{"page": 1, "printed_page": null, "text": "wi\n\nx SRS\n\n4\n\nwe s\n\na\n\nASS\n\nx zs\n\n: ONS ON N\n\nx\n\n=\n\n“\n\ni\n\n.\n\nSH\n\naus\n\naA Sy\n\n;\n\nRates\nSESS\nIS\nSS\nSeine\nae\n\noA:\n\nSk\naN\n\nRERAROCRRNRRO\nuss EES\nSoe\n\n: SENET\nWe\nAS\nx\n\n\"\nNE!\n\naR\n\n: Aa\n\nty\n\nSAS\n\n.\n\nby\ni\n\nwest\nAb\na\n\nree\n\n5\n= pert:\n\ni\n\ni\n\na\n\n&\n\na\nSchoen\n\nSei\n: xi\n\n"}
{"page": 2, "printed_page": null, "text": "33147\n\na\n\nTHE LIBRARY\neCEDE STATE eee:\n, CALIFOR\n\n[COSINE Mind To\nASVYSIFOIC-VOSIC\n©\n\n"}
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{"page": 7, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nJOURNAL\nOF\n\nPROCEEDINGS AND ADDRESSES\nOF\n\nseitK bY-s5LX to\n\nMILWAUKEE,\n\nPUBLISHED\n\nTHE\n\nANNUAL\n\nMEETING\n\nWIS.,\n\n6-9,\n\nBY\n\nTHE\n\nJULY\n\n1897\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nCHICAGO\nThe University\n\nof Chicago\n1897\n\nPress\n\n"}
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{"page": 9, "printed_page": null, "text": "CUNEENLES:\nConstitution,\nBy-Laws,\n\n=\n-\n\n:\n.\n\n=\n\nE\n\n-\n\n-\n\nAct of Incorporation,\n\n-\n\n:\n\n=\n\n“\n\nE\n\nCalendar of Meetings,\nOfficers for 1896-97,\n\nTreasurer’s Report,\n\n-\n\n-\n\n:\n\n-\n\n:\n\n>\n\n-\n\nReport of Board of Trustees,\n\n-\n\n=\n\n-\n\n-\n\n=\n\nJournal of Proceedings\n— General Sessions,\n\n-\n\n-\n\nMinutes of Proceedings of Board of Directors (1897),\nMinutes of Proceedings of New Board of Directors,\n\nGeneral Sessions\n\n— Addresses and Discussions,\n\n-\n\n-\n\nDepartment of Superintendence (Indianapolis Meeting),\nRound Tables,\n\n-\n\n2\n\n=\n\nz\n\n195\n278\n\nNational Council of Education :\nConstitution,\n\n-\n\n2\n\n:\n\nOfficers, Members, and Standing Committees,\n\nSecretary’s Minutes,\n\n-\n\n2\n\nPapers and Discussions,\n\n-\n\n321\n\nE\n-\n\nzs\n-\n\nReport of Committee of Twelve on Rural Schools,\nReport of Subcommittee on School Maintenance,\nReport of Subcommittee on Supervision,\n\n-\n\nReport of Subcommittee on Supply of Teachers,\nReport of Subcommittee on Instruction and Discipline,\n\nAppendices A-S,\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\nDepartment of Higher Education,\nDepartment of Normal Schools,\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n=\n\n-\n\n-\n\nDepartment of Music Education,\n\n=\n\n&\n\nDepartment of Child Study, -\n\n700\n\n755\n-\n\n772\n792\n\n€™ Department of Business Education,\n\n~\n\n644\n655\n\n709\n736\n\n-\n\nDepartment of Manual and Industrial Education,\n\nDepartment of Art Education,\n\n473\n\n614\n\n-\n\n-\n\n456\n\n584\n\n-\n\n-\n\nDepartment of Secondary Education,\nRound Tables,\n\n326\n\n329\n385\n399\n434\n\n498— 583\n\n-\n\nDepartment of Kindergarten Education,\n\nDepartment of Elementary Education,\n\n317\n\n825\n\n:\n\n$70\n\niy) Department of Physical Training,\nDepartment of Natural-Science Instruction, -\n\ng16\n\nDepartment of School Administration,\n\n959\n\niii\n\n"}
{"page": 10, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\niv\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPAGE\nLibrary Department,\n\n-\n\n=\n\nActive Membership List, -\n\n:\n-\n\nIndex to Active Membership List,\n\n5\n-\n\n-\n\n2\n-\n\n- me\n\n-\n\nTable of Membership since 1884,\n\nIndex,\n\n=\n\n-\n\n-\n\n;\n-\n\n-\n\nInventory and Price List of Publications,\nGeneral\n\n-\n\n-\n\nee\n\nStatistical Table of Membership by States for Bon\nStatistical\n\n:\n:\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n2\n-\n\n:\n-\n\n-\n\n=\n\n1045,\n\n1104\n-\n\n-\n\n:\n-\n\n1005\n\nTI16:\ngy,\n\nead\n\n5\nLIIG\n\n"}
{"page": 11, "printed_page": null, "text": "CONSTITUTION\nOF\n\nNATIONAL\n\nTHE\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION.\n\nPREAMBLE.\nTo elevate the character and advance the interests of the profession of teaching, and to promote the cause of popular education in\nthe United States, we, whose names are subjoined, agree to adopt\nthe following\n\nCONSTITUTION.\n\nARTICLE I— NAME.\nThis association\n\nshall be styled the NATIONAL\nARTICLE\n\nSection\n\n1.\n\nIt shall\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION.\n\nII.— DEPARTMENTS.\n\nconsist of seventeen\n\ndepartments:\n\nFirst, of School Superin-\n\ntendence ; second, of Normal Schools; third, of Elementary Schools; fourth, of Higher\nInstruction; fifth, of Industrial Education; sixth, of Art Education; seventh, of Kindergarten Instruction; eighth, of Music Education; ninth, of Secondary Education; tenth,\nof Business Education;\neleventh, of Child Study; ‘twelfth, of Physical Education;\nthirteenth,\nof Natural Science Instruction; fourteenth, of School Administration ;\nfifteenth, the Library Deparment; sixteenth, for the Education of the Deaf, Blind, and\nFeeble-minded ; and seventeenth, the National Council of Education.\n\nSec. 2.\nconstitution.\n\nOther\n\ndepartments\n\nmay\n\nARTICLE\nSection\n\n1.\n\nThere\n\nbe organized\n\nin the manner prescribed in this\n\nIII.— MEMBERSHIP.\n\nshall be three classes of members, namely, active, associate, and\n\ncorresponding.\nSec. 2.\n\nTeachers\n\nand all who\n\nare\n\nactively associated\n\nwith\n\nthe management\n\nof\n\neducational institutions, including libraries and periodicals, may become active members.\nAll others who pay an annual membership fee of two. dollars may become associate\nmembers.\nEminent educators not residing in America may be elected by the Directory\nto be corresponding members.\nThe number of corresponding members shall at no time\nexceed fifty.\nSec. 3. Any person eligible may become an active member upon application indorsed\nby two active members, and the payment of an enrollment fee of two dollars and the\n\nannual dues for the current year.\n\n"}
{"page": 12, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n2\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nAll active members must pay annual\n\nASSOCIATION\n\ndues of two dollars, and will be entitled to the\n\nIf the annual dues are\nvolume of proceedings without “coupon” or other conditions.\nnot paid within the fiscal year, membership will lapse, and may be restored only on payment of the enrollment fee of two dollars and the annual dues for the current year. All\nlife members and life*directors shall be denominated active members, and shall enjoy all\nthe powers and privileges of such members without the payment of annual dues.\nAssociate members may receive the volume of proceedings in accordance with the\nusual “coupon” conditions, as printed on the membership certificate.\nCorresponding members will be entitled to the volume of peceedings without the\n\npayment of fees or other conditions.\nSec. 4. The names of active and corresponding members only will be printed in the\nvolume of proceedings, with their respective educational\n\ntitles, offices, and addresses, the\n\nlist to be revised annually by the Secretary of the association.\n\nARTICLE\n\nIV.—OFFICERS.,\n\nSection 1. The officers of this association shall consist of a President, twelve VicePresidents, a Secretary, a Treasurer, a Board of Directors, a Board of Trustees, and an\nExecutive Committee, as hereinafter provided.\n\nSec. 2.\n\nThe\n\nBoard\n\nof Directors\n\nshall\n\nconsist\n\nof the President\n\nof the National\n\nEducational Association, First Vice-President, Secretary, Treasurer, Chairman of the\nBoard of Trustees, and one additional member from each state, territory, or district, to be\n\nelected by the association for the term of one year, or until their successors are chosen,\nand of such life directors as are in office.\nAll past presidents of the association now living, and all future presidents at the\nclose of their respective terms of office, and the United States Commissioner of Education\nshall be life directors of the association. The President of the National.Educational Association, First Vice-President, Secretary, Treasurer, and Chairman of the Board of Trustees\n\nshall constitute the Executive Committee.\nSec. 3. The elective officers of the association shall be chosen by the active members\nof the association by ballot, unless otherwise ordered, on the third day of each annual\nsession, amajority of the votes cast being necessary for a choice.\nThey shall continue in\noffice until the close of the annual session subsequent to their election, and until their successors are chosen, except as hereinafter provided.\nSec. 4. Each department shall be administered by a President, Vice-President,\nSecretary, and such other officers as it shall deem necessary to conduct its affairs; but no\nperson shall be elected to any office of the association, or of any department,\nthe time of the election, an active member of the association.\n\nwho ts not, at\n\nSec. 5. The President shall preside at all meetings of the association and of the\nBoard of Directors, and shall perform the duties usually devolving upon a presiding\nofficer. In his absence, the first vice-president in order who is present shall preside ;\nand in the absence of all vice-presidents a pro-¢tempore chairman shall be appointed on\nnomination, the Secretary putting the question.\nSec. 6. The Secretary shall keep a full and accurate report of the proceedings of\n\nthe general meetings of the association and all meetings of the Board of Directors, and\nshall conduct such correspondence as the directors may assign, and shall have his\nrecords present at all meetings of the association and of the Board of Directors.\nThe\nPoke lag of each department shall, in addition to performing the duties usually pertaining\nto his office, keep a list of the members of his department.\n\nSec: uf The Treasurer shall receive, and under the direction of the\nBoard of Trus-\n\ntees hold in safe-keeping, all moneys paid to the association ; shall expend\nthe same only\nupon the order of said board; shall keep an exact account of his receipts\nand expendi-\n\n"}
{"page": 13, "printed_page": null, "text": "CONSTITUTION\n\n3\n\ntures, with vouchers for the Jatter, which accounts, ending\n\nthe\n\n1st day of July each year,\n\nhe shall render to the Board of Trustees, and, when approved by said board, he shall\nThe Treasurer shall give such bond for the\nreport the same to the Board of Directors.\n\nfaithful discharge of his duties as may be required by the Board of Trustees; and he\nshall continue in office until the first meeting of the Board of Directors held prior to the\nannual meeting of the association next succeeding that for which he is elected.\nSec. 8. The Board of Directors shall have power to fill all vacancies in their own\nbody; shall have in charge the general interests of the association, excepting those herein\nintrusted to the Board of Trustees; shall make all necessary arrangements for its meetings, and shall do all in its power to make it a useful and honorable institution. Upon\nthe written application of twenty active members of the association for permission to\nestablish a new department, they may grant such permission.\nSuch new department\nshall in all respects be entitled to the same rights and privileges as the others. The formation of such department shall in effect be a sufficient amendment to this constitution\nfor the insertion of its name\n\nin Article\n\n1I., and the Secretary shall make\n\nthe necessary\n\nalterations.\n\nSec. 9. The Board of Trustees shall consist of four members, elected by the Board\nof Directors for the term of four years, and the President of the association, who shall be\na member ex officio during his term of office.\nAt the election of the trustees in 1886,\none trustee shall be elected for one year, one for two years, one for three years, and one\n\nfor four years; and\n\nannually thereafter,\n\nat the first meeting of the Board of Directors\n\nheld prior to the annual meeting of the association, one trustee\n\nterm of four years.\n\nshall\n\nbe elected\n\nfor the\n\nAll vacancies occurring in said Board of Trustees, whether by resig-\n\nnation or otherwise, shall be filled by the Board of Directors for the unexpired term; and\nthe absence of a trustee from two successive annual meetings of the board shall forfeit\nhis membership therein.\n\nThe Board of Trustees thus\n\nelected\n\nshall constitute\n\nthe\n\nbody\n\ncorporate of the association, as provided in the certificate of incorporation under the provisions of the Act of General Incorporation, Class Third, of the Revised Statutes of the\nDistrict of Columbia, dated\n\nthe 24th day of February, 1886, at Washington, D. C., and\n\nrecorded in Liber No. 4, “Acts of Incorporation for the District of Columbia.”\nSec. 10. It shall be the duty of the Board of Trustees to provide for safe-keeping\nand investment of all funds which the association\n\nmay receive\n\nfrom\n\ndonations;\n\nand\n\nthe\n\nincome of such invested funds shall be used exclusively in paying the cost of publishing\nthe annual volume of proceedings of the association, excepting when donors shall specify\notherwise. It shall also be the duty of the board to issue orders on the Treasurer for the\npayment of all bills approved by the Board of Directors, or by the President and Secretary of the association acting under the authority of the Board of Directors; and, when\npracticable, the trustees shall invest all surplus funds exceeding one hundred dollars tha\nshall remain in the hands of the Treasurer after paying the expenses of the association\n\nfor the previous year.\n\nARTICLE\n\nV.—MEETINGS.\n\nSection 1. The annual meeting of the association shall be held at such time and\ninOR\nz—~ee\na,\naS\neS\nala,\nplace as shall be determined by the Board of Directors.\nSec. 2. Special meetings may be called by the President at the request of five\ndirectors.\nSec. 3. Any department of the association may hold a special meeting at such time\nand place as by its own regulations it shall appoint.\neT,\nREN\nSec. 4. The Board of Directors shall hold its regular meetings at the place and\nnot less than two hours before the assembling of the association.\nSec. 5. Special meetings may be held at such other times and places as the board\n\nor the President shall determine.\n\n"}
{"page": 14, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n4\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nSec. 6. Each new board shall organize at the session of its election. At its first\nmeeting a committee on publication shall be appointed, which shall consist of the President and the Secretary of the association for the previous year, and one member from each\ndepartment.\n\nARTICLE\n\nVI.— BY-LAWS.\n\nBy-laws not inconsistent with this constitution may be adopted by a two-thirds vote\nof the association.\n\nARTICLE\n\nVII.— AMENDMENTS.\n\nThis constitution may be altered or amended at a regular meeting by the unanimous\nvote of the members present; or by a two-thirds vote of the members present, provided\nthat the alteration or amendment has been substantially proposed in writing at a previous\nmeeting.\n\nBY-LAWS.\n1. At the first session\n\nof each\n\nannual\n\nmeeting\n\nof the association\n\nthere shall be\n\nappointed by the President a committee on resolutions; and at the third session of such\nmeeting there shall be appointed a committee on nominations, consisting of one member\nfrom each state represented, the same to be appointed by the President on the nomination\nof a majority of the active members in attendance from such state; provided, however, that\nsuch appointment shall be made by the President without such nomination, when less than\nthree active members from a state are in attendance, and also when a majority of the\nactive members in attendance from any one state shall fail to make a nomination.\nThe\nmeeting of active members to nominate members of the nominating committee shall be\nheld at 2 Pp. M. on the second day of the meeting, at such place as shall be announced in\nthe general programme.\n2. The President and Secretary shall certify to the Board of Trustees all bills\napproved by the Board of Directors.\n3. Each\nceedings.\n\npaying member\n\nof the association shall be entitled to a copy of its ‘pro-\n\n4. No paper, lecture, or address shall be read before the association or any of its\ndepartments in the absence of its author, nor shall any such paper, lecture, or address be\npublished in the volume of proceedings without the consent of the association, upon\napproval of the Executive Committee.\n7\n5. It shall be the duty of the President, Secretary, and Treasurer of the association\nto appoint annually some competent person to examine the securities of the Permanent\nFund held by the Board of Trustees, and his certificate, showing the condition of the said\nfund, shall be attached to the report of the Board of Trustees.\n\nADOPTED\n\nBY\n\nTHE\n\nBOARD\n\nOF\n\nDIRECTORS.\n\nThe establishment of a special fund from surplus receipts, after the\nexpenses of the association have been paid, to be known as the “Emergency Fund,” was recommended by the Board of Trustees, submitted to\nthe Board of Directors at Saratoga Springs, N. Y., July 12, 1892, and the\nfollowing resolution was adopted :\n;\nResolved, That there be established, as soon as the current expenses of the associa-+\ntion will warrant, an Emergency Fund not to exceed $4,000. Said fund\nshall be subject\nto expenditure by the Board of Trustees in accordance with votes of the\nBoard of Direct-\n\nE\nL\nE\nE\n\n"}
{"page": 15, "printed_page": null, "text": "ACT\n\nOF INCORPORATION\n\n5\n\nors at any regularly called meeting.\nThe said fund may be used for the purpose of meeting deficiencies of income of the association, and for such additional investigations and\npublications as may be determined by said Board of Directors.\n\nACT\n\nOF\n\nINCORPORATION.\n\nAt a meeting of the Board of Directors of the National\n\nEducational\n\nAssociation, held at Saratoga Springs, N. Y., July 14, 1885, the following\n\nresolution was passed :\ntion\n\nResolved,\n\nThat a committee\n\nfor the\n\nNational\n\nof three\n\nEducational\n\nbe appointed\n\nAssociation,\n\nunder\n\nN. A. Calkins, of New York; Thomas\n\nW.\n\nto secure\nUnited\n\narticles of incorpora-\n\nStates\n\nor state\n\nlaws, as\n\nspeedily as may be.\n\nBicknell, of Massachusetts,\n\nand Eli T. Tappan, of Ohio, were appointed such committee.\nUnder the authority of the resolution quoted above, and with the\napproval of the committee, and by competent legal advice, the Chairman\nobtained a\nCERTIFICATE\n\nOF\n\nINCORPORATION.\n\nWe, the undersigned, Norman A. Calkins, John Eaton, and Zalmon Richards, citizens\nof the United States, and two of them citizens of the District of Columbia, do hereby\nassociate ourselves together, pursuant to the provisions of the Act of General Incorporation, Class Third, of the Revised Statutes of the District of Columbia, under the name\n\nof the “ National Educational Association,” for the full period of twenty years, the purpose and objects of which are to elevate the character and advance the interests of the\nprofession of teaching and to promote the cause of popular education in the United\nStateSaces-. > To secure the full benefit of said act, we do here execute this our certificate\n\nof incorporation as said act provides.\nIn witness whereof, we severally set our hands and seals this 24th day of February,\n1886, at Washington, D. C.\n\nNorman A. CALkins,\nJoun Eaton,\nZALMON RICHARDS.\n\n[L. S.]\n[ese\n(ines\n\nDuly acknowledged before Michael P. Callan, Notary Public in and for the District\nof Columbia,\n\nColumbia.\nfi.\n\nfrp\nAD“\n\n=\n\n>\n\n=)\n\nand recorded\n\nin Liber\n\nNo.\n\n4, Acts\n\nof Incorporation for the District of\n\n"}
{"page": 16, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nMEETINGS:\n\nOF\n\nCALENDAR\n\nTEACHERS’\n\nASSOCIATION.\n\n1864.—OGDENSBURG, N. Y.\nW. H. WELLS, President.\nDavip N. Camp, Secretary.\n\n1857,-PHILADELPHIA, PA.\n(Organized.)\nJames L, Enos, Chairman.\n\nW. E, SHELDON, Secretary.\n\nZ. RICHARDS, Treasurer.\n\n1858.—CINCINNATI, O.\n\n1865 HARRISBURG, PA.\nS. S. GREENE, President.\nW. E. SHELDON, Secretary.\n\nZ. RICHARDS, President.\nJ. W. BuLKLEy, Secretary.\nA. J. Ricxorr, Treasurer.\n\nZ. RicHARDS, Treasurer.\n\n1859. WASHINGTON,\n\nD. C.\n\n1866.—INDIANAPOLIS, IND.\nJ. P. WickErRsHAM, Presiden\nS, H, Wuire, Secretary.\n\nA. J. Ricxorr, President.\nJ. W. BuLKLEy, Secretary.\nC. S, PENNELL, Treasurer.\n\nS. P. Barges, Treasurer.\n\n1860._BUFFALO, N. Y.\nJ. W. BuLKLey, President.\nZ, RICHARDS, Secretary.\nO. C, Wicut, Treasurer,\n\n1867. —No session.\n\n1868.—NASHVILLE, TENN.\nJ. M. Grecory, President.\nL. Van BoKKELEN, Secretary.\n\n1861, 1862.—No session,\n\nJAMES CRUIKSHANK, Treasurer.\n\n1863. CHICAGO, ILL.\n\n1869.—_TRENTON,N. J.\nL. VAN BoKKELEN, President.\nW. E. Crossy, Secretary.\nA. L. BARBER, Treasurer.\n\nJoun D. Puivprick, President.\nJamEs CRUIKSHANK, Secretary.\nO. C, WiGcutT, Treasurer,\n1870.—_CLEVELAND,\n\nO.\n\nDaniEL B, Hacer, President.\nA, P. MARBLE, Secretary.\nW. E. Crossy, Treasurer.\n\nNAME\n\nNATIONAL\n1871.—ST. LOUIS, MO,\nJ. L. Pickarp, President,\n\nW. E. Crossy, Secretary.\nJoun Hancock, Treasurer.\n\nCHANGED\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nTO\n\nASSOCIATION.\n\n1876.—BALTIMORE, MD,\nW. F, PHE.ps, President.\nW. D. HENKLE, Secretary.\nA. P, MARBLE, Treasurer.\n\n1872,—BOSTON, MASS.\nE, E, Wurre, President.\nS. H. Wurre, Secretary,\nJoun Hancock, Treasurer.\n\n1877.—LOUISVILLE, KY.\nM. A. NEWELL, President.\nW. D. HENKLE, Secretary.\nJ. Ormonp Witson, Treasurer.\n\n1873,\n\n1878.—No session,\n\nELMIRA, N.Y.\nB, G. Norrurop, President.\nS. H. Wurre, Secretary.\nJoun Hancock, Treasurer.\n\n1874.—DETROIT, MICH.\nS. H. Wuire, President,\nA. P. Marnie, Secretary.\nJoun Hancock, Treasurer,\n\n1879.—PHILADELPHIA, PA.\nJoun Hancock, President.\nW. D. HENKLE, Secretary.\nJ. ORmonpD Witson, Treasurer.\n\n1875.—MINNEAPOLIS,\n\n1880.—CHAUTAUQUA,\n\nMINN.\n\nW. T. Harris, President.\nW. R. Assorr, Secretary.\n\nA. P. Marsiez, Treasurer,\n\nN.Y.\n\nJ. OrmonpD Witson, President,\nW. D. HENKLE, Secretary.\nE. T. Tappan, Treasurer.\n\n"}
{"page": 17, "printed_page": null, "text": "CALENDAR\n1881.—ATLANTA,\nJames\n\nOF MEETINGS\n\nGA.\n\n1889.—NASHVILLE,\n\nH. Smart, President.\n\nAxbert\n\nW. D. HENKLE, Secretary,\n\nJ. H. Canrtexp, Secretary,\n\nE. T. Tappan, Treasurer.\n\nE, C. HEwett, Treasurer,\n\n1882.—_SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y.\nG. J. Orr, President.\nW. E. SHELDON, Secretary,\n\n1890.—ST. PAUL, MINN.\nJ. H, CANFIELD, President.\n\nW. R. Garrett, Secretary.\nE, C, Hewett, Treasurer.\n\nH. S. TARBELL, Treasurer.\n\n1883.—SARATOGA\n\nSPRINGS,\n\nN. Y.\n\n, 1891.—TORONTO,\n\nE. T. Tappan, President.\n\n4\n\nE. H. Cook, Secretary.\nJ. M. GreENwoop, Trersurer.\n\nN. A. Cavxrns, Treasurer.\n\n1884.—MADISON, WIS.\n\n1892.—_SARATOGA\n\nTuomas W. BICKNELL, President.\n\nH. S. TarBeE\n1, Secretary.\nSPRINGS,\n\n1893.—-CHICAGO, ILL.\n(International Congress of Education.)\nALBERT G. LANE, President,\nIrwin SHEPARD, Secretary.\nJ. M. GrREENWwoop, Treasurer,\n\n1886.—TOPEKA, KAN.\nN, A, Cavxrns, President.\n\n3 1894.—ASBURY PARK, N. J.\nALBERT G, LANE, President.\n\nW. E. SHELDON, Secretary.\nE. C. Hewett, Treasurer.\nILL.\n\nW. E. SHELDON, President.\n\nIRWIN SHEPARD, Secretary.\nJ. M. GrREENwoop, Treasurer.\n\nSu\n\n1895.—-DENVER,\nNicuortas\n\nJ. H. CanrieExp, Secretary,\nE, C. Hewett, Treasurer,\n_ 1888.—SAN FRANCISCO, CAL.\nAaron Gove, President.\nJ. H. CanFiexp, Secretary.\nE, C. HEweEtrt, Treasurer.\n\nCOLO.\nM, Butter, President.\n\nIRWIN SHEPARD, Secretary.\nI. C. MCNEILL, Treasurer.\n\n1896.\n\nBUFFALO,\n*\n\nN. Y.\n\nNewton C, Doucuerry, President.\nIrwin SHEPARD, Secretary.\nI, C. McNeEI11, Treasurer.\n\n1897, MILWAUKEE, WIS.\neS\n\nN.Y.\n\nJ. M. GrEENwoop, Treasurer.\nN.Y.\n\nF. Louis So.pan, President.\nW. E. SHELDON, Secretary.\nN. A. Carxins, Treasurer.\n\n1887.—CHICAGO,\n\nSPRINGS,\n\nE. H. Cook, President.\nR. W. STEVENSON, Secretary.\n\nN. A. Carxins, Treasurer.\n\nSARATOGA\n\nONTARIO.\n\nW. R. Garrett, President.\n\nW. E. SHELpDon, Secretary.\n\n1885.\n\nTENN,\n\nP, MARBLE, President.\n\nCuHarves R, SKINNER, President.\nIrwin SHEPARD, Secretary.\nI, C. McNEILL, Treasurer,\n\n"}
{"page": 18, "printed_page": null, "text": "OF THE\n\nUNITED\n\nOFFICERS\n\nCHARLES\n\nR. SKINNER.......\n\nSHEPARD..........\n\nSe\n\nSTATES.\n\nFOR\n\nGENERAL\nIRWIN\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nNATIONAL\n\n1806-072\n\nASSOCIATION.\n\nPHEStdend\n\nveoucceecsemwos\n\nSZ\n\nCLA TY\n\nne Season\n\neae\n\nODay\n\nTEASE,\n\nHAOe BOO IO\n\nOBC\n\nWest\n\nAf Ga MIGINEO\nLT ine ae creseictatebscclere\nsisters\n\nposed\n\nLOT\n\npL DALY\n\nNickie\n\nMet\n\nSuperior, Wis.\n\nVICE-PRESIDENTS.\nNewron C, Doucuerty, Peoria, Ill,\nW. H. BartHoLomMew, Louisville, Ky.\nJ. N, Witxinson, Emporia, Kan.\nT. A, Furraty, Marianna, Ark,\nW. W. Stetson, Augusta, Me,\nOscar H. Cooper, Galveston, Tex.\n\nMiss Emma F. Bates, Bismarck, N. D\nJames K. Powers, Florence, Ala.\nC. G. PEARSE, Omaha, Neb.\nJ. H. Cottins, Springfield, Il.\nTuomas B, STOCKWELL, Providence, R. I.\n\nJ. T. Merritt, Cedar Rapids, Ia.\nBOARD\n\nOF TRUSTEES.\n\n(See Art. IV., Secs. 9 and 10, of the Constitution.)\nACRE RT Got LAN\n\ncee aleeeaianers\n\nCRAEL PHAR circcngeeies\nue eared\n\nChicago, Ill.\n\nNicuoLtas Murray BuTLer.......\nHIORAGH |S) LARBELD Gu.6 sce aves\n\nSECPOCAGIN ors. aslemlolew signe eaeaet\nProyidenee, Rs Lssecscerecies .....\n\nColumbia Univ., New York, N.Y.\nTerm expires July, 1897.\n\nNicuotas Murray ButTLer.......\nALBERT AG, ILANH samececnn\ntinsieser:\nORMOND WILSON Gee hen ae einer\nCHARLES R, SKINNER ..........-\n\nNew York, Ns Wecccessseareavalsleviensts\nChicago blll aasscye\ntenet sohion ees\nVy asbinetom. 1). Gaya aciecinoaeine\nAlbany 5 NW. cescctlow sutueeceelerscies\n\nTerm expires July, 1898.\nTerm expires July, 1899.\nTerm expires July, rgoo.\nEx officio.\n\nEXECUTIVE\n\nCOMMITTEE.\n\n(See Art. IV., Sec. 2, of the Constitution.)\n\n(CHARLES R.SKINNER, J. 00 vse soc\nNewton C, DouGHERTY...........\nPRWIN SHEPARD s.;s1e.-<jcle\nsel. sleicis'0'0\nListe MIGINIDCH eee SS oaecrite Syomage\nADBERT Gr. LAND aot nisieesirescere:\n\nPP OSEREIT ie Sta Mareen Cajon\neGo\nFirst Vice-President ......00.006\n\nAlbany, N. Y.\nPeoria, Ill.\n\nSCOnELATY tte\n\nWinona, Minn.\n\neenoe\n\neee\n\nTF CRSUTE Tid om lee\nrere sais +++».\nChatrman Board of Trustees...\n\nBOARD\n\nWest Superior, Wis,\nChicago, Ill.\n\nOF DIRECTORS,\n\nDirectors\n\nEx\n\ne\n\nOfficio.\n\n>\n\n(See Art. IV., Sec. 2, of the Constitution.)\nCuarves R, Skinner, Albany, N. Y.\nNewron C, Doucuerty, Peoria, Ill.\n\nIrwin SHEPARD, Winona, Minn.\nI, C. McNEILL, West Superior, Wis.\nALBERT G, Lang, Chicago, II].\n\nLife Directors.\n(See Art. IV., Sec. 2, of the Constitution.)\nBICKNELL, THomAs W,, Providence, R. I.\nGarrett, W. R., Nashville, Tenn.\nBrown, Leroy D,, Santa Monica, Cal.\nGranam, H, A., Ontonagon, Mich.\nButter, NicnoLas Murray, New York, N.Y,\nGREENWOOD, J. M., Kansas City, Mo.\nCANFIELD, JAmEs H., Columbus, O.\nGove, Aaron, Denver, Colo,\nCook, E, H., Flushing, N, Y.\nHatt, Cates G., New Berlin, N. Y,\nDay, L, W., Cleveland, O.\nHarris, W, T., Washington, D. C,\n\nDoucuErty, Newton C., Peoria, Ill.\n\nFAIRCHILD, GrorGE T,, Manhattan, Kan.\n\nHunt, Mary H., Boston, Mass,\nJewett, A. V., Abilene, Kan,\n\n"}
{"page": 19, "printed_page": null, "text": "DIRECTORS\nLife\n\nDirectors—Coutinued,\n\nLane, Avsert G., Chicago, Ill.\nMars_e, ALBERT P,, New York, N. Y.\n\nRickorr, ANDREW J., Berkeley, Cal.\nSuEtpon, W. E., Boston, Mass,\nSmart, JAmes H., Lafayette, Ind,\nSoLpan, F, Louts, St. Louis, Mo,\nStratron, C, C,, University Park, Ore.\nTay or, A. R., Emporia, Kan,\nWuiteE, Cuas. G., Lake Linden, Mich,\nWuitE, E, E., Columbus, O.\n\nMarsuatt, T, Marcettus, Hyden, Ky.\nNorturop, B. G., Clinton, Conn.\nParker, Cuas, I., South Chicago, IIl.\nPuetrs, W. F., St. Paul, Minn.\nPickarD, J. L., Iowa City, Ia,\nPike, J., Jerseyville, Ill.\nRicHarDs, ZALMON, Washington, D. C,\n\nWitson, J. Ormond, Washington, D, C,\nDirectors\n\n\\\n\nby Election.\n\nNorth Atlantic Diviston,\n\nNew Hampshire\nWiSSTRO TES CSO ie conte DOME Gceeeee\n‘\nMassachusetts\nRhode Island\nConnecticut\nING WAROT PIS chet s iiclaoia) osclacicsceiew\neects 6\n\nQOH, Sy WOCKISeiesine\nsdeace ste teawsae Saco.\nCCF ROUNDS iene seicuinis ss 2a ceisler ee Plymouth,\nNEASON,\n\nS BOND car lete satis usseawisea\nuae ssiet\n\nMontpelier,\n\nGHARDES Py CARROLIS., vc esis gio occes ofeele\nGrriant CHISHER she satin hice eee\nKSBORGE) Be ELURDs Htys'a notes icine maciensernsis.ors\n\nWorcester.\nPawtucket.\nNew Haven,\n\nAUB\n\npBLODGRET ccc cieeintileis\ntela seis Beste ee Syracuse.\n\nPMEWHRGESEYin uriaitlaetereiaeisiswavesisians\ncarte SPAMS? ME RNA STON orseictsiisizisie)\nsisisrel rs:8Sjeisves ore Asbury Park,\nSouth Atlantic Division.\n\nPCS VIVANIA «sis eieicielesescee66 eniee\nMelaware.s..\n2s aes 35\nMaryland\nstrictOF Columbia’ joc, sis vais:\n\nIN, OT OCHAR\nEE ERM gic. paeeiina\narse aere\n\nHarrisburg.\n\nAPM GREEN Gris «sete cteusistesiets\nrar siersinvesiesaslets\nIIENRV2 Atr WASE tereciscits cisicls ene seein oes\nne a’e/é PPORIN BEATE\nON toys ossetol'sat's (sate o avarvis 7 hate else as\nwes” ee Bw GEASS etig poets enon oo ahIee aozeet tek sions\n\nWilmington.\nBaltimore.\nWashington.\nLynchburgh.\n\nVir Ln GOODENIGET ¥....54..0c\noch ees sees Wek\nCHARLES MD MCIVER 7 cnreteitessohitta\ncorre alert\nWie ELS ELAN mast iclere Mercjeseicie sasicioren eisrsin lie\nIW SEINceSEEDS crore cactriste carswraveisccltesnisi\nora siseaislas\n\nMorgantown.\nGreensboro,\nChester.\nTallahassee.\n\nIVE GIA ioctoscie cas etens 2 <St eS\nINVESE IM RED ITIA.S su'e) sos oe css avo e.0s\nBere MOArOlAs ceed wpaioe: «21 ma10° 7s spewiayere\nSouth Carolina\n\nSouth Central Division.\n\nKentucky\n\nDU CTA ENR MINEL OAT Siyescreie(oin\nnieeeaieisyajsi cless.0/e ove Frankfort.\nWHARTON Ss JONES 565. siccea\nse secsvnes eave Memphis,\nBULER Bp MITES sco) cere aoe aienile dete sreielnietele Athens.\n\nPRE TOSSE CI eo oie aicin i210) * 315(0)s(6/ a0\nGeorgia...\nAlabama\n\nMississippi\nQUIS TOE oon\n\nSag JRCIOnn aac\n\neee\n\nSDs Viet IxOON DM nets Ricie cleats Reet teusleiereieie tarsus\nEAL WAL ISENCAIINON a cfhsiorresteieivie\naie tyecoietaew aicts/e\nWARREN MGASTONG cioersyaitreusierinel\ntialseee,oie sheisias\nEE, OC ppeRIT CHIL. eelelsccrs a,cice s cisie.sc storelrstars\nDAVID) Ro) DOVDs reps poite cyeisisieteiorheyee\naceeisieie elo\nAles hal2 hina (ste con page agmOnure moOOnCDo CO .\nNorth\n\nIndiana ..-.MA ONS Te crt ea tisyatiewsr aletete9(oS)uaisisvossiatereea\nPYRE\nEni carlton resreteyaccteu ctolnceristase ovsteVe aerorer2.Gis:eie\nESCORT GIINN TPEnieiolatelsfejajsicisionsinveje.sieroisicia(e¢\n\nBirmingham.\nJackson,\nNew Orleans.\nHuntsville,\nNorman.\nPine Bluff,\n\nCentral Division.\n\niced a URN Siete eacte Yauelolelens fs ecap cievaieie sinisisie ns\n\nCanton.\n\nINPARY: Be NICHOLSONSD\n\nIndianapolis.\n\ncise) sesctheas\na0acces\n\nSBD TEOMPSONiirars tiecis cicioietere vieielnisiclie\nnoeles Galesburg,\nSUD VWVHEENE\nVaroem\nisacieteleaite srivsiiascan,\nWebroit:\nHe\n\nee ATRV\nIEVier sfomstetalcl ctaicce aizoeaies) oisiecle ejelsie\n\nMilwaukee.\n\n[Esa\nCOOPER rr wis eter aia s= 8.0c o's.ws sieve Des Moines.\nGNU ORDAN erage Saieteis 4 <ieliae “Blelssayele sled? Minneapolis,\nMissouri\nNorth Dakota\nSouth Dakota\nINGLE) cee oe pe canoe ncBOReceeeaeG\n[RENEES igen oe pei Dae RDO\ncor oe as\n\nHifos\n208)1825 NG: 4) 3\n\nSeo pOe ote\n\nOO adO\n\nAdee\n\nJefferson City.\n\nELWCA IEa IDATIESSE ereielclejars oivleiere'ea n10/e1si61slolere\n\nBismarck,\n\nGEORGE IM. SMUDHL A. cectacecassee: 0+\nRANE A ARTON) cciete)#is)e\\o\"\ne'sis clainis ee amie .\nJoun MacDonaLp.............. te teteeees\n\nVermillion.\nLincoln.\nTopeka.\n\nWestern Division.\n\nMontana\n\nBECO\n\nWVayOXI TIO oreaevaenotelaictsictetere\nrate oielsieeteisie °\nLOR ACO rete ers arte oiiciets crsclels «lols ee)-scie he\nINET AINIGS steoy nee airaciacaeto\nOO nga\nArizona\n\nA Ua ELAITE\nTION yeroteyelatelotsleleisiel2!eLsiiayersieteiers\n=e Missoula,\nENGM Uae UAIMC AIM wrsyteatiera{e aleksyersinist\nerentscajisietaiey siesta New Castle.\nA\nfeallaltapW PAINS IC ICEIEN SN arecteleitsetecncrers\\eisle.s!xe/ete'= Denver..\nLELipe ARIA ADDL\nBIS taiscie otealop alotsleieteilcinialea(acein=. Albuquerque,\n\neB Eset COMSTOCK ia /ays ete o clelopaeehisyeieleele'a:\nsists’ Tucson,\n\n"}
