n\n290\n\n'33\n\n309\n\n271\n\n178\n\n3I0\n\nS4\n354\n77\n546\n\n13 23\n\n242\n\nIII\n\n3\n\n4,156\n\n108\n\n2\nI\n\n210\n\n5,915\n\n1,456 3.357\nJ)73\n43\n\n28\n\nI\n\n6\n\n\"4\n196\n\n117\n13\n\n4\n4\n\n104\n\n29 3,360\n65\n\n95\n45\n122\n\n17\n\n4\n\n18\n\nIS\n81\nI\n\n655\n2,933\n4,778\n261\n795\n151\n417\n\n•\n\n206\n\n310\n\nis 27 1898\n24\n\n24\n\n1. 187\n\n5.474\n\n23\n\nII\n\n3\n\n14\n\n80,526 1.201 E5\n\nI\n\n13\n102\n23\n7,671\n\n277\n\n13\n\nB\n\nCI\n10,653\n\n1,984\n\n9.\"S\nlOI\n773\nas 1,074\n47\n1.07423 123\n155 7,216\n216\n44\n4.97429 642\n386\n85\n708\n\n1896\na\n\n11,397\n\n1892\n\n\"i\n\nColorado,\n.\nWyoming,\n., ,'\nNew Mexico,\nArizona,\n. . .\nUtah\nNevada.\n. . .\nIdaho, ....\nWashington, . .\nOregon,\n. . .\nCalifornia,\n. .\nAlaska,\n. . ,\n\n13\n145\n2\n\n3\n237\n\n\"s\n\nOhio,\n....\nIndiana,\n. . ,\nIllinois,\n, . ,\nMichigan,\n. .\nWisconsin,\n. .\nIowa,\n....\nMinnesota,\n. .\nMissouri, . , .\nNorth Dakota,\n.\nSouth Dakota,\n.\nNebraska . . .\nKansas,\n. , .\n\nII\n\n-^\n\n1.1886\n197\n2S\n\n<\n\n253\n\n1891\n\n1890\n\na\n\n\"6\n\nSouth Central Div —\n\n176\n\n\"3\n1888\n\n3\nIt\n\n0\n\nV\n\n13\n\n's\n\nDelaware,\n. .\nMaryland.\n. .\nDistrict of Col.,\nVirginia, . . .\nWest Virginia, .\nNorth Carolina,\nSouth Carolina,\nGeorgia,\n. . .\nFlorida,\n. . .\n\n77\n\nin\n26\n\n1,712 4067\n64\nI\n\n803\n\ni289\n899\n\nb\n\nE\n\n\"s\n\nMaine,\n. . .\nNew Hampshire,\nVermont, . . .\nMassachusetts, .\nRhode Island,\n.\nConnecticut, . .\nNew York,\n. .\nNew Jersey, . .\nPennsylvania,\n,\n\n16\n\nn\n\n1887\n\n1894\n\n1 «\n\n219\n\na\n\nI\n\n'3\n\nNorth Atlantic DIv.,\nSouth Atlantic DIv,,\nSouth Central DIv.,\nNorth Central DIv.,\nWestern DIv., . .\nForeign, ....\nUnclassified,\n. .\n\neg\n\n0\n\n1889\na\n\nB\n\n1884 1885\n\n•792 19\n\n189s\n\n&\n\nn\n\n1897\n\nu\n\n'6\n\n.1\nSlate or Territory\n\n1\n\n13\n\n'\nS8\n\n..' '*♦\n\n3\n6\n8\n7\n5\n8\n\nJ20\n4,226\n\n92\n\n18\n152\n28\n\n2\n\n3\n\n103\n\n7\n\n12\n10\n382\n\n78\n\nI\n\n4\n9\n\n102\n\n37\n4.589I\n\n302\n20\n10982\n\nj\n\nI\n\n193\n\n891\n\n7\n\n48\n\n330\n\n78\n\n"}
{"page": 1138, "printed_page": null, "text": "INVENTORY\nAND\nPRICE\nLIST OF PUBLICATIONS\nOF THE\nNATIONAL\nEDUCATIONAL\nASSOCIATION\nIN THE\nDEPOSITORY AT WASHINGPrice per\nTON, D. C, JULY I, i{\nLIST OF SUBJECTS\n\nNumber of\nPrices in\nsingle volcopies\nsets, carriage ume, carriage\nin stock\nnot prepaid\nprepaid\n\nPaper covers. i6 pages\n\n•25\n\n461\n169\n\n25\n\nHISTORY\n\nOP THE\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION,\n\nPaper covers, 141 pages\n\n197\n\nPROCEEDINGS\n1891\ni8g2\n1894\n\nOF THE\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\n•25\n1857-1891\n$0.10\n.25\n$0.25\n\nOF SUPERINTENDENCE\n$0.25\n\nPaper cover, 147 pages\n\"\n\"\n237 \"\n\n239\n144\n\nPROCEEDINGS\n\nOF THE\n\nNATIONAL\n\n•25\n.25\n\n1866\n1869\n\n1873\n1874\n1875\n1876\n1877\n1878\n1879\n1880\n1881\n1882\n1883\n1884\ni88s\n1886\n1887\n\n1890\n1891\n1893\n1892\n\n1897\n\n410\n\n\"\n\"\"\n\"\n\nPROCEEDINGS\n1865\n\n.30\n\n$0.25\n.20\n.20\n.20\n.20\n\n302\n246\n\n73\n8098\n114\n\n•25\n•25\n\nEDUCATION\nOFF 15\n\nCOUNCIL\n\nPaper covers, 120 pages\n890\n894\n891\n89s\n\n$0.30\n.25\n\n•30\n$0.30\n.30\n•25\n107\n\n88s\n\n$0.10\n\n$0.20\n131\n\nOF THE\n\nNATIONAL\n\nTEACHERS\n\nPaper covers, 117 pages\n\"\n\"\n140\n\"\n«\n36\n\"\n\n43\n.20\nASSOCIATION\n.20\n274\n50\n\n45 203\n\nElmira\nDetroit\nMinneapolis\nBaltimore\nLouisville\n(No meeting)\nPhiladelphia\nChautauqua\nAtlanta\nSaratoga Springs\nSaratoga Springs\nMadison\nSaratoga Springs\nTopeka\nChicago\nSan Francisco\nNashville\nSt. Paul\nToronto\nSaratoga Springs\nChicago (International Congress of Education)\nAsbury Park\nDenver\nBuffalo\nMilwaukee\nWashington, D. C. (in press)\n\n»\n\n1.25\n$0.50\n•50\n1.25\nI.2S\n1.25\n263\nDUCAT lONAL ASSC >CIATION\n1.50\n1.25\n1.50\n$1.25\n296\n1-25\nI.2S\n212\n$1.50\n1.50\n56\n1.50\n253\n1-75\n1.75\n1-75\n279\n1.50\nISS\n1.50\n1.75\n\n■ 50\n\n523\n60\n\n*\n\n*\n\n49\n584\n321\n\n2.00\n1-75\n1.50\n\n302\n\n1.75\n1-75\n1.50\n2.00\n1-75\n1-75\nI-7S\n1-75\n1-75\n\n2.00\n2.00\n2.00\n2.00\n\n743\n\n1-75\n\n385\n507\n458\n251\n\n2.00\n\n488\n\n«\n\n2.50\n2.00\n2.00\n2.00\n2.00\n2.00\n2.00\n\n*Stock exhausted.\n59°\n736\nCopies of the Reports of the Committee of Ten and the Committee of Fifteen can be obtained of the\nAmerican Book Co. for 30 cents each, postage paid.\nCopies of the Report of the Committee of Twelve on Rural Schools will be320supplied by the Secretary at\nthe following rates, viz, : fifty or more copies, by freight at purchaser's expense, at 15 cents per copy; ten or\nmore copies, by express, prepaid, at 20 cents per copy; single copies, by mail, 25 cents per copy.\nA complete Subject Index of all published proceedings has been issued in a separate volume, bound in\ncloth, uniform with the volumes of proceedings. The index will be sent free of charge to those who purchase\nfive or more volumes; to others it will be sent postpaid for $1. The index volume will be supplied to active\nmembers for 25 cents for postage, wrapping, etc.\nThe association will be pleased to pay cash for copies of proceedings for 1871, 1872, and 1883, or will\nsend copies of any other years in exchange.\nApplication for sale or exchange should be made to the Secretary.\nAll publications can be obtained of the Secretary. Remittances should be made by Draft or P. O.\nMoney Order.\n.\nInwR) ,Skepard, Secretary,\n\n'■''\"'\n\n;\n\n'til's, ' ■\n\n.',\"\"'\n\nWinona, Minn,\n\n"}