{"page": 20, "printed_page": null, "text": "Directors\nWestern\n\nUigatie eee\n\nyee ccite osu cla ca tashaevcose\n\nCyaan\n\nona ecco\n\nby Election.\n\nDtviston.—Continued.\n\nSalt Lake City.\n\nheesed=\niaaisrc\nWa Ds MEATONE) jc )24 a sictelerstsoe\n\nTa Bs STUBBS!\n\nstein\nare\nfafetinesia oaisra\ndao thetattracigerrisi\nWashington...........0++e+ee+++ee00++\nOCEGinlb na pone banooono nba Bun oGooobedd\n\n(Galiferniitay seein\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nNATIONAL\n\n10\n\noteiccistarsaisisresyaststeaisiesiste\n\nReno.\n\neda\nieriee\nmre\n(eos scrater\n\neee\nBe BY GAUET sccows cease Raed eee\n+222 -0++ 222000\nNGTON\n....\nMark W, HARRI\nIMIS'G, ROVA Ta neeeysn 2/0atncteiccusiacererrscaates\n\nCSEOWN\nSeattle.\nWeston.\n\nee0\nsee\n+02 000+\nJAMES A. FOSHAY......000+\n\nLos Angeles,\n\nDEPARTMENT\nWational\n\noauc\nBy, AN, ISOBSYSN DVDS peppoenneceroenos\nCHARLES DEGARMO «2.00.0. cces- see\nMiss BETTIE A. DUTTON\nHORACE ES pA\nRIP Blulumesenteere venti ele\nJAMES M. GREENWOOD .............\nWILLIAM By, SHELDON «occ niecsn rt\nAWANEIEIONIME I2- WUINTE, Godordccascccss\nSoc\n\nOFFICERS.\nCouncil.\n\ntee\nPHU STLEHE race oe ne remehee\nois iens\nVACEaPHESTAEIO Winiaaesieriel\nSCEPCLAT Pat ysey tee aelers oan\nExecutive Commttteé......++++.\nExecutive Committee.....++.-++Executive Committee........+++5\nExecutive Commttteé.....\n+++.\n\nAnn Arbor, Mich.\nSwarthmore, Pa.\nCleveland, O.\nProvidence, R, I.\n\nKansas City, Mo.\nBoston, Mass.\nMt. Vernon, Ia.\n\nKindergarten.\nMiss CAROLINE T. HAVEN. ....... ol\nIMTS Se BG IVAS Cy Bie DBR\nalctoelawtarsfat -\\a/aatare\nace ibe\nIGRI\n[odio AWAOLIN ea oapopremie\n\nPH ESEA OME cretretaine Peers\nalt ess\nViCe-PUESLACNT aecaes\n(ie oe ace\n\nNew York, N. Y.\nBuffalo, N. Y. ;\n\nSecme tar yeneas erin ads cia neat\n\nBuffalo, N. Y.\n\nElementary.\nMaissuSARAE (C; BROOKS 3. vesicesselties\nDRAPE aC Oars\nor wigs Sitistare aka es ertierstats averse\n\nMiss, TDIAY CUB\n\nPH ESTA EM baat Aoralste iecvaysiscin dan ease\nVzCes\nlr OST ACME a avolela a micie ileal\n\nBINID BR pelstreissarsiay\narersie = SATE\n\naepaannsaee\nsack, Gyddacs\n\nSt. Paul, Minn,\nXenia, O.\n\nBuffalo, N. Y.\n\nSecondary.\n(Ob lett AWSUNS DA\nTREASON\n\noo macono\nnauee Teco on President ..... Gece enoceeocaunan\nDCN\n\n25 5.6) Sodas ghooesoh\n\nVitce-Prestdemt\n\nMiss IDA B. HASLUP\n\n........ Sart cone\n\nSORT\n\nac,\n\naiowwis\nsic sisisie\n\nMorgan Park, Ill,\nBuffalo, N. Y.\n\nOS OOD SOHEMOTICO\nREEOee Oo Pueblo, Colo,\n\nHigher.\n[ROSAS ESM OMEN pooecocen\n= BECHe ons\n\nPFESLD ERT a\n\nivileeerneee caciststleeiere\n\nBloomington, Ind.\n\nIthaca, N. Y.\nGe SCEMUOIR MAN cre sfesjatsrs oecinseisiete 6 MARIE\nAASHAL Avon bi) ad Goce 0005\nGHORGEPPARICE Ry WIN SHUNT ra wie unS8G7-CL\n2-7 (cola e melee cictialelstraisionce Providence, R. I.\n\nNormal.\noissleieie erarae\n© MAD TING Jere,sloye wists sivse(oveiere\n\nPY ESTACHE. .ctolet axial aida conan\n\nBridgewater, Mass.\n\nDie LOIN ND) ER aes oi. osama tein ee ete\nEee AES WROIN Gs iene cslbictirelereleGraatsrere ise\n\nVaCe-Prestdertincacdsee tet seeee.\nSECT ELETY racine\nnansienaiee\n....\n\nGreeley, Colo,\nYpsilanti, Mich.\n\nTAP Gra\n\nSuperintendence.\n(Cael Be OoWBASiS on Ramo menunedanceror\nonc PHOSSAENE A at SRR\necient\nASD oy sO GH\nanctsclecitancennek comin\nFirst Vice-Prestdent.....see+s.\nMee SUM KON) ieaneaeecsacrnadruce\nn.\nnook Second Vice-President ........ TA VAROWT Ie AV MINIS: Son ooucorous Sue a) WECLELOTY ams vicleclonaeei whcre: Siststenee\n\nSt. Paul, Minn.\nSyracuse, N, Y.\nHouston, Tex,\nAugusta, Ga,\n\nManual and Industrial.\nMe cleatie,\nsone encctate\nIPR EStMen LIM natel Janssosasecee\n\n;\nLake City, Fla.\n\nOSCARGEMUNEEY.\noa ehtone Siod\n\n(i\n\nONE\n\n@NBALORS\n\ntELOMD\\vescelemes\n\nGe: maaeteds\n\nOn\n\nVice-President ......\n\nCae\n\ns+ +.-ee..\n\nManhattan, Kan.\n\nSia\nee A PRB ISMOOR\nOe Meo\n\nMenomonie, Wis.\n\nArt.\nMARK MAYCOCEK .... tee\nnecssesesee.\nPrestdent\nPresident .. GaSto SORc ung TOO LObOn\nLANGDON\nS.\nTHOMPSON......\n.... . Vice-President\nBee..cuGsnure\nZLETUL Teierel riorsreye ehetsisieae\nos SME SUN SC Sonaosboein Sruenan as SOCPELZTY brace\nant arin cave Sere\nF. E. HOW\n.\nates SOACE RRO nS ea eer,\nIss J.\n\nANID\n\na, aeronee\n\nMusic.\nPREStLC1 Ts\n\nNae iyee yee\n\nB uffalo, N. Y.\nJersey City,\nN. J.\nCi\nSalt Lake City, Utah,\n\nBridgeport, Conn.\n\nATs\nNee ed) Fe cava vecadthoine\nsay be Potsd:\n\nC. W. WEEKS. od . GRACO\nOCT IO OERTA\n\nSecretary\n\njacite «oa ee ee\n\nERE\n\nPisee\n\nN.Y\n\nOttawa, Ill.\n\nae\n\n"}
{"page": 21, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOFFICERS\n\nIT\n\nBusiness.\n\nA. N.PALMER.........005 vee aac Sa PONE LEIL De aston Stat eleleres,<tepeisie Aone\nSOR KING ccc. ee\nFirst Vice-President...........+\nMPEP OTITRINS 15 Wor cae auk ok chu to Second Vice-President ..........\nPMO AVIS Satan\nee cabccvesk ok Sg AE an iO SUE OAT an OtHee\nChairman\n\nExecutive\n\nChild Study.\nPVESTH ENE\n\nCommittee\n\nWashing on, D. C,\nAnw Arbor, Mich,\n\n~\n\nmete\n\nGeile aki’ Ceelsve\n\nWECE-P27ESL\nAOI Tesalareiele otsielois 4 ileyeis19.0\nSECPELATHY tin marietta\na eens .\nPhysical\n\nCedar Rapids, Ia.\nRochester, N. Y.\nHolyoke, Mass.\n\nChicago, Ill.\n\nSioux City, Ia.\nStanford Uniy., Cal.\n\nTraining.\n\nMiss R. ANNA MORRIS\nPRENACHT alert\nGR sssiters Cleveland, O.\nTe ISG AWE SUNS ON Son scocconbossond\none: VARA\nEL 2S ELT Ta OOOH OOREE, SOG\nEmporia, Kan,\nPet: BOLCE,, wie los|ns% ose cscs swslsisuisietsie Site ae\ncop onODo Sg OOOO OUCOREON\nTrenton, N. J.\n\nScience.\n@HARLES SKEELE PALMER.........\nDg ST Ee aCe eS aCe eeee iy\nBNO 55 0 SO LOM lB) Oe\non Remeron o PCE PESUMEI Tea iee\\eiaieieleieiever\niets\nPROWEN SLE VIS TON i isscicsscceee\n-5/ce Secretary .....\nSchool\n\nPER ARM SALE DEC crstnine Malad 52h \\2i5\\5 sinaialamivisie(s\niWieeEt omBEDNUN\nHrd dos secretes Satriccians:\n.asfero miss\netal MA DG ERs cose. oejsiee OPS SIO)Obe\nWILLIAM GEORGE BRUCE... .....\n\nBoulder, Colo.\nCharlottesville, Va.\n\nOmaha, Neb.\n\nAdministration.\n\nWPIAPS\nLCLCIOL Tati aw orale steefelo eiaieloleisiorsvee\nELISE ViZCE=PTCSLACHE avials «)e)sia\nsin'nie\nSecond Vice-President ......+.4.+\nDt ad VECE-PHESLACHE nie <lole ete\nSAGE? § cic\noR BORO DOO\nAD Oc\n\nMarshalltown, Ia.\nSyracuse, N. Y.\nMilwaukee, Wis.\nKansas City, Mo.\nMilwaukee, Wis.\n\nLibrary.\n\nPEPUVIETDEWEY. Cl. coe: 26.-<4s-:.\nJ. H. VAN SICKLE\nMiss MARY EILEEN AHERN. .... ..\n\n,\n\nSEIT HLT OS BOPOSOO\nIOAN DUO Gate end * Albany, N. Y.\n\nWA\n\nEIA gS\nLAT osc, WOOO OBOE! ep .\n\nECU LEAT on = rere iacVore sloleieeie ls cls)==\n\nDenver, Colo.\nChicago, Ill.\n\n"}
{"page": 22, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nOF THE\n\nUNITED\n\nOFFICERS\nGENERAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nSTATES.\n\nFOR\n\n1807-02:\n\nASSOCIATION.\n\nJAMES\n\nM. GREENWOOD......\n\nVERMA AI oc ac 0bac Soup ca 0bag Sn2e\n\nTRIWIN,\n\nSELB PAR D: sunset oleaiccl:\n\nSCOR CLOTY) ciate atemtteirats eeaielaietaiiet\n\nGLO, NKANG DBs\n\ndono coodes\nconagno\n\nKansas City, Mo.\nWinona, Minn.\n\n;\n\nLP CASUTET- Bs aecctapeiseiaeiesis\nPaleiasiee West Superior, Wis.\n\nVICE-PRESIDENTS.\nCuartes R. SKINNER, Albany, N. Y.\nGero. J. RAMSEY, Clinton, La.\nJ. L. Hottoway, Fort Smith, Ark,\nE. Oram LyTE, Millersville, Pa.\nJames M. Ratsrton, Asbury Park, N, J.\n\nL. D. Harvey, Milwaukee, Wis.\nW. W. Stetson, Auburn, Me.\nHiram Haptey, Albuquerque, N. M.\nW.H. H. Brave, Madison, S. D.\nJoun H. McCaunan, Baltimore, Md.\n\nMiss MarcGaret W. SuTHERLAND, Columbus, O,\nBOARD\n\nS. T. Brack, Sacramento, Cal.\nOF\n\nTRUSTEES.\n\n(See Art. IV., Secs.q and 10, of the Constitution.)\n\nIAEBEREGGGANI sreisteer ceeertelcteraicers\nNicHotas MurRAY BUTLER.......\nNicuHoLras Murray BuTLer......PATE\nPRTsGro ANT seictecson cersicincie.e\nJ. Ormonp WILSON...............\nFLOWS: SOUDAN a,.ricicanere cereale\nJames M. GREENWOOD...........\n\nCALMAI naman\nen ears ee Chicago, Ill.\nSéCvet@rpoe....sceses «ss->+;-New York, N. Y.\nNews VousNopWenrocrreitene cmc . Term expires July, 1898.\nChicaow lll cmmyceeree\neine a ats Term expires July, 1899.\nWashington; DS'Ci. foc cmceiecesese\nTerm expires July, 1900.\nStr Louts, MoOssnckiseiaaeeceeccie\nTerm expires July, rgoz.\nKeansas/Grtys Momnse.cceeereeeecere\nEx officto\nEXECUTIVE\n\nCOMMITTEE.\n\n(See Art. IV., Sec. 2, of the Constitution.)\n\nAMES SM ESGREENWOODS sincioleewiende ee\n>CSELEIE Welsonielcauisteiciaelenieere\neee Kansas City, Mo,\nCuarves R. SKINNER ............\nFirst Vice-Prestdent...........+\nAlbany, N. Y.\nERWINS SHEPARD) ¢ icisis(sisle! sisisie sere oct)\nSECHELEI=W er.« avers eicers saloon\ncree Winona, Minn.\nNes CM GINECEL ctersaisiessieustel oottorsielee ate LP CASUUET wi tonterasseetsteee sree\nWest Superior, Wis.\nALBERT G, LANE,.... niaiata]rte\neth Sesiets\n\nChairman\n\nBOARD\n\nBoard of Trustees,..\n\nChicago, Ill.\n\nOF DIRECTORS.\n\nDirectors\n\nEx\n\nOfficio.\n\n(See Art. [V., Sec, 2, of the Constitution.)\nJames M. Greenwoop, Kansas City, Mo.\nCuarves R. Skinner, Albany. N. Y.\n\nIrwin SHEPARD, Winona, Minn.\nI. C. McNEILL, West Superior, Wis.\n\nALBERT G. Lang, Chicago, II.\nLife\n\nDirectors.\n\n(See Art. IV., Sec. 2, of the Constitution.)\nBICKNELL, Tuomas W., Providence, R. I.\nGrauam, H, A., Ontonagon, Mich.\nBrown, Leroy D., Santa Monica, Cal,\nGrEENwoopD, J. M., Kansas City, Mo.\nButLer, Nicuoras Murray, New York, N. Y.\nGove, Aaron, Denver, Colo.\nCanFiELp, James H.. Columbus, O.\nHatt, Cates G., New Berlin, N. Y.\nCoox, E, H., Flushing, N. Y,\nHarris, W. T., Washington, D. C.\nDay, L. W., Cleveland, O.\nHunt, Mary H., Boston, Mass,\nDoucuerty, Newron C,, Peoria, Ill.\n\nFarrcHILp, Grorcr T., Manhattan, Kan.\nGarrett, W. R,, Nashville, Tenn.\n\nJewett, A. V., Abilene, Kan,\n\nLang, Albert G., Chicago, Ill,\nMars_e, Albert P., New York, N, Y.\n12\n\nba\n\n"}
{"page": 23, "printed_page": null, "text": "OFFICERS\nLife\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nDirectors.—Continued.\n\nMARSHALL, T. MarceE.tus, Hyden, Ky,\nSHELDON, W.E., Boston, Mass.\nNorturop, B. G., Clinton, Conn.\nSKINNER, CuartEs R,, Albany, N, Y.\nParkeEr, Cuas. I., South Chicago, III.\nSmart, JAMES H., Lafayette, Ind.\nPHELPS,\nW. F., St, Paul, Minn.\nSotpay, F, Louis, St. Louis, Mo.\nPike, J., Jerseyville, Ill.\nSrratron, C. C., University Park, Ore.\nPickarD, J. L., Iowa City, Ia.\nTaytor, A. R., Emporia, Kan.\nRicHarps, ZALMON, Washington, D. C.\nWuite, Cuartes G., Lake Linden, Mich.\nRickorr, ANDREW J., Berkeley, Cal.\nWuitE, E, E., Columbus, O.\nWitson, J. Ormond, Washington, D. C,\nDirectors\nNorth\n\nby Election.\n\nAtlantic\n\nDivision.\n\nMaine). .cace cent os «temas\ntetiee Aa evenOHI Sr LOCKASe ene siaine ss etelais Meriter\nex ar ACOr\nDiewindd ATH P SHITE -nts's cite .)sicloe a sisioisievone Ue PeN RCS SEL krene erinete olersteia cewhorenris ei apcToiereicte Plymouth.\nSVEXINODU eters hee) os ero antereys slele wen Wwieial\nMason S,. STONE......\nap\nOOdag Betogse\nMontpelier,\nMM ASSAGCHUSETES slits cone aioe ieee waloie a's PAE Gre BOVDION tepetic eicietsienicieiois\naieelese aitvcih aie Bridgewater,\nRehode: Eslaud oxcic. nn sicincie sels’ <aslele sv'0 GAL MANIC BISHER s ugeeeccleticisie\nnee ntce os% Pawtucket,\n\nBESTS\n7et CeSoa ueENA\n\na NACe Mise anaes\n\nENGespe ONReanelerags\nesciave corel niso.o\\cleisiciciviorcincie\nDNGWHELEISEY go(cisiontleinecicie sromiviom.cisnaorctors\n\nPE\n\nLOWARD selects de ota caaticsca\nacne tee Bridgeport.\n\nAaa\nOWNING. Mitabsioms ii? eitaless/siorieloisieicreioe mn ALD ATLYrs\nAMES Via) GREEN erie eee ce ee eineas sisiersis @ Trenton.\nSouth\n\nAtlantic Division.\n\neeprsy/lyctreteneterofeld lole\\cte cyectesaiaisse'scje\nence Sp digisiaasy Otol 5 Sooke ennooagugdon\n+++»\nBele ware Rersoes pei sisarcietora/a/cleis\n(sicYae's aseiete's A. H. BERuIN...... 2. BoocncaeEn\nee .....\nMiarylaidiss cesaan rein) mee ties cenes siete aioe EATEN OASEWVISH staloieiela\nsieves) sileivvais visto BScuna\n\nPhiladelphia.\nWilmington.\nBaltimore.\n\nDistrictof Columbia.\nal 00 o0nac020ses\nWie Bop OWE Gaiam is heveialste o's'aie a eieiavemere +.++e.\nMMiiEgiltiea oh aM eRe\nCech .o)s cies sipceipis'e.¢ Bis CHASES S aleat ont lataisiersiey sissy)vialajere oierersiers .»\n\\WABSLE Wig EVES Sc 38a ggg bey En nEpOoo\nVS TAP ANDIRSONG I iis ureintciaslcieie.e secceeee\nPNGore GARCIA Asolo) cisleisisie sive ss se wires s CuHarves D. McIver. ........- Sleie aiatayvaictete\nSan Uh) TREAT) Fae ee CSS OE Coat SOC\nR ICSD\nWin JEU EPAND o cicterteisielelssisiscs)s esaroie ctorreere .\nloridaretcicusis/elesis Be aieiee Selcareers\nOscar CLUTE.....- Sida\nsue onanbood\nrdBodd\n\nWashington.\nLynchburgh.\nWheeling.\nGreensboro.\nChester.\nLake City.\n\nSouth\n\nCentral\n\nDivision.\n\nMSeMNEUICKGy)-je)sis\nolecicter: co >=ASobune Seeiestoe\nils Wel WEAVIOR: tote «isle acaharehs stotelcimesremnciar\nsiara\nMe NITESSEE Toe) aieloressiniere\nvials sleieix oaisseiniciew RE WHARTON OU ONE Siicte eloueirisietelelsieieiele ciciyccisite\nGeorpiacea= cronies pen\ncath ssia'oae oiciele Wii LOMA TONG merciiarcmacitctim\neeaetioci\nSALAAM at's creteciele\\s/-.ec'eSdanedooeacecosne\nJOHNMENGREGORVs ncecasee\ncece daraciencrel=\n\nParis.\nMemphis.\nAtlanta.\nMobile.\n\na\n{\n\nMISSISSIPDU ne dlees eidiciecielso\ne828 2.Parsee\nPax eMDASSr: chime ea cisareaea sare ciocietemiaeios Greenville,\nHEOMISTAM wrelasorsra\nelssie/eyavejeojaisielye16 waiteae Wis RIN) ELASTONe nia ice ie eisyelstasisicve\nsteermicsiete New Orleans.\n\n2\n\nPlessx casei\n\nS\ny\n\n@idahome eae\naay ereseeh cscs Shen\nArkansashe\nrenters ssieremens cots ctrs\n\ne\n\ni\n%\n%;\n\nta ofa ele reho es ties seis ereyelaraser gis\"ehte er\n\n:\n\nOhio...\n- 00. eee esse eee ee eee eeeeee See\nWaa diagiatete sisyeteiseicicts\nclssictears eicie ae csie’a\\bis\nIllinois........ Race\neae seecne emcee\n\nGEORGE TTR WENSTON:.\n\nrete titers (oisgare cere eines\n\nAustin.\n\nDAVID: R.cBOYDsscupokaicees\nre*: cujccsraw i Norman.\nGrorcribs COOkaasenicc\nrier caacee .. Hot Springs.\nNorth\n\nCentral Division.\n\nEis DD PIE Roan aatacigss Jactetdnaieis\nso neisa clesisles Madisonville.\nEpWARD AYRES.......... Pee rneeeicrie\nalay.ette.\npuede COLEINS Beta tape scasec coarse see), “opringtield.\n\nTASH orerral eiaisfetete ei1<1=12\\<a1cielelwicistere« eoaticer\n\nHunry R. PATTENGILL..;......./......-+\n\nLansing.\n\nvieTeneeiee\nSIM eae cles oia)s elerelelessloreis\nDWVTSCOM\nBicoiwieh terete aia oto hele wictotaovs ofoie/ciessusrere.evees icictell\n\nMISS IMAB IE. SCHREIBERs scot c.c/c.00 «1000155\nWiel Wl] IDEA DSEHEAR sists alceie'slsicve)s:\nsree oierense'le-*\n\nMilwaukee.\nAmes.\n\nwisstnle/elele islet Peicers\nWar Esta =\\.-\\01stepcicl«\n\nGNIMiy ORBAN ay Giien cei\n\ntee cone snsis ee\n\nseyManneapolisy\n\n6 AORORIC HOF\nIVETSSOUTIS . ncc)s)0. e000 15 aatev acheter eedorersce Joun R. Kirk..... ACU\noles\nNorth Dakota.........000<+ Rescioke siete PIPL SLOG WHLLT [sein s\\-1ois/elelelcleleiossie))\nSouth Dakota..... mSisnsteewe lel eosoes00 Se ANS ED PA VIERMisia anats cleyelslere eivteie)2)sieleerese.sie.siei6\n\nNebraska....-.- Sane daiwaencere saaisiciele\n\nCaGa PRARSE MAT once\n\nCOMORE\nKAS AS cay -aiere; elelcioiris’ SP OaHS BOO\n\nTORN MACDONALD ata. )sJe ncrate e/sietiets aisles\n\n,\n\nWestern\n\nJefferson City.\nGrafton.\nWoonsocket.\n\nsmerrse oes Sotasosa seis Omaha.\nTopeka.\n\nDivtston.\n\neictiaate SCOCRaetea eerste wrebate Coke!orala)ects 2ieln!s|s/alejsn'e\nMontana....... BesooNG Bpecoonoees Se eT\n. ceeeeseee ceeeees\nMiSS ESTELLE REEL,\nWyoming..... Setsce AOSesuOOESODE seeee\nares.\nCE Bees stiles kaonapieedtahrerelo%eie\nNe Col CrRGEIN\nBDO SOOcUDACORRDOOOOaE\nGigTalas pena\n(Cin\nSatlele. civgiscolar aiaavelet acne hare.\nINTew Mex!CO'aishata arsiasioie Biso1nince.e:>Ee eee ME PLAGHARNE\nMISS) LVDTATG LUN. sfrisioinuerereie'e « erestinis siclrisie\nArizona......- MiestentsBisnis bss ails,» Weegee\n\nHelena,\nCheyenne.\nDenver.\nSilver City.\nSan Carlos.\n\n"}
{"page": 24, "printed_page": null, "text": "EDUCATIONAL\n\nNATIONAL\n\n14\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nDirectors by Election.—Continued.\nWestern\n\n(UPA eagaonnede Andonmscososnontostest\nING yaclatricte!s cerssteaistalcre sielsist <:=\\vie1s)olea\\a\\errci\nictal. moneteleriereretersieramienyarevaia\\e ecrureieteisrartte\nwreree, ee\ncores) cess\nWashingtonsescse\nOieeyereonogue, oeotnaco Sommadonp ached\naoe stsesteee Mee nerrivin ss se\nGaliforttlganmre\n\nDivision.—Continued,\n\nLogan.\nReno.\nAlbion.\nTacoma,\nEugene.\nBerkeley.\n\ncere eeee\n..\ncece cree\nER..\nJ. M. TANN0.220402\n0.25 sce seem oe ee cee nes ieee\nJu Be STUBBS\nJe C. BUACK. oveweccsiccs cavenases eaneniee\nte\nerates .\neect etern\nRNS, RUNGILAN ss) steiaion\nEE By MCHEROW ).7212 aie etea eerste\n(Gye Mls eaaoC on cong orurbudenco0os\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nNational\n(CENA SSD OVMRINOB nen anno cesocces\nAVMlteesPay ISGLUINGrr-tsrece qaverale eisrayeua\\cla wiatesauelotere: dials\nMiss BEE LIB) A. DUE DON aieccnes ete\naA CEL LIN SUA: EsHerrera srealelatarotetetelomsia teeiecsiete\noie as ACW WS anc eacoukcooconendecnac\nCOR DN SSDIOS s INA DAE on nega ocaacuenoe\nWeAlTercl:\nEi, Railing ste EsROVE oe eto tolgilteteste cise\n\nOFFICERS.\n\nCouncil.\n\n(SARE icuc so cscs cngogoeceronde\nera\netal le\nPF EStLEM Te repatjacielse\nViCO=\nSECHELATY. wach ones os se oe oie\nExecutive Commttteé..........+Executive Committee ............\nExecutive Commtittee..........+Executive Committee..........-.\n\nSwarthmore, Pa.\nMt. Vernon, Ia.\nCleveland, O.\nAnn Arbor, Mich.\nBirmingham, Ala.\nHolyoke, Mass.\nNew York, N. Y.\n\nKindergarten.\nIMassaMiAiey Ce McCULLOCGE. 4-52\nMrs. JENNY B. MERRILL. ...........\nINDISS MAIR Va Bar EUAILUe cracis ares cers asiastt®\n\nsasd\nnewites St. Louis, Mo.\nisle<ielste\nPH ESTA\nEN Eos dutaatect\nVaECe-BF CStMEM Eras stalare fotatssfaerant = New York, N. Y.\nSLCK ELIMI Ka\nMilwaukee, Wis.\ndete iitieee aeterstatere\n\nSWiIVie Nie ICASTDAVIGASNNIN 3), teresslalatesslenetalaiatatee\nIRS ER ELAS SGV cae fares ohn stoneotenesareeae\nMiss: HARRIET B. SMITH... ..c5.8.<2\n\nPresidente. aeaes sca sadcesesce\nath oa e ee\nVice PREStACH Eee\nSCOP ERE) alanis tenislefeciniei cine ialsieemiele\n\nCBO eSB PAT LO Nictnataat\ncraseny teers\nactus catsyn\nMrs. MAY WRIGHT SEWALL..........\nete:\nHen Cosy .G) ©)TEEVac atarersicneie ounteteistelsie\n\nLOY\nEST LEME HateajartorabeENclePas secs ae\nWCEP ICSU CI «i.cals anys/2 ene ian ites\nSSECYELEGY loleic reels seinia) = aisya)aleresees\n\nElementary.\n\need\nWashington\nBinghamton, N. Y.\nMilwaukee, Wis.\n\nSecondary.\n\nMinneapolis, Minn.\nIndianapolis, Ind,\nLaGrange, Ill.\n\nHigher.\non een\nERED Elie JOO Hiatt aiereiscie aieae ecorsietnate eine PreStaewds (a. NIMs Ahem\nds a VELA\ne ao\nqa Omece\nA TAN LAZ I ocnitsqa\nEN RONEN ROUND Bre oneneie\nMoga sOCoosbAt\nHENRY WADE ROGERS)... ......+.=:\nSECT LAITY ethi\nseaie\nasian eec\n\nColumbia, Mo.\nPrinceton, N. J.\nEvanston, Il,\n\nNormal.\nareal icine cleteWade\n|PUESTALEMCsstesiiclsenesnccieeaie chee\nHEV HlLiew Ey Euik Ubbi Viterers eiaisseiel\nMiIsssROSE) Cr SWART. i cals icucdelaceiere V2Ce=Prestdent. .o.cccc sen sone 2)\nse\nccs SCCHELaway Matick qiccieelacr\neee\nEBD ayDAUSVUB:Rcic. otsiog ctaie scien actencieee\n\nINTs (CIS.\n\nOla AI slid BAU\n\nane goa\n\ncaso name cos.\n\nSuperintendence.\nPH eESTLCRT,) dial jocnpecriie ed ese\n\nPr DR COOPERG: atic octosstaniaaetit\nEe Ear ZANERCen carat sete,oyAe cic ee ET\n‘Nite Beige\nWtOH2 i OY Phy Gees pe ae Leen\n\nCeUatballssmias\nOShkosh,, Wis:\nFredonia, N. Y.\n\nsen\n\nLILASL: V2CCnE PESLACIL antannacniennn\nSecond Vice-President ..........\nSCOT CLA HY cccrehciae Mien\n\nManual\n\nLLAISpULe EEA.\n\ni\n\nDes Moines, Ia.\nLouisville, Ky.\n\nGalesburg, Ill.\n\nand Industrial.\n\nED WARDIONSISS ON scaecwchiecendetoe\nPY eSTACHE Waa. rae eeeen foo\nPeoria, Tl,\n\\WAUHG ISS ER ALNINUSIG TF oon Bano uaohoeroie Vice\nPH ESTACHE ware ence\nCOLUM bits. OF\nEDS Oia Bett\n©Who\neee We eee ee\nSEAT ELAFT aleniclsioeiic\nene eeiee te Menomonie, Wis.\n\nArt.\n\nMiss HARRIET CECIL MAGEE........\nDe\n\nNUGS BURG,\n\n08s scote.\n\neee\n\nPrestdent.......cc00se00004---.++\nVuce-=PHesident sacs\n\ndens ABrerion\n\nMiss FLORENCE B, HIMES wale Satone. rep\n\nSsCCYELATY vevevseesverssrees ....\n\nOE,ETN LCERACD)\nON\n\n.\nPY ESCLUERI\nAN alae\nt\nVice-Presiden\nSea\nee\nee\n\nOshkosh, Wis.\nSalt Lake City, Utah.\n\nAlbany, N.Y. ‘\n\nMusic.\nMrs. EMMA\nMics\n\nLMG\n\ncincleerdetar eaacauces\nA, THOMAG,..............\nAMAVINGTION\n\n=\n\nFiera Fe OS\n\n*\n\nA\n\nMinneapolis, Minn,\nDetroit,\netroit, Mich\nMich,\n\nGIY)\nSECHEL\nWane\neee vues. vp eee AeM Oline eile\n\n‘\n\n"}
{"page": 25, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOFFICERS\n\nBusiness.\nTO RWewERUEN\nGBs Re oo ctesceitctstos\nole. etSa/avajeiurs\nAC HIN SAO MID Ra eon cicsicetiaeniitaisicae\noh na\nWey emaOhNerereats. arashava.s s/t\nee clahho tio\n\nER\nAEE AOS SEE AEE CD DRTC\nAnn Arbor, Mich.\nFirst Vice-President oo. ..cc. sees\nCedar Rapids, Ia.\nSecond Vice-President ........+ Detroit, Mich,\n\nIMS\n\nWECTELATY\n\nW UISIGIS.. eit\n\ncc Vece esieavisteccaseee\n\nES SAIN MAN Wels5 eetetoraiis nieofaoyctareteye anclereeeintess\n\nice\n\ntees cess.\n\nChatrman Executive\n\nChild\n\n3-2\n\nmere\n\nCommittee\n\nMorgantown, W. Va.\nWashington, D, C.\n\nStudy.\n\nNEE NE OS ELEVA mys be wt Gee autticca\ncade\nRiss DARAH A: SLRWART.<.\n2. 5. <2 «\n\nPOP OSULEN Tee aves cei yere Was teolrattee sit Madison, Wis.\nWtCO—\nPT OSLOOMT sade Aorsn's sah seis Milwaukee, Wis.\n\nREM\n\nMOECTLLLID crore wictaieialetejerdis\ndiets ett/aieis Lincoln, Neb.\n\npeor\n\nSHOU, V teenie milesdist isiscawreiicisew”\n\nPhysical\nREE\n\nTHELEIN GakG ERs cc hu sor canoe\n\nee meena\n\nTraining.\n\nPF OSTLCMT Re\n\ndoar re\n\nOana ra:\n\nMiss oR. ANNA MORRIS, «22.<cc000\n000\niis GSUMLE 00kOl eae eee\nao eee eer\n\nV2Ce-PIESLACRE arse Aaa ne ee,\nSCORELICEI i.Sores\niencs\ncisco,\n\nSEC\n\nPPPESTLORE\n\nWest Chester, Pa.\n\nCleveland. Or\nEEXENtOR, Nie\n\nScience.\napne\n\nDSR a ant clonieretnrents ie ohaseeew v's Sie\n\nNe COBB.20... 4... Sed\nAA\nei\nROeme BLEENGreer cia Pec erste icienias meee eis\n\nRue\n\nSi BORE aso HRN\n\nVICEETESIACRE Cs 0 55 Sted\nss\nSA GIT ET me AGOSTEOOGD. COMACIBISO\n\nSchool\n\nAnn Arbor, Mich,\n\nAlbany, N. Y.\nDenver, Colo.\n\nAdministration.\n\nHONG ERAN DEG EEO Nsnvewe ee leet oe) LF OSLER rn. < vines slelnia eine sine se\nRONSON CHICK EREN Gre viieaissssacenes\nFirst Vice-President... 11.0.4.\nGCHARTEES OWUARLES so. cuss Shoe ccles Second Vice-President..........\nVE MIG ELOr BU Cliae vercntawislie\nsolcaine eter SCF ELAIG ee onte seine nine e eiacemastete\nSVDLet RIV ECACCR RcratctcnT\ncate Scicte sare oreeie's ls. Chatrman Executive Committee\n\nUtica, N. Y.\nOil City, Pa.\nMilwaukee, Wis.\nMilwaukee, Wis.\nAurora, Ill.\n\nLibrary.\nES\n\nLSU4 Ot ee ee ae\n\nSMES CRY INST CECE BY, 35\n\nSaecie\n\nORE oes ee\n\nvais cotceisioveisteivtsi CSCCEL\n7CSC ERL Teas selec ciate = slole ds\n\n‘ Miss MYRTELLA AVERY..........+--Deaf,\n\nPOS BPE Go ORDON..\n\nDERESI\nONL |) cois cher el or\n\nSecretar yrnspcdstaasiset.seats\n\nBlind,\n\nAlbany, N. Y.\n\nand Feeble-minded.\n\n0 sccic asiclsea3 DELP\nIEVES Ring\nGeCHOOD BONE .....\n\nMass SARAH PULLER: 50.05 os 00 cee,<*\nIMISSHVEARY MeCOWEN cnc niciatesienje0\n200\n\nMilwaukee, Wis.\n\nDenver, Colo.\n\nWashington, D. C,\n\nVACE-PP\nCSU OMB eseiar es,oe siesisieie sisis\\e Boston, Mass.\nSecretary and Treasurer.....++\nChicago, Ill.\n\n"}
{"page": 26, "printed_page": null, "text": "TREASURER’S\n\nNATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nJuLY\nMEETING\n\nI. C. McNeill,\n\nREPORT\n\nTreasurer,\n\n1, 1896, To JULY\nAT\n\n1, 1897.\n\nBUFFALO,\n\nin Account\n\nN. Y., 1896.\n\nwith the National\n\nEducational\n\nAssociation\n\nDr.\n\nTo cash on Comptroller’s checks issued in 1896, on account of balance in Union National\nBankvot Wem vere ciaaleie eed\nsos tees orshe o ciaerashasLeeeae oe os (ola eleiayeh enaiiets orate eto etait §\n\n132.15\n\nELoieashomemberships, BuLlalor meets Mosc slate oteractekelsieiniotelste\nnesoaleloiele mieta alealeis ieee inom ets+\nMo New Vorkadvanced, memberships: oc ser secs seats oe oe taniiadeaintel ictal = oteolor peleeers\n\n1,146.00\n2,358.00\n\nTo other'cash memberships, collected during year...\n40.0% .o00 cee cesses vec seve snes oe\nTo memberships, Department of Superintendence, Indianapolis...............2e0eee00\nEPOVNCOMIE ON! PELMABEIE INVEStIERES oraiayars einvers=telots stale [es es swe yele)ive tayayeraelaine ee ee yen\n‘Lo sale of volumes, St:..Louis-Public (Libratyice zc cients ccsee sls wo a/cyoe eae a)a wielerenl arches easier\nTo collection of annual dues by Secretary Shepard, active memberships................\n‘Eounemberships from steamship [ines ¥zq% <j. ees ae cae cisite eo eslis erie eres oan ae eee\n‘Toimemberships trom: ratlto ads’ sor: evy not eis sels oiecneloreare eice e/asae oe\norev eee\n\n20.00\n404,00\n2,751.27\n37-25\n1,066.25\n876.00\nI1,749-95\n\n$20,540.87\n* To error in old balances, including amount unavailable..............020-0c2e\ncece cece’\nErLOvError am FEPOLE LAS LEYCAL rare\\e, aisle,stsyalsayaa'alene coe mwieleleaeieee wisle vies, Cee Seine Se cease\nEDOCA\n\ncssce esesveape teenie aceelute Ge Pear OE Cte Ge eloteere atcioean a thcvercrahcearn\n\nace\n\n540.62\n+03\n\n:\n\nean aera\n\n$21,081.52\n\n=\n\nCr.\nBy cash advanced by Treasurer— Report of 1896 :\nUnavailable funds in Union National Bank of Denver...............0+\ncece cece cece $\n\n528.59\n\nOverdraltsspaids.\n\n134.73\n\nfen sscmae tesnace ate tieiesctaee erates oe eee ae OER SER EO\n\noC\n\nTEES\n\n$\n\n663.32\n\nBy expenses incurred during Buffalo meeting\n“reasurer’s clerks during, Buffalo meeting (736)s...\n0. es deci doeniepiew eerie oeeneeieeen $\nFxpelse Of oecretaryis Oicen((745)) cmseecieicecereeee sei ietee nie nee tone ane Tae\nClerical work, auditing Treasurer’s books (728). 0.2... 0ec0 ces cses seeesseucssecees\nSupplies for typewriting (713): cnersie sane ok eee\nREE\neee\neee\nStenoprapheris| services (708) anten)-imlshere nce mere emer\ne nee tern eeTaeT aera eee eters\nState managers (747, 776, 716, 722, 723, 724, 735, 726) 725) vss. cece cece ceceseecreee\nDepartments, including Department Superintendence at Indianapolis (768, 738, 751,\n(ELEY Pay\nHAD acerra COC\n\nMemberships\n\nICO ram viaeae ainuicaetn acon spOe\n\nrefundedi(742,17 80) pest neeree et sea\n\n842.33\n120.09\n8.00\n26.60\n113-75\n659.04\n\nWon Sebs Ta hip\n\nvad habe\n\n260.29\n\neae ee ener ner ce neem\n\neee\n\n268.00\n$ 2,298.10\n\nBy printing volumes and proceedings :\nPrinting (706, OTs 7993 72057495 7005, 702; 703) istearsiari alm weatelatsteralereiaieis\neeereielee errant $ 4,611.24\nExpress and freight (769, 727, 750, 761, 759, JES) sdvarsucte aly NOG eas ate CR TENT\n1,399.85\n\nMuGexing (7485, 732) iv 01 saiscls 37 oun\n\nResse cette\n\neRe\n\nEEE\n\neee\n\n:\n\nBy Committee of Twelve :\n\nHenry, Sabin (729) crt await Ov iae'\\c ti ne sufie oie eee\nlentes Sabin (746) 015 pists/0%«cian iol Vives ears 0A cana\n\n342.70\n\n———\neae\n\nee\n\nHenry Sabin (772); sstivwes sagiasctencscduse.\n*18\\4 e\\alisinle 6 2.0.)\nSteyn(esas1017S TOTES TEstee LS ene\nDee terersta eater Ea\n\n§ 6,353.79\n\n$ _ 32.25\n1,349.77\n276.35\n\n$ 1,657.27\n\n"}
{"page": 27, "printed_page": null, "text": "TREASURERS\n\nREPORT\n\n17\n\nBy officers’ expenses, stationery, postage, telegrams, traveling, etc. :\n\nIN Ge Mone hertys (74d NgORs 752) cena\n\naie a. Maer ee ciee ns.c0 be wae ohvnae wees Seimeeterenp) aed Aae4O\n\nC. Re Skinner (7775, 773)eaceescs.0e-ues\n\n446.52\n652.53\n\nIrwin Shepard (731, 752, 766, 778) ....06.csueeeses\nsesssesssusesusecostsevevetoes\nI. C. McNeill\n\n(730, 764, 779)\n\n170.25\n\n$ 1,712.70\n\nBy Board of Trustees :\nH, A. Tarbell (714)\nJ. Ormond Wilson (721, 733, 718)\n\n$\n\n33.62\n31.01\n\nPate AES BETTS) Gytsa) it a toe ir ars Ser es\n\nPSs\n\n63.35\n————\n\nBy paid Board of Trustees for permanent investments (743)\nBy trausier OF permanent fandsi(770) i oF. «as sites seis enews ce ck Seem ae we saa e ben\n\n$127.08\n\n$ 4,000.00\n300.00\n— $ 4,300.00\n\nBy officers’ salaries :\nZalmon Richards, former custodian (710, 711).........: Oo\n\nast Messet@ anne\n\nimwin: Shepard, secretary. (754,707) > cctewc wires cine tisvanle s slesrgutie ooh enn\n\nRee Vechten wbreasurers (7509 792)!\n\ntee\n\ned nwretels kaa\n\n$\n\noe\n\n325.00\nI,000,00\n\nale twisters veel accel oes\n\n750.00\n\n—\n\n$ 2,075.0c\n\nJoint agency expenses :\nF. C. Donald, Commissioner Central Traffic Association (734).........00..00e0 00s $\niH Guvonald, redeeming ticket (774). cuc..2 ssn ag thea: a aie eae\nSascle ie os\nLGD STS TAR SLUG\nGllel,210) Gani ae Sea a coos Goer a Ooe Ser sean mates Sea rc ames\nombrac en tirak Mrdias anos C753) resco cierto cie)ateie\nlea aise resale ote xe oe ois orecious lente uss fasesa)\n\n500.00\nIg,00\n\ng0.00\nII.00\n\n$\n\n620,00\n\n$\n\n140,00\n\nBy other expenses :\nRent of depository at Washington (772, 719, 758)! 000.000 secs cece sece cece case cces $\nRent of safety box at First National Bank of Superior (715).... 2.2.0... 0-ec eevee\nFidelity and Deposit Co., Treasurer’s bond (727)...\n..00 ccs scecceersceeees\n-—\nBEOEAN CSD UES]\n\n75.00\n15.00\n50.00\n\n$19,948.16\n\nyerclowsi te cere clamav ie)is = 51goictere Giae Siects:v/a:ate\\cieteresterefortiayens stehara\n\nwacumes\n\n$19,948.16\n20.50\n\na vatorall CISbITSed BS: ADGVEs tyes Missi ohicicles loi = ie(2is.seisiesel ase eselisvers,aceleie\\stelaloie\n9heisilelais\neS ESHER CUCU ipIHEEDOEE TOO) ae esha ovellere eie/eicicis o exets eleis/=isir Sioim0)sJasa)sysiaisie\\(eyeim s.sfsio!sne\nSa yvapaiance ,casm tnaVvall able (Denver)\ncm lecciejeresnicy e lain eines =alosele eloie a ap=oeelsialeeeiielspsieye\\s $\n\n528.59\n\nespa alarice wash inl Marcle\n\n584.27\n\neter ay iis stotlaiepreicie stisioses sel ictrie avin siete«1cIat erates see\n—.\n\n—\n\n‘\n1,112.86\n\n$21,081.52\na\n\nNore:\nThe figures in marks of parenthesis refer to the numbers of the orders issued by the Chairman\nof the Board of Trustees upon the Treasurer for payment of audited bills,\n* The corrections in the above report were indicated by Charles C. Hoyt, accountant, who examined the\nbooks and accounts kept by Treasurers, and by the late N. A. Calkins, who, as Chairman of the Board of\nTrustees, received and disbursed current funds of the association. Since the Denver meeting the current\nfunds of the association have been handled by the Treasurer and the permanent funds by the Board of\nTrustees,\n\nI. C. McNEILL,\n\n77 ¢asurer.\n\n"}