{"page": 1139, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX\n[Names of authors of papers are set in small capitals.\n\nA f indicates an obituary notice.]\n\nAbnormalities\nin Children,\nMinor\nBaker, J. M. — Discussion,\nMental, ....\n1015\n957\n162\nBallard, Mr. — Discussion,\nAct of Incorporation,\n5\nBancroft, Margaret — The Trend\nActive Members, List of,\n1061\nin the Training of Backward\n1040\nBusiness Meeting of,\n1045\n26\nand dren\nMentally Deficient ChilAdams, Carrie B. — The Next Step\n-What shall It Be?\n848\nBarbour, O. F. — Discussion,\nBarnard, Job — Manual Training,\nAddress of Welcome by720\nJohn W. Ross,\n43\nIts Purpose and Value, .\nB. I.. Whitman,\n45\nBarr,\nMartin\nW. — Training\nof 989\nW. T. Harris,\n1057\n49\nFeeble-minded Children,\nWebster Davis,\n533\n51\nBaths in School Furnishings,\nB. Pickman Mann,\n590\nBaxter, C. J.— The Township High\nHoward Helmick,\n789\nSchool\nAdministration and Bookkeeping of\nBell, Alexander Graham — Closing Address, Department of the\na National Bank — George M\nCoffin,\n....\n874\nDeaf, etc.,\n....\nAmended Spellings, List of.\n37\nBergey, D. H. — School ArchitecResolution Adopting,\n37\nture — Heating, Lighting, and\nAmendment to Constitution,\n524\n27\nSanitary Arrangements,\nAmendments to Constitution,\n.\n4\nBetter Supervision\nof the Public\n308\nSchools in the South — Charles\nAmerican Citizen, The Proper Edu\ncation of, ...\n272\nD. Mclver,\n....\n325\nAmerican Colonial Universities,\n105\nDiscussion, .\n.\n.\n.\nAmerican Educational History, Les\nBibliography of School Hygiene —\n223\nWilliam H. Bumham,\n.\n505\nsons from — A. D. Mayo,\nBooks and Articles,\nAmerican Universities and the NaJournals,\n1034\ntional Life — Andrew S.Draper, 103\nDistinguishing Features of, .\n120\nReports, .\n.\n.\n.\n.\n• 299\nAnnual Business Meeting of Active\nBiology in High School, The Teach528,533\nMembers,\n....\n26\ning of, ....\n.\n41\nBlackboards as School Furniture,\nAppropriation to Library Department,\n328\nBlake, Henry W.,t .\nAre there Studies as Constants That\nBlind, Lessons from Study of the,\nshould be Pursued in Every\n506\nCourse? — James M. Green,\n702\nBoard of Directors for 1897-98, Pro- 521\nDiscussion,\n707\nceedings of, .\n522\n39\nfor 1898-99\nArnold, Sarah Louise — The Du\n960\n37\nties and Privileges of the Su\nBoice, H. B. — Secretary's Minutes,De228\npartment of Physical Training,\npervisor.\nDiscussion,\n855\nBookkeeping and Accounting of the 929\nPeriodical Publishing Business\nArt Education, Relation of the Li\n880\nbrary to, .\n812\n—A. O. Kittredge,\nArt in Education of American Citi\nBooks and Articles on School Hyzens. Function of, .\n819\ngiene,\nAshmore, Otis — Discussion,\n328\nBoone, R. G. — Instruction and Discipline,\n.....\nAtkinson,\nFred\nW. — A Year's\nThe North Central State Normal 583\nStudy of the Entering Pupils\nSchools, ....\nof the Springfield, Mass., High\nSchool,\n747\n903\nBosworth, Miss — Discussion,\n.\nBotany in Secondary Schools, Report\nAvery, Myrtilla — Secretary's Minutes,\nLibrary Department,\n1005\nof Subcommittee on,\n967 506\nDiscussion, ....\n1027\nBowers,\nW. H. — In\nMemoriam\nMrs. Susan G. Patterson,\n292\nBackward\nand Mentally\nDeficient\n773\nChildren, Training of, .\n1040\nBowman, Perla G. — Discussion,\n729\n740\nBagen, Eugene D., t\n298 1 129 BoYDEN, A. G. — The New England\n690\nState Normal Schools,\n.\nBaker, F. O. — Discussion,\n\n"}
{"page": 1140, "printed_page": null, "text": "1I30\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nBrain Building and Mind Building\nfor Mentally Defective Children— Elmer Gates,\n.\n.1051\nBrand, Mr. — Discussion, .\n.\n. 202\nBrandegee, J. E. — Discussion, .\n.1015\nBranson, E.G.— What Kind of Normal Training does the Common-School Teacher of the\nSouth Need? ....\n319\nBrigham, Albert Perry — Preliminary Report of Subcommittee on Physical Geography,\n. 973\nBrooks, Edward — The Constants\nin Mathematics,\n.\n.\n.191\nBrown, David Wolfe — The Duties\nand Qualifications of the Congressional Reporter,\n.\n. 885\nBrown, Elizabeth V. — Discussion,\n. 630\nBrown, Elmer E. — The Larger University Idea\n278\nBrown, Miss Marion — The Southem State Normal Schools,\n. 732\nBruce, William George — Secretary's\nMiiiutes, Department of School\nAdministration,\n.\n.\n. 985\nBrumbaugh, Martin G. — The Mission of the Elementary School,\n343\nBryan, Mr. — Discussion, .\n.\n. 747\nBuehrle, R. K. — Resolution,\n.\n. 175\nDiscussion, .\n.\n. 318, 417\nBuRNHAM, William H. — Bibliography of School Hygiene,\n. 505\nBurrage, Severance — Medical Inspection ofSchool Children, . 539\nBusiness\nEducation — Durand\nW.\nSpringer, .\n.\n.\n.857\nin the High School — Emory\nR.\nJohnson, ....\n867\nin the State of Nevsr York — I. O.\nCrissy,\n.....\n882\nReasonable Expectations Concerning,\n863\nButler, Nicholas Murray — On\nShortening the Undergraduate\nCurriculum,\n.\n.\n.\n.717\nNominating Corresponding Members\n38\nRema*-ks on Amendment to Constitution, ....\n27\nReport of Committee on Resolutions,\n.....\n34\nByington, S. Lillian — Secretary's\nMinutes, Department of Music\nEducation,\n....\n832\nBy-Laws, ......\n4\nCalendar of Meetings,\n...\n6\nCautions to be Observed in Child\nStudy — Ossian H. Lang,\n. 898\nCentralization, What Kind will\nStrengthen Our Local School\nSystem?\n986\nChaney, Dr. — Discussion, .\n.177\nCharlton, Edwin A., f\n.\n.\n.301\nChase, Susan F. — Choice of Reading for the Early Adolescent\nYears\nloil\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nCheney, F. J.— Discussion,\n. 747, 756\nChildren's Gardens — Jenny B. Merrill,\n598\nChild's Course of Study or the Teacher's—Which?— Sarah J. Walter,\n243\nChild's Song, A — Mari Ruef Hofer, 602\nChild Study, Cautions to be Observed\nin,\n898\nin the Training of Teachers, . 916\nWhat\ncan It Contribute to the\nScience of Education?\n.\n. 348\nChoice of Reading for the Early Adolescent Years — Susan F. Chase, loi i\nDiscussion, ....\n1014\nClassification of Universities, . .109\nClassified Membership by States, 1898 11 26\nClosing Address — Alexander Graham\nBell\n1057\nCoffin, George M. — The Administration and Bookkeeping of a\nNational Bank,\n.\n.\n. 874\nColleges of the National Period,\n. 106\nDenominational,\n....\n107\nComic vs. Tragic in Literature and\nArt,\n396\nCommercial High School, Course of\nStudy for,\n.\n.\n.\n.862\nCommittee on National University, . 497\nNecrology, Report of, .\n.\n.\n32\nNominations, .\n.\n.\n25, 30\nNormal Schools, Report of, .\n.\n34\nResolutions, Report of, .\n.\n34\nCommon-School\nTeacher\nof\nthe\nSouth, What Training? .\n: 319\nCongdon, C. H. — Individual Singing,\n840\nCongressional\nReporter, The Duties\nand Qualifications of the,\n. 885\nConnection\nbetween Libraries and\nSchools — S.S.Green, . 1009\nConscience, The Social Basis of, . 196\nConservatism\nof Manual-Training\nTeachers,\n.\n.\n.\n.781\nConstants That should be Pursued in\nEvery Course, .\n. 702\nin Mathematics,\n.\n.\n.\n.191\nConstitution of General Association,\ni\nof National Council,\n.\n.\n. 489\nConsulting\nPsychologist, Ther New\nPsychology and the,\n.\n. 554\nContagious Diseases in School — T.\nA. Mott, .\n.\n.\n.381\nDiscussion, ....\n387\nContinuous Sessions, with Special Application toNormal Schools —\nIrwin Shepard,\n.\n.\n.410\nDiscussion, .\n.\n.\n-417\nContributions of Child Study to the\nScience of Education — Reuben Post Halleck, .\n-354\nDiscussion,\n....\n362\nCook, John W. — Supply of Teachers,\n.....\n578\nDiscussion,\n. 544, 554, 747, 756\nCorley, Mr. — Discussion, ...\n\n85\n\n"}