{"page": 28, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE\n\nANNUAL REPORT OF\nOF TRUS Ler\n\nELEVENTH\n\nBOARD\n\nTo the Board of Directors of the National Educational Assoctation:\nFund of the\nThe Board of Trustees presents the following report of the condition of the Permanent\nNational Educational Association, for the year ending June 30, 1897:\ncrsces $54,961.75\nsecercers seees\neccesse\n122 teens ceeere\nPermanent Fund, July 1, 1896 ......ssececsc\nIn the following items:\n\nPan oucennd ooo\nIbucdom\nsees eee eee Neo\nMortgage on real estate ...--...06\ne te\neseyesstancree on UePatoas\nKansas school and municipal bonds ....-....- ois dishoemMeCaem\nSGA Gor vas Oto\nIllinois and Indiana school bonds .....-. ».++ 2 wiataiore ence\nTotal investment ....... rosso eldhielay\nayer eyelet exsiePs\nAW oa.nletetalatoialal\n(OES nema ent Ace CO On oiooMon noone rma Lge nage ge\n\n$ 3,000.00\n35,937.00\n15,500.00\n54,437-00\n524.75\n\n———\n\nSB 00re7 5\n\nCash transferred to Permanent Fund from proceeds of Buffalo meeting .........-+++++.--+2e000Cash belonging to Permanent Fund, held by Treasurer (see report for 1896), transferred ........\n\n4,000.00\n300.00\n\nTotal of Permanent\n\n$59,262.75\n\nFund, July 1, 1897.....+..+---.--«> Second. cao\n\nIn the following items:\n\nMortgaceror real, CStatea ccm cigitclapalaiore’s © eleetteicl-sfer si eleolaeiesie eteterelavelerieiers=tnte\nse... <.- ster s © aiecise sleiaie wisoiler vlvieeine eer\nKansas school-and municipal bonds,\nIitnorsandlndiana‘schoolbomdsiisemmce\nmerece eae tan eae\neileen ere\n\n$ 3,000.00\n33,337-00\n21,500,00\n\nco nee Gree hardcore vee gr eer tetera\nWotal nse cee\n‘CashronGhand) for amyestment ).45-e en sen mer eae aot oie\n\n575837.00\n1,424.75\n\nINcoME\n\n$59,261.75\n\nSTATEMENT,\n\nRECEIPTS.\nsee casein sae cen nenenieee\n\n$2,802.95\n\nser\nneeroyalty Feport. Committee ot Lem t.acrciaeicsi\ncto actaete\neet\nema eee\nroy altyerepont Committee ob Mitteen! water\nwe\n\n66,60\n56.65\n\nReceivedunterestiom Petmanents\n\nPumdinmaamcae\n\n=\n\n$2,925.20\n\nDISBURSEMENTS.\nete csene\neae cetee\nBaidvexchanpesfor coupon collections... ..4e.ceeae\n‘* rent of box in Nassau Safe Deposit, New York.................“rent of box in Merchants’ Safe Deposit, Chicago..............+“* express charges for transfer of bonds to Chicago. ..............+.\ntame DanC GbOOKS Fre Sect ey ganN ee Ee eee\nTE\nEomsliarrysliyon, clericallservice yateesci terete\n\nteen er ee\n\nnee\n\n®\n\n0.75\n5.25\nI0,00\n20,00\n2,60\n25.00\n\n“\nSe)\n\nBently & Hatfield, attorney’s fees, Seward county bonds......\nsaccrueduinterestion) Wemont boudsin\nua) qe ae Senet\neerie\n\n50.00\n60.33\n\ni\n\nntae:\nEe\neesuech Meee\nVota... ocnpeaha\nrs eee rae a een\neC Nic eilltwlreastice\nacy chee\nee\nlyC. MoNeill Treasurers\ntenes eeaac ono\nae\neee -\n\n$ 173.93\nI,500,00\n1,251.27\n—\n\nnay\n\nInvestment, ae\nJul\n\nit cec soc eM\n\nAoC REEe\n\n$2,925.20\n\nswar sees\nnam Sc een narDAabersoc\nboodcussesvn\n\n+\n\n654,437.00\n\nBonds paid during the year:\nCrawford Co,, Kansas, District TQOs, eae a ateigyeascaresahcqy\nOrtot neestetestelare\nPOR ee eee\nGreenwood Co,, Kansas, District a, .. 1.0. ¢:es.n8.ne nee ee ne\nLogan Co, «Kansas, Disttict 27 sys. ne eae\na\n\neno!Co., Kansas, District 110/se5\n\nsees aese\n\neae\n\nnee\n\neee\n\nea\n\n$ 100.00\n200,00\n500,00\n\nee\n\n300.00\n\nSumner Co,, Kansas, District 177, MEME ORTEU Ce 4 Oh orc cGy Sande nnS ekiguela es\nDouglas Co., Kansas, Eudora Tips eee\n2 wi.reiate des BS pst ake esd oreo ieee\n\n1,000,00\n000,\n\nDouglas \\Co., Kansas, Eudora City, ......<m\nenn cueiee\nGee nee\nsLotalgewe eee EE\n\nERO\n\nOO MONO\n\n300,00\n\n200,00\n——\n\n§ 2,600.00\n\neR cc usicdon pac onda ok oabons\n\n$51,837.00\n\n_\n\n"}
{"page": 29, "printed_page": null, "text": "REPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nBOARD\n\nOF TRUSTEES\n\n19\n\nInvestments during the year:\nLemont, Illinois School Bonds,5 per cent.; Nos. 4, 6, 8, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 30, 32, for\nSBS OOIEBEL are MMSE Peeve ae fore Walciafae slacisharcieraie ci ciGees ah Hsia asin 6 Seiere weed Sleieetmae ee 16 j000200)\n\nEnvestinen ta)Uy r5t097en era\nSTATEMENT\n\nOF SECURITIES\n\nener On a eee\n\nat ce Hhiscenadcnsnceunanidecaemomereen\n\nAND Bonps BELONGING TO THE PERMANENT\nEpUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, JULY I, 1897.\nKANSAS\n\nNumber\n\nCounty\n\nschool dis-\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAmount\n\ntrict\n\nBartou,)\n\n4-\n\nClark,\n\n-\n\n=\n\n=)\n=\n\n=.\n\nCowley, Crawford,\n\no\n\n.\n\nOar cece\n-\n\nEllis,\n\nOSS\n\n=\n\nCe\n\n>\n\nGarfield,*\n\n-\n\nGreenwood,\nMitchell,*\nMitchell,\n-\n\n=\n\n=\n\nescapee)\nNess,\n\n>\n\nss\n\nJuly 1, r90r\n\n-\n\n-\n\n143\n120\n\n360\n300\n\n6\n6\n\nso\nfe\n\nJuly x, 1901\n$roo January, 1898\n$200 January, 1902\n\n>\n\n=\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n=\n\n-\n\nOsborne,\nPhwiinpss=\nPratt, Reno,\nReno, =\nReno,,\n=\n\n=\n=\n\n-\n\n-\n\n=\n\n=\n\nc\n\n-\n\n=\n\n=\n\n-\n\npare\nae\nee\n\n-\n\n-\n\nSe\n\nJanuary 1, 1901\n\n35\n\n6\n\nxs\n\n14\n\n800\n\n6\n\na\n\n18\n\n350\n\n6\n\n-\n\n24\n\n800\n\n6\n\nte\n\n=\n\n2\n43\n106\n\n200\n500\n475\n\n6\n6\n6\n\nU3\nMi\nMe\n\nSry\n\n41\n\n400\n\n6\n\noe\n\n$200 July, 1898\n\n7oO\n\n500\n\n6\n\noe\n\nfy\n\n95\n\n200\n\n6\n\n=\n\nuly, 1902\n\n52\n63\n36\n5I\n51\n129\n\n310\n272\n500\n500\n500\n300\n\n6\n6\n6\n6\n6\n6\n\nee\noe\nee\nid\nui\nye\n\nJuly, 1899\nJanuary, 1900\nJuly, rg0x\nJuly, 1902\nJuly, 1902\nJanuary, 1902\n\n22\n109\n\n100\n400\n\n6\n6\n\nte\nie\n\n44\n\n~\n\n-\n\n440\n\nJan’y and July |January, 1900\n\n6\n\n-\n\n-\n\n=\n\n100\n\nen\n\n>\n\ntee\n\n=\n\nNorton,\n\n6\n\n60\n\n=)\n\n=\n\nBond due\nIENS\n\n6\n\n<\n-\n\nale\n\n500\n\n-\n\n-\n\nI\n\nSEN\n\ninterest,\n\n$330\n\n=\n\n-\n\nRate of\n\nper cent.\n\n42\n\nPa rl\n\nee\n\nBONDS,\n\n66\n\n=\n\n=\n\n=\n\nNATIONAL\n\n-\n\n=\n\n-\n\n-\n\noF THE\n\n=\n\nSe\n\n=\n\nDecatur,;Ellis,t\n\n=\n\nFUND\n\n— HS7{8a7.00\n\n-\n\n=\nScott,\na\nanes\nSheridan,\n=\na\nSmith,\n=\nWashington, -\n\n800\n\n400\n\n136\n\n500\n\n6\n\n*\n\n6\n\na\n\n6\n\nce\n\nJuly, r90r\n\nJuly, 1900\n\nJul.,1896 (past due)\n\nJuly, 1900\nJanuary,\n\nIgIo\n\n$200 July, 1899\nJul., 1895 (past due)\nJanuary, 1902\n\n$200 1902\n\n1903\n\nJuly 1, 1897\nJanuary 1, 1902\nApril 1, 1902\nJuly, 1898\n\n$10,837\nKANSAS, COUNTY AND MUNICIPAL, BONDS.\n\nCounty\n\n:\n\nKind of bond\n\nBond\nNos\n\nRate of\nAmount | interest, | Interest payable\nper cent\n\n35 to 40\n\n$3,000\n\n6\n\nos,\n\nCity of Concordia,\n\ninvested on Sept.\n\n=\n\nCloud,\n\nsyed\n\n:\n\nBond due\n\n:\n\nJanuary and July | July 1, r918\n\nEudora City\n\n6 to 20\n\n1,500\n\n6\n\nCounty\nCounty\n\n47, 48\nI\n\n2,000\n1,000\n\n6\n6\n\nJanuary and July | February, 1920\nJanuary and July | July 1, 1919\n\nCounty\n\nIr to 13\n\n3,000\n\n6\n\nJanuary and July | July, ror8\n\nCity of Marion\n\nSharp’s Creek Tp.,\n- | invested December\n\nI\n\nI,000\n\n5%\n\nI\n\n1,000\n\n6\n\n12, 18\nCaney To.\n\n2\n\nI,000\n\n6\n\nApril and October |October 1, 1916\n\n-\n\nA aaah\n\n1,2\n\n1,000\n\n7\n\nFeb’y and August | April, 1908\n\n1,000\n\n|for collec-\n\n=\n$22,500\n\ntion\n\nKingman,\n\nLane,*\n\n-\n\nMarion,*\n\n-\n\n-\n\nMcPherson,\n\n-\n\nMontgomery,\n\nReno,*\nSeward,*\n\n-\n\nAid bonds\n\nWith Bentley &\nHatfield, Wichita,\nKan,\n\n*Interest in default,\n\n1to7\n\n7,000\n\n6\n\nMarch\n\nOne due each\n\nDouglas,-—Grant, Hodgeman,\n\nyear, March 1\n\nJan’y 3x and July | August 31, 1919\nMarch and Sept. | March 1, 1900\n\n:\nJanuary and July | Sept’ber 1, 1916\n\n"}
{"page": 30, "printed_page": null, "text": "EDUCATIONAL\n\nNATIONAL\n\n20\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nMISCELLANEOUS,\n\nCounty\n\nMo.\nackson, Kansas City,\nBoe Chicago, TL. Set\nNoblesville, Ind,\n\n|\n=\n\n-\n\n=\n\n=\n\n-\n\nDeKalb, Ill., Cook, village of Morgan Park, Ill., Providence, real estate, first mortgage,\nLemont, [ll., school, Nos. 4, 6, 8, 12,\nI4, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 30,32,\n-\n\nAmount\n\nRate of\ninterest,\n\nInterest payable\n\nBond due\n\nper cent.\n\n$2,000\n2,000\n5,000\n3,000\n3,500\n3,000\n\n5\n6\n5\nig\n5\n6\n\nJanuary and July\nMarch and September\n:\nApril x\nMarch and September\n\nJuly 1, 1901\n| March 10, 1898\nJuly 1, 1900\nApril 1, 1900\n| September, 1905\n\n6,000\n\n5\n\nJune and December\n\nIssue $16,000,\n$1,000 due each\nyear, June r\n\n$24,500\nRECAPITULATION,\nKictmSais, DOINGS) wise diciswarer alkiafo (vee ateVain9 0 Golbi[abie sievoscin svete e reFoOeravayeloRaeNs Sake CVAe etarsrahis wreraeataieyaiteiet ate teeter DyareMiscellaneous bonds. and real estate mortgages...\n<a.snap eteelre ele bole sale cilsicienl seis ieee\neleactos +\n\nTotal imvestment in bonds’ «..27 <teestseam osiie cae ees\n\nelon saat ae seamen\n\n$33,337\n24,500\n\n$57,837\n\nALBERT G. LANE, Chatrman,\nNicHoLtas Murray BuTLer,\nH. S. Tarse.r,\nCHARLES R. SKINNER,\nThe foregoing securities were examined at the Merchants’ Safety Deposit Vaults, Chicago, July 2,\n1897, and I certify that it is a correct statement of the investments belonging to the Permanent Fund of the\n\nNational Educational Association, in the custody of A. G. Lane, Chairman of the Board of Trustees.\n\n:\n\n(Signed)\n\nOrvitite T. Bricut.\n\n"}
{"page": 31, "printed_page": null, "text": "JORIINEES\n\nOE\n\nPROCEEDINGS\n\nOF\n\nTHIRTY-SIXTH\n\nANNUAL\nOF\n\nNATIONAL\n\nTHE\n\nMEETING\n\nTHE\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nMILWAUKEE,\n\nHi\nFIRST\n\nThe association was\n\nWIS., JULY\n\nSie DAYS!\nSESSION.—\n\nASSOCIATION.\n6-9, 1897.\n\nPROCEEDINGS.\n\nTugrspay\n\nEVENING,\n\nJULY\n\n6.\n\ncalled to order at 8 P. M., Tuesday, July 6, 1897, in the Expo-\n\nsition building, Milwaukee, by L. D. Harvey, President State Normal School at Milwaukee, Chairman of the Local Executive Committee.\nChorus by the Arion Club, Lyric Glee Club, Musical Society, and a Capella, under\nthe leadership of Professor Protheroe, of Milwaukee.\nRabbi S. Hecht, D.D., Temple\n\nMusic\n\nEmanu-El, Milwaukee, offered\n\nan invocation.\n\n—‘ America ’’—by the Male Chorus.\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nHARVEY:\n\nLadies and Gentlemen:\nSomething more than a year and a half ago the legislature of Wisconsin\nwas convened in special session, to do a special piece of work, It did that piece of work well. There were\nnumerous and urgent calls for the introduction of other matters at that session of the legislature. The only\nexception made was the act of that legislature in passing a joint resolution inviting the National Educational\nAssociation to meet in Wisconsin in 1897, and this magnificent audience assembled here tonight is the response\nof the National Educational Association to that invitation.\nIt gives me great pleasure tonight to introduce to you his Excellency, Governor Edward Schofield, who\nwill welcome you in behalf of the commonwealth.\n\nGovernor Edward Schofield of Wisconsin welcomed\nTw\n\ncommonwealth.\n\nJ. Q.\n\nEmery,\n\nSuperintendent\n\nof\n\nthe association on behalf of the\n\nPublic\n\nInstruction\n\nof Wisconsin,\n\nextended a welcome on behalf of the educational interests of the state. W.G. Rauschenberger, Mayor of Milwaukee, spoke for the municipality, and H. O. R. Siefert, Superintendent of Schools, expressed a welcome on behalf of the educational interests of the city.\n\nPresident Charles R. Skinner responded briefly to the addresses of welcome, and\nintroduced A. E. Winship, President of the American Institute of Instruction, Boston,\nMass., who responded for the New England states; J. L. Holloway, Superintendent of\nSchools, Fort Smith, Ark., responded for the South; Aaron Gove, Superintendent of\nSchools, Denver, Colo., for the West; and Albert G. Lane, Superintendent of Schools,\n\nChicago, responded for the Mississippi valley.\n\nMusic —“ Soldiers’ Chorus” (Faust)\n— by the Male Chorus,\nPresident Harvey then introduced Hon. Charles R. Skinner, of New York, President\nof the National\n\nEducational\n\nAssociation, who delivered\n\nan address on\n\n“The Best Edu-\n\ncation for the Masses.”\nNewton C. Dougherty, Superintendent of Schools, Peoria, lll., addressed the associa-\n\ntion on “ The Study of History in Our Public Schools.”\nThe association adjourned to 9:15 A. M,, July 7.\n21\n\n"}
{"page": 32, "printed_page": null, "text": "EDUCATIONAL\n\nNATIONAL\n\n22\n\nSECOND\n\nDAY’S\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nPROCEEDINGS.\nMoRNING,\n\nJULY 7.\n\nThe session was called to order at 9:15 A. M. by President\n\nSkinner.\n\nSECOND\n\nInvocation\n\nSESSION,\n\nWEDNESDAY\n\nby the Rey. George H. Ide, D.D., of the Grand\n\nAvenue Congregational\n\nchurch, Milwaukee.\n\nPresident Skinner announced the following committees :\nCOMMITTEE\nNicholas Murray Butler, of New York.\nJames H, Canfield, of Ohio.\n\nON\n\nRESOLUTIONS\n\nJames R. Preston, of Mississippi.\nDavid K. Goss, of Indiana.\nCharles H. Keyes, of California.\n\nCOMMITTEE\nAaron\n\nON\n\nNOMINATIONS.\n\nGove, of Colorado, Chatrman.\n\ncratesJohn S, Locke\nIMGs eiaaetiire aeleiere ister G oxeereislornnstersrni\n\nence oer Geo, B. Cook\nGAT AMSAS cisasevekel <yo!sts ieoteroreensie\n\nJ, Lucker!\naan aisWins\naleeeiee\nNew Elammpshirerjers/iceirm\n\nOhiow. t. @2acciac ose tases cnn\n\nnoose wine Alfred Turner\n{Vermont sss 6 0.san meaisenveeawe\niMiassachmsettsueres\nssieleiser saawewte see .W. C. Bates\nRhode! Uslande es ee aise Brien acorn H. S. Tarbell\n\ns Jos. Swain\nIittianla sc... aiamscloacseue\nGa elewerenmerer\niat A. B. Greenman\nrel saeae\nMlinois#enneemn\nMichigan yg.«2:cscu-cdsoe Stanaecctamie D. E. McClure\n\nCOnNECtiCUt..\n\nres cccsr cere: veces vee Ee; Howard\n\nINewaOnleemerncntcl terre Beicancreotratese A. S. Downing\nINlew JETS€Y cccneccsseceee snucsecesns J. M. Green\n\neso\n\nact\n\n— Wisconsin: cccmcse ct sae eats ere\n\nae\n\nCOLsOm\n\nD. D. Mayne\n\nTLOWaskics\ncae usar qe eae\nChristine Benson\nMinnesota........ 7S -acsiaRhaygiaicesardsiee\neee L. C. Lord\n\nPennsylvania ....- aeecupsdace\n\nontic INZGx Schaetier = sMassouris\n\nIe lawate teem ctreins\nersle sca\n\nEN TSS A. R. Spaid\n\nseo etary acces L. E. Wolfe\nse tencsensetaiy\n\nsite a: 002s nie ticssvatnece\nWorth Dakotat\n\ncdl enerelteaen areecd\n\nsetae aaa Frank Crane\nMaryland.......cscesveeescoeeeeeee Flenry Ab WAse ) SOWtt Dakota ancmaseceaeie\nMDistrctiol Columbians.) 4.1-1eereee Wet, Harris\nNebraskat)-eaiis\neres H. K. Wolfe\ntc acta h-evcseete\nWok Els cera nnoaaaon cose es0S0 Ginbagnsde BcC.7Glassig sa,ansas amon ete\nCt i eacetass .John MacDonald\nite cm a sereneeeeJ. E. Klock\nWest Virginia: co. c..0a6 SECCIA ASIEN Ws EL, Amderson: =\" Montamaly.2jcNorth Carolina...,...........Superintendent Noble\n\nWYomling®\n\noc. citereehischvsie\ndee ass een Estelle Reel\n\nSouth Garolimaiias\nseas ccs ose ay cater DaB. Johnson.\nsee eer C. M. Light\n~eNeéw..Mexicorarn,\nnc seteeee\nColorado jxctanvercistsleit sisraptacine cemeer ate Aaron Gove\nHloridaiactncscteiocs cesta mataeuwem ans Oscar Clute\nRentickysicaaamea\nsetenisc\nnicest McHenry Rhoads\nArizona 7.5 emiqierien acters Wm. Messenger\ne J. F. Millspaugh\neee eee cere\nERGMUESSEE aetsreraiele Neisainters skeineicraiete Whartones-,Jiomes age Witahiaerr oenrnettcl\nGeorgia’ ieyira renee ae aus saeles crete Geom RaGreen sma Nev adders lrdeleeihaye\nmeta rete te Mary W. Emery\nAlabama wrermceyxtrere\nes sencteca settee teresJ. T. Gregory\nMussissippitnyeisassatimeenree senate) Le enestom\n\nnsmresteF, B. Gault\neis na ehstele meee\nTd alo watsetiponla\nWashingtomneacesmasnesdacien wPotcness:S D, Bemiss\n\nMOU SIAMA epi 1c agree e7=steels ooo) eee Warren! Haston i) |@regon'gejareti\naeitaeiacs\ney ae Frank Rigler\nEle xcas nuescattor reaetssate erecectetads caine areeect te Jos. Baldwin\n\nCalifomiaye.nncecs sasneeieeenier Edward T. Pierce\n\nOca Oulalsiacetteant\nwerner cece teda\ntere David R. Boyd\n\nSecretary Shepard made the following report and\nof Directors :\n\nrecommendation from the Board\n\nAt the meeting of the Board of Directors held Tuesday, July 6, 1897, on motion\nGove, of Denver, Colo., the following resolution was unanimously adopted:\n\nof Director Aaron\n\nResolved, That the Board of Directors hereby recommend to the association that Article IEt., Section 3, of the constitution of the National Educational Association be amended by striking out all of the first\nsentence of said Section 3, to and including the words ‘enrollment fee;”’ and that said section be amended\nto read as follows:\n\nSection 3. Any person eligible may become an active member upon application indorsed by two active\nmembers, and the payment of the enrollment fee of two dollars ($2) and the annual dues for the current year.\n\nSECRETARY SHEPARD: The object of making this announcement now is that the\nproposed amendment may be legally acted upon at the business meeting of the\nassociation, to be held at the close of the session tomorrow morning.\nPresident Skinner ordered the proposed amendment to lie over for one day, in\naccordance with the provision of -the constitution touching amendments.\nPresident Skinner then read the following letter from the president of\nthe United\nStates :\n:\n\nee\nFe\net\nce\ni\na\nce\nCe\noie\nea\nee\ne\nee\n\n"}
{"page": 33, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL\n\nOF\n\nPROCEEDINGS\n\n23\n\nExecutive Mansion, WasHINGTON, June 24, 1897.\nMy Dear Sir: J have been deeply gratified by the cordiality of your invitation to attend the meeting\nof the National Educational Association at Milwaukee, but have felt obliged, owing to the great pressure\nof\npublic business, to reply that it would be impossible for me to be present.\nThe work of your association has for every citizen the greatest significance.\nIts members constitute a\nbody of trained exponents of those principles which were considered vital by the founders of our government,\nand the enthusiasm and devotion evidenced in these annual meetings are among the most encouraging signs\nof the permanence and strength of our institutions.\nYou and your associates of this organization have my best wishes for a reunion which shall be memorable in its annals,\nVery sincerely yours,\n(Signed)\nWrrit1am McKintey.\nHon, Cuartes R. SKINNER,\nPresident National Educational Association,\nAlbany, N. Y.\n\nPresident\n\nSkinner\n\nintroduced\n\nJames\n\nM. Green,\n\nPrincipal\n\nof the New Jersey State\n\nNormal School, who addressed the association on the subject of “ Data of Method.”\nMrs. Helen M. Henrotin, of Chicago, President of the General Federation\n\nof\n\nWoman’s Clubs, was introduced by President Skinner, and spoke on “ The Co-operation of\nWoman’s Clubs in the Public Schools.”\n\nMusic\n— Cornet solo—by Mr. Henry Tetzner, of Milwaukee.\nPresident Skinner introduced Gilman H. Tucker, of the American\n\nBook\n\nCompany,\n\nNew York, who delivered an address on “ Education from a Publisher’s Standpoint.”\nAlexander Graham\n\nBell, of Washington, D. C., was introduced, and spoke on “The\n\nEducation of the Deaf.”\n\nAnnouncements by the Secretary.\nAdjourned to 8 P. M.\nTHIRD\n\nSESSION.—\n\nWEDNESDAY\n\nEVENING, JULY\n\n7.\n\nThe session was called to order at 8 Pp. M. by President Skinner.\nMusic by the St. James Church Boys’ Choir, under the leadership of H. L. Egan,\nMilwaukee.\nPresident Skinner\n\nread a letter from\n\nEdwin A. Alderman, President\n\nof the Univer-\n\nsity of North Carolina, regretting that the necessities of the university with which he\nwas connected prevented his appearing to address the association on the subject of the\n\n“Christian State.”\nMusic —Soprano solo\n— by Miss Bessie Daggett, of Milwaukee.\nPresident Skinner introduced\n\nMiss Jane Addams, of the Hull House, Chicago, who\n\naddressed the association on “Foreign-Born Pupils in the Primary Schools.”\nBishop\n\nJohn\n\nH.\n\nVincent,\n\nChautauqua,\n\nN. Y., spoke on the subject of “Tom\n\nand\n\nhis Teachers.”\nAnnouncements by Secretary Shepard.\nMusic by the Chicago Principals’ Male Quartette.\nSave\n\nAdjourned to 9:15 A.M., July 8.\n\nTs\nFAL\nht\n\nLe\nae\nSee\not.\n~=\n\n,\n\nTHIRD\nFOURTH\n\nDAY’S\n\nPROCEEDINGS,\n\nSESSION.— Tuurspsay\n\nMorNING,\n\nJULY 8.\n\nThe session was called to order at 9:15 A. M. by President Skinner.\nInvocation by the Rev. Amos. A. Kiehle, of Calvary church, Milwaukee.\n\nPresident Skinner introduced ex-State Superintendent James R. Preston, of Missis-sippi, who invited the members of the association to meet with the Southern Educational\n5Gale Association at New Orleans at its next annual meeting.\nis\n\nia)\n\n"}
{"page": 34, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n24\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nAnnouncements by the Secretary.\nof the Art and SciPresident Skinner introduced Dr. Burke A. Hinsdale, Professor\nof Enhanced\nence of Teaching of the University of Michigan, who spoke on “ The Need\nSchools.\nRural\nMaterial Support for\nby\n“The Grading and Classification in Rural Schools” was the subject of an address\na]\n\nPm\n\ni,\n\nDr. William T. Harris, United States Commissioner of Education.\n\nBach’s String Quintette entertained the association with music.\nDr. Henry Sabin, Superintendent ot Public Instruction, state of Iowa, Chairman\n\nthe Committee of Twelve on Rural Schools, addressed\n\nSupervision Most Needed in Rural Schools.”\nDr. David L. Kiehle, Professor of Pedagogy,\n\nthe association\n\non “ The Kind\n\nof\nof\n\nUniversity of Minnesota, spoke on\n\n“ The Intellectual Needs in Rural Schools.”\n\nAnnouncements by the President.\nSecretary Shepard read a congratulatory telegram from the teachers of the Indian\nschools at Pine Ridge and Rosebud agencies, in annual association assembled ; and President Skinner directed that a suitable response be returned to our friends in North Dakota,\nThe association then adjourned, to reassemble in a business session.\n\nSuperintendent R. E. Denfeld, of Duluth, Minn., offered the following resolution :\nWuereas, The President of this association issued a circular to the members asking for an expression\nof opinion as to the manner of choosing the members of the Committee on Nominations, therefore, in order to\ngive opportunity for an expression of opinion on this subject, be it\n\nResolved, That the members of the Committee on Nominations shall hereafter be chosen by the active\nmembers from the several states, and that each state shall be entitled to one member of said committee; and\nbe it further\nResolved, That at the time of choosing the members of the said Committee on Nominations the active\nmembers from each state shall elect one director of this association.\n\nSuperintendent\n\nJ. W. Study, of Indiana, moved\n\nthe adoption of the resolution, and\n\nspoke in support of it.\nDr. E. E. White, of Ohio, moved as a substitute that the resolution be referred to the\nBoard of Directors, for its consideration, with\n\ninstructions to report the same or a modi-\n\nfied form thereof to the association for action at the close of tomorrow morning’s session.\nSeconded.\nSUPERINTENDENT STUDY: I move as an amendment to the resolution that the\nstates be left free to select their representatives, and with this amendment I move the\nresolution be adopted.\nPresident Skinner declared the amendment of Superintendent Study out of order.\nPRESIDENT SKINNER: The motion as made by the gentleman from Minnesota, if\noffered as an amendment to our by-laws, is not in due form.\nMr. Krackowizer, of Wisconsin, and Mr. Sabin, of Iowa, spoke in favor of the resolution of Superintendent Denfeld. Mr. Prentiss, Mr. Bright, and others spoke in favor of\nthe resolution of Dr. White, of Ohio.\n;\nSecretary Shepard, upon the request of President Skinner, read the articles of the\nconstitution of the association relating to by-laws and amendments.\nThereupon a viva-voce vote was taken on Dr. White’s motion to refer the resolution\nof Superintendent Denfeid to the Board of Directors, with instruction to report\nback at\nthe session on Friday morning.\nPresident Skinner announced that he was unable to\ndecide the vote, whereupon a division was called for.\nSUPERINTENDENT\nresolution.\n\nDENFELD:\n\nI ask leave to withdraw the second paragraph\n-\n\nof my\n\nPresident Skinner sustained the point of order which was\nraised that the resolution\ncould not be divided while the result of a vote thereupon\nwas being ascertained.\nOn a rising vote the motion of. Dr. White to refer the\nresolution of Superintendent\n\nee\ne\n\n"}
{"page": 35, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL\n\nOF PROCEEDINGS\n\n25\n\nDenfeld to the Board of Directors, with instructions to report back at tomorrow morning’s\nsession, was carried by a vote of 150 to 136,\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nSKINNER:\n\nWe will now receive the report of the Committee\n\nnations, and Mr. Aaron Gove, Chairman\nMr.\n\nLAYLANDER,\n\nof Iowa:\n\non Nomi-\n\nof that committee, has the floor,\n\nMr. President, I desire to introduce a fesolution.\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nSKINNER: You cannot be recognized at this time, as Mr. Gove has the\nfloor, and we are about to receive the report of the Committee on Nominations.\n\nMr. LAYLANDER : I appeal from the decision of the chair.\nOn the question being put, the decision of the chair was sustained.\nAaron\n\nGove, Superintendent of Schools, Denver, Colo., Chairman\n\nof the Committee\n\non Nominations, submitted the report of that committee as follows:\nThe Nominating Committee met at the call of the chairman, Aaron Gove, of Colorado, in Room 404,\nGoldsmith building, and at once proceeded to business by electing Geo. B, Cook, of Arkansas, secretary.\nThe roll of states was then called, and the chairman declared a quorum present. Upon motion, which\nwas duly carried, the nominations were made by voice.\n\nEx-State Superintendent L. E, Wolfe presented the name of Superintendent J. M. Greenwood, of\nKansas City, as the next president of the National Educational Association. Dr. Baldwin, of Texas, and\nex-State Superintendent J. R. Preston, of Mississippi, seconded the nomination.\nNo additional names\nbeing submitted, the vote was then taken on the name of Superintendent Greenwood, and he was declared\nduly and constitutionally nominated,\nThe names of President Irwin Shepard, of Winona, Minn., for secretary, and President I, C. McNeill,\nof West Superior, Wis., for treasurer, were by acclamation placed in nomination.\nTwelve vice-presidents, in the following order, were named and unanimously chosen:\n\nL. D. Harvey, Wisconsin.\n\nChas. R. Skinner, ex officto, New York.\nGeo. J. Ramsey, Louisiana,\nJ. L. Holloway, Arkansas.\nE. O. Lyte, Pennsylvania.\nJas. M. Ralston, New Jersey.\nMiss Margaret W. Sutherland, Ohio.\n\nW. W. Stetson, Maine,\n\nHiram Hadley, New Mexico,\nWm. H. H. Beadle, South Dakota.\n\nJohn E. McCahan, Maryland.\nS. T. Black, California.\nDIRECTORS,\nNorth\n\nA. G. Boyden, Bridgewater, Mass.\n\nJas. M. Green, Trenton, N. J.\n\nA.S. Downing, Albany, N. Y.\n\nSouth\n\nNorth\n+\n\nEdward Ayres, Lafayette, Ind,\n\nJ. H. Collins, Springfield, Il.\nHenry R. Pattengill, Lansing, Mich.\nMiss Mae E. Schreiber, Milwaukee, Wis.\nW, M. Beardshear, Ames, la.\n\n|ais\nloll\nSl\n\nCentral Division.\n\nDavid R. Boyd, Norman, Okla.\nGeo. B, Cook, Hot Springs, Ark.\n\nJohn T. Gregory, Mobile, Ala.\nE. E. Bass, Greenville, Miss.\n\nF. B. Dyer, Madisonville, O.\n\nDivision.\n\nWarren Easton, New Orleans, La.\nGeo. T. Winston, Austin, Tex.\n\nE. W. Weaver, Paris, Ky.\n\nWharton S. Jones, Memphis, Tenn.\nSYS W. M. Slaton, Atlanta, Ga.\n14,\n&*-\n\nAtlantic\n\nW. H. Anderson, Wheeling, W. Va.\nChas. D. McIver, Greensboro, N. C.\nW.H. Hand, Chester, S. C.\nOscar Clute, Lake City, Fla.\n\nS. T, Skidmore, Philadelphia, Pa.\nA. H. Berlin, Wilmington, Del.\nH. A. Wise, Baltimore, Md.\nW. B. Powell, Washington, D.C.\nTMG. Glass, Lynchburgh, Va.\n\nSSS\n4\nie’,\nx\n\nDivision.\n\nGilman C, Fisher, Pawtucket, R. I.\nF. E. Howard, Bridgeport, Conn.\n\nSouth\n\n,aeaw.§\n\nAtlantic\n\nJohn S. Locke, Saco, Me.\nJohn Simpson, New Hampshire.\nMason S. Stone, Montpelier, Vt.\n\nCentral Division.\n\nC. M. Jordan, Minneapolis, Minn.\nJohn R. Kirk, Jefferson City, Mo,\nW. L. Stockwell, Grafton, N. D.\nA. H. Avery, Woonsocket, S. D.\nC. G, Pearse, Omaha, Neb.\nJohn MacDonald, Topeka, Kan.\n\n"}
{"page": 36, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n26\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nWestern\n\nther\n\nOn\n\nbusiness appearing,\n\nae\n\nmotion\n\nae\n\nDiviston.\n\nJ. E. Stubbs, Reno, Nev.\nJ. C. Black, Albion, Idaho.\nM. W. Harrington, Seattle, Wash.\nE. B. McElroy, Eugene, Ore.\nChas. H. Keyes, Berkeley, Cal.\n\nJ. E. Klock, Helena, Mont.\nMiss Estelle Reel, Cheyenne, Wyo.\nL. C. Greenlee, Denver, Colo.\nC. M. Light, Silver City, N. M.\nWm. Messenger, Phoenix, Ariz,\nJ. M. Tanner, Logan, Utah.\noe\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nthe committee adjourned.\n\noa\n\nof Dr. James\n\n)\n\n(Signed)\n\nH. Canfield, of Ohio, the\n\nAaron Gove, Chatrman,\nGeo, B. Cook, Secretary.\n\nreport\n\nof the committee\n\nwas\n\nreceived.\nOn motion of Dr. E. E. White, of Ohio, the Secretary was directed to cast the unan-\n\nimous ballot of the association for the election of the officers named in the report of the\nCommittee on Nominations for the ensuing year.\nSecretary Shepard announced that the ballot of the association had been cast in\naccordance with instructions, and the President of the association declared the persons\nnamed in the report of the Committee on Nominations as the duly elected officers of the\nNational Educational Association for the year 1897-98.\n\nPresident Skinner called for the proposed amendment to Section 3 of the constitu-_\ntion read at yesterday morning’s session and laid over under the rule.\nSecretary Shepard read the proposed amendment, and the same was unanimously\nadopted, as follows:\nResolved, That Article III,, Section 3, of the constitution of the National Educational Association be\namended by striking out all of the first sentence of said Section 3, to and including the words “ enrollment\nfee,”’ and that said section be amended to read as follows :\nSection 3. Any person eligible may become an active member upon application indorsed by two active\nmembers, and the payment of the enrollment fee of two dollars ($2) and the annual dues for the current\nyear.\n\nPresident Skinner then recognized Mr. O. J. Laylander, of Iowa, who offered the fol-\n\nlowing resolution and moved its adoption:\nResolved, That the following named persons be and they are hereby appointed a committee to revise\nthe constitution and by-laws of this association, with instructions to prepare a draft of such revision for distribution on the first day of the session of this association in the year 1898.\nUnited States Commissioner of Education, Wm, T. Harris.\nSuperintendent E, H. Mark, Louisville, Ky.\nProfessor J. N. Wilkinson, Emporia, Kan.\nSuperintendent N. C. Schaeffer, Pennsylvania,\nSuperintendent H, R. Pattengill, Michigan,\nSuperintendent J, T, Merrill, Cedar Rapids, Ia.\nSuperintendent J. W. Study, Fort Wayne, Ind.\nSuperintendent R. E. Denfeld, Duluth, Minn,\nMiss Estelle Reel, State Superintendent of Wyoming.\nResolved, That the adoption or rejection of such revised draft as the constitution of this association\nshall be made an order of business on the second day of the session of 1898.\n\nOn motion of Dr. J. M. Green, of New Jersey, the resolution\n\nlaid upon the table.\n\nof Mr. Laylander was\n\nAdjourned to 8 p. M.\n\nFIFTH SESSION.—Tuurspay EVENING, July 8.\nThe session was called to order at 8 p.m. by President Skinner.\n\n‘Rev. Lyman\n\nAbbott, of Brooklyn, N. Y., addressed the association on “ The Democ-\n\nracy of Learning.”\nMusic by the Principals’ Male Quartette of Chicago.\n\n; The association adjourned at 9 Pp. M., to attend a reception tendered\nby the citizens of\nMilwaukee at the Deutscher Club,\n\n"}
{"page": 37, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL\n\nFOURTH\nSIXTH\n\nOF PROCEEDINGS\n\nDAY’S\n\nPG]\n\nPROCEEDINGS.\n\nSESSION.—Fripay\n\nMornino, July 9.\n\nThe session was called to order at 9:15 A. M. by President Skinner.\n\nInvocation by the Rev. Elbridge W. White, of Tabernacle church, Milwaukee.\nMusic by the Principals’ Male Quartette, of Chicago.\n\nClinton Scollard, of Clinton, N. Y., was introduced by President Skinner, and read a\n\npoem on “ The March of the Ideal.”\nFifteen-minute addresses\n\nfollowed.\n\nCarroll G, Pearse, Superintendent of Schools, Omaha, spoke on the subject “‘ Has the\nHeart of this People changed toward the Schools ?”\nOscar T. Corson, State Commissioner of Common Schools, Ohio, was introduced and\naddressed the association on “‘ Extremes in Education.”\n\nMiss Estelle Reel, Superintendent of Public Instruction, state of Wyoming, spoke on\n“What Not to Do.”\nMusic\nwaukee.\n\nby a double quartette under the leadership of Professor D. Protheroe, of Mil-\n\nWilliam B. Powell, Superintendent of Public Schools, Washington, D. C., was introduced by President Skinner and addressed the association on the subject of “The Educational Outlook.”\nJames M. Greenwood, Superintendent of Schools, Kansas City, Mo., and Presidentelect of the National Educational Association, spoke on the subject “Shall American\nHistory be taught in Cross Sections or in Parallels ?”\n\n“Some Tendencies of Modern Education” was the subject of an address by James A.\nFoshay, Superintendent of Schools, Los Angeles, Cal.\nJames L. Hughes, Inspector of Schools, Toronto, Ontario, addressed\non ‘‘ The Education of the Twentieth Century.”\nJames H. Canfield, President of Ohio State University, spoke on\n\nthe association\n\nthe subject “ Win-\n\nners of Men.”\nThe\n\nassociation\n\nthen adjourned,\n\nand the active members\n\nreassembled in business\n\nsession, and the special order of business assigned for the hour was taken up.\nThe Board of Directors, to which was referred the resolution of Superintendent Denfeld, of Minnesota, offered at the morning session of July 6, reported back the resolution\n\nas follows:\nDr. E. E, Wuire, of Ohio:\nThe present plan of appointing a nominating committee worked admirably in the early history of the association, if not at present, and with very few exceptions the officers have\nbeen nominated by the unanimous action of the committee and with general satisfaction. Two years ago, at\nDenver, an effort was made to introduce another method, and two carefully matured plans were submitted,\nfully discussed, and finally discarded as impracticable. The motion to refer the resolutions introduced yesterday to the Board of Directors was not made in opposition to the change, but to secure the adoption of the best\npossible plan under existing conditions, Two features seem essential:\n\nx. The nomination as well as the election of the officers of the association by the active members in\nattendance at a given meeting\n— not by persons who are not present.\n2. On the presiding officer of the association must rest the responsibility of seeing that every state represented in the association is represented in the nominating committee. It will not do to adopt a plan that may\nresult in a nominating committee composed of members from a few states. There must be a head to this\nassociation to execute its constitution and by-laws, to see that there is no miscarriage by failure of the active\nmembers in the different states to take proper action.\nThe plan recommended by the Board of Directors gives the active members of each state in attend-\n\nPSEA\nay\n.\n\n"}
{"page": 38, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n28\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nthe duty of the Presiance the nomination of its member of the nominating committee, but it also makes it\ndent,\n\nwhen\n\nthe\n\nactive\n\nmembers\n\nfrom a state\n\nfail for any\n\nto select a member\n\nreason\n\nof\n\nthe nominating\n\ncommittee, to appoint a member to represent that state. ....\nThe Board of Directors, to which were referred the resolutions offered by Superintendent Denfeld, of\nMinnesota, concerning the manner of electing the nominating committee, having duly considered the resolutions, begs leave to report to the association the following change in the by-laws, proposed by Director\n“he\nWhite, of Ohio:\n\nIt is hereby recommended by the Board of Directors that By-Law x of this association be amended to\nread as follows :\n1. At the first session of each annual meeting of the association there shall be appointed by the President\na committee on resolutions; and at the third session of such meeting there shall be appointed a committee on\nnominations, consisting of one member from each state represented, the same to be appointed by the President\non the nomination of a majority of the active members in attendance from such state; provided, however, that\nsuch appointment shall be made by the President, without such nomination, when less than three active mem-\n\nbers from a state are in attendance, and also when a majority of the active members in attendance from any\nThe meeting of active members to nominate members of the nomone state shall fail to make a nomination.\ninating committee shall be held at 2 p.m. on the second day of the meeting, at such place as shall be\nannounced in the general programme.\n\nAfter discussion by Superintendent D. K. Goss, of Indianapolis, and E. W. Krackowizer, of Milwaukee, the amendment to By-Law No. 1, reported by Dr. White, was put\nupon its passage and adopted.\nS. Y. Gillan, of Milwaukee, offered the following\nGeo. J. Ramsey, of Louisiana, was laid upon the table:\nWhen\n\nresolution, which,\n\non\n\nmotion\n\nof\n\nthe vote is taken by the Committee on Nominations for President, Secretary, or Treasurer, the\n\ncommittee shall report the persons, not exceeding two, having the highest number of votes as the candidates.\nBut if any person shall receive a two-thirds majority of the votes cast by the Committee on Nominations for\nPresident, Secretary, Treasurer, or member of the Board of Directors, then the person receiving such twothirds majority shall be reported as the only candidate for such office.\n\nOn motion, the association adjourned to 8 P. M.\nSEVENTH\n\nSESSION.—Fripay\n\nEVENING,\n\nJULY\n\n9.\n\nThe session of the association was called to order in the Exposition building at Milwaukee, at 8 P. M., by President Skinner.\n\nAnnouncements by the President and Secretary.\nMusic\n\n—“ The Crusaders ”—by the Lyric Glee Club, of Milwaukee, under the leadership of Professor D. Protheroe.\n\nPresident Skinner introduced Dr. Richard G. Boone, Principal of Michigan\nNormal School, who addressed the association on “ Lines of Growth in Maturing.”\n\nState\n\nMusic by the Principals’ Male Quartette, of Chicago.\n‘President Skinner explained the absence of Dr. William R. Harper, President of The\n\nUniversity of Chicago, on the ground of ill health, and introduced President\nWinston, of the University of Texas, who\n“ Higher Education in the South.”\n\naddressed\n\nthe association\n\non\n\nGeorge T.\n\nthe subject of\n\nMusic by the Lyric Glee Club, of Milwaukee.\nDr. Nicholas Murray Butler of New York, Chairman of the Committee\non Resolutions,\n\nsubmitted the report of that committee, as follows:\nREPORT\n\nOF THE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON RESOLUTIONS.\n\nThe National Educational Association, representing teachers\nof every grade and engaged in every form\nof educational effort, again affirms its unswerving allegiance\nto the highest ideals of our public educational\nsystem. We believe in the American public school, From\nkindergarten to university it stands for sound\ntraining, thorough discipline, and good citizenship. While\nincompetent teaching, inadequate supervision,\ninsufficient material support, or sluggish public opinion may\nfor a time limit its usefulness, they cannot wholly\ndestroy its beneficent and uplifting influence,\n\n"}
{"page": 39, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL\n\nOF PROCEEDINGS\n\n29\n\nWe would emphasize in particular at this time the duty of the school to the community that it represents.\nThe work of the school is not ended when its responsibilities to the individual pupils who attend it are discharged.\n\nIt must keep constantly before it the aim,lin co-operation with the home and other social forces, of so\nenriching and directing the public sentiment of the society it serves as to increase respect for law and order, and\ndevotion to high ideals and sound principles, as well as to promote efficiency in both public and private life.\nWe demand that school administration in all departments, including the appointment, promotion, and\nremoval of teachers, and the selection of text-books, shall be wholly free from political influence and dictation\nof every sort. We appeal to educated public opinion and to the press of the country to enforce this demand,\nboth in general and in particular instances.\nWe believe that the public schools are increasing in efficiency as the tenure of teachers is made longer\nand moresecure.\nAn increased tenure of office should!go hand in hand with broader professional preparation and\nhigher standards for admission to the work of teaching. We know that education is more than instruction,\nThose subjects of study and those school exercises that develop the pupil’s power, refine his taste, and call out his\nconstructive capacity, are not “‘fads,’’ but essential elements of school training. Especially do we ask for\ncloser attention to the hygienic and sanitary conditions of school work, and to the instruction and those influences that give insight into the meaning of the esthetic and artistic factor in education, and that develop an\nappreciation of it.\nWe believe it to be the duty, as well as the opportunity, of the American college, even at the sacrifice of\nsome cherished traditions, to open its doors to the largest number of students possible. To this end it must keep\nin close touch with the public high school. All efforts to reach this result, and to bring college and high school\ninto intimate relations of mutual dependence, have our cordial approval and sympathy.\nWe urge more attention to the study of the history and principles of education in colleges and universities,\nnot alone that their graduates may be the better prepared for the work of teaching, but in order that there may\nbe sent out into the community an increasing number of educated citizens, who have some knowledge of educational conditions and precedents, and who will thus be able to contribute a prompt and intelligent support to\nthe work of the public school.\nWe ask the attention of the executive and legislative departments of the government to the valuable work\nof the Bureau of Education and to the pressing need of adequate appropriations for its support.\nThe salary of\nthe commissioner is pitifully small, and is beneath the dignity of the office and of this nation.\nOn behalf of the\nteachers of the country we ask for its increase, and also for the provision of funds to enable educational investigations and experiments to be undertaken and extended.\nThe association has contributed to the current discussion of educational problems three reports of the\nhighest importance, prepared after laborious and long- continued study and investigation: one on secondary education, one on elementary education, and one on the conduct and support of the rural school, We earnestly\ncommend these reports, the work of trained specialists, not only to teachers, but also to legislatures, to members\nof school boards, to the press, and to intelligent citizens generally. They offer a safe guide for future progress.\nTo all officers, associations, and individuals who have contributed to the success of this meeting; to the\npress of Milwaukee and Chicago, which has reported our proceedings with accuracy and unexampled fullness,\nand to the retiring President, Charles R. Skinner, for his vigorous, intelligent, and progressive administration, the thanks of this association are due, and are most cordially tendered.\nNicuoLtas Murray Butter, of New York, Chazrman,\n\n(Signed)\n\nJames H. CanFizE\nLp, of Ohio,\nCuar es H. Keyes, of California,\nDavi K. Goss, of Indiana,\nJ. R, Preston, of Mississippi.\n\nPresident Skinner, in his closing salutation to the association, and in introducing his\nsuccessor, Superintendent Greenwood, of Kansas City, said:\n\nMy Friends: Another meeting of the National Educational Association is about to\nI\npass into history. The recollections of the past week are soon to become memories.\nbelieve I speak your sentiments, as I certainly express my own, when I say we have been\ninspired and encouraged by the experiences of the week, for we have learned afresh of the\nbroad grounds upon which the work of the National Educational Association is based.\nOur\n\nwork\n\nis not for this city, is not for this state, is not alone for this nation, but for the\n\nwhole world, and for the magnificent purpose of uplifting and encouraging humanity.\nplatform of principles which you have just reaffirmed I believe is second only to the\nThe divine law under which we live and labor. The association is broad in its character,\nbroad enough and strong enough to take within its membership all those who are willing\nto struggle for the highest and best interests of education, and is too broad for narrow\njealousies or bitterness.\n\n"}
{"page": 40, "printed_page": null, "text": "30\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nI desire to present my personal acknowledgment to this audience\naudiences of the week for their kindly consideration.\n\nWhile\n\nmemory\n\nand to the great\nlasts I shall look\n\nthose\ninto your faces in my imagination, with the greatest delight. I shall remember only\nthings which have been pleasant, and I trust there have been none other.\nI desire also to present my acknowledgment to my associates, the Executive Committee of this association, my predecessor in office, and especially to that loyal, genial\nNone will ever know, except those who\nhard-worker, the Secretary of this association.\nare permitted to be his associates, how much of his heart and his life he puts into the\nwork of this association. With him is associated another diligent officer, the Treasurer\nAnd by his side is one who takes more than a personal interest in\nof the association.\nthe business in hand, the chairman of the Board of Trustees, who so diligently watches the\n\nMore than all we are gratified with the results of\nfinancial interests of the association.\nmember of the association, and to the whole\nevery\nto\npresents\nwhich\nsystem,\nthe new\nworld, the exact financial\n\ncondition\n\nof the association.\n\nThere is nothing to be hidden,\n\nand we take pride in showing to you exactly what you are doing.\n\nI know I speak for the association, I know I speak for the strangers who are in this\nbeautiful city, when I express again the thanks of all for the royal welcome which we\nhave received here. Nothing has been left undone.\nWe have received the keys of\nthe city, and our friends insist that we shall keep them.\nThe great work which has\nbeen done by the local committee and by the people,men and women, one and all, is\nsomething that we have never met before.\nEspecially would I refer to the chairman of\nthe local executive committee, President Harvey, and his indefatigable associate, William\nGeorge Bruce, the local secretary. I know that their arms have been uplifted by\nthe progressive citizens and teachers of the city, and I feel sure, my friends, that wherever\nthis association may go hereafter we shall never forget Milwaukee.\nI desire also to present the acknowledgments of the association to the Chicago\nPrincipals’ Quartette Club for the music which it has given us; and to compliment the\nlocal organizations for their share of success in carrying out the musical programme.\nAs it could not well be expressed in the resolutions, the officers of the association\ndesire also especially to express their thanks to the Densmore Typewriter Company for\nefficient services rendered the officers and members of the association during this meeting.\nAnd now, President Greenwood, upon you\n\nhas fallen the unanimous\n\nchoice\n\nof this\n\ngreat association as its presiding officer for the next year. I cannot assure you that your path\nwill be strewn with American Beauty roses.\n\nThere\n\nwill be anxieties, and there will be\n\npleasures, and there will be honor. The honor which has come to you has been worthily\nearned and will be worthily worn,\nIt is a fitting recognition of your long life work in\neducation and your faithful services to this association.\nOur struggle as educators is\nagainst ignorance, intemperance, and vice. Our struggle is for virtue, morality, and good\ncitizenship. We salute you as our commander, and as loyal soldiers we will follow\nwhere you lead.\nSuperintendent James\n\nM. Greenwood, President-elect of the association, responded\n\nto the introduction of President Skinner, as follows:\n\nMr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen : Had I known a week ago when I was at my\nhome that I would have been elected as President of the National Educational Association,\nI would not have come to Milwaukee.\nAll I can Say now is that I want your assistance.\nWhen I think of the culture, intelligence, and quiet enthusiasm of the people\nalong the\nAtlantic shore, and the energy and determination of those in the northern\nand middle\nstates of our country; then again of those on the Pacific slope, and states\nof the far West;\nand finally when my mind wanders over the southern states, and I know\nthat they are all\nputting their very best blood into the school system of the South\n—I feel that if I, by any\n\n"}
{"page": 41, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL\n\nOF PROCEEDINGS\n\n31\n\nmeans, can be instrumental in furthering the cause of education in this land-of ours, aided\nby your help and by your influence, I count it a privilege so to do, and an honor to have\nbeen elected as the presiding officer of this body for the coming year.\nIt is not a time\nfor speech making. The session has drawn to a close, but I wish to thank those present\nand those absent for the interest they have taken in making the present annual gathering\na great success. I trust, with your help, and the sympathy of the four hundred thousand\nof people of this country, and the others not actively engaged in the cause of education, but\nwhose sympathy we have, that the next meeting will be as prosperous as the present. It\nall means\n\nwork, watchfulness, care, and planning\n\nfor the future;\n\nbut I believe\n\nthat the\n\nAmerican people, those who give their lives to the cause of our country and the welfare\nof humankind, can be relied upon to perform their duties faithfully, intelligently, and\nwisely during the coming year.\n:\n.What is the further pleasure of this association ?\n\nAnnouncements by Secretary Shepard.\nPRESIDENT GREENWOOD:\nSine ate.\n\nCHARLES\n\nI now\n\nR. SKINNER,\nPresident.\n\ndeclare this meeting of the association\n\nIRWIN\n\nadjourned\n\nSHEPARD,\nSecretary.\n\n"}
{"page": 42, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF\n\nOF\nTHE PROCEEDINGS\nBOARD OF DIRECTORS.\n\nTHE\n\n1897\n\nThe Board of Directors of the National Educational Association met in GoldThe board was called\nsmith hall, Milwaukee, Wis., at 2:30 P. M., Tuesday, July 6, 1897.\nin the temporary\nIll.,\nPeoria,\nof\nDougherty,\nC.\nNewton\nVice-President\nFirst\nby\nto order\n\nabsence of President Skinner.\ndirectors responded :\n\nOn the call of the roll by the Secretary the following\n\nNewton C. Dougherty, Peoria, Ill.; I. C. McNeill, West Superior, Wis.; Nicholas Murray Butler,\nNew Vork, N. Y.; James H. Canfield, Columbus, O.; J. M. Greenwood, Kansas City, Mo.; Aaron\nGove, Denver, Colo.; F. Louis Soldan, St. Louis, Mo.; Albert G, Lane, Chicago, Ill.; W. F. Phelps, St,\nPaul, Minn.; Chas. G. White, Lake Linden, Mich.; John S. Locke, Saco, Me.; C. C. Rounds, Plymouth,\nN.H.; James M. Ralston, Asbury Park, N. J.; McHenry Rhoads, Frankfort, Ky.; A. A. Kincannon,\nJackson, Miss.; J. H. Hinemon, Pine Bluff, Ark.; J. J. Burns, Canton, O.; Mary E. Nicholson, Indianapolis, Ind.; S. E. Whitney, Detroit, Mich.; L. D. Harvey, Milwaukee, Wis.; F. B. Cooper, Des Mommes,\nIa.; C. M. Jordan, Minneapolis, Minn.; George M. Smith, Vermillion, S. D.: John MacDonald, Topeka,”\nKan.; J. H. Van Sickle, Denver, Colo.; W. R. Malone, Salt Lake City, Utah; J, A. Foshay, Los Angeles,\nCal.; Irwin Shepard, Winona, Minn,; Charles R, Skinner, Albany, N. Y.\n\nOn motion of Director Smith, the reading of the minutes of the last meeting was\ndispensed with, and the minutes as printed in the official volume of proceedings of the\n\n1896 meeting were approved.\n\nTreasurer I. C. McNeill submitted his annual report.\n\nThe Treasurer explained that there is an item of $1,170, over which there is no dispute, which is yet to be received as part of the proceeds of the meeting for 1896.\nPresident Skinner at this point took the chair.\nDirector Gove:\nHas the Treasurer any recommendations to make?\n\nTREASURER MCNEILL: I prefer not to carry on the report the amount of the loss\nby the failure of the Union National Bank of Denver.\nThis bank failed just after the\nDenver meeting, holding at the time about $660 of association\n\nfunds.\n\nThe\n\nreceiver has\n\npaid one dividend of $134.73.\n\nDIRECTOR CANFIELD:\nIs there nothing more to be received?\nTREASURER MCNEILL:\nThe receiver says it will be along time before a further\ndividend is paid, on account of the dullness of real estate held by him.\nDirEcTOR BuTLER:\nI think this should be carried as it is now.\nThe Treasurer.\ncan charge himself with any payments that may be made in reduction of the sum now\ndue from the bank, and finally, when the bank goes into liquidation, if there is a balance\n\nstill owing the association, let it then be so charged off, but carry it as a possible sourc\nof income up to that time.\nee\nPRESIDENT SKINNER:\nUnless there is objection, the Treasurer will understand\nthat he is instructed to carry the account as suggested by Director Butler.\n\nDiREcTOR\n\nCANFIELD:\n\nHave\n\nthe accounts of the Treasurer been audited by the\n\nboard?\n_DIRECTOR LANE, Chairman of the Board of Trustees:\nThe trustees have examined\nthe Treasurer’s accounts and all the vouchers in connection therewith, and find the\nreport\nof the Treasurer, as presented, correct.\n\nOn motion of Director Dougherty, the report of the Treasurer, as read\nand printed,\n\nwas received, approved, and placed on file.\nErceadent Skinner called for the report of the Board of Trustees,\nwhich was submitted\nby the chairman of the board, Albert G. Lane, of Chicago.\n\n32\n\n"}
{"page": 43, "printed_page": null, "text": "©kg\neeats\n\nPROCEEDINGS\n\nOF THE\n\n1897 BOARD\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\n33\n\nDIRECTOR DoUGHERTY: I desire to ask Mr. Lane, What is the principle governing\nthe Board of Trustees in the purchase of securities for investment?\nMr. LANE:\nIt is to secure bonds that are considered absolutely safe, even if we have\nto take a lower rate of interest.\nWe purchased some two thousand Kansas City school\nbonds, which are regarded the best in the market, on the 4-per-cent. basis, last year.\nThese\nLemont, Ill., school bonds are in Cook county, and we\n\nare familiar with the facts regard-\n\ning them.\nThey are 5-per-cent. bonds, and we got them at par.\nDirREcToR DouGHERTY:\nDo you consider any bond now a safe investment except\n;\nsuch as may be used by a trust company as securities?\nMr. LANE:\nNo, Sir. All investments should be in securities of a character that\nwould be received by any reliable trust company.\nDIRECTOR PHELPS:\nHave these bonds been purchased at par in all cases?\n\nMr. LANE:\n\nNo, Sir.\n\nYou will find a year ago we\n\nhad to pay a premium on the\n\nNoblesville, Ind., and the De Kalb bonds.\n\nDrREcCTOR PHELPS:\nAre any of the bonds mentioned in the report likely to be noncollectable?\nMr. LANE:\nSome are considered doubtful, and cannot be collected except by process of law. In the Seward county, Kan., case we have carried it through the first court\nsuccessfully, and I believe there is an appeal.\nDIRECTOR GOVE:\nI move that the report of the Board of Trustees be received,\napproved, placed on file, and printed as part of the proceedings of this meeting of the\nNational Educational Association.\nSeconded and carried.\nDirector Gove offered the following proposed amendment to the constitution for\nreference to the general session of the association, which was adopted:\nResolved, That the Board of Directors hereby recommend to the association that Article III., Sec. 3, of\nthe constitution of the National Educational Association be amended by striking out all of the first sentence\nof said Sec, 3, to and including the words ‘‘enrollment fee ;’’ and that said section be amended to read as\nfollows:\nSec. 3. Any person eligible may become an active member upon application indorsed by two active\nmembers, and the payment of the enrollment fee of two dollars ($2) and the annual dues for the current\nyear.\n\nTREASURER MCNEILL:\nThe registration of active members is now proceeding\nupon the lines indicated by the constitution.\nIf this amendment should prevail, the\nTreasurer desires instructions so that he can take up the matter at this meeting.\nIf the\nchange is to take effect next year, the Treasurer will not be required to alter his plan of\nregistration at this meeting.\nThe Treasurer was instructed to continue the registration at this meeting, as now\nbeing carried on by him.\nDirector MacDonald presented a communication signed by Hiram Hadley, of New\nMexico, concerning an earlier meeting of this association, which communication was read\nby the Secretary and referred to the new Board of Directors for its consideration.\nWhereupon the Board of Directors adjourned.\nCHARLES\n\nR. SKINNER,\nPresident.\n\nIRWIN\n\nSHEPARD,\nSecretary.\n\n"}
{"page": 44, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE\nBOARD OF DIRECTORS\n\nNEW\n\nThe new Board of Directors of the National Educational Association met in\nGoldsmith hall, Milwaukee, Wis., at 4: 30 P.M., Thursday, July 8, 1897. The board was\nOn the\ncalled to order by President-elect James M. Greenwood, of Kansas City, Mo.\n\ncall of the roll by the Secretary the following directors responded :\nJames M. Greenwood, Kansas City, Mo.; Charles R. Skinner, Albany, N. Y.; Newton C. Dougherty\nPeoria, Ill.; A. R. Taylor, Emporia, Kan,; Chas. G. White, Lake Linden, Mich.; E. E. White, Columbus\nO.; A. G. Boyden, Bridgewater, Mass,; Gilman C. Fisher, Pawtucket, R. I.; A. S. Downing, Albany\nN. Y.; James M, Green, Trenton, N. J.; S. T. Skidmore, Philadelphia, Pa.; H. A. Wise, Baltimore, Md. ;\nE. W. Weaver, Paris, Ky.; W. M. Slaton, Atlanta, Ga.; John T. Gregory, Mobile, Ala.; E. E. Bass,\nGreenville, Miss.; Warren Easton, New Orleans, La.; George T. Winston, Austin, Tex.; David R. Boyd,\nNorman, Okla. ;Geo. B. Cook, Hot Springs, Ark. ;F. B. Dyer, Madisonville, O.; Edward Ayres, La Fayette,\nInd. ;Henry R. Pattengill, Lansing, Mich. ; Miss M. W. Schreiber, Milwaukee, Wis. ; W.M. Beardshear,\nAmes,\nIa.; I, C. McNeill, West Superior, Wis.; Albert G, Lane, Chicago, IJl.; Nichoias Murray Butler, New”\nYork, N. Y.; James H, Canfield, Columbus, O.; Aaron Gove, Denver, Colo,; John R. Kirk, Jefferson City,\nMo.; W. L, Stockwell, Grafton, N. D.; A. H. Avery, Woonsocket, S. D.; John MacDonald, Topeka, Kan. ;\nJ. E. Klock, Helena, Mont. ;Miss Estelle Reel, Cheyenne, Wyo. ; L. C. Greenlee, Denver, Colo, ; C. M. Light,\nSilver City, N. M.; J. M. Tanner, ——, Utah; E, B. McElroy, Eugene, Ore.; Chas, H. Keyes, Berkeley\nCal,; Irwin Shepard, Winona, Minn.\n\nThe minutes of the last meeting of the board were read by the Secretary, and\napproved.\nOn motion, the President was authorized to appoint a committee of three directors, to\nnominate five members of the National Council and to fill one vacancy on the Board of\nTrustees.\n\nPresident Greenwood appointed as such committee:\nnois; A. S. Downing, of New York;\n-\n\nNewton C. Dougherty, of Ili-\n\nJohn MacDonald, of Kansas.\n\nDr. R. G. Boone, of Michigan, as chairman, submitted a report from\n\nthe Committee\n\non Investigation of the Problem of Normal Schools, and offered the following resolution :\nWueErzas, An investigation into the work and conditions of normal schools and normal-school organizations has been begun by the Normal Department of the general association;\nResolved, That the Normal Department ask the National Educational Association to make an appropriation of $500 to meet the expenses of the committee now making the investigation of the normal-school problem inall its phases, and submit a report upon the same to this department at the next annual meeting,\n\nSuperintendent A. F. Nightingale, of Chicago, Chairman\n\nof the Committee on Col-\n\nlege Entrance Requirements, offered the following :\nAt the joint conference of the Secondary Department and the Department of Higher\nEducation, held in Plymouth church, Wednesday afternoon, July 7, the following resolu-\n\ntion was unanimously adopted :\nResolved, That the members of the Secondary Department and the Department of\nHigher Education, in\n\njoint conference assembled, do hereby reiterate their earnest appeal to the National Educational\nAssociation\nfor an appropriation\n\nto enable the Committee on College Entrance\nwork they have so well begun.\n\nRequirements\n\nto complete the important\n\nIn accordance with the resolution I am authorized and instructed by the\ncommittee\nto present this matter for your consideration, and to request an\nappropriation consistent\nwith the financial condition of the association.\nThe least amount which would be really\nhelpful in this cause, for the ensuing year, would be from\n$300 to $500. With $350 we\ncould hold a meeting,\n34\n\n"}