{"page": 1141, "printed_page": null, "text": "II31\nINDEX\nCorresponding Members, List of,\nDuties and Privileges of the Supervisor— Sarah Louise Arnold,\n228\nCoulter, John M. — Report of Subcommittee on Botany in Sec- 967\nDuties and Qualifications of the Conondary Schools,\ngressional Reporter — David\nWolfe Brown, .\n.\n. 885\nCourse of Study for a Commercial\n862\nHigh School, ....\nDutton, Bettie a. — In Memoriam\nMrs. Rebecca D. Rickoff,\n. 286\nCrissy, I. O. — Business Education in\n882\nthe State of New York, .\nMinutes,\nNational 494\n38 Secretary's\nCouncil,\nCubic Space in School Architecture, .\n525\nDiscussion, ....\n554\nCulture Value of Higher\nMathe178\nDuty of the Hour to Young Deaf\nmatics— W. B. Smith,\n.\nDiscussion, ....\n191\nChildren — Mary S. Garrett, . 1033\nCurvature of the Spine, Influence of\nDuty of the State in Education — E.\nSchool Life on,\n939\nE. White,\n....\n204\nDaniels, Fred H. — The Supervisor\nDye, Charity — A Proposed Four79543\nof Drawing in Public Schools, 10\nYears' Course in English for\nSecondary Schools, .\n. 678\nDavidson, S. G. — The Relation of\nLanguage Teaching to Mental\nDyer, F. B. — Discussion, .\n.\n. 203\nDevelopment,\nEaton, John — Education and Gold .\nin Alaska,\n.\n.\n.\n.214\nDavis, J. M. — Discussion,\nDavis, Webster — Address of WelEconomic View of Medical Inspec1033\ntion of Schools,\n.\n.\n. 458\ncome,\n/\nEducation and Gold in Alaska — John\nDay School and Reform School —\n10\nEaton,\n214\nCarroll G. Pearse, .\n270\n2039\n7708\nEducation, Democracy and,\n.\n. 249\nDeaf Children, Duty of the Hour to.\nEducation for the Industrial Classes\nDeaf, Relation to the Hearing World\nof the,\n....\n249\n— J. L. Snyder,\n.\n.\n.758\nDiscussion, ....\n763\nDeaf, The, and Their Possibilities,\nEducation of an American Citizen,\n107\nDefects in School Architecture,\n....\n272\n51 The Proper,\nDemocracy and Education — Edwin\nP. Seaver,\n...\nEducational Exhibit at the Interna260\nDiscussion, ...\ntional Exposition in Paris in\nDenominational Colleges,\n531\n1900 — W. T. Harris,\n.\n. 122\nDepartment of Superintendence\nEducational Outlook, The — W. W.\nStetson, .....\n131\nSecretary's Minutes,\n303I\nDepartments, List of.\nEducational Principles Which should\nDevelopment of the Inner Life of the\nGovern the Teaching of DrawChild — Mrs. Maria Kraus\ning — M. V. O'Shea,\n.\n. 802\nBoelt^\n608\nDiscussion, .\n.\n.\n.811\nDevelopment of the Social Conscious\nEducational\nValue\nof\nGeometry\n—\nKelly Miller\n194\nness of Children — Will S 1015\nEducational Value of the Tragic as\nMonroe, .\n. ».\nDewees, W. W. — Discussion, .\nCompared with the Comic in\nLiterature and Art — W. T.\nDewey, John — Report of the Com\nHarris,\n396\nmittee on a Plan for a Report\nEffect of Exercise\non the Vital\n335\n921\non Elementary Education,\nOrgans — William T. Harris, . 930\nDiplomas, State and Normal-School,\nReciprocal Recognition by the\nEhinger, C. E. — Discussion,\n. 947, 958\nStates of,\n....\nElementary Chemistry, Report of Sub575\ncommittee on, .\n.\n. 965\nDiscussion of Report on Rural Schools, 575\nSchool Maintenance,\nElementary Curriculum,\n.\n.\n. 639\nSchool Supervision,\nElementary\nSchools, Essentials of\n451\nUnited\nStates\nHistory\nto\nbe\nSupply of Teachers,\nTaught in — Homer H . Seerley,\n77\nInstruction and Discipline,\n583\nDiscussion,\n....\n82\nDistinguishing Features of American\n576\nUniversities, ....\nElementary Schools, Successive Differentiation ofSubjects in,\n. 632\nDomestic\nScience as a Synthetic\n578\nElementary Schools, The Function of\nStudy for Girls — Mrs. Ellen\nManual Training in, . . 649\nH. Richards, ....\nDiscussion, .\n.\n.\n. 773\nElizabeth (N. J.) Plan of Grading, . 441\nEllis, D. L. — Discussion, . .\n. 420\nDougherty, N. C. — School Super- 103\nvision,\nEmery, J. Q. — Discussion, .\n. 316\n6\n6\n7\nDowning, A. S. — Discussion,\n.\nEnglish,Course\na Proposed\nFour-Schools,\nYears' 678\nfor Secondary\nDraper,AndrewS. — American Universities and the National Life,\nEnglish Composition, Essentials of,\nDiscussion, .\n.\n.\n. 575576\nfor Elementary Schools, .\n. 87\n756\n\n"}
{"page": 1142, "printed_page": null, "text": "II32\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nEnglish Composition, Essentials of,\nfor Secondary Schools, .\n.\n94\nEnglish Round Table, Secondary Department, . .\n.\n.691\nEnglish, Syllabus of a Course in, 681, 687\nEnglish the Core of a Secondary\nCourse — John Calvin Hanna,\n665\nEssay Correcting — Can It be Made a\nJoy Forever? — F. N. Scott,\n. 691\nEssay\nSubjects, What\nProportion\nshall be Drawn from Litera- .\nture?\n693\nEssentials of English Composition\nfor\nElementary. Schools\nR. Shaw,\n.\n. — E'..\n87\nDiscussion, ....\n102\nEssentials of English Composition\nfor Secondary Schools — C. C.\nThach\n94\nDiscussion, .\n.\n.\n.102\nEssentials of United States History to\nbe\nTaught\nin Elementary\nSchools — Wilbur F. Gordy,\n.\n70\nDiscussion, ....\n82\nEssentials of United States History\nto be Taught in Secondary\nSchools — Homer H. Seerley,\n77\nDiscussion, .\n.\n.\n.82\nEvans, Margaret J. — Women's\nClubs as an Educational Factor,\n237\nExercise and Vigor — Henry Ling\nTaylor,\n933\nFairchild, George T. — Discussion,\n. 778\nFall, Delos — School Diseases and\nMedical Inspection,\n.\n. 534\nDiscussion, ....\n544\nFatigue — Edward R. Shaw,\n.\n. 550\nDiscussion, ....\n554\nFederation of Colleges and Universities, Is it Possible and Desirable to Form, .\n.\n. 720\nFeeble-minded Children, Training of, 1045\nFelker, Allie M. — Play as a Means\nof Idealizing and Extending\nthe Child's Experience, .\n. 624\nFinal Aim in Education, Realizing\nOur,\n462\nFiTZ, G.W. — The Hygiene of Instruction in Primary Schools, . 