{"page": 45, "printed_page": null, "text": "PROCEEDINGS\n\nDIRECTOR GREEN: The\nthereof as may be necessary.\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nNEW\n\nBOARD\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\n35\n\nDepartment of Superintendence asks for $200, or so much\n\nSecretary Shepard read the following petition :\nTo THE\n\nBoarp oF DrrEcTors OF THE NaTIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.\nGentlemen:\nWe, the Executive Committee of the Natural Science Department, respectfully request the\nappropriation of $200 for defraying the necessary expenses of the combined work of the Committee of Five on\n\nthe Preparatory Natural Science Curriculum,\n\nVery truly,\nCuas. S. PALMER, President,\nIrwEN\n\nLevistTon, Secretary.\n5\n\nDIRECTOR TAYLOR : I move the application from the Normal Department be allowed\nSeconded.\nTrustee Lane called attention to the object for which the permanent fund was established, and explained that the purpose might be defeated if too much money was appropriated to lines of investigation, however worthy.\n\nDrirEcTOR TAYLor : In view of what has been said I will withdraw my motion, and\nmove that the request of these three departments be referred to the Executive Committee\nand the Board of Trustees, with instruction\n\nnecessary\n\nand\n\nthe\n\nfinancial\n\ncondition\n\nreferred to are normal schools, $500;\n\nAn\n\namendment\n\nby Director\n\nto allow whatever sum, in their judgment, is\n\nof the association\n\nwill permit.\n\nsecondary education, $500;\n\nWinston, of Texas,\n\nThe\n\npetitions\n\nsuperintendence, $200.\n\nto appropriate\n\n$500 to Normal\n\nDepartment, and $500 to Department of Secondary Education, was lost.\n\nThe motion of Director Taylor to refer all petitions for appropriations to the Executive Committee and Board of Trustees prevailed.\nDirEcTOR Harris: I move that the Secretary be authorized to print 10,000 copies\nof the report of the Committee of Twelve, and put it on the market at cost. Seconded\nand carried.\nDrrReEcToR\n\nHINSDALE:\n\nI heard astate superintendent say he would have this report\n\nprinted and circulated without cost to us, if we would permit the use of the plates.\n\nThis suggestion of Director Hinsdale, on motion of Director Gove, was referred to\nthe Executive Committee, with power to act.\n:\nDirector N. C. Dougherty, Chairman of the Committee on Nominations to fill vacan-\n\ncies, reported as follows :\n\nf\n\nWaser”\n\noANS\ny\n\nSy\n\nee\nss\n~~\n-\n\nb\na4ey\nbi\n\nYour committee reports the following vacancies in the membership of the National Council, caused\nby the expiration of the terms of membership of the following :\nW. T. Harris, Washington, D. C.; C. B. Gilbert, Newark, N. J.; John E. Bradley, Jacksonville, Il,;\nEarl Barnes, Stanford University, Cal.; J. G. Schurman, Ithaca, N. Y.\nWe nominate the following:\nW.T. Harris, Washington, D. C., to succeed himself, Term to expire in 1903.\nC, B. Gilbert, Newark, N. J., to succeed himself.\nTerm to expire in 1903.\n\nWilliam R. Harper, Chicago, Ill., to succeed Mr, Bradley.\n\nTerm to expire in 1903,\n\nEarl Barnes, Stanford University, Cal., to succeed;himself.\n\nTerm to expire in 1903.\n\nCharles R, Skinner, Albany, N. Y., to succeed Mr. Schurman.\n\nTerm to expire in 1903.\n\nTo succeed Horace S. Tarbell, on the Board of Trustees: On account of geographical conditions we\nrecommend aselection from the following named directors: F. Louis Soldan, St. Louis, Mo.; Horace S. Tarbell, Providence, R, I.\n\nThe recommendation of the committee as to members of the Council was unanimously\nconcurred in, and the names submitted were declared duly elected as members of the\nCouncil for the ensuing year.\nA ballot was ordered for the election of a member of the Board of Trustees.\n\nDirectors Gove and Kirk were appointed as tellers.\n\n"}
{"page": 46, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n36\nForty-nine\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nvotes were cast, of which\n\nMr.\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nSoldan received\n\n41, and\n\nMr.\n\nTarbell, 8.\n\nBoard of\nWhereupon F. Louis “Soldan was declared duly elected as a member of the\nTrustees.\nof\nSecretary Shepard presented the following resolution of Superintendent Denfeld,\n:\nfollows\nas\nassociation,\nthe\nof\nsession\nmorning’s\nthis\nat\nboard\nMinnesota, referred to the\nfor an expression\nWuereas, The President of this association issueda circular to the members asking\ntherefore, in order to\nof opinion as to the manner of choosing the members of the Committee on Nominations;\n=\ngive opportunity for an expression of opinion on the subject, be it\nResolved, That the members of the Committee on Nominations shall hereafter be chosen by the active\nand\nmembers from the several states, and that each state shall be entitled to one member of said committee;\nbe it further\n\nResolved, That at the time of choosing the members of the said Committee on Nominations the active\nmembers from each state shall elect one director of this association.\n\nDirector White, of Ohio, moved to report the resolution\n\nof Superintendent Denfeld\n\nback to the association, as follows :\nIt is hereby recommended by the Board of Directors that By-Law 1 of this association be amended to read\nas follows:\nx. At the first session of each annual meeting of the association there shall be appointed by the President\na committee on resolutions; and at the third session of such meeting there shall be appointed a committee on\nnominations, consisting of one member from each state represented, the same to be appointed by the President\non the nomination of a majority of the active members in attendance from such state, provided, however, that\nsuch appointment shall be made by the President, without such nomination, when less than three active members\nfrom a state are in attendance, and also when\n\na majority of the active members\n\nin attendance\n\nfrom any one\n\nstate shall fail to make a nomination.\nThe meeting of active members to nominate members of the nominating committee shall be held at two\nPp. M. on the second day of the meeting, at such place as shall be announced in the general programme. j\n\nDirector Taylor submitted\nDr. White :\n\nthe following\n\nas a substitute for the proposed report of\n\nThe member of the nominating committee from the respective states and territories shall be named by\nthe active members of the association at meetings at the various state and territorial headquarters at 2:30 P. M.\nof the second day of the meeting of the general association,\nThe retiring director, or, in his absence, the state manager, or, in his absence, someone named by a\nmajority vote of the {members present, shall preside at said meeting, The vote shall be by ballot, only active\n» members being allowed to vote, The possession of the active-membership badge shall be regarded as satisfactory evidence of eligibility to vote.\nThe result of the ballot shall be certified in writing to the Secretary of the general association by the presiding officer above mentioned, and in case no member of the committee is named from any state or territory,\nthe nominating committee shall have power to fill the vacancy from the active members present from said\n\nstate.\n\nOn a vote the substitute of Director Taylor was lost, and the report of Director White\nwas unanimously adopted.\n\nMr. J. C. Gordon submitted the following\ndepartment, as follows:\n\npetition for the establishment of a new\nMiLwavkeE, Wis., July 8, 1897.\n\nTo THE Honoraste\n\nBoarp or Direcrors\n\nor THE NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION,\n\nGentlemen: In transmitting the petition herewith enclosed for the organization of a department\nas\nea stated, itmay be proper to say that the primary object is to correct an irregularity on the part\nof the\noard\n\nmeeting in Buffalo.\n\nIncidentally it is our desire to amend the name of the new department.\n\nThe name\n\nauthorized by the last board is offensive to many sensitive persons, and is too indefinite to\nbe descriptive.\n\nThe\n\nname now proposed obviates all objections upon that score. Practically it isnow proposed\nto have a department\nin the interests of the education of deaf children, blind children, and feeble-minded children,\nall of which classes\nrequire trained specialists for their instruction.\nOne advantage of the proposed organization will be to\n\nemphasize the importance of special training as a sine gua non toemployment\nas an instructor. It will have\nS endency to prevent the forcing\n:\n:\nof incompetent persons upon these schools by reason of political interference\n\nor personal favoritism on the part of boards of trustees.\n\n:\n\n:\n\n:\n\n;\nt\n\n:\n\n:\n\n"}
{"page": 47, "printed_page": null, "text": "PROCEEDINGS\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nNEW\n\nBOARD\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\n37\n\nAt the present time probably the instructors of the deaf come nearer forming a Specialized class of\ninstructors of high special attainments than any other class of teachers.\nThe tendency is to employ none but teachers who have been specially trained for this work, The tenure\nof such teachers is very much longer than in the ordinary public schools, and one result of this is the formation\nof a body of remarkably intelligent instructors.\nThey have long maintained organizations for their own benefit, such as that of the American Association\nto Promote the Teaching of Speech to the Deaf, the Convention of American Instructors of the Deaf, the\nNational Association to Promote the Auricular Teaching of the Deaf, the Society to {Promote Child Study\namong Deaf Children, the Association of Kindergarteners of the Deaf, the Conference of Superintendents of\nSchools for the Deaf. These various organizations, or the membership thereof,\"have long maintained an educational journal, the American Annals, which is circulated throughout the world, and is a storehouse of information upon the specific topics relating to the instruction of the deaf, and is also recognized as one of the most\ncreditable educational publications in existence. The educators of the blind are not so well organized, though\nthey do have their conventions,\nThe educators of the feeble-minded are, it is understood, practically without\norganization. The proposed department will not interfere in any way with existing organizations, but will\ntend to unify them, to harmonize their interests, and to bring their membership into closer touch with the\nleaders of educational thought and action in the National Educational Association,\nIf the petition is granted, the work of the department at present will be chiefly in the hands of the educators of the deaf, but it will be their policy to encourage the educators of the blind7and of the feeble-minded\nto participate upon equal terms with themselves in the advantages of a national organization, and, when necessary, such division of time will be made as may prove satisfactory in the arrangement of programmes to all the\nparties in interest.\n\nIn conclusion, I wish to call the attention of the board to the highly successful meeting of educators of the\ndeaf which has been held as a round-table, instead of a department, by authority of the national association.\nThe programme was valuable and interesting, the participants were representative men and women from different sections of the country, the discussions were upon a high plane, and the attendance was gratifying, the\nlarge room being filled from first to last.\nBelieving, as I do, that the proposed department will be mutually advantageous to the association and to\nthe educators, I am personally anxious to bring into closer touch with the larger educational movements of the\nday, I hope and pray that the petition herewith enclosed may be granted.\nJ.C. Gorpon,\nChatrman Round-table, N. E. A.; Prof. Math., etc.,\nNational College for the Deaf, Washington, D. C.;\netc,\n\nTo THE HoNnoRABLE\n\nBoArpD OF Directors,\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nMILwavKEE, WiIs., July 8, 1897\nASSOCIATION,\n\nWuueEREAS, A petition signed by educators of the deaf and of the blind and other members of the association was presented to the Board of Directors at the Buffalo meeting, asking for the organization of a depaxtment for the benefit of the classes herein named, and this petition was granted on the gth of July, 1896; and\nWuereEas, This action was afterwards found to be irregular, therefore we, the undersigned, active members of the National Educational Association, do renew the request in proper form, and do hereby petition the »\nboard to authorize the organization of a department for those insterested in the instruction and training of the\ndeaf, and blind, and pupils whose education is handicapped by abnormal physical or mental conditions; and\nwe do further request that this organization be named the ‘‘ Department for the Education of Classes requiring\nSpecial Methods of Instruction,”’ said department being in effect the sixteenth department of the association.\nALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL,\nDirector of American Association to Promote the\nTeaching of Speech to the Deaf;\nAND Forty-ONE OTHERS,\n\nOn\n\nZ\n\nmotion\n\n-“Department\n\nof Director Butler, the name\n\nfor the Education\n\nof the department\n\nwas ordered to read\n\nof the Deaf, Blind, and Feeble-Minded,” and as thus\n\namended the petition was allowed.\n\nDirector Butler moved the adoption of the following resolutions :\nResolved, That an appropriation. of $750 be and the same is hereby authorized to be paid to the Treasurer of the National Educational Association in equal semi-annual |payments, for the purpose of securing\nclerical assistance for the Treasurer, in the discharge of the duties of his office, and for such other miscellaneous expenses as are necessarily connected therewith,\nResolved, That for the year 1897-98 an appropriation of fifteen hundred dollars($1,500) be and is hereby\nas commade to the Secretary of the National Educational Association, to be paid in three equal installments,\npensation for the performance of the duties of his office, which duties shall include the editing of the volume\nof proceedings.\n\n"}
{"page": 48, "printed_page": null, "text": "38\n\nNATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nThe resolutions were duly seconded, and unanimously adopted.\nThe board received invitations to hold the next annual meeting of the association in\nWashington, D. C., Omaha, Neb., Los Angeles, Cal., and Salt Lake City, Utah.\n\nAn informal ballot was taken, with the following result :\nrstchoice\n\n2d choice\n\n3d choice\n\nTotal\n\n8\n7\n\nIo\n6\n\nIo\n8\n\nage eee\n\n9\n\n10\n\n=\n\nce niaete see alnieelcieleta)ele siatv/aygtaate nen\n\n§ZO\n\n5\n\n7\n\n28\n2\n24\n22\n\nWashington. Way Gere mai retelat olarstalave meetein eter\nIos: Amgelless Call erecta sis aie«siete enemies\nSaltulvalce City mW taki ereteeeseie\naelettarstetet\n\nOnnvalia;: Neb seer\n\nOn motion, all petitions and the entire subject of selection of place for holding the\nnext meeting were referred to the Executive Committee, with power to act.\nThe board adjourned szxe de.\n\nJames M. GREENWOOD,\nPresident.\n\nIRWIN SHEPARD,\nSecretary.\n\n"}
{"page": 49, "printed_page": null, "text": "GENERAL SESSIONS OF THE ASSOCIATION.\nADDRESSES\nHIS\n\nEXCELLENCY,\n\nEDWARD\n\nOF\n\nWELCOME.\n\nSCHOFIELD,\n\nGOVERNOR\n\nOF\n\nWISCONSIN.\n\nLadies and Gentlemen of the National Educational Association :\n\nI bid you a hearty welcome in the name of the state of Wisconsin.\nWe are proud to have in our midst this large body of representative people from almost every state in the Union. If we may not flatter ourselves\nthat you are coming here for the second time, in so comparatively short\na period, because of our superior educational atmosphere, we can at least\nfeel sure that you were made welcome on your first visit.\nIf I should attempt to enumerate all the good things we have in Wisconsin that are calculated to please people of culture, it would take me\na long time\n— but all these you will discover for yourselves.\nAgain I bid you a hearty welcome.\n\nJ. Q. EMERY,\n\nSTATE\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nPUBLIC\n\nINSTRUCTION,\n\nWISCONSIN.\n\nMembers of the National Educational Association:\n\nI extend to you the hearty welcome of the teachers and school officers\nof Wisconsin, with sincere cordiality and hospitality, and with open hearts\nand homes.\nWe are glad that you have come to Wisconsin on this occasion of your thirty-sixth anniversary.\nWe are highly honored in having\nthis distinguished national body of educators with us.\nThe\n\nsession\n\nof\n\nthis\n\nassociation\n\nheld\n\nat\n\nMadison,\n\nWis.,\n\nthirteen\n\nyears ago, inaugurated the era of vast numbers in membership. and\nattendance, and a corresponding increase in the power and influence of\nthe association.\nOn that occasion, replying to the welcome by Governor Rusk and\nothers, President Bicknell made this statement and prophecy:\n“ You,\ntherefore, your Excellency and ladies and gentlemen, have the credit and\nthe honor, and the glory it may be, of having set in motion, through your\nlarge-hearted invitations and the splendid opportunities afforded us here,\nforces and influences which stir the heart of this nation from center to\ncircumference, and shall send forward a great national movement from\nthis meeting, which shall build up an educational sentiment truer and\ndeeper and more lively than has ever before been felt on this continent.”\n39\n\n"}
{"page": 50, "printed_page": null, "text": "40\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n* [General\n\nThose words of prophecy have had liberal fulfillment; and so the\nteachers and school officers of Wisconsin take just pride in feeling that\nthey have made some contribution to the mighty forces and vast influences for good which this association now exerts upon the great cause of\nuniversal education, and so upon our national life.\nUpon the occasion to which I have referred one of the speakers in\nhis address of welcome told how the entire state of Wisconsin was that\nday stirred by a great and an unusual joy, that the young men and women\nwho represented the then coming generation of Wisconsin educators were\nto have poured out upon them your spirit. The speaker did not ask for\na mere sprinkling of diluted platitudes ;but he asked that those young\nmen and women might be led into the great deeps of your powers and\nexperiences ; that you should leave such an impress upon that generation\nthat it should take up the educational work and excel— far excel\n— its\npredecessor.\nI believe that what that speaker then so earnestly and so eloquently\nsought from that great and historic meeting has been splendidly realized.\nThat generation of Wisconsin educators was baptized into a wonderworking spirit, and it rose into a new educational life.\nFor evidence of this I point to the remarkable growth of our magnificent state university, its large and able faculty, its prodigious growth in\nmaterial equipment, and in its more than 1,600 students, increased from\nless than 400 in 1884.\n\nI point to the phenomenal\ngrown from four state\n\nexpansion\n\nnormal schools\n\nin\n\nof our ‘normal-school system,\n1884, enrolling 1,235 students\n\nand graduating less than too from the different courses, to seven large\nschools in 1897, enrolling a little less than 4,000 students and graduating\n450 from the different courses.\nThe forty-four persons comprising the\nfaculties in 1884 have been increased in number to 144 in 1897.\n\nI point to the marvelous development of our free high-school system.\n\nThe 115 high schools of 1884 have been nearly doubled.\nThe number\nof teachers employed has more than doubled.\nThe enrollment of less\nthan 8,000 high-school pupils in 1884 has been increased to 17,000 in\n1896 ; the graduates from less than 500, to 1,500, 50 per cent. of whom\nenter normal schools, colleges, or the university.\nThe advance in stand-\n\nard of qualifications for teachers, and the improvements in the housing\nand other material equipments, have more than equaled the numerical\nincrease, and the establishment of manual-training departments has been\n\ninaugurated.\nI point to what is the greatest cause of gratification, the splendid\nprogress made in our common schools in material appliances, and in educational qualifications and professional training of teachers. The Wisconsin\nschool library idea has been originated and so effectively developed that\n\n"}
{"page": 51, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nADDRESSES\n\nOF\n\nWELCOME\n\n4I\n\nnow even the humblest district school in the state is guaranteed annually\na collection of choice inspirational books.\nThe efficiency of our system of county superintendency has been greatly\nincreased through the force of public opinion, that has secured a law fixing an educational qualification as acondition for holding that office, and\nour system of teachers’ institutes has more than doubled in extent.\nThe growth of institutions in efficiency and in capacity for caring for\nthe defective classes —the blind, the deaf, the feeble-minded\n—has been\n\nfully equal to that of other branches of our educational organism. Indeed,\nthe establishment of our day schools for the deaf is a direct outgrowth of\nthe discussion on that subject at the great meeting of this association in\nMadison\n\nin 1884.\n\nBut great as has been the educational advancement in Wisconsin\nin these thirteen years, still greater progress is needed.\nThe motto\nof Wisconsin is “‘ Forward.”\nThe generation of teachers of thirteen\nyears ago has been succeeded by another.\nWe were not wholly unselfish\nin urging you to hold this session in Wisconsin.\nWhat was done by this\nassociation for the generation of teachers of 1884 we want to have done\nnow with still greater force for the teachers of 1897.\nIt is our earnest\nhope and wish that through the voice of the distinguished speakers who\nare to occupy this platform the command shall be given, and in tones of\nsuch clearness, force, and persuasiveness as to be heard and obeyed not\nonly by the teachers of Wisconsin, but by the teachers in every state and\nterritory throughout this vast republic.\nTeachers of twenty millions\nof pupils— Forward!\n\nHON.\n\nMr.\n\nChairman,\n\nW.\n\nG. RAUSCHENBERGER,\n\nLadies and\n\nGentlemen,\n\nMAYOR\n\nOF\n\nMembers\n\nMILWAUKEE.\n\nof the National Educa-\n\ntional Association:\nOne\n\nof the functions\n\nthe city and act\n\nof the office of mayor seems to be to speak for\n\nas a verbal\n\nhost, to express,\n\nas occasion\n\nshall require,\n\nthe usual welcome of her citizens to visiting conventions and societies.\nMilwaukee is proud to be selected as the place of yourmeeting.\nShe\nrejoices in the opportunity of showing her faith in popular education by\nShe has set her house in order and\nhonoring its agents and ministers.\nexpected your coming as the bride waits for the groom; and she\nextends the hands and opens the hearts of her citizens to you—full of\nsincere and joyful welcome.\nMilwaukee is sometimes described (I believe in some school textbooks) as the beer city. The fact so stated is short of the whole truth\nMil——as our peaceful, temperate, law-abiding citizens well know.\nwaukee manufactures\n\nbeer, it is true, because\n\nother cities\n\ndrink\n\nit, and\n\n"}
{"page": 52, "printed_page": null, "text": "42.\n\nNATIONAL\n\né\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n[General\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nwe add a blessing to the sin, if sin it be, by providing for their insatiable\ndemands the best article the world affords.\nThis is also known as a “German city.” In certain respects, and\ncomparatively speaking, a larger proportion of our population know\nexactly the nationality of their parents than do the good people of\nDetroit, Buffalo, Chicago, or the twin gems of the west, St. Paul and Minneapolis. As to our derivation, we are dead sure of it. A large number of\nthe best people here are not ashamed of this definite knowledge of their\nprogenitors. They do not hesitate to avow it in their welcome to you\nAmerican\n\nborn\n\nschoolmasters ; for if 1 am\n\nnot mistaken,\n\nyou are fully\n\naware that your pedagogic carpetbags, so to speak, are as well stuffed with\nthe doctrines and teachings of the German schoolmasters as the baggage\nof the latest arriving emigrant is with reminders of the fatherland.\nIn Germany men receive their preparation to become Americans by\nthe nature of their education ; for they are educated to hold, above the\ncommanders of armies, above the ministers of-the creeds, above the\n\nvotaries of art or the leaders in politics, the schoolmaster. I would, therefore, caution you that our citizens hold one thing in higher esteem than\ntheir derivation, and that is their Americanism.\n\nHowever considerate they may be of the traditions of their fatherland,\nthey are consecrated to the land of their children, and loyally committed\nto their destiny as American citizens.\nThey enter into your sympathies;\nand with you as witnesses they confirm their profession of faith in this\nassociation, of faith in the great mission which gives you the title and right\nto be received as the organized exponent of those great forces which are\nto make the America and the Americans of the future.\n\nWe\n\nall, without\n\nparty or partisanship, believe in education.\n‘There is no sectarianism in\nour simple faith. We believe in the American public school as the ideal\nAmerican institution ; and we believe that you, who are the leaders of its\n\ndestiny, are deserving of a hearty patriotic welcome.\nI claim Milwaukee as an American city. Thirty-five years ago she\nsent her battalions to verify it; and their patriotic declarations have been\nsigned and eternally sealed'on many asouthern battle field. The blood of\nher sons flowed to consecrate Gettysburg.\nTheir loyalty endured the terrors of the Wilderness.\n\nThey shouted it from Lookout Mountain, around\n\nthe battlements of Atlanta, and “‘ onward to the sea.””\n\nAnd when all but\n\nthe unreturning brave gathered again about their Milwaukee homes, they\nfound Milwaukee women engaged in founding by munificent subscription\nand loyal labor the great national home for disabled veterans.\nThis was\nthirty-two years ago. Milwaukeeans were Americans then. And today\nwe wish you, receiving you as the marshals of that grand army enrolled\nin the cause which is to guarantee and perpetuate the safety of the Republic, we wish you to accept from us a hearty, loyal American welcome.\n\n"}
{"page": 53, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nADDRESSES\n\nH.\n\nO. R. SIEFERT,\n\nOF\n\nWELCOME\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\n43\n\nMILWAUKEE.\n\nMr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen of the National Educational Association:\n\nAs the representative of the teachers of the public schools of this city,\nI extend to you a most hearty welcome.\nWe feel deeply the honor you have conferred upon us by choosing\nMilwaukee for the place of your thirty-sixth convention.\nWe rejoice in\nyour coming to us, because we need you “to elevate the character and\nadvance the interest of the profession of teaching and to promote the\ncause of popular education” in this community.\nNot that we have been\nidle, or indifferent to the advancement of education, but in this period\nof electric development, when the progress of the human race is greater\nin ten years than it formerly was in fifty, the educator needs the life-giving influence which comes through the personal contact with those whose\nlove is not for gold and vainglory, but for the young children of whom\nthe great\n\nteacher\n\nsaid, ‘‘Suffer\n\nthe little children to come unto me, and\n\nforbid them not, for of such is the kingdom of God.”\nA timely word from a sincere man never fails to influence the mind\nfor good, and the magnetism emanating from a great soul thrills the fibers\nand swells the heart as no printed word can do.\nWe shall learn from you many new things. We shall be filled with\nfresh enthusiasm for our noble calling. We shall carry with us into our\nschoolrooms the new ideas with which you will inspire us, and 35,000\n\nchildren will reap the benefit of our contact with you.\nMilwaukee is largely a German city, and the Germans have always\nappreciated education.\nThey have proved it in this country by establishing schools wherever they were needed and by supporting those already\nestablished. They honor their teachers ; they look upon them not merely\n‘as instructors, but as associates in bringing up their children, and inspiring them with what is good and true and beautiful.\nPestalozzi and Froebel and Herbart are no strangers to the American\nteacher.\n\nThe\n\nnew\n\neducation was their education, the new methods were\n\ntheir methods, and they are today perhaps more appreciated in this country than in their own.\nIs not Froebel’s kindergarten the foundation of\nthe new education?\nAnd where do we find more kindergartens than in\nAmerica?\nIn this city alone there are forty, with an attendance of over\n4,000 children. It is the same elsewhere, and, though Froebel’s body lies\n\nmoldering in the grave, his soul goes marching on.\nThere is no doubt in my mind but that the educational system of this\ncountry, founded on the doctrines and experiences of the great men of\nthe past, will, through the efforts of the American educators, develop into\na structure of such grandeur as the world has never seen.\n\n"}