817\n544\nDiscussion,.\n177,554,944,954,956\nFloor Space in School Architecture,\nForrester, Miss J. L. — Supplement to\nReport of Committee,\nFreedom of Electives in Junior and\n526\nSenior Years, ....\n717\n819\n799\nFuller, Mrs. S. E. W. — Discussion, .\nFunction of Art in the Education of\nthe American Citizen — Wil649\nliam Ordway Partridge, .\n815\nFunction of Manual Training in the\nElementary School — Richard\nWaterman,\n'.\nFunction of the Library in Relation\nto the Public School,\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nGage, Lyman\n\nJ.— Reasonable Expectations Concerning Business\nEducation,\n....\n863\nGallaudet, E. M.— The Deaf and\nTheir Possibilities, .\n. 207\nGantvort, a. J.— The Influence of\nMusic and Music Study upon\nCharacter,\n....\n390\nGardner, Isaac — The Relation of\nthe Deaf to the Hearing\nWorld\n1039\nGarrett, Mary S.— The Duty of\nthe Hour to Young Deaf Children,\n1033\nGates, Elmer — Brain Building and\nMind Building for Mentally\nDefective Children, .\n. 1051\nGeneral Sessions,\n.\n.\n.\n43-302\nGeometry, the Educational Value of, 194\nGeospheres, The — W. J. McGee,\n. 149\nDiscussion, ....\n160\n\nGilbert,\nCharles B. — School P'urni- 532\n*\nture,\nSupply of Teachers,\n.\n.\n. 582\nDiscussion, ....\n554\nGilchrist, J. C, t\n•\n.\n.\n.291\nGlenn, G. R. — What the Negro Gets\nfrom the Common-School Education and What He Gives\nto It,\n330\nGoodsell, Bishop — Discussion, . 420\nGordon, Joseph C. — President's Address,\n1031\nGordy, J. P.— What can Child Study\nContribute to the Science of\nEducation?\n....\n348\nGordy, Wilbur F. — Essentials in\nUnited States History to be\nTaught in Elementary Schools,\n70\nGoss, David K. — Discussion,\n.\n. 87\nGove, Aaron — Discussion, .\n. 945\nGraded\nSchools, List of Library\nBooks for,\n....\n1019\nGrading and Promotion — Edward R.\nShaw,\n.....\n422\nDiscussion, .\n,\n.\n. 432\nGrading and Promotion, Plan of the\nNorth Side Schools of Denver\n— James H. Van Sickle, . 434\nGrading and Promotion, Some New\nEngland\nPlans — John\nT.\nPrince,\n.....\n423\nDiscussion, ....\n432\nGrading and Promotion, The Elizabeth (N. J.) Plan — William J.\nShearer, .\n.\n.\n.\n-441\nGreen,\nJames\nM. — Are\nthere\nStudies\nas Constants That\nshould be Pursued in Every\nCourse? .....\n702\nDiscussion, .\n.\n. 7^9, 747\nGreen, S. S. — Connection between\nLibraries and Schools,\n.\n. 1009\nDiscussion, .\n.\n1015, 1028\nGreenlee, L. C. — Discussion,\n.\n173\n\n"}
{"page": 1143, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX\nGreenwood, J. M. — President's Address,\n.....\n56\nIntroduction of President-Elect,\n36\nGregory, B. C. — Social Co-opera- ■\ntion\n655\nGresham, G. N. — The Proper Education of an Annerican Citizen,\n272\nGriffith, George — Discussion, .\n. 648\nGrove, M. A. — Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment of Business Education,\n.....\n856\nHafford, F. S. — Discussion, . 102\nHailmann, William N. — President's Address,\n.\n.\n.621\nHall, Frank — Is the Science of\nMathematics\nQualitative\nas\nWell as Quantitative?\n.\n. 193\nPedagogical\nLessons\nfrom\na\nStudy of the Blind, .\n. 1034\nHall, Mary F. — Value of the Hand\nin the Acquisition of Knowledge and Expression of\nThought, ....\n642\nSecretary's Minutes, Department\nof Kindergarten Education,\n. 589\nHalleck, Reuben Post — Some\nContributions of Child Study\nto Education, .\n.\n• 354\nHalsted, B. D. — The Leaf a Lightrelated Organ,\n.\n.\n. 970\nHanna, John Calvin — English the\nCore of a Secondary Course, . 665\nHardy, Richard — The Use of the\nSchool Library,\n.\n.\n. 1007\nDiscussion, .\n.\n. 263, 1028\nHarris, W. T.— Address of Wel. come,\n49\nOur Educational Exhibit at the\nInternational Exposition in\nParis in 1900, .\n.\n,122\nRational\nPsychology\nfor the\nTeacher, ....\n570\nThe Effect of Exercise on the\nVital Organs, .\n.\n. 930\nThe Educational Value of the\nTragic as Compared with the\nComic in Literature and Art, 396\nHarrison, Elizabeth — The Value\nof Ideals Set Forth in the\n\" Mother- Play Book,\"\n.\n. 592\nHartwell, Edward M. — School\nHygiene, What It Is and Why\nWe Need It, .\n.\n.\n. 498\nHarvey, L. D. — Discussion,\n.\n. 1026\nHarvey, N. A.— The Latest Practical Discoveries in Biological\nScience,\n172\nDiscussion, .\n.\n.\n-175\nHay, W. p.— The Teaching of Biology in the High School, . 960\nSecretary's\nMinutes,\nDeparti\nment of Natural-Science Instruction,\n.... 959\nHeating in School Architecture,\n. 529\nHelmick,\nHoward — Address\nof\nWelcome,\n....\n789\n\nHeredity and Environment— Edgar\nJames Swift\n910\nHigh-School Teacher.the Training of, 709\nHimes, Florence Browning — Secretary's Minutes, Department of\nArt Education, .\n.\n787\nHindrances and Helps to Manual\nTraining,\n.\n.\n.\n-779\nHinsdale, B. A. — Federation of Colleges and Universities, .\n. 720\nDiscussion, .\n. 544, 554, 575\nHoFER, Mari Ruef — A Child's Song,\n602\nWhat is Music and How can We\nlielp the Children to Become\nMusical? .\n.\n.\n.833\nHogg, Alex., Resolution Offered by, 33\nHorticulture, Manual Training in, . 776\nHoyt, Charles O. — Discussion, . 362\nHoyt, David W. — Discussion, .\n. 161\nHoyt, J. E. — Secretary's Minutes,\n*\nDepartment\nof Manual\nand\nIndustrial Education,\n.\n• 757\nHuBBERT, Harvey H. — What Kind\nof Centralization, if Any, will\nStrengthen Our Local School\nSystem?\n986\nHughes, Mrs. Ada Marean — A\nKindergarten Message to\nMothers, .\n.\n.614\nHutchins, F. A. — Discussion, . . 1014\nHygiene of Instruction in Primary\nSchools — G. W. Fitz,\n.\n. 544\nHygiene, School — What It Is and\nWhy We Need It, . . .\n. 498\nIdeal Play in the Kindergarten —\nSusan Plessner Pollock, . 604\nIndex,\n\n1 129\n\nIndex to List of Active Members,\n. 11 14\nIndividual Singing — C. H. Congdon,\n840\nIndustrial Education,\nReport of Com- 779\nmittee\nInfluence of Environment on the Development of United States\nHistory — Jacques W. Redway,\n139\nInfluence of Music and Music Study\nupon Character — A. J. Gantvort,\n390\nInfluence of School Life on Curvature of the Spine — R. Tait\nMcKenzie,\n....\n939\nDiscussion, ....\n944\nInfluence of the Kindergarten upon\nthe Schools — F. Louis Soldan,\n619\nInglis, S. M. — Discussion, . 377\nInglis, Samuel M.,f ....\n288\nInner Life of the Child, Development\nof the\n608\nInspection of Schools, Medical, . 454\nInstruction and Discipline — R. G.\nBoone\n583\nInventory and Price List of Publications\n1 128\nIs it Possible and Desirable to Form\na P'ederation of Colleges, etc.?\n— B. A. Hinsdale, .\n.\n. 720\nDiscussion, ....\n727\n\n"}