{"page": 54, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n44\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n[General\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nMany of you have come long distances with an honest desire to get\nthe benefits of this great gathering of educators ; may you reap the bless-\n\nAS\nhe\n\non,\nings of your devotion, if not in goods of this world, in new inspirati\n\nin feeling that you are better prepared to follow your responsible calling,\nand in the blessed conviction that you have added to your ability to do\n\n|\n\ngood to mankind.\n\nMay your deliberations be crowned with success, and may you enjoy\nAnd when you have gone\nyour sojourn with us as your labors deserve.\nthe welcome guests that\nhearts\ngrateful\nwith\nremember\nshall\nwe\nhence\ngave much more than they received.\n\nRESPONSES:\nHON.\n\nCHARLES\n\nR. SKINNER,\n\nALBANY,\n\nN. Y., PRESIDENT\n\nMr.\n\nChairman,\n\nTeachers and Friends:\n\nOF THE\n\nASSOCIATION.\n\nThe teachers of the country occupy Milwaukee tonight under the\ninspiration of an army that has captured a city. Mr. Chairman, the\nstate of Wisconsin and city of Milwaukee, many months ago, promised\nus a warm reception, and a royal welcome.\nYou promised to make us\nhappy if we would hold our meeting here, and right royally have you\nredeemed your promise.\nWe thank you, and congratulate you upon the\ncompleteness of the arrangements made for the accommodation of those\nattending this meeting.\nThose who know Milwaukee best know that you\nare famous for your excellent schools, for your churches, for your happy\nhomes.\nHereafter you will be famous among all friends of education\nthroughout the country for your hospitality.\nYou have assured us in\ngracious words that you are glad we came among you.\nIfat the close of\nthe week you can say with as much heartiness that you are sorry to have\nus go away, then we shall feel that our visit has been mutually agreeable.\nIt is sometimes difficult to express in fitting words our appreciation of\nthe welcome extended, and therefore\n\nwe\n\nhave\n\nsummoned\n\nfrom the\n\nfour\n\nquarters of the Republic those who will speak words which have been\nespecially prepared for you.\n\nOM\nEE\nLS\nAMA\nI\n‘e\nL\nC\na\nAG\nI\nBRLSAem\no\n\nA. E. WINSHIP,\n\nBOSTON,\n\nMASS.,\nOF\n\nPRESIDENT,\n\nAMERICAN\n\nINSTITUTE\n\nINSTRUCTION.\n\nMr. President and Gentlemen of the Welcoming Committee:\nIt is given to no man from the East, the West, the North, or the South\n\nto voice a response to the welcome of the state and municipality of the\n\n"}
{"page": 55, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\neducational\n\nADDRESSES\n\nOF\n\nWELCOME\n\n45\n\nleaders of state and city, for this audience, the largest educa-\n\ntional audience ever assembled, is its own response.\nIt is an appreciated\nhonor to represent the East and to speak for the American Institute of\nInstruction, which was organized in Boston by friends of education from\nthe New England and middle states, from Virginia, Kentucky, and Ohio,\nthe year that the streets were staked out in the village of Chicago.\nHis honor the mayor has reminded us that this is eminently a German\ncity, and that it is pre-eminently an American city, as the decorations\ntestify ; but in his modesty he has told us less than a half truth. This\ncity is not only an Americanized Germany, but, in a sense not true of any\nother city, it has Americanized all nations and peoples.\"\nNo other city\nhas ever made the eagle scream above Socrates and Aristotle.\nThere is an East, and there is a West, and the East is a gateway for\nthe desirable peoples of the earth ; but never could we have welcomed the\nliberty-loving millions but for the wealth of your plains and ranches, of\nyour valleys and mountains, through which we have fed, and clothed, and\nenriched those that have come through eastern gates.\nThe best evidence of the exceptional grandeur of the greatness of the\nWest is the possibility of such a gathering of educators through the hospitality of such acity.\nThe East has no jealousy of the West.\nIs the\nfather ever jealous of the prosperity and praise of the son?\nNo; a thousand times no. It stirs his pride, and he thinks what he cannot say, ‘‘ My\nblood is in his veins;” and so tonight, as we look upon this assemblage\nthat could not be gathered in the East, we think some things that we will\nnot say about the blood of the East in the enterprise and power of the\nWest.\nIn view of the great discussion of the National Council of Education\nI had not supposed it would be esthetic to refer to your mercurial reception, though, in view of the fact that our great leader, the United States\nCommissioner of Education, told us that mathematics is the culmination\n\nof nature, and grammar of human nature, it may be in order to refer to\nthe unusual cordiality of this city. Heretofore reception committees have\nbeen content to entertain during the days specified in the invitation, but\nin this case we have been forcibly reminded that, though invited to be\n* The hall was adorned more elaborately than any other has ever been for the use of\nA series of United States\nthe N. E. A. Its decorations were patriotic and scholastic.\nshields extended the length of the hall on either side, a magnificent eagle was screaming\nabove each, while over the shield and beneath the eagle was the name of some master,\n\nwith Socrates leading on the left, and Aristotle on the right. As Mr. Winship concluded\nthe sentence of praise, which seemed extravagant, the silence was oppressive until he\n\nadded the following sentence.—ED. ]\non Monday the 5th, whereas\n6th, and would not permit\nthe\nevening\nTuesday\nuntil\nnot\nwas\nmeeting\nthe\nthe opening of\nhim to go until the roth, though the meeting would close on the 9th.—Ep. |\n2'The railroad tickets required one to reach Milwaukee\n\n"}
{"page": 56, "printed_page": null, "text": "/\n\n—\n,\n\nNATIONAL\n\n46\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n~ [General\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nhere on the 6th to gth, we would be expected to be here from the 5th to\nthe roth. This was unappreciated hospitality until we remembered that\n6 and 9 equals 5 and to.\nDr. Harris well says that mathematics is the culmination of the study\nof nature; but when I said to the hotel clerk that I understood that,\nthough we were here from the sth to the roth, we should only pay from\nthe 6th to the oth, his language reminded me that grammar is the culmination of human nature.\nThe timeliness of your reception will give Milwaukee a new significance hereafter: Be’er before time; be’er on time; be’er all the time;\nbe here after time.\n\nJ. L. HOLLOWAY,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nFORT\n\nSMITH,\n\nSE\nPee\nSa\nFAA\nlan\n\nmee\nNo\n\nARK.\n\nMr. President:\nI deem it a flattering compliment to be called upon to respond to\nthese generous words of welcome so eloquently spoken by the distinguished representatives of our hosts—especially so since it falls to\nmy pleasant lot to speak in behalf of the teachers of the southern states.\nOur good friend, Dr. Winship, has spoken to you of the matchless energy\nand enterprise of the East. Superintendents Lane and Gove will tell you\nthe progress of the North and the expansion of the West.\nMr. President, there lies to the south of us a fair country, stretching\nthrough fifteen degrees of latitude and thirty degrees of longitude, with a\ncoast line of 2,500 miles—fifteen imperial states, whose aggregate area\nexceeds the combined domains of France, Germany, Italy, Austria, and the\n\nBritish Isles, containing more than one-third the population of the\nUnion; the home of a people through whose veins courses the purest\nAnglo-Saxon blood of the nation; a people whose struggle to keep in\nthe forefront of all that makes a country great forms a chapter in our\nnational life that will yet charm and thrill the student of history.\nBut\nfor the present her story is unwritten, her progress in the face of disaster\nyet untold.\nWhen the bombardment of Fort Sumter inflamed to its highest pitch\nthe passions of war, and the bloody battle of Bull Run presaged a fratricidal conflict whose cost in life and treasure has no parallel.\nin history,\nthe climax of the greatest crisis in our national destiny was reached and\nheralded around the globe. When the loved leader of the “ Lost Cause”\nsheathed his sword in the presence of the “Silent Man of Iron’ at Appomattox, and the ragged veterans of the Gray heard the farewell notes of the\ndrum-major’s corps as it played “Home, Sweet Home,” the world witnessed the closing scene of the greatest tragedy of ancient or modern\ntimes. Weary and footsore, in rags and in poverty, despoiled of homes,\n\n':\n\na,\nee\nla\ne\ne\nF\n\n;\n\n"}
{"page": 57, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nwith\n\nADDRESSES\n\nOF WELCOME\n\nranks decimated, the social and industrial\n\n47\n\nfabric of two\n\ncenturies\n\nswept away, this remnant of a war-stricken people began anew the struggle\nof life, backed by no capital save sturdy hands and hopeful hearts,\nsustained by the sweet devotion of a womanhood whose heroism the\nworld will never know.\nFrom fields made red with comrades’ blood they\nmarched to God’s broad acres of sun-kissed hills and smiling vales at\nFrom the tumult\nhome, to clasp their loved ones to their breasts again.\nof war they turned to the arts of peace.\n‘They beat their swords into\nThe hand of toil\npruning hooks, and their spears into plowshares.”\nwrought in the bosom of her fertile fields, and the marvelous resources of\nher hills and valleys yielded their treasures to the touch of a resolute will.\nThe bow of a larger\nOut of the ashes of defeat a new life sprang.\npromise now spans the southern sky. Upon her altars a brighter fire is\nFloating upon\nAround her hearthstones a new hope shines.\nburning.\nsoft zephyrs from out her schools a new song is heard whose cadence\nwhispers of ‘‘ Home, God, and Native Land.”\nHer children are at once\nher hope and her glory; for them she strives.\nHer schools are the safeguard of her stability and her progress; for them she builds. The steady\nmarch of her army of five million pupils is pregnant with prophecies of\na triumph far more glorious than any dream that ever swept before the\nenraptured vision of Caesar or Napoleon.\nHer 115,000 teachers are a\nnoble part of the priesthood under whose guidance God is lifting this\npeople into the sunlight of a larger, better life.\n\nWe come, therefore, to this ‘“‘Cream City” of the great Northwest,\nwhose shaded avenues and broad thoroughfares, whose splendid bay and\n‘unsalted sea,” whose homes of thrift, and institutions of learning, whose\nmarvelous growth and commercial prestige, all bespeak peace, plenty, and\n\n}\n\nprosperity ;we come to you to learn the secret of your success, and carry\nit back to our beloved land of the cypress and magnolia.\nWe come to\nthis great gathering to catch the spirit and enthusiasm of our educational\nleaders, and carry them back for the inspiration of the boys and girls of\nour sunny southland.\nBelieve me, sirs, your words of cheer and welcome steal into our hearts\nlike the soft music of peace wafted over still waters of a moonlit night;\nstirring to its depths the sentiments of a patriotism that prostrates itself\nbefore no sectional shrines; and I beg to assure you that the South sends\nher note of response full-freighted with the spirit of fraternal fellowship.\n\nAARON\n\nGOVE,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF SCHOOLS,\n\nDENVER,\n\nCOLO.\n\nAlthough the National Educational Association commences its thirtysixth annual session tonight, the first great meeting of the association\nwas held at Madison, in Wisconsin, thirteen years ago. From that time\n\n,\n\n"}
{"page": 58, "printed_page": null, "text": "4.\n\nol\ntale\nae\n\n48\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nto the present our numbers have increased, and the power and influence\nIt is significant that\nof this great organization have been magnified.\nWisconsin again welcomes our annual session in Milwaukee, the metropolis\nof the state, at this, the greatest gathering in our history.\nWe are prepared to be not surprised at our reception, however great the hospitality\nbestowed,\n\nfor\n\nwith\n\nMilwaukee,\n\nits\n\nbeautiful\n\nhomes\n\nand\n\nits\n\nGerman-\n\nAmerican welcomes, is famed throughout the nation.\nIn the assignment of the pleasant duty of responding to the addresses\nof welcome one notices that President Skinner had in mind the whole\ncountry, with\n\na division\n\nof representation\n\nfrom\n\nEast, West, South, and\n\nNorth.\nYou have heard the words from New England through our\neloquent schoolmaster-editor.\nArkansas has tendered warm words from\nthe warm-hearted South.\nPresently the greatest city on earth, through its\nsuperintendent of schools, will permit you to hear from its constituency—\nyes, more than permit, will compel, for the ringing voice of ex-President\nLane will reach every ear in the house.\nIt is for me, in the name of the\nwestern division, the country lying west of, and not including, Kansas and\nNebraska, to speak words of courtesy to our hosts.\n\nFor\n\nconvenient\n\ncomparison, and\n\nto give\n\n;\ninformation\n\nconcisely, the\n\nCommissioner of Education in his reports has placed the states in groups.\nAmong these are the North Atlantic Division, including New England,\nNew York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, by far the most populous and\nthe most wealthy; the North Central, in which are included, among\nothers, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, Kansas, and Nebraska;\n\nall west of that, including Colorado and Wyoming, make the Western\nDivision.\nWhat has been done and what is doing along educational lines\nin that division deserves notice.\nIn the last report of the commissioner\none reads that the amount expended last year for public education per\npupil was, in the Western Division, $28.91;\n\n4—\n\nNorth Atlantic, $26.84; in all\n\nother divisions materially less.\nBased upon the per capita of population the Western Division spent\n$3.61; North Atlantic, $3.33, and the other divisions less.\nComparing by states, Wisconsin spent $21 per pupil for public\neducation; Rhode Island, $33.20; Massachusetts, $33.98; Colorado,\n$38.42.\n\nMassachusetts raised $18.85 for the education of each child between\nthe ages of five and eighteen; Colorado for the same purpose spent\n$22.98 ;Wisconsin, $8.37, less than half as much as Massachusetts, and\nmuch less than Colorado.\nThe Western Division paid its teachers $64.65 a month, $3 more\nthan the North Atlantic Division, and $20 more than Wisconsin and\nIllinois.\nBelieve me, this review\n\nis not presented\n\nin a boastful\n\nspirit, but to\n\nee\ne\ne\n\n"}
{"page": 59, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nADDRESSES\n\nOF WELCOME\n\n49\n\nremind you that notwithstanding the serious financial reverses of the past\nfew years, and the insistence of the majority of the people upon a continued appreciation of the value of the gold dollar, the western people\ndemonstrate their devotion to common school interests in’a substantial\nmanner.\n‘They have accepted the decision of the people given last\nNovember, and are heartily devoting their energies to the development\nof their own region, and the advancement of free education, loyal to the\nnational government, and with a spirit of patriotism intense to a degree\nnot excelled:in any state.\nThroughout the sessions of the association the present week, and at\nthe meetings of the several departments, we shall gather for deliberation\nand discussion from all parts of the nation.\nWe trust to meet socially\nmany of the citizens of Wisconsin and Milwaukee, when personal introductions shall lead to mutual respect and pleasure.\n\nALBERT\n\nG. LANE,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nCHICAGO,\n\nILL.\n\nThe members of the National Educational Association appreciate the\ncordial welcome extended to them by Wisconsin and Milwaukee, so\ngenerously expressed by the governor and the mayor, representing all\nthe people, and voiced by the state and city superintendents of schools in\nbehalf of the teachers.\nWe appreciate the efforts of your local committee\nto furnish comfortable entertainment for all, to provide suitable places for\nour meeting, and royally to entertain us as guests.\nThis hall has been beautifully and artistically decorated so as to\nimpress us with the fact that we have an inheritance of the thought and\nlabors of many great men who loved their fellow-men and wrought in\ntheir behalf.\n\nHere\n\nis Horace\n\nMann, who devoted his brilliant\n\nintellect\n\nand great force of character to perfecting the public-school system, to\nawakening the people to the educational needs of their children, and to\nthe organization of institutes and normal schools for the professional\ntraining of teachers.\nIt is a fitting tribute to place his picture and his\nname most prominent among those who have been the great teachers of\nthe ages. On either side of Horace Mann are Froebel and Pestalozzi,\nonce humble, unappreciated representatives of great educational ideas\nOn these\nwhich are now rapidly modifying our whole primary work.\nshields are inscribed names representing every phase of philosophical\nthought, progress in art, in music, in science, in literature, in education.\n\nWisconsin holds an honorable place among the states formed from\nHer eduthe Northwest territory, which was dedicated to education.\ncational system is broad, embracing an efficient system of county\nAmple provision\nschools, high schools, normal schools, and a university.\npeople, inspired\nHer\nchild.\nevery\nof\neducation\nthe\nfor\nmade\nbeen\nhas\n\n"}
{"page": 60, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n5°\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n[General\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nby the example of Germany, attempted to protect all children in their\ninalienable right to an education, and enacted a law to accomplish this,\n_ but through misunderstandings and political manipulation these laws were\nrepealed or rendered ineffective, instead of being amended and enforced,\nin Wisconsin and Illinois. But the issue of enforcing the proper training\nof every child for American citizenship is still before the people, and must\nbe met.\nIt has been declared by some who represent leadership in the higher\nreligious and educational institutions that there is a failure to develop\nhigh moral principle in the youth of our land, and that the public school\nWhat are the facts?\nand its methods of instruction are responsible.\nMillions of children have daily left their homes, gone to the schools,\npromptly taken up their work at 9g o’clock, and governed themselves in\ntheir social relations.\nIn most of the cities, and in many parts of the\ncountry, they have been governed in the schoolroom without force or\ncompulsion, and have put into practice the fundamental principles of\nself-government, based upon the recognition of the rights and privileges\nof others.\nI maintain that those who attend the public schools until they have\ncompleted the elementary course of instruction will become moral,\nintelligent, loyal citizens.\nThe National Educational Association represents 400,000\nStates, and the interests of 20,000,000 children.\n\nthe United\n\nteachers of\nPractically\n\nevery state and territory, and every large city in this country has its representatives inthis auditorium.\nAny resolutions or platform of principles\nwhich may be adopted by this convention will be presented in the\nvarious educational journals, and in the public press, to nearly all the\nteachers of the country, and to the intelligent public, who will measure\nand test every proposition on the basis of its fitness and adaptation to\nharmonious\nthe\n\nmental growth, to the development of true character, and\n\ncultivation\n\npatriots.\n\nof\n\nthose\n\nsocial\n\ninterests\n\nwhich\n\nwill\n\nmake\n\nto\n\nAmerican\n\n"}
{"page": 61, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nBEST\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nMASSES\n\nSI\n\nADDRESSES.\nPRESIDENTIAL\nTHE\n\nBY\n\nCHARLES\n\nR.\n\nBEST\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSKINNER,\n\nADDRESS.\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nSTATE\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nTION,\n\nNEW\n\nMASSES.\n\nOF\n\nPUBLIC\n\nINSTRUC-\n\nYORK.\n\nA little more than two centuries ago Governor Berkeley said of the\nconditions then existing in Virginia: “I thank God there are no free\nschools or printing presses, and I hope we shall not have them these\nhundred years; for learning has brought disobedience and heresy and\nsects into the world, and printing has divulged them, and libels against\nthe best government.\nGod keep us from both.”\nWe will not now consider Berkeley’s foresight or his religion, his\npolitics or his patriotism.\nNeither will we seek the source of the spirit\nwhich moved him to pray that what he termed the ‘best government”\nmight be spared the calamities which would follow learning.\nWe pause\nonly to note the fact, which\n\nhistory teaches,\n\nthat other\n\ncolonies did not\n\nfollow Virginia’s lead, and that the state which he hoped to save from\nprinting presses and public schools became ere long the “Mother of\nPresidents.”\nThe two centuries since his day have witnessed in the\nUnited States a marvelous development of intellectual life, a wondrous\ntransformation in educational standards.\n\nToday as a nation we spend two hundred\n\nmillions of dollars ($200,-\n\n000,000) upon our free common schools.\nToday the printing presses,\nagainst which Berkeley uttered his phillipic, furnish every year on an\naverage two weekly newspapers and a printed book for each family in our\nland, and a daily newspaper for every two families.\nThe powers which control the affairs of this republic believe with\nAristotle that ‘a state can be no better than the citizens of which it is\n\ncomposed,” and with Dionysius that “the foundation of every state is in\nNapoleon believed that “ public instruction\nthe education of its youth.”\nshould be the first object of government,” and we all accept the modern\ngospel: ‘‘Seek ye first ee education of the people, and all other blessings\nwill be added unto ye.” He who is now president of the United States\ngave expression to the truth when he said: “This nation, if it would\ncontinue to lead in the race of progress and liberty, must do it pO\n‘the intelligence and conscience of its people.”\n\n"}
{"page": 62, "printed_page": null, "text": "52\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nThe “fine old conservative policy,” as it was called two centuries ago,\nof “keeping subjects ignorant in order to make them submissive” has\nhappily given place to one which seeks to educate all the people in order\nto preserve liberty, to enforce law, to develop manhood\n\nand womanhood,\n\nFree common\nand to perpetuate the blessings of good government.\nuniversities,\nand\nColleges\nland.\nschools are open today all over our broad\ntechnical\nand\nprofessional\nfor\nhigh schools and academies, and schools\ncenglorious\n‘Two\ntraining offer their privileges to all who seek them.\nturies of educational growth, unmatched in the history of the world!\nWhat wondrous changes!\nWhat stupendous strides!\nTo quote again:\n‘An open schoolhouse, free to all, evidences the\nhighest type of advanced civilization.\nIt is the gateway to progress,\nprosperity, and honor, and the best security for the liberties and independence of the people.”\nIf enlightenment is the best security for the\nliberty and independence of the people, and this enlightenment can be\nobtained by the expenditure of money for education rather than in providing military safeguards, then this nation has reason for hope.\nThe United States, today the youngest of all, is the only great nation\nof the world which expends more for education than for war.\nFrance\nspends annually $4 per capita for her army and 70 cents per capita for\neducation; England, $3.72 for army and 62 cents for education ; Prussia,\n$2.04 for her army and 50 cents for education; Italy, $1.52 for her army\nand 36 cents for education; Austria, $1.36 for her army and 62 cents for\neducation; Russia, $2.04 for her army and 3 cents for education; the\nUnited States, 39 cents for her army and $1.35 for education.\nEngland\n6 to 1 for war! Russia 68 to 1 for war! the United States 4 to 1 for edu-\n\ncation!\n‘The United States spends more per capita annually for education than England, France, and Russia combined.\nMany centuries have witnessed the growth of Oxford and Cambridge,\nand the world-famous universities of France and Germany.\nThey have\nhad and still have the support of royalty and nobility, of gentry and\nyeomanry, and have all the prestige of age and wealth and numbers.\nBut our higher institutions of learning have no cause to apologize for\ntheir youth, and with justifiable pride we point to the high place which\nthey occupy.\nLearned, high-minded men with noble aims and broad\nintellectuality have guided their affairs, guarded their interests, and have\n\nsent from these institutions to places of highest dignity and honor, men\nlike themselves.\nMore will follow, and, as the years go by, our American\ncolleges and universities are destined to take rank among the best in the\nworld.\nMore money was donated to these institutions last year than was\nexpended by scores of our states combined upon all their schools a generation ago. For their support millions of money will be generously\ngiven, as in the past, by those who happily possess great wealth and who\n\n"}
{"page": 63, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nBEST\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nMASSES\n\n53\n\nare imbued with a deep interest in the welfare of their fellow-men. Fortunately the time has arrived when there is no longer necessity for an\nAmerican student to go abroad to complete his education.\nOur own\ncountry can equip him.\nThis fact strengthens our nation at home and\n‘\ncommands respect abroad.\nThe anxiety of philanthropists and statesmen and scholars today is\nThey have no cause\nnot for the work of our colleges and universities.\nto fear for the welfare of the one per cent. of our pupils who receive the\nhighest education, but they may well be solicitous concerning the education which the public schools are giving the great masses of our pupils\nwho can never hope to enjoy college or university training. Their\ndeepest anxiety is for the ‘“‘ninety and nine” who are with us, rather than\nfor the one who-goes higher to enjoy greater advantages, and who is\neminently capable of bringing himself to the fold.\nPhilosophers and statesmen have ever recognized the truth that universal education is the basis of true national prosperity and real greatness.\n“The fair fabric of Justice raised by Numa,” says Plutarch, “ passed rapidly\naway because it was not founded upon education.”\nNo truer reason\ncan be given for the decay of everything good inastate.\nNo nation will\never realize its full possibilities which does not build upon the education\nof the whole people, upon the enlightenment of the masses.\nEvery consideration of public safety points to the wisdom of emancipating the »\npeople from the slavery of ignorance. Might alone has made the struggle\nfor greatness and has failed. War with all its horrors has proved powerless to make\n\nnations\n\ngreat.\n\nRome, great as she was, and\n\nleader\n\nof the\n\nworld, fell, not because she lacked brave generals and great rulers, but\nbecause her plan of education did not reach to the foundation of her\nnational life and character.\nShe rated conquest and luxury above\nlearning.\nIn a republic like ours, the plan of education must not be like that of\nRome, but our system of education, to realize its highest aim, must reach\nthe common people, the “ plain people,” as Lincoln loved to call them.\nIt must be our first concern to consider the truest interests of the great\nmasses.\nTheir equipment for life must be received in our common\nschools.\nWe must remember that 95 per cent. of our children can\nnever receive more than an elementary education, and that it is the\nhighest province of the state to determine the character and the quality of\nthe education which will best prepare them for their life work as individuals and as citizens of the Republic.\nWhether agreeable or not, we must recognize the fact that it is the\nchildren of the plain people, in city and country, who are crowding our\nschoolrooms today, and these will always be in the majority. The\n\nchildren of the masses and not of the classes will rule us.\n\nThey will be\n\n"}