{"page": 1144, "printed_page": null, "text": "II34\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n867\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nand the Proper Function of\nJay, Walter M.,t\nEach\n999\n23\nJohnson, Emory R. — Business Ed\nucation in the High School,\nLuckey, G. W. A. — Secretary's Min295\nutes, Department of Child\nJohnson, George E. — Play in Phys\nStudy,\n893\nical Education,\n300\nDiscussion,\nLyons, P. W. — Discussion,\n.\n. 690\nJohnson, G. W. — Discussion,\n.\n956704 Lyte, E. O. — Response as PresidentElect,\n36\nJones, Joseph C.,t\n•\n691498 Mackey, E. — Discussion, .\nJournal of Proceedings,\n.\n. 763\nJournals on School H)'giene,\n946 Magee, Harriet Cecil — Presi614\ndent's Address,\n.\n.\n-791\nKindergarten, Ideal Play in the. the\nKindergarten,\nInfluence upon\nMajor, Ernest L. — Discussion, . 811\nSchools, ....\nMann,\nB. Pickman — Address\nof\nWelcome,\n....\n590\n521\nKindergarten Message to Mothers —\nMrs. Ada Marean Hughes,\nManual\nTraining in Horticulture —\nWilliam R. Lazenby,\n.\n. 776\nKing, William F. — Discussion, .\nDiscussion, ....\n778\nKiTTREDGE, A. O. — The BookkeepManual Training in the Elementary\ning and Accounting of the Pe- 880\nSchool, Function of,\n.\n. 649\nriodical Publishing Business,\n20\nManual\nTraining, Its Purpose and\nKratz, H. E. — Discussion,\n. I75. 7I99\n19\nValue — Job Barnard,\n.\n• 989\nKRAUs-BoELxi, Mrs. Maria — Development ofthe Inner Life of\nManual Training, Report of Committee,\n779\nthe Child\n608\nMaps as School Furniture, .\n. 533\nKrohn, W. O. — Minor Mental Abnormalities inChildren, . 162\nMarble, A. P. — Ventilation of Schoolrooms, . .\n.\n.\n'371\nDiscussion,\n.\n.\n173, 176, 178\nMarsh, Miss — Discussion,\n.\n.201\nLane, A. G. — Report of Board of\nTrustees, ....\nMathematics, Higher, Culture Value\nof,\n178\nReport on Authorized Appropriations, . .\n...\nMathematics, Is the Science of. Qual10\nitative\nas\nWell\nas\nQuantitative?\n193\n43\nLang, Ossian H. — Some Cautions\nMathematics, the Constants in, . 191\nto be Observed in Child Study,\nLanguage Teaching in Mental DevelMayo, A. D.— Lessons from American Educational History,\n. 223\nopment, .....\nLansdon, Wr C. — Discussion, .\nMcCowen, Mary — Secretary's MinLarger University Idea, The — Elmer 278\nEducaE. Brown,\n....\ntionutes,\nof theDepartment\nDeaf, of\nBlind,\nand\nLazenby, William R. — Manual\nTraining in Horticulture,\nLeaf a Light-related Organ — B. D. 1034\nHalsted, ....\n945223\nLe Garde, Miss — Discussion, .\n776\n176\nLeibig, Mr. — Discussion, .\nLessons from a Study of the Blind, .\n970\nLessons from American Educational\n1009\nHistory — A. D. Mayo,\n.\nLibraries and Schools, Connection\n815\nbetween, ....\n8i3\nLibraries, Publfc, in Relation to Pub- 1006\nlic Schools,\n....\nLibrary and Public School Instruc- 1007\ntion, Relation of, .\n.\nLibrary, Relation to Art Education,\nLibrary, School, the Use of,\nLig'hting and\nSeating\nof School364\nrooms — W. A. Mowry,\n.\n1019\nDiscussion, ....\n369\nLighting in School Architecture,\n527\nList of Books for Graded Schools,\n.\n1017\nList of Books for Lower Grades, Re1016\nport of Committee,\nList of Books for Rural Schools,\n1061\n■ List of Life and Active Members,\nLowell, A. Lawrence — The Professional and Non-Professional\nBodies in Our School System,\n\n41\n\nFeeble-minded,\n.\n.\n. 1029\nMcGee, W. J.— The Geospheres,\n. 149\nMcGinness, Mr. — Discussion,\n.\n.1015\nMcIver, Charles D. — Better Supervision of the Public Schools in\nthe South,\n....\n325\nDiscussion, ....\n265\nMcKenzie, R. Tait — Influence of\nSchool Life on Curvature of\nthe Spine,\n....\n939\nDiscussion, ....\n947\nMcKinley, President William — Letter,\n23\nMcMurry, C. A. — Discussion, .\n.\n87\nMcNeill, I. C. — Treasurer's Report,\n16\nMechanics\nas Teachers of Manual\nTraining,\n....\n780\nMedical Inspection and School Government, . . •\n.\n. 459\nMedical Inspection of School Children—Severance Burrage, . 539\nDiscussion, ....\n544\nMedicalB. Inspection\nof\nSchools\n—\nW.\nPowell\n454\nMedical Inspection vs. School Diseases,\nMeetings, Constitutional\nProvisions\nfor,\nMembership, Conditions of,\n.\n\n•\n534\n3\ni\n\n"}
{"page": 1145, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX\nMemorandum Concerning Report of\nthe Committee of Sixty, .\n. 964\nMemorial Addresses, .\n.\n.281\nMentally Defective Children, Brain\nBuilding and Mind Building\nfor,\n\n105 1\n\nMerrill,\nJenny\nB. — Children's\nGardens, ....\n598\nMessage to Mothers, A Kindergarten,\n614\nMethods of Connecting Libraries and\nSchools,\nloii\nMiddle. States Normal Schools — N.\nC. Schaeffer, ....\n748\nMiller, Edwin L. — Subjects for\nCompositions : Shall We Draw\nThem from Literature or from\nLife?\n696\nMiller, Kelly — -The Educational\nValue of Geometry,\n.\n-194\nMiLLSPAUGH, J. F. — Sociology's Demand upon the Schools, .\n. 267\nDiscussion, ....\n554\nMinimum Preparation for Teaching\n— Price Thomas,\n.\n.\n. 448\nMinimum Requirements for SixYears' Secondary Course,\n. 702\nMinor Mental Abnormalities in Children— W. O. Krohn,\n.\n.162\nDiscussion, .\n.\n.\n.173\nMission of the Elementary School,\nThe — Martin G. Brumbaugh,\n343\nMonroe, Will S. — Development of\nthe Social Consciousness of\nChildren,\n.\n.\n.\n.921\nDiscussion, ....\n747\nMoten, Lucy E. — Discussion, .\n. 756\n\" Mother-Play Book,\" The Value of\nIdeals Set Forth in,\n.\n. 592\nMoTT, T. A. — Contagious Diseases\nin School,\n.\n.\n.\n.381\nDiscussion, ....\n640\nMowBY, W. A. — The Lighting and\nSeating of Schoolrooms, . 364\nMurphy, George T. — Discussion,\n. 160\nMusic and Music Study, Influence on\nCharacter of, .\n•\n.\n. 390\nNational Council of Education, . 489\nConstitution, ....\n489\nOfficers and Members, . .\n. 492\nSecretary's Minutes, . . . 494\nReport of Committee on Reorganization, ..... 495\nReport of Committee on Membership\n497\nNational University, Committee on, • 497\nNew England Plans and Conclusions\nDrawn from a .Study of Grading and Promotion — John T.\nPrince,\n423\nNew England State Normal Schools\n— A. G. Boyden,\n.\n.\n. 729\nNew Psychology and the Consulting\nPsychologist — Josiah Royce,\n554\nNext Step, The — What shall It Be ?\n— Carrie B. Adams,\n.\n. 848\nDiscussion,\n....\n855\n\nNormal Department,\nSecretary's Minutes\nNormal Schools and Continuous Sessions,\nNorth Central State Normal Schools\n— R. G. Boone,\n.\n.\n.\n\n728\n410\n740\n\nNorthrop,\nGrant, \"j\".\n.\nNoss,\nT. B.Birdsey\n— Discussion,\n.\n. 283\n755\nOfficers,\nConstitutional\nProvisions\nfor,\n2\nOfficers, List for 1897-98, .\n.\n8\nOfficers, List for 1898-99, .\n.\ni2\nOrmond, A. T. — Discussion, 202, 708, 720\nO'Shea,\nM. V. — President's Address,\n.....\n894\nSome\nEducational\nPrinciples\nWhich\nshould\nGovern\nthe\nTeaching of Drawing,\n.\n. 802\nThe Training of the High-School\nTeacher, .\n...\n. 709\nOutlook, The Educational,\n.\n. 131\nPacific Coast State Normal Scliools,\n744\nPainter, F. V. N. — What Proportion of Essay Subjects shall\nbe Drawn from Literature ? . 693\nPalmer, F. B. — Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment of Normal Schools\n728\nPalmer, Solomon, \"f .\n.\n.\n. 297\nPalmer, U. G. — Discussion,\n.\n. 82\nPartridge, William\nOrdway —\nFunction of Art in the Educacation of the American Citizen,\n819\nPatterson, Mrs. Susan G., \"f\"\n.\n. 292\nPearse,\nCarroll\nG. — Between\nDay\nSchool\nand\nReform\nSchool, .\n. ■.\n.\n. 270\nPedagogical Lessons from a Study\nof the Blind — Frank Hall,\n. 1034\nPendergast, W. W. — Discussion,\n. 318\nPerry, Walter S., f •\n•\n•\n• 298\nPhysical Geography,\nReport\ncommittee\non, . of . Sub- . 973\nPierce,\n\nEdward\nT. — Report\non\nState Normal Schools of the\nPacific Coast, ....\nPlay as a Means fqr Idealizing and\nExtending\nExperi- .\nence— AUietheM.Child's\nFelker,\nDiscussion,\n....\nPlay in Physical Education — George\nE. Johnson,\n....\nDiscussion, ....\nPlaygrounds,\nPollock, Susan Plessner — Ideal\nPlay in the Kindergarten,\n.\nPowell, W. B. — Medical Inspection\nof Schools,\n.\n.\n.\n.\nPoynter, W. C, f\n•\n•\n•\n•\nPreamble, ......\nPreliminary Report of Committee on\nCourse of Study of Normal\nSchools, ....\nDiscussion. ....\nPreliminary Report of the Subcommittee on Physical Geography\n— Albert Perry Brigham,\n.\n\n744\n624\n630\n948\n954\n533\n604\n454\n294\nI\n729\n747\n973\n\n"}
{"page": 1146, "printed_page": null, "text": "II36\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nReport of Board of Trustees,\n.\n.\n19\nPreparation for Teaching, The Mini\nReport of Committee of Sixty, Memmum,\n....\norandum Concerning,\n.\n. 964\nPresident's Address — Joseph C. Gor 1031\ndon\nReport of Committee on a Detailed\n894\nPlan for a Report on ElemenJ. M. Greenwood,\ntary Education — John Dewey,\n335\nWilliam N. Hailmann,\n621448\nReport of Committee on Hindrances\nHarriet Cecil Magee,\n.\nand Helps to Manual Training\nM. V. O'Shea,\n— George A. Robbins, ChairPrettyman, E. B. — Discussion.\n86\nman,\n.....\n779\nPrimary Schools, Hygiene of Instruc\n791\nReport of Committee on Lists of\ntion in, .\n544\nBooks for Lower Grades,\n• . 1016\n56\nPrince, John T. — Some New EngReport of Committee on Necrology,\n32\nland Plans and Conclusions\nReport of Committee on Necrology —\nDrawn from a Study of Grading and Promotion,\nIn Memoriam —\n423\n575\nEugene D. Bagen, .\n.\n. 298\nDiscussion, ....\nHenry Woolcott Blake, .\n. 299\nProfessional\nand\nNon-Professional\nEdwin\nAzro\nCharlton,\n.\n.\n-301\nBodies in Our School System,\nAnna A. Cummings,\n.\n.\n. 281\nand the Proper Function of\nGeorge R. Fowler, .\n.\n.281\nEach — Lawrence A. Lowell,\n999\nJ.\nC.\nGilchrist\n291\nProper Education of an American\n272\nCitizen — G. N. Gresham,\nL. A. Gray,\n281\nSamuel Martin Inglis, .\n.\n. 288\nProposed\nFour-Years'\nCourse\nin\nWalter M. Jay, ....\n300\nEnglish for Secondary Schools\n— Charity Dye,\n114\n678\nJoseph C. Jones, ....\n295\nBirdsey Grant Northrop, .\n. 283\nPsychology, Rational, for the Teacher,\nSolomon Palmer, ....\n297\nPsychology, The New, and the Con554\nSusan Given Patterson, .\n. 292\nsulting Psychologist,\nPublic Questions and the Universities,\nWalter S. Perry, .\n.\n.\n.298\nPublic Schools of the South, Better\nWiley T. Poynter, .\n.\n. 294\n570\nRebecca\nD.\nRickoff,\n.\n.\n.286\n325\nSupervision of,\n.\n.\n.\nComodore Perry Rogers, .\n. 293\nPurpose of Manual Training,\n.\nEdward Austin Sheldon, .\n. 282\nQuestions\nBearing on Reports\non\nJohn\nH.\nTear,\n....\n296\nElementary Schools,\nN. B. Thompson\n281\nRamsay,\nCharles\nC. — Discussion,\n176, 177, 201, 690, 708\nReport of Committeee on Nominations,\n.\n.\n.\n.\n-30\nRational Psychology for the Teacher\n— W. T. Harris,\n.\n341 Report of Committee on Resolutions,\nReading, Choice of, for Early AdolesDepartment\nof Superintendence,\n.....\n306\ncent Years,\n....\nReport of Committee on the Relation\nReading Lists for Public Schools —\n570\nof the Library to Art Education,\n812\nHow\nPrepared — Sherman\n1022\nWilliams, ....\nReport of Committee on the Relations\n1026\nof\nPublic\nLibraries\nto\nPublic\nDiscussion, ....\n863\nRealizing Our Final Aim in Education\nSchools, ....\n1006\nReport of Committee, Supplement to\n— Sylvester F. Scovel,\n.\n—\nMiss\nJ.\nL.\nForrester,\n.\n.817\nReasonable Expectations Concerning\nReport of Subcommittee on Botany\nBusiness Education — Lyman\nJ. Gage,\n....\nin Secondary Schools — John\nM. Coulter,\n.\n.\n.\n.967\nReciprocal Recognition of State and\n462\nNormal School Diplomas by\n7\nReport\nof\nSubcommittee\non\nthe\nOut2\n1\n1\nline of Elementary Chemistry\nthe States — Z.X.Snyder,\n— Alexander Smith, .\n. 965\nRecord of Membership by States\n139\nsince 1884,\n....\nReport of Treasurer, .\n.\n.16\nReport on Elementary Education, . 335\nRedway, Jacques W. — Influence of\nEnvironment on the Developon Rural Schools, Discussion\n451 Report of,\n575\nment of United States History,\nReference Books,\n.\n.\n1019, 1022\nReport, Preliminary,\nof\nthe\nSubcommittee on Physical Geography,\n973\nReform School, Between Day School\n43\n270\nand, ,\n.\n.\n.\n. 10\nReports on School Hygiene,\n.\n. 522\nRelation of Language Teaching to\nRhoads, McHenry — Discussion,\n. 260\nMental Development — S. G.\nRichards, Mrs. Ellen H. — DomesDavidson,\n....\ntic Science as a Synthetic\n812\nRelation of Library to Art Education\nStudy for Girls,\n.\n.\n.766\nDiscussion,\n....\n727\nRelation of the Deaf to the Hearing\nWorld — Isaac Gardner, . 1039\nRickoff, Mrs. Rebecca D., t\n.\n. 286\n\n"}