{"page": 64, "printed_page": null, "text": "54\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n_ [General\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nThey will elect our presidents and\nthe voters and the lawmakers.\nThe masses are\nour homes.\nmake\nwill\nthey\nAbove all\ngovernors.\nchildren—a\nschool\nof\nmillions\nsixteen\nby\nrepresented in our schools\nof the\npopulation\nentire\nthe\nthan\ngreater\nis\npopulation which in itself\neduan\nfor\nout\ncry\nThey\nestablished.\nwas\ne\ncountry when independenc\nthe\nupon\ncalls\nit\nas\ncountry\ntheir\nlife—and\nfor\ncation which will fit them\ncry.\nthis\nheed\nand\nhear\nmust\nservice\nmasses for loyalty and\nIf we do not properly educate the masses, we will more and more be\ndominated by a government of the ignorant.\nIf we would be ruled by\nintelligence, wisdom, reason, and justice, our\n\nfirst\n\nconcern\n\nshould\n\nbe to\n\neducate.\nIf we would live under good laws, we must have good men to\nIf we would have society pure, we must overcome the\nmake our laws.\ntendency toward vice, by the uplifting influence of education.\nWhat the\nmen and women of the future will be depends upon the kind of education\nwe give our children now.\n‘As the children are, so will our sovereigns\nsoon be,” was the maxim of Horace Mann, which might well be written in\nWe never lose sight of the fact that\nletters of gold in every schoolroom.\nin this republic it is possible for the humblest citizen to become a representative or senator in Congress, a governor\n\nof a state,an ambassador to\n\na foreign court, or president of the Republic itself.\nBut a higher consideration is the fact that the stability of our government rests upon the\nIt is\nintelligence, sanctity, and integrity of the home life of the masses.\na public duty to provide an education which will prepare the humblest\ncitizen to discharge well the duties of any position which may fall to him.\nThe dangers which threaten us today spring not only from the classes\nbeing uneducated, but also from the character of the education which we\nare giving these classes.\nWe sometimes consider that this danger comes\nalone from the importation of ignorant foreigners.\nBut we may well ask\nourselves if the danger does not come as well from the carelessly educated\nmasses of our own people as a result of badly adapted courses of study,\nof superficial instruction, and of failure on the part of the teacher to\ncomprehend the vital influence which these masses of plain people exert\nupon our social and national life.\nWhat is the best education for the masses as we find them repre-\n\nsented in our common schools?\nSurely it must be the broadest and best\nwhich our school systems are able to furnish—broad enough and strong\nenough to equip man and woman with power to get and to do the best\nthings in life—to act well their part in society and in government.\nEducation must begin with the youngest.\nIt must be enjoyed by the\npoorest.\nIt must be shared by the richest. It must be secured to the\nremotest settler in distant states and territories, and freely given to the\nhumblest dweller in our great cities. It must reach and touch alike the\nstately avenue and the degraded slums.\nIn brief, every child must be\n\n-\n\n"}
{"page": 65, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nBEST\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nMASSES\n\n55\n\ngiven and required to use an opportunity to develop the gifts with which\nGod has endowed him, that he may grow to perfect manhood, to genuine\nculture\n—a culture which in hovel or mansion stands for character.\nThe best education for the masses is an education which will teach\nboys and girls their capabilities, and which will give them power to grasp\nopportunities, to accomplish results, to realize worthy ambitions, to\nknow themselves, to appreciate their limitations as well as their capacities ;which will give them courage to endure adverse fortune should it\ncome, and wisdom to enjoy prosperity ;—an education which will help\npeople to help themselves ;which will diminish suffering and discontent,\nand increase happiness ;which will encourage thrift and discourage shiftlessness ;which will lead people to enjoy that which they possess without\n. envy ; which teaches the dignity of labor, the value of money, the proper\nrelation of labor to capital, and how they can be made to work together\nfor the highest good of the state; which teaches how to earn a living\nhonestly and satisfactorily; the necessity for diligence and economy;\nhow to live within their income; how to accept life as they find it;\nto know that poverty is neither a crime nor a disgrace if an honest life\nstands near it, and that riches alone cannot bring honor and happiness\nor make men great and good.\nSuch an education would seem to be that which develops the noblest\nmanhood and womanhood, gives the best equipment for life’s duties, its\npleasures and its hardships; which teaches unselfishness founded on the\ncommon brotherhood of man; which gives attention to good morals and\ngood manners ; which leads children to be honest, temperate, and virtuous;\n\nwhich exalts pure thinking, and places the highest value of purity upon\n\nlife and conduct.\nRecognizing the fact that the great majority—the\ncitizens—are educated in the common\n\nmasses\n\nof our\n\nschools, this best education must\n\nalways furnish a thorough preparation for intelligent citizenship and\nclearly outline the privileges and obligations which it brings; the rights\nand duties of citizens at party primaries, at the polls, and in the jury box;\nmust teach that a properly educated man will not sell his own vote or buy\nhis neighbor’s.\nSuch an education will give a closer knowledge of\ngovernment, local and\nto authority,\n\nobedience\n\nnational, a respect for the majesty of law,\nof order, veneration for the flag of our\n\nlove\n\ncountry, and for the history which it represents.\nSuch an education will teach our children to abhor crime, to hate evil,\n\nand this education as it grows will lead them to denounce mob rule and\nanarchy, whether they show their heads in New York or Chicago; will\ncondemn lynch law, whether in Ohio or in Mississippi.\nThe elements of this best education are two: First, the subjects which\ncompose the course of study and their correlation ;second, the fitness and\n\n"}
{"page": 66, "printed_page": null, "text": "56\npe\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL\naneet ene. Sais tne ES Se\nOe\n\n[General\nee\n\nASSOCIATION\nee\n\ninfluence of the teacher in adjusting instruction to varying conditions.\nCharles Dudley Warner once declared that “the great trouble with the\nsystem of education in the United States is in trying to make the educational pyramid stand on its apex, and that the problem of education for\nour people would not be solved until we made that pyramid stand on its\n\nDagens\nWhen less than 1 per cent. of all pupils in the country are in college\nor university, it seems futile indeed to fashion any educational system\nbased on collegiate or university training.\nIt would seem to be more in\naccord with our institutions and the spirit of our government and laws to\nprovide first of all for the thorough training of every boy and girl in the\nUnited States, in the elementary branches pursued in the primary and\nIn other words, to say that every one of the 16,000,000\ngrammar schools.\nof pupils must pursue these essential studies required for a common-school\neducation, viz., reading, writing, spelling, arithmetic, geography, grammar, American\n\nhistory,\n\ncivil\n\ngovernment,\n\ndrawing, and\n\nthe\n\nunderlying\n\nprinciples of hygienic physiology.\nIf you ask, “Why insist upon this\ncourse?” the answer is found in the fact that thorough instruction in these\nsubjects will meet the necessities of life, and give all the education that\n95 per cent. of the masses of our children can ever hope to obtain.\nIf this course is to be enriched, let enrichment come through the\nequipment of the teacher.\nLet not higher branches be forced into the\nlower grades, to crowd, mystify, and produce superficiality.\nBy a proper\ncorrelation of these studies time and opportunity will be found for\nthoroughness of instruction, which will give to the child consciousness of\npower and at the same time lay abroad foundation upon which he can\nbuild as high as may be possible. The minds of the children can be turned\ntoward the enjoyment which a knowledge of nature brings, and there can\nbe instilled into their own lives that humane sympathy, that kindliness of\nheart, which will lead them to deal gently with every thing that has life,\nwhether it be beast, bird, or flower, not\n\nfrom\n\nsentiment\n\nalone, but\n\nfrom\n\nknowledge.\nThrough this knowledge all the children may in theory or\nin reality come to know the delights and romance of real country life, and\nthe children whose lives will be spent upon farms can be led to know that\nagriculture\n\nis not a drudgery, but a noble\n\nscience, and a possible\n\nsource\n\nof great happiness. Through the teacher, in connection with these\nstudies, the lessons of life may be brought home to the children through\nintelligent study and discussion of current events.\nIf we are to build an educational pyramid, let us insist that its base\nshall be of the most thorough, practical course of elementary study possible, which every child must take. When these elementary studies have\nbeen thoroughly mastered by all alike, rich and poor, high and low, then\nallow those who can to pass on to secondary studies, providing for these\n\na\n\n"}
{"page": 67, "printed_page": null, "text": "~\n\nSessions]\nTHE BEST EDUCATION FOR\na aeTHE\n\nMASSES\nee\n\n57\n\npupils, as in the elementary grades, the best teachers and appliances possible, keeping always in view the requirements of accuracy and thoroughness.\nWhen secondary studies are completed in high schools and academies, colleges and universities will provide higher education if demanded,\nand schools of law, of medicine, of science, of theology, and of pedagogy\nwill give the technical preparation which each profession demands.\nLet us see to it that we build our pyramid from the common school\nupward.\nLet us provide education first of all for those who can never go\nbeyond the common\n\nschool.\n\nLet us make the instruction there so sound,\n\nso strong, so complete, that pupils whether they go afterward to academy\nor college, to the countinghouse or the engine house, to the farm or the\nshop, to the mill or the factory, will take with them a life-long love of\nstudy, and enthusiasm for learning for learning’s sake.\nThe course of instruction already outlined, if diligently pursued, will give\ndiscipline, encourage application, and train the mind in right channels.\nIt will prepare youth for future study, if the way shall be open to them.\nThe firmer the foundation of our common schools, the more prosperous\nwill be the schools above them, for the success of our secondary schools,\n\nour colleges, and universities must always depend upon the strength of our\ncommon schools.\nThe ambition to be realized in the university must be\ninspired in the lower schools.\nA desire for knowledge, made strong and\n-constant in our common schools, will tend to keep our secondary schools\nand colleges full. The state should give every encouragement to higher\ninstitutions of learning, but we should build upon the right foundation,\nand this aid should come only after the best education has been provided\nfor the masses.\n’\n* History teaches that the races which we call inferior increase more\nrapidly than those which are civilized.\nPearson, in his “National Life\nand Character,” says: ‘It is in the lower strata of society that we have to\nseek for the springs of national life..... And the whole tendency of\nmodern reforms is to improve the condition of the masses.’”’\nThe best\neducation for the masses then, from my point of view, is that which will\ngive the greatest amount of mental and moral power; that which will best\nfit each one of our millions of people to perform his individual share of\nthe world’s work in the best manner possible; which will fit him for the\ngreatest degree of usefulness, helpfulness, and happiness ;which will give\nhim the noblest\n\ncharacter;\n\nwhich will\n\nenable\n\nhim to meet\n\nand fortitude whatever of good or ill may come;\nhonor.”\nSuch\n\nan education\n\nwill exalt\n\nwith courage\n\n“to do justly, to love\n\nhome, dignify the citizen, ennoble\n\nthe\n\ncommunity, and magnify the State. We, who have the responsibility of\nleadership in this great work, must, in the noble words of Canon Farrar,\n“do our\n\nduty, and\n\npray\n\nthat we may do our duty here, now, today;\n\nnot\n\n"}
{"page": 68, "printed_page": null, "text": "fhbeter\nan\n\nNATIONAL\n\n58\n\nEDUCA TIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nin dreamy sweetness, but in active energy; not in the green oasis of the\nfuture, but in the dusty desert of the present; not in the imaginations of\nOtherwhere, but in the realities of Now.”\n\nTHE\nBY\n\nSTUDY\n\nNEWTON\n\nC.\n\nOF\n\nHISTORY\n\nDOUGHERTY,\n\nIN\n\nOUR\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nPUBLIC\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nSCHOOLS.\nPEORIA,\n\nILL.\n\nThe greater attention given to history in the course of study for our\nelementary and secondary schools is to be highly commended.\nIt is in\nline with the truth that the foundation of broad culture must begin with\nNo better material for child culture can be\nthe beginnings of education.\nfound than is afforded by the rich treasure house of history.\nEvery consideration that makes education to be something more than a mere\ndrilling of certain faculties and the mastery of tasks having no other purpose than to require labor in their mastery —every consideration that\nmakes us seek to lead out the child’s mind into a closer touch with the\nworld, would prove that history is one of the very best subjects for the\nchild’s early study.\nIn the gradual development of our educational system it is very encouraging to note that of late more importance is assigned to this study as a\nrecognized branch of instruction in our elementary and secondary schools.\nI say of late, because it is within the memory of most of those here assembled that our schools at one time did not give history an important place\nin the course of study. Some schools failed entirely to appreciate the\npre-eminent advantages to be derived by unfolding to the awakening\ninterest of the boy and girl some of the entrancing story of human life.\nFor history is the record of life. The study of history is the study of\nhumanity, and we gain an adequate knowledge of the race to which we\nbelong by seeing the past as well as the present. It is not enough to observe\nthe present generation now on earth, but from some vantage point we must\ncatch the view of the mighty, endless procession that is sweeping on\nthrough the ages. And not only so, though we walk in the ranks of\ntoday, we must learn to put ourselves in thought with the ranks that have\npassed on, so that we understand their conditions and experiences.\nThis\nmay be the employment of the mature man, who understands more of\nwhat he sees, but the youthful mind as well finds the view intensely interesting. And if you will notice an intelligent child, taught history by a\nnatural and intelligent method, you will find him never treating history\nas unreal or a mere fairy tale, but entering heartily into the spirit of the\nevents, taking sides with combatants, testing actions by his own standards\n\ntvti\nnee\neer\n\na\ne\n\n"}
{"page": 69, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nSTUDY\n\nOF HISTORY\n\nIN OUR\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n59\n\nof right, rejoicing or sorrowing in the results, pleased that he is able to\nexplain the causes or purpose of some event, and eager for more.\nIt is history that thus carries us back into the past, enables us to comprehend the present, and sheds the radiance of hope and anticipation into\nthe future, teaching us that, as the men of yesterday fashioned the\nstructure as it stands, we shall leave it modified by our deeds, and that\nmankind will be either richer or poorer for our having lived.\nIn its practical value history takes first rank with other studies. Other\nsubjects seem to relate more directly to our present interests, as we face\nthe requirements of everyday life; but if we are to be more than mere\ndrudges, driven by the exactions of the daily routine, we must observe the\ncurrent of events from a higher vantage ground, which history alone\naffords.\nOne has a better grasp of the situation in which he finds himself; he is better prepared to take advantage of opportunity; he faces\ndisaster with more philosophical calmness; he triumphs over hindrances,\nand pursues a truer course to the goal, by reason of the strength and\n\nknowledge gained by historic research.\nWe judge more accurately of men and measures when we know more\nof what has been done in the past, and one thus informed is a better\nworkman,\n\na better student\n\nof any\n\nsubject,\n\na better\n\ncitizen,\n\nand\n\nbetter\n\nfitted morally for life’s duties.\nMost people recognize the importance of\nhistory as a record of the race of man, important for the sake of the record; “‘but its connection with the present, the light which it sheds upon\nwhat we ourselves are doing every day of our lives, its checkered narratives\nof human hopes and disappointments, its manifold lessons of encouragement or warning, are less generally felt, less generally accepted, and often\nnot even understood.”\nExamine history, for it is “‘ philosophy teaching\n\nby experience.”\n\n(Carlyle.)\n\nThe unflagging interest sustained by the study of history proves the\nunity of human experience.\nAnd from this unity important conclusions\nfollow.\nDivested of the various outward trappings belonging to different\ntimes, the life of man shows a marvelous likeness through the ages.\nThough customs and institutions change, the heart of man repeats the old\nstory of aspiration and toil, joy and sorrow.\nTo be able to look beneath\nthe surface and discover this essential unity is of great assistance in studying anything pertaining to humanity.\nIt is to be admitted that the historic narrative is often inaccurate, never\n\nHistoric characters are distorted by prejudice, by\nperfectly reliable.\npolitical bias, by religious bigotry, by the ignorance of contemporaries.\nEspecially in the case of distinguished characters, fictions innumerable\nhave gathered about their names through the years, so that the true man\nis seen through a haze of tradition and in a glamor of unreality. It is\nsaid of Oliver Cromwell that there is no other personage in history whose\n\n"}
{"page": 70, "printed_page": null, "text": "EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\nNATIONAL 1\noe ad es\n\n60\n\n[General\n\n“‘ History is\nacts have been the subject of such conflicting theories.\nlike the sibyl, and only reveals her secrets to time, leaf by leaf. Farsighted\nhistorians of deep research, such as Hume, Lingard, Bousset, and VolThe fault was not theirs, but\ntaire, have all been mistaken in Cromwell.\n\nAuthentic documents had\nbelonged to the epoch in which they wrote.\nnot then seen the light, and Cromwell’s portrait had only been painted by\nhis enemies.’’ (Lamartine.)\nBut these inaccuracies, so often found, do not destroy the value of hisSometimes they\ntory, nor do they prevent us from arriving at the truth.\nserve as the incentive to profounder research. As in the case of the character of Cromwell, “the\n\nevident\n\ncontradictions\n\nof the historians of his\n\nown and of other conntries, who had invariably exhibited Cromwell as a\nfantastic tyrant or a melodramatic hypocrite, induced Mr. Carlyle to think\nwith justice that beneath these discordant components there might be\nfound another Cromwell, a being of nature and not of imagination.”\nSearching out and examining all the correspondence of Cromwell, ‘ Mr.\nCarlyle collected, classed, studied, commented on, and rearranged these\nletters of his hero, and, having resuscitated as from the\n\nvoluminous\n\ntomb the spirit of the man and the age, he committed to Europe this\nhitherto unpublished correspondence, saying, ‘ Receive and read; behold\n\nthe true Cromwell.’”” (Lamartine.)\nOver and again history has been its own commentary, and has given\nthe material to correct false and hasty judgments; and as the years pass\nand all the contributions from all sources come in to complete the record, the truth shines forth clearly in its own light. Historic research\nenables the student to analyze the statements made and to verify them.\nThis study cultivates intellectual powers of the highest order.\nIt\naccustoms the student to an attitude of attentive inquiry, impartial and\npainstaking.\nIt teaches him to be indifferent to no detail of history\nproper ; it teaches him to avoid hasty conclusions.\nHe discovers that\nthere is a philosophy in history which interprets the whole story of\nhuman life.\nThe inaccuracies found in the historic narrative and the necessity of\ncareful study and research tend to cultivate the imagination in a healthful and legitimate way.\nThe imagination has its appropriate part to play\nin the interpretation of history. The scattered facts preserved in books\nand archives supply but a fragment of the story of a nation’s life. From\nthese data the student uses his philosophic skill, and then the imagination fills out the picture in true coloring, and the course of past events\nbecomes more than a panorama; it is real life enacted again. Every\nhistoric record has in it this element of imagination, unless it be the\nbarest lists of names and dates. As soon as the chronicler touches upon\nmotives\n\nof men, nature\n\nand\n\ninfluence\n\nof laws, customs, institutions, the\n\n"}
{"page": 71, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nSTUDY\n\nOF HISTORY\n\nIN OUR\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n61\n\ncharacter of people, he calls into play the imagination to give the full\ndescription.\nThe historic pages do not supply the full story.\nPerhaps it is no\nexaggeration of the complexity and infinite detail even of a single life to\nsay that “if they should be written down everyone, I suppose that even\nthe world itself could not contain the books that should be written.”\nBut although historic facts are often not susceptible of proof, and every\nwitness tells his story in his own way, and although we must use reason\nand imagination to complete the picture, still this does not constitute a\nvalid objection against the truth and value of this study. We all adopt the\nThere is scarcely\nhistoric argument to justify our conduct and opinions.\nan impotant event of our lives wherein we do not refer to our own past\nexperience or that of others for some example to guide, some precedent to\njustify us. How mighty is precedent! In lawit is the immediate and final\n\nargument.\nThe most momentous questions of life are decided every day\nAnd\nby the same rule of evidence employed by the judicious historian.\nit is right that this method should be followed, not only by the extreme\nconservative, who wishes all things to be just as they have been, but by\neveryone who would avoid the errors of the past and improve upon its\nmethods.\nHistoric study reveals the rationale of existing things, knowledge of which would save many rash ventures undertaken in mere lightness\n\nand\n\nfrivolous\n\ninconsiderateness,\n\nwhile the same\n\nstudy enables\n\nthe\n\nreformer to unearth the root of an evilinstitution and to direct a popular\nmovement to successful issue.\nThis discriminating historic sense frees men from the power of the\ndemagogue and supplies the principles of true reform.\nIt is necessary\nonly that we recognize the true sphere of the historian, and not expect\nhim to be an infallible recorder of events.\nAn intelligent student avoids the extremes.\nIf one man can find in\nJulius Ceesar only a tyrant, while another counts him a patriot and a\nmartyr;\n\nif one calls Napoleon a selfish, unprincipled usurper, and another\n\nextols his genius in war and in government, it is not history that is at\nfault, but the historian.\nThe landscape is none the less beautiful because\nyou have no eye to discern the beauty.\nFire and water are none the less\nuseful because a conflagration may have consumed your comfortable\nhome, or because a flood may have swept away the fruits of your years of\nThe ocean teems with riches to reward human toil; it\ntoil and frugality.\nalso speaks to man’s higher spiritual senses, presenting aspects of beauty\nin its ever-changing shades of color, and reaching the sublime and aweinspiring in the storm, although one man is indifferent to everything but\nthe catch of fish, while the poet dreams and communes with the mighty\n\ndeep.\nIn pursuance of this attempt to discriminate between conflicting state-\n\n"}
{"page": 72, "printed_page": null, "text": "62\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nments of history and rightly to interpret the records, we must learn to\ntake only the best that each historian gives. Familiarity with the historian shows us where he is at his best, and wherein we must take his\nWe trust him where he is strong and reliable,\nutterances with caution.\n\nand we make charitable allowances for his departures from the truth.\nWe use the writer as an authority only in those fields of research wherein\nMatthew Arnold condemns as unphilosophical the citahe is a master.\ntion of Luther as an authority on the Athanasian creed, declaring that\nLuther’s\nwe might as well cite him as a witness on the origin of species.\nof consense\nthe\nof\nrevival\nthe\nbut\ndogma,\nspecialty was not speculative\nAnd he should be used as an\nscience and personal responsibility.\nauthority in his own field.\nHistory opens to us the study of the development of mankind, rather\nof the connected series of developments through which the human race\nhas passed in all its various branches.\nAs the view sweeps beyond the\nobstacles that retard that development and discovers all the streams from\nmany sources that contribute to that progress, we learn what are the\nunderlying foundations and forces of civilization.\nThis breadth of view\nbegets confidence on the great world movement that sets toward better\nthings. Such conceptions are needful in the study of universal history.\nThe failure and ruin of former civilizations, the eclipse of learning during\nthe dark ages, the reappearance of barbaric ideas in modern life, and\neverything that seems to contradict the law of progress, are not to be\nmistaken for the mighty current of Time’s river, but are the eddies and\nwhirlpools which seem to set backward, but which only betray the volume\nand momentum of the stream.\nThere are troublesome problems involved in the conditions of life\ntoday.\nWe must face them, and those who are now entering upon\nmaturity must treat them with prudence and wisdom ; the emergency cannot be postponed.\n‘There is call for greater intelligence in the citizen\nand abler statesmanship in our public officials than were required before.\nAmerica, while occupying the coin of advantage, must produce a population qualified to grasp and use the golden opportunity.\nWe seek to fit the children of today for citizenship tomorrow.\nTo\ncombat the political pessimism that is rife, and to save from gloomy\nbrooding over the discouraging aspects of modern life, nothing is more\nhelpful than an acquaintance with history. It corrects those half-way\nviews of human affairs which men inevitably form by knowing only their\nimmediate surroundings, without realizing the heritage from the past\nwhich they enjoy, and the steady amelioration of their lot through the\noperation of natural laws, economic and social. The preachers\nof calainity,\npolitical, industrial, or social, are usually ignorant of the great world\nmovement upward.\nTheir “hind sight” is as poor as their foresight.\nIf\n\nge\nlh\nISi\nR\nTT\nMS\n\n"}
{"page": 73, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nSTUDY\n\nOF HISTORY\n\nIN OUR\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n63\n\nwe would make good citizens, informed as to the nation’s sources of\nstrength, loyal and hopeful, let us teach them their duty to the future by\nshowing them the rugged path their forefathers trod, that they may\nemulate every noble virtue.\nWhat may we not hope from this generation\ncoming upon the field of action, if they are filled with gratitude to the\nfathers, with loyalty to the nation’s highest ideals, and with a lofty sense\nof duty due to those who come after.\nHence I repeat what I said at first, that the prominent place assigned\nat last to history in our educational system is a most encouraging feature.\nWe are justified in reposing more confidence in the capacity and good\nprinciples of the rising generation from knowing that they are schooled\nin the lessons and experience of the past, derived from the great storeIn our political campaigns, despite all the animosity\nhouse of history.\nand partisan heat engendered, we may believe that the nation’s conscience\nand patriotism are aroused.\nAs during the recent campaign men felt\nthat the country’s honor must be vindicated, and her institutions of law\nand order must be upheld, and they were united in spirit by bonds of a\nglorious ancestry of pilgrim memory and of revolutionary fame.\nChil‘dren taught in the public schools remembered that the nation was planted\nin the fear of God, that its independence was established through the\nbaptism of blood, that its public policy had never been stained by repudiation, and, so apprehending their-duty in the present, they reaffirmed\nthe honor and integrity of the nation.\nThe method of teaching history now commands our thought.\nIt is of\nprime importance that proper arrangement of the subject-matter and true\nmethods of instruction be followed. It is quite possible that the excellent\nresults we have spoken of should fail to be attained through injudicious\nand faulty methods.\n‘The possibilities of good in this field do not come\nwithout painstaking care and resourceful skill on the part of the teacher,\ncalling forth the best efforts of the child.\nIn fact, something of the same\nkeen apprehension and discrimination that are needful in pursuing the\nstudy of history is also quite as needful in directing the study of another.\nFirst, as to the subject-matter.\nIt is overwhelming in volume and\nelaborateness of detail.\nIt is of infinite complexity in nature and interChronicles, biography, literature, progress of philosorelation of parts.\nphy\n\nand\n\nscience, law, civil institutions\n\nand\n\ncustoms, together\n\nwith\n\nthe\n\nphysical features of the inhabitable lands and their products in successive\nages, with other\n\nmatter, call\n\nfor treatment.\n\nThe\n\nteacher\n\nmust\n\nnot lose\n\nhimself in the wealth of riches, nor fail to keep due proportion in the\nInstruction should progress from facts known to\nchoice of material.\nthose that lie just beyond the horizon of knowledge, from the simple to\nHistory is so manifold, much of it being above the\nthe complicated.\nchild, because beyond his experience, that it requires\na\nof\ncomprehension\n\n"}