{"page": 1147, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX\n293\nRoBBiNs, George A. — Report of\nCommittee on Hindrances and\n779\nHelps to Manual Training,\nRobinson, Dr. — Discussion,\nRogers, C. P.,t\nRoss, John W. — Address of Wei\n43\ncome,\n....\n708\nRowe, A. M. — Discussion,\nROYCE,\nJosiAH — The\nNew\nPsy\nchology and the Consulting\nSS4\nPsychologist, .\n.\n.\n. 1017\n756\nThe Social Basis of Conscience,\n196\n201-203\nDiscussion,\n293\nRural Schools, List of Books for,\n575\nSabin, Ellen C. — Discussion,\n.\nSabin, Henry — In Memoriam J. C\nGilchrist, ...\n291203\nIn Memoriam C. P. Rogers,\nReport of Committee on Necrol\n281\nogy,\n....\nSanford, H. R. — Discussion,\n.\nSCHAEFFER, N. C. — School Supervi\nsion\n577\nThe\nMiddle\nState\nNormal\nSchools,\nSchool Architecture — Heating, Ven\ntilation, Lighting, and Sani\ntary Arrangements —\n748\nF. Louis Soldan,\n.\n523\nD. H. Bergey,\n524\nSchool Desks and Seats, .\nSchool Diseases and Medical Inspec\ntion — Delos Fall,\n534\nSchool Furniture — Charles B. Gil\nbert\n532\nSchool Hygiene, Bibliography of —\nWilliam H. Burnham,\n505\nBooks and Articles,\nJournals,\n532\nReports,\nSchool Hygiene — What It Is and\nS06\nWhy We Need It — Edward\n844\nM. Hartwell\n5\n7\n5 521\n522\nSchool Maintenance,\n\nSecondary\nSchools,\nUnited States\n\nEssentials\nof\nHistory to be\n\nTaught in — Homer H. SeerDiscussion,\nSecretary's\nSessions\nNational Minutes:\nCouncil, General\n.\nDepartment of Superintendence,\nDepartment of Kindergarten Edu\ncation,\n....\nDepartment of Elementary Educa\ntion,\n....\nDepartment of Secondary Educa\ntion,\n....\nDepartment of Higher Education,\nDepartment\nSchool\nEducation,of Normal\n\n8266\n30 4\n4943\n589\n620\n\nS93\n\nDepartment of Manual and Indus\ntrial Education,\n757\nDepartment of Art Education,\n787\n832\nDepartment of Music Education,\n856\nDepartment of Business Education\n701\nDepartment of Child Study, .\n728\n1005\n929\nDepartment of Physical Education\nDepartment\nof Natural Science 959\nInstruction,\n985\nDepartment of School Administra\ntion,\n....\nLibrary Department,\n1030\nDepartment of Deaf, Blind, and\nFeeble-minded,\nSeerley, Homer H. — The Essen\ntials of United States History\nto be Taught\nin Secondary\n77\nSchools, ....\nWest\nCentral\nState\nNormal\nSchools, ....\nDiscussion, .\n.\n. 554, 747\nShaw, Edward R. — Essentials of\nEnglish Composition in Elementary Schools, .\nFatigue\n\nGrading and Promotion with Reference to Individual Needs, .\nShearer, William J.— The Elizabeth (N. J.) Plan of Grading\nand Promotion,\n498\nSheldon,\nEdward\nA., f\n276\nSheldon,R. Skinner\nEdward\nAustin — Charles\n\nSchool Music in Character-Making —\nA. E. Winship,\nSchool of the Future, The — A. E.\nWinship, .\n.\n.\n.\nSchool Supervision — N. C. Dougherty,\nN. C. Schaeffer,\n577\nScott, F. N. — Essay Correcting —\nCan It be Made a Joy Forever ?.....\n576\nDiscussion,\n.\n.\n.\n. 691\n696\n249\nScovEL, Sylvester F. — Realizing\nOur Final Aim in Education, .\n665\nSeaver,\nEdwin\nP. — Democracy\nand Education,\nDiscussion, ....\n462\nSecondary Course, English the Core\nof,\nSecondary English Teaching, Some 94\n6\nMain Principles of.\n671\nSecondary Schools, A Proposed Four678\nYears' Course in English for,\n\n77\n\n63\n\n736\n\n23\n282\n550\n\nSheldon, W. E. — In Memoriam Ed422\n282\nward A. Sheldon,\n.\nDiscussion, .\n. 544, 554, 575\nShepard, Irwin — Continuous Ses- 441\nsions with Special Application\nto Normal Schools,\nSecretary's\n— 1897-98,\nBoard of Minutes\nDirectors,\nBoard of Directors, 1898-99,\nGeneral Sessions,\nShould the Undergraduate Curriculum be Shortened ?— Nicholas\nMurray Butler,\nDiscussion, ....\nSite and Location in School Architecture, ....\n\n87\n\n37\n39\n717\n719 410\n\n524\n\n"}
{"page": 1148, "printed_page": null, "text": "II38\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nSkinner, C. R. — Life and Character\nof Edward Austin Sheldon,\n. 63\nDiscussion, .\n.\n.\n. 57^\nSmith, Alexander — Report of Subcommittee on the Outline of\nElementary Chemistry, . . 965\nSmith, Harriett E. — Secretary's Minutes, Department of Elementary Education, . . 620\nSmith, W. B. — The Culture Value\nof Higher Mathematics, . 178\nDiscussion, .\n.\n.\n.718\nSnyder, J. H. — Discussion,\n,\n, 387\nSnyder, J. L.— Education for the\nIndustrial Classes, .\n.\n-758\nSnyder, Z. X. — Reciprocal Recognition of State and NormalSchool Diplomas by the States,\n451\nReport of Progress of NormalSchool Committee, .\n.\n34\nSuccessive Differentiation of Subjects inthe Elementary Schools,\n632\nThe Training School\nin the\nUnited States, .\n.\n-751\nDiscussion, .\n.\n. 747, 756\nSocial Basis of Conscience — Josiah\nRoyce,\nig6\nDiscussion, .\n.\n.\n.199\nSocial, Consciousness of Children, Development of, ,\n.\n.921\nSocial Cooperation — B. C. Gregory,\n655\nSociology's Demand upon the Schools\n— J. F. Millspaugh, .\n, 267\nSoLDAN, Louis F. — School Architecture— Heating, Ventilation,\nLighting, and Sanitary Arrangements, .... 523\nThe Influence of the Kindergarten upon the Schools, . .619\nDiscussion, ....\n369\nSome of the Main Principles of Secondary English Teaching —\nSamuel Thurber,\n.\n.\n,671\nSouthern\nState Normal\nSchools —\nMiss Marion Brown, . . 732\nSpofford, A. R. — Discussion, . .1014\nSpringer, Durand\nW. — Business\nEducation\n857\nState and National Aid for Manual\nTraining\n783\nState in Education, Duty of the,\n. 204\nState Normal Schools of the Middle\nStates, .....\n748\nState Normal Schools of the Pacific\nCoast — Edward T. Pierce,\n. 744\nState Normal Schools, The New England,\n729\nState Normal Schools, The North\nCentral, ....\n740\nState Normal Schools, The Southern,\n732\nState Normal\nSchools, The West\nCentral,\n736\nState Universities,\n.\n.\n.\n.108\nSteele, W. L. — Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment of Superintendence,\n303\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nStetson, W. W.— The Educational\nOutlook, .\n.\n.\n-131\nDiscussion, .\n.\n.\n.318\nStickney, Lucia — Discussion, . 690\nStoker, Gertrude A. — Discussion,\n. 801\nStoneroad, Rebecca — Discussion,\n. 956\nStudy in Adolescence,\n.\n.\n.910\nStudy of First-Year High-School Pupils— Fred W. Atkinson,\n. 903\nSubjects for Compositions : Shall We\nDraw Them from Literature or\nfrom Life ? — Edwin L. Miller,\n696\nSuccessive Differentiation of Subjects inthe Elementary Schools\n— Z. X. Snyder,\n.\n.\n, 632\nDiscussion, ....\n640\nSupervision, Inefficient, a Hindrance\nto Manual Training,\n.\n. 779\nSupervisor, Duties and Privileges of\nthe,\n228\nSupervisor of Drawing\nin Public\nSchools — Fred H. Daniels, . 795\nDiscussion, ....\n799\nSupply of Teachers — John W. Cook,\n578\nCharles B.. Gilbert, .\n.\n.582\nSutton, W. S. — Discussion,\n.\n. 432\nSwift,\nEdgar\nJames — Heredity\nand Environment,\n.\n.\n.910\nSyllabus of a Course in English, with\na Defense of the Same — W.\nF.Webster,\n.\n.\n. 681,687\nDiscussion,\n690\n\nTawney, G. A. — Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment of Higher Educacation,\n.....\nTaylor, A. R. — Discussion,\nTaylor, Henry Ling. — Exercise\nand Vigor,\n....\nTaylor, Professor — Discussion,\nTeacherA. asWilliams,\na Traveler, The — Lillie\n\n247\n\nTeaching of Biology in the High\nSchool-— W. P. Hay,\n.\nTeaching of Drawing, Educational\nPrinciples for.\nTear, John H., f\n.\n.\n.\n.\nTenure of Office of the Teachers —\nB. W. Wright,\n\n701\n756\n\nThach, C. C. — Essentials of English Composition in Secondary\nSchools, ....\nThayer, Miss — Discussion,\nTherapeutic Aspect of Medical Inspection ofSchools,\nThilly, Frank — Discussion,\nThomas, Price — Minimum Preparation for Teaching, .\nThompson, John G. — Child Study\nin the Training of Teachers, .\nThompson, Langdon S. — Discussion,\nThurber, Samuel — Some of the\nMain Principles of Secondary\nEnglish Teaching, .\nDiscussion, ....\nTownship High School, The — C.J.\nBaxter,\n\n933\n727\n\n802\n296\n\n94\n960\n\n707 996\n457\n946\n812\n\n690\n671 448\n916\n\n"}
{"page": 1149, "printed_page": null, "text": "243\nINDEX\nTownship High School, The — Discussion,\nTragic, The Educational Value of, as\nCompared with the Comic in 1045\nLiterature and Art,\n316\nTraining of Feeble-minded Children\n— Martin W. Barr,\nTraining of Teachers, Child Study in\nthe\n396\nTraining of the High-School Teacher\n709\n— M. V. O'Shea,\n.\nTraining School in the United States\n916\n— Z. X. Snyder,\n.\n755\n16\nDiscussion, ....\nTreasurer's Report, ....\nTrend\nin Training\nof Backward\n751\nChildren — Margaret Bancroft, 1040\nUnited States History, Essentials in,\nto be Taught in Elementary\nSchools — Wilbur F. Gordyi .\n70\nDiscussion, ....\n82\nUnited States History, Essentials in,\nto be Taught in Secondary\n139\nSchools — Homer H. Seerley,\n77\nDiscussion, .\n. - .\n.821\n03\nUnited States History, Influence of\n105\nEnvironment on the Develop114\nment of, ...\nUniversities, American, and the Na\ntional Life,\n109\nAmerican Colonial,\nand Public Questions,\n.\nand the Industrial Arts, .\n111129\n116\nCatholicity of Spirit in, .\n104\nClassification of, .\n118\nPatriotic Aims of, .\nState, the Influence of, .\nII6I 64\nthe Curriculum of, .\nthe Origin of,\nUpton, Ralph R. — Secretary's Minutes, Department of Second1007\nary Education,\nUse of the School Library — Richard\nHardy,\n.....\nVacation Schools — Richard Waterman, Jr., ....\n404\nValue of Ideals Set Forth in the\n\" Mother-Play Book \" — Elizabeth Harrison,\nValue of Manual Training,\n989\nValue of the Hand in the Acquisition\nof Knowledge and Expression\n592\nof Thought — Mary F. Hall, 642\nDiscussion, ....\n648\nVan Sickle, James\nH. — Grading\nand Promotion, Plan of the\nNorth Side Schools of Denver, 434\nDiscussion,\n. 176, 1014, 1015, 1028\nVentilation in School Architecture, . 528\nVentilation of Schoolrooms — A. P.\nMarble, .\n.\n.\n-371\nDiscussion, ....\n377\nWalter,\nSarah\nJ.— The Child's\n\nCourse of Study or the Teach- 649\ner's, Which? ....\nWater-Closets and Latrines in School\nArchitecture, ....\nWaterman,\nRichard,\nJr. — Vacation Schools, ....\n404\nFunction of Manual Training in\nthe Elementary Schools,\nWebster, W. F.— Syllabus of a\nCourse in English, with a Defense of the Same,\n681, 687\nWebster, William Clarence — Dis853330\ncussion, .....\nWest Central State Normal Schools\n— Homer H. Seerley,\nWhat can Child Study Contribute\nto the Science of Education ?—\nJ. P. Gordy\nWhat Is Music, and How can We\nHelp Children to Become Mu988\nsical? — Mari Ruef Hofer,\nWhat Kind of Centralization, if Any,\n736\nwill Strengthen\nOur\nLocal\nSchool System? — Harvey H.\nHubbert, ....\nDiscussion,\n693\n348\nWhat Kind of Normal Training does\nthe Common-School Teacher\nof\nthe South Need? — E. C\nBranson,\nWhat\n\nProportion of Essay Subjects\nshall be Drawn from Literature? — F. V. N. Painter,\nDiscussion,\n\nWhat the Negro Gets from the Common-School Education and\nWhat He GU^es to It — G. R\n\n319\n986\n283\n696 204\n\nWhitcomb,\nGlenn,A. K. — 'Discussion,\n.\nWhite, Emerson E. — In Memoriam\n247\nBirdsey Grant Northrop,\nThe Duty of the State in Educa\ntion,\n.\n.\n.\n.\nWhitman, B. L. — Address of Wei\ncome, ....\n330\nWilkinson, J. N. — Discussion, .\n45\nWilliams, Lillie A. — The Teacher 1015\n843418\nas a Traveler,\nWilliams, Sherman — Reading\nLists for Public Schools, How\n1022\nPrepared.\nDiscussion,\n24\n237 3\n755 756\nWilson, W. E. — Discussion,\nWiNSHiP, A. E. — School Music in\nCharacter-Making, .\nThe School of the Future, .\n276\n86\n1027\nWolfe, L. E. — Discussion,\nWomen's Clubs as an Educational\nFactor — Margarei J. Evans,\nDiscussion,\nWoodward, Miss — Discussion,\nWright,\nB. W.— The Tenure\nOffice of the Teachers,\n.\n\nof\n\n996\n\n"}
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{"page": 1153, "printed_page": null, "text": "13\nL\n\nN3A13\n1898\n\nNational Education Association^\n;\nof the United States\nAddresses and proceedings...\n\nPLEASE DO\nCARDS\n\nNOT\n\nOR SLIPS FROM\n\nREMOVE\nTHIS POCKET\n«/►-\n\n'i^:\n\nUNIVERSITY OF TORONTO\n\nLIBRARY\n\nS^\n\n^:\n\n"}
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