{"page": 74, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n64\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\na particular faculty in the teacher so to handle his theme as to be perYet, as the chief theme of history is man, and as all\nfectly understood.\npupils feel something of the meaning of individual life, and respond most\nreadily to the story of one person’s struggles, defeats, and victories, so it\nwould follow that biographies should first engage the pupil’s mind. The\nsimpler mode of life will be more easily understood, and so characters\nlike Abraham or Joseph or Moses are easier for younger children to study\nthan are the lives of the great Frederick, or Napoleon, or even Washington. Moreover, biography creates the true impression in the pupil’s mind\nas to what history is. Progress may be made by selecting the hero of\neach people for familiar study, and, gathering further facts from geography, a beginning is made in the general outline of universal history.\nThe more systematic study of national history would naturally begin with\nour own land, and the interest and zeal of the pupil should be unabated.\nMake it a matter of pride and patriotism to know our nation’s history.\nLamentable ignorance exists, sometimes among intelligent people, of the\nheroic and classic periods of our country’s history.\nPatriotism cannot\nexist with ignorance. The pupils who enter our secondary schools should\ncome with some knowledge of the greatest men of all ages, not, of course,\nwith matured and wide knowledge, but they should know who were the\ngreatest men, in what was their power, how they won success, and in what\nIt is possible even in the elementary\nrespects they should be emulated,\nschools that children by the teacher’s aid should hold communion with\nthe warriors\n\nthe men\n\nand\n\nstatesmen,\n\nof inventive\n\nthe scholars\n\ngenius who\n\nand\n\nhave won\n\npoets\n\nfrom\n\nand\n\nNature\n\norators,\n\nand\n\nsome of her\n\nsecrets.\n\nSecondly, as to methods of teaching history. Let us bear in mind that\nhistory is not a mere record of facts, of events in the order of occurrence,\nregisters\n\nof wars, kings, dates ; but that it is a continual development of\n\nthe conditions of mankind, a grand organic unfolding of human life, and\nthat every tribe and people in every age and clime have contributedin some\nmeasure to help or to hinder the great world movement.\nNot that every\nevent belongs to history and is worth recording and studying.\nPerhaps\nnothing and no man is wholly insignificant ; but one event may serve as\nrepresenting many, and one man may be the type of a community. There\nare thousands of men and a multitude of happenings with which history has\nlittle or nothing to do. _ To seize upon the truly significant features of any\nage requires talent of high order in the historian.\n‘There are the kernel\nand the shell; there is the permanent power, and there are influences\nwhich are gathered up in mightier movements and lose their individuality.\nTo see what really deserves mention we must correctly estimate relations.\nWe must climb to some eminence from which we may look down upon\nthe whole area, and thus discover what is little and what is large. Then\n\na\n\n"}
{"page": 75, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nSTUDY\n\nOF HISTORY\n\nIN OUR\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n65\n\nevery event falls into its proper place, there is coherence of parts, and we\nhave an intelligent grasp of the situation studied.\nGood instruction in history has a most stimulating influence on the\nintellectual powers of the pupil.\nIdeas, seed thoughts, are supplied, and\nthe pupil is taught where to find more.\nThe reason is quickened to see\nhow important events had their origin in a multitude of minor causes,\nhow the largest schemes and preparations came to naught ; and quickly\nthe interested child asks, how? why?\nThe effects of abundance and\nwant, of war and of long-continued peace, of unearned success and of disappointed hopes, supply unlimited incentives to study.\nThese and a thousand other circumstances call into healthful activity\nthe mental powers of the pupil.\nHe should be led to think for himself.\nIn morals, as in science, one owns only so much as he has won by individual effort; no one can become either learned or virtuous by proxy.\nThe pupil in the study of history, as in every other study, must do the work\nof thinking, comparing, associating events together.\nHe is not to repeat\nthe words of the text-book or those of his teacher, but is to utter his ideas\n\nin his own language.\nLet him learn to keep in mind the contemporary\nevents of the nations, and, while studying these things, let the literature of\nthe age be called to mind, that he may gradually learn to place a true\nestimate upon literature.\n\nIt will be necessary to require the memorizing of some things.\nExactness and thoroughness here will be a great saving ever afterwards.\nNames and dates ought never to be confused. Many dates should be known\nas well as the multiplication table ;but they should be known for definite\nreasons and for important associations, and not for themselves alone.\nIt\nshould not be overlooked that names and dates are the memory hooks on\nwhich to accumulate related matter.\n\nIf we have no fixed facts, our mental\n\nstorehouse will be a disordered cluster of tangled ideas. Yet it isno mark\nof scholarship for the pupil to recite fluently a long list of figures, towns,\nwars, castles,\n\nkings,\n\ntreaties, or even\n\nif he is able\n\nto tell many\n\nthings\n\nthat occurred, without knowing why they came about or what followed.\nThere is just one available preventative of these errors, and of all\nmechanical and lifeless teaching, and that is the personality of the\nteacher.\nThere must be the guiding mind in all the pupil’s thinking.\nThe\n\nliving word\n\nof the\n\nteacher,\n\nhis looks,\n\nhis animation,\n\nand. actual\n\ninterest in what he says, his explanations given just when they are needed,\nmake impressions on the pupil’s mind more vivid and lasting than the\nbest book can produce.\nHow great is the pity that the drama of human\nlife, the poetry, the comedy, the tragedy, the romance, the epic, the soul-\n\nstirring record of heroic achievement, should ever be conned\ndry, disagreeable\n\ntask, or should\n\nthetic, perfunctory way!\n\never\n\nover as a\n\nbe taught in a lifeless, unsympa-\n\nThe teacher has the mastery of the situation ; he\n\n"}
{"page": 76, "printed_page": null, "text": "~~\n\nNATIONAL\n\n66\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n[General\n\nASSOCIATION\n\ncan use his opportunity or let it escape. And according to his success in\nguiding will be the verdict of his pupils upon the value of history and the\nNot methods, books, apparatus, nor Bee\nprofit they gain therefrom.\nscience they represent, can make students of children, but the personality\nof the teacher can do this. More impressive than his words, speak his\npersonal\n\nbearing,\n\nmanners, works,\n\nand\n\nthe\n\nman\n\nor the woman\n\nbehind\n\nthem all. The young are given to imitating the example of others, and\nThe teacher of history, therefore,\nthereby justifying their own deeds.\nto do much, but he should be\nable\nbe\nshould not only know much and\nto influence his pupils most\norder\nin\nmuch and possess much in himself,\nworth, that the pupil,\nsterling\nof\nman\nLet him be a true\neffectively.\nhip of the men\nhero-wors\nn\nlaudable\na\nwhile imbibing from his instructio\nrespect, even\nof\nworthy\none\nfor\nhome\nof past ages, may also look nearer\nof admiration.\n\nFor each of us, though of lowly station, may stand\n\nthe great and good\npolitical, and religious\n\nof all time, upon\n\nthe eternal\n\nwith\n\nprinciples of social,\n\ntruth and liberty, to hold fellowship\n\nforever\n\nwith\n\nnoble souls.\nThe teacher should encourage in the pupil the habit of seeking and\ndetecting moral principles and their operation.\nFor this is the key to the\nplan of the ages. The student misses not only the ethical lessons which\nhe might draw from history, but he reads superficially, untruly, and he\nmisses the fundamental principles controlling the movements and destinies of men, when he is blind to the revelation of moral truth contained\n\nin history. The canon of revealed books is not closed.\nThere is a progressive revelation of God’s truth written and writing every day in the\nmarch of events.\nIt is as trustworthy and clear to the eye of faith and\nhope as is the anciently revealed word written by holy men of old who\nwere taught by the spirit of God.\nSome people take pleasure in detecting what they believe to be the fulfillment of ancient prophecies in\nmodern affairs. The results are somewhat vague and unsatisfactory.\nBut there is nothing vague in the complete demonstration of moral truth,\nthe vindication of eternal ethical laws, the certain consequences of right\nand wrong conduct, promulgated on every page of history. Without\nallowing the directing agency of a wise Providence, history has no unity\nof plan—an interminable confusion of activities ;but giving due allowance for this divine element, we may discover enough of the divine plan\nto warrant the belief that all the past and the future, all men, primitive,\nprehistoric, barbarous, as well as the most highly civilized, are comprehended in one grand development.\nIt is, of course, not the business of pupils in our secondary schools to\nfathom the depths of this plan of all ages, but even such children can\nobserve the doings of the Almighty in eventful epochs.\nNothing speaks more impressively to young or to old than the life\n\n"}
{"page": 77, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nDATA\n\nOF METHOD\n\n67\n\nthat is lived before them.\nAnd when history is properly taught, many\nstrong characters stand forth in clear colors.\nNoble, attractive examples\nof sterling virtue, living realities, wield their proper power over-us, and\nthe hideousness of vice, repellent and ugly, warns away from evil. A\nchild may observe that a national policy which seemed to be™profitable,\nGreat apprehended\nthough morally wrong, finally caused destruction.\nevils proved in the end to be blessings in disguise.\nAt times startling\ninstances are found disclosing the hand of God executing the law\nAnd every event is suggestive, prompting to reflection,\nof retribution.\nwith the result that the great principles are firmly fixed in the pupil’s\nthought.\nThe study of history in our schools should leave the pupil with great\nzest for its further pursuit.\nHe should be more of a thinker than before;\nhe should have made distinct advance in culture, which is the glorious\nend and aim of our whole educational system.\n\nVAI\nBY\n\nJAMES\n\nM.\n\nGREEN,\n\nPRINCIPAL\n\nOF METHOD:\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nTRENTON,\n\nN.\n\nJ.\n\nMethod is a subject of common consideration; it is everywhere under\ndiscussion.\nWhile this subject has the interest of novelty, it is not new.\nIt has been coextensive with human thought.\nThe savage who studied how successfully to present his claims to his\nchief was a disciple of method.\nWhen\n\nSocrates\n\nchose, rather\n\nthan\n\nannounce\n\nhis pupil along the line of an inevitable\nsions, he demonstroted\n\nhis conclusions, to lead\n\nchain of logic to those conclu-\n\nhimself a devotee of method.\n\nMethod may be defined as the way of accomplishing an end, whether\nthat end be the conveying of a truth to the mind of a pupil in the schoolroom, or convincing a jury in the “box,” or influencing an audience in\nthe forum.\nWhile method remained common and untutored, excepting by experience, it was regarded as a matter of course and provoked no adverse criticism, but when schools of method began to be established, whether in law,\n\nmedicine, or theology, controversy arose.\nPerhaps no schools of method have met such formidable opposition\nas those of method in teaching.\nThis latter fact was perhaps due to several causes, among which we may enumerate the following:\n1, They were first established to improve the teaching in the common-school branches, and, being thus engaged in work below the grade of\n\n"}
{"page": 78, "printed_page": null, "text": "68\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n[General\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nthe colleges and universities, were regarded with disrespect by these institutions.\n\n2. Their early teachings were more of the nature of devices than of\nMuch attention was given to such matters as the\nfundamental principles.\nforms in fractions, rather than the relations of fractions\n\nto units and\n\nthe\n\neffects of processes on numbers, or things represented by numbers;\nphonic or alphabetic methods of learning words, rather than the ideas represented by words; silent and oral reading, rather than getting the ideas of\nthe author;\n\naccent, inflection, and\n\nmodulation, rather\n\nthan thought\n\nand\n\nmeaning; sand boards, relief maps, political and physical geography, rather\nthan the real conditions of life; mnemonics, catchwords, and puzzles, rather\n\nthan the natural conditions of mental development.\n3. Perhaps the most serious obstacle to method was found in the\npsychology, so long prevalent, that regarded the mind as an entity that\nreceived ideas as themselves kinds of separate entities or images that\ncame into the mind, rather than as directly or indirectly the resultants of\nnervous excitation.\nWords and symbols were regarded as though they\nconveyed ideas, rather than served as mere stimuli to produce mental\naction of one form or another conditioned on previous mental action.\nWhile this pyschology prevailed, whether consciously or unconsciously,\nit was but natural that there should occur to the mind little necessity for\nscientific plan in conveying ideas.\n4. A further cause of failure to appreciate method was the simple\nmanner of living, the limited social demands of the masses, and the\ntraditional notion of what constituted an education.\nA tremendous change has taken place in the attitude of thought toward\nthis subject.\nA new psychology that regards ideas as the resultants of nervous action\nor excitation, that practically regards mind as directly or indirectly the\nfunction of physiological matter ; an accumulation of knowledge that\nmakes selection and\n\ndiscrimination\n\na necessity;\n\na complex\n\nand compli-\n\ncated civilization that makes conservation and economy of energy essential—have created an activity in planning that has caused some to exclaim,\n“ Method run mad!”\nWe have our public and private normal and training schools in large\nand rapidly increasing numbers, and no college or university foundation\nis considered complete without its chair of pedagogy.\nThe platform and\ndaily and periodical press vie with each other in discussing this subject,\nand the publishing houses are busy issuing libraries of bound volumes\ntreating it in its various phases.\nThe careful student of the platform discussions and press productions\nof the day must be cognizant of the fact that device, patent, and idealism\nhave not yet disappeared.\n\n"}
{"page": 79, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nDATA\n\nOF METHOD\n\n69\n\nWe hear much of a school of Herbartians, the disciples of which seem\nmuch more concerned with promulgating the doctrines of Herbart than\nwith exposing conditions and the means to ends.\nA large number of persons calling themselves kindergarteners seem\nmuch more concerned with the forms and teachings of Froebel than with\nthe demands of the child at a given age in our civilization and under our\nAmerican conditions.\nThere are those who would subordinate the teaching of language to\nthe incidents of the uses of language in expressing ideas upon the various\nsubjects of thought.\nMany there are who would make the teaching of\nnumber incidental to the counting and calculating necessary in the study\nof objects of nature.\nConcentration, co-ordination,\nand correlation are words frequent in the\n\nvocabularies of many teachers, and some there are who would seem to\ndiscover in these words and the processes they represent patent modes of\nthinking that would substitute the natural laws of mental action.\nFar be it from the object of this essay to detract from the value of\nthe contributions of any one or all of these propositions or devices to the\npedagogical thought or agitation of the period, but it must be conceded\nthat they indicate a willingness to engage with phenomena rather than\nwith substance, with incident rather than with fundamental principles.\nThere are two principles of pedagogy that are fundamental, namely,\nthe development of the mind, and the mastery of the environment.\nIf we take these two principles as primary data of method we shall\nfind at once that they are hand maidens and serve as guiding influences\nto direct all our subsequent procedure.\nThey serve as beacon lights lifted\nabove the fogs and shadows that infest many of the specific propositions\nthat, considered\n\nindependently, obscure\n\nour way.\n\nThey\n\nare\n\na kind\n\nof\n\nstandard scale by which we can measure all our schemes of method.\nLet us glance at the significance of these data in their order.\nThe development of the mind implies mind study. By mind study\nis not meant psychology in any abstract or indefinite sense.\nToo often the student of psychology accepts as his standard some\ntext-book on this subject and assiduously peruses and memorizes its contents, learning its definitions of acts and descriptions of processes till he\ndeclares himself ready for an examination and considers himself a psyNothing has been more common in the experience of the\nchologist.\nteachers than the question, “What book do yourecommend\nof\nexaminer\non this subject?”\nHence we hear of the “Old School” and the “ New School” psychologists; of the @ prior? and empirical psychologists, etc.\nSuppose we for a moment transfer our inquiry to botany and ask the\nquestion concerning the violet, To which school do you belong ?\n\n"}
{"page": 80, "printed_page": null, "text": "70\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\niGenetdl\n\nWhat\nAccording to your school, is it a fragrant or odorless flower?\nin\ncultivated\nare its characteristics ? According to your school, can it be\nyour\n\nclimate, and, if so, under what\n\nconditions?\n\nWould it not be much more direct to ask, What do you know about\nthis plant, and to think less of the sources of information about the thing\nthan of the knowledge of the thing itself ?\nReturning again to psychology, we shall know little of the mind till\nwe emancipate ourselves from books.\nNo one more than the writer\nappreciates the value of books as tributaries to the knowledge of subjects;\nlikewise no one less than the author of a good book expects his writings\nto substitute a knowledge of the subject itself.\nThe center of the study must be the child itself, his mental phenomena under given conditions.\nLet us concentrate attention uponthe kind of study of the child that\nwill aid most in teaching.\nIt is not especially biological or physiological.\nThe investigations of the biologist and anatomist have been wonderfully\ninteresting, and have had their value; but, after all, so far as mental devel-\n\nment is concerned, they are of little help. They disclose the physiology\nof the brain and nervous system, distinguish between white and gray\nmatter, between cellular\n\nstructure and\n\nexpose mental energy.\n\n‘They furnish the grounds for certain inferences,\n\nsuch as that, as a rule, the more\n\nbrain\n\nnerve\n\nmatter\n\nfiber, etc., but they do not\n\nthe greater\n\nmental power;\n\nbut they cannot prescribe for the increase of brain matter, or the quality\nof mental energy.\nNo amount of biographical or anatomical investigation will tell how\nto create interest in a dull mind or how to render docile a vicious disposition.\nSociological conditions, heredity, neighborhood traditions, prejudices,\ncustoms, immediate environment, childhood predispositions, health, and\n\nsimilar causes must be largely responsible for the susceptibility or insusceptibility of the learner.\nThe child must be studied for the influence upon it of schoolroom\nconditions.\nHe is here a member of a compact community, in which he\ncan find a congenial element for almost any disposition.\nMischief, sympathy, charity, emulation, ambition, aspiration, imitation, indolence, avarice, deceit, veracity, every impulse of the human breast is here in its germ\nform, or in one or another stage of development.\nWhat are the effects upon him here of the different processes?\nConcert or individual recitation, public or private reproof or encouragement?\nIs he of a sensitive nature, such that public reproof may harden him and\ndestroy his delicate moral fiber rather than improve him, or is his nature\nsuch that only public reproof or encouragement will benefit him?\nHow\ndoes he profit by the different plans in teaching ? Can we reach him\n\n"}
{"page": 81, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nDATA\n\nbest in the particular\n\nOF METHOD\n\ninstance with\n\ndemonstration,\n\ngia\n\nillustration, analysis,\n\nsynthesis, questioning, or lecturing ? What has he gotten from either of\nthese processes ?\nWhat are the child’s mental activities and what the order of their development ? What is the development of the particular child ? When an\nobject is placed before him, can he see it clearly ? How much does he\nHow much can he describe ? What is his hearing power, and\nsee?\nwhat the degree of his power of attention ? When a proposition is read\nto him, can he repeat it correctly, or does he retain but part of it ?\nWhat mental acts are simple and first in order?\nWhat are more and\nstill more complex, and later and still later in their order?\nIt is not necessary to suggest all the questions that arise in the study\nof the child.\nIt is sufficient to indicate that such a study of the child\nas this becomes a basis of every plan of work.\nAll work is adapted as a matter of course, not upon any preconceived\nnotion, but according to the actual mental needs and conditions, just as\nthe skillful physician prescribes a diet and a treatment and a dose, not\naccording to the allopathic, or homeopathic, or any other theory, but\naccording to the needs of his patient as he understands them. ~\nSuch a study of the child draws the interest away from all patent\nmethods or systems as such, and centers it on the needs of the pupil. It\nis no longer the question: Is this practice according to the silent or oral\nmethod, the Swedish or German system, but, Is it best for the mental\n\nor\n\nphysical condition of the learner ?\nThis study of the child becomes the central thought that draws within\nits current and subordinates to it as means to ends all devices and secondary methods or plans.\nOur second\n\nfundamental\n\nprinciple or datum of method, namely, the\n\nmastery of our environment, must be the basis for all selection of subjectmatter.\nIt means the subordination of our surroundings to the uses of\nman, to his highest and best living. This is understood to conflict with\nsome of the theories recently so eloquently and popularly advocated. For\ninstance, a theory of concentration that would select some one subject as\n\nof prime importance and subordinate every other subject to it.\nWhat reason is there, consistent with the final destiny of the human\nsoul, that would warrant preferring one subject to another?\nIf we would\nselect a philosophy that would be a satisfactory basis for our schemes, it\nmust be that the Creator deemed the circumstances of this life suited to the\nultimate purposes of life, whatever they may be.\nThe whole trend of our advancing civilization is to this conclusion.\nWho shall measure the contribution to culture caused by the discovery of\nsteam and electric power, or the invention of the printing press, the spinThink of the relief to the tenening jenny, or the sewing machine?\n\n"}
{"page": 82, "printed_page": null, "text": "72\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nLet the mind\nment districts of our great cities caused by rapid transit.\nand it\ncenturies,\nthe\nof\ninventions\nvarious\nthe\ndwell for a moment upon\nof the\nlment\ndisenthral\na\nslavery,\nof\nion\nwill discover in them an emancipat\nwars.\nthe\nall\nby\nabout\nbrought\nthat\nthan\nhuman intellect greater\nThe significance of this fact lends the richest luster to all students\nwho strive for greater mastery in any of the lines of occupation or human\naction.\nHe who discovers a new law of trade, a more nutritious food, or a new\n\nprinciple in mechanics, or a more fruitful mode of labor, is a nobleman\nworthy a brighter signet than was ever accorded to knight of old.\nWe must distinguish between knowledge in subjects that is general\nThere is a knowland knowledge in subjects that is special oradvanced.\nedge in subjects that is primary, such as the common-school knowledge\nin reading, penmanship, grammar, arithmetic, geography, history, botany,\nzoology, mineralogy, physics, etc.\nThis knowledge must be acquired by all who would be fitted for citizenship or for specialization.\nBut be it observed that in acquiring this\nknowledge, if we would follow the laws of human thought, the attention\nmust be fixed upon the particular subject assigned for the particular period.\nWhen we are teaching number we cannot be teaching plants, and when\nwe are teaching plants we cannot be teaching number.\nEach of the various subjects has its own logical and psychological\nlaws, and the successful treatment of the subject must pay due respect\nto these laws.\nThere is a natural law of the mind, namely, that when it is reading in\nthe study of geography it is gaining power in reading, but this power\nmust not be the object of attention, else it will detract from the knowledge of geography ;so when we are counting the leaves of a plant we are\ngaining power in number, but this power is purely incidental, and must\nnot be the object of attention, else attention is drawn from the plant.\nThere is going on in the mind a natural concentration, but this concentration must not be mistaken for, or substituted by, an artificial\n\ncon-\n\ncentration, else there will be a loss of power in the particular subject of\nattention.\nAll concentration must be in the nature of supplementing the knowledge under consideration, and must in no sense detract from it. If it is\na poem that would strengthen the historical fact, the historical fact must\nbe the center of thought, and not the rhetoric or figure of the poem.\nDuring the period of general knowledge each subject taken up should\nbe treated with regard both to its psychological and logical order.\nIt\nmust be so treated as both to stimulate the natural mental development of\nthe mind and lead to its own higher forms.\nIn every subject the selection of matter should be according to the\n\n"}
{"page": 83, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nCO-OPERATION\n\nOF\n\nWOMAN’S\n\nCLUBS\n\nIN PUBLIC\n\ndemands\n\nof life under our conditions, in the broad sense.\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nAS\n\nThe old notion\n\nof taking extra work in a subject purely for mental discipline is exploded\non the basis of economy of energy.\nThere is sufficient mental discipline\nprovided many times over before we shall have acquired the necessary\nknowledge in the several subjects demanding attention.\nFinally, when the period of specialization is reached, if we would\nrender any service to ourselves and our race, if we would contribute any-\n\nthing to the vast stores of knowledge already acquired, we must be able to\nconcentrate all our powers on the special subject in hand, eliminate from\nit all waste of energy, and contribute to it an original investigation possible only with the best-directed application.\nIt is the conviction of the writer that the great pedagogical need of the\nday is not better methods of blending subjects, but better selection of\n\"matter and direction of energy in subjects.\nThe advanced teacher in history isshowing superior judgment in her\nselection of topics and in her modes of investigation rather than in the\nblending of her subject with others.\nThe mind itself by its own laws of\nassociation will attend to the latter phase.\nThis paper has not attempted to discuss specific methods, but the writer\nis convinced\n\nthat if the mentioned\n\nfundamental\n\ndata are duly regarded,\n\nour store of valuable knowledge will be increased, our energies developed\nand conserved, our lives enriched, and our civilization advanced in all the\n\nintensity of these terms.\n\nTHE\n\nBY\n\nCO-OPERATION\n\nMRS.\n\nELLEN\n\nM.\n\nOF\n\nWOMAN'S\nSCHOOLS.\n\nHENROTIN,\nFEDERATION\n\nCHICAGO,\nOF\n\nCLUBS\n\nIN\n\nTHE PUBLIC\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nWOMAN’S\n\nGENERAL\n\nCLUBS.\n\nThe latter part of the nineteenth century has been distinguished by\ntwo movements: one, popular education; the other, the woman movement.\nIn many ways the two are interdependent, for with the entrance\nof woman into the educational field the cause of primary education has °\n\nbecome paramount; and though Pestalozzi and Froebel originated the\nkindergarten system, both looked to woman to put in practice the theories\nwhich they evolved.\nThe teaching profession has always been a favorite one with woman ;\nin fact, for many years it was the only occupation suited to a gentleThe large percentage of university and college graduates who\nwoman.\nembrace this profession demonstrates that even the opening of other trades\nand professions has not diverted woman from entering this one. This is\n\n"}
{"page": 84, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n74\n\n[General\n\na subject, however, so familiar to such an audience as this that it is unnecessary to enlarge upon it. It is sufficient to say that, while women enter the\nuniversities and colleges in ever increasing numbers, the cause of primary\neducation is still receiving their earnest consideration, and, though with\none hand they reach up for the cap and gown, they hold fast to the little\nchild with the other, thus correlating education as has never before been\ndone.\nA close stuThe woman’s-club movement is distinctly educational.\ndent of social economics said to me the other day that he regarded the\nwoman’s-club movement as one of the most logical developments of the\nnew education that had yet been evolved, because it recognized the fact\nthat education is not limited to the school period, but continues to the last\nday of a man’s life; and that the great department clubs correlated the\nvarious movements in which they are engaged, and thus secured an all-\n\nround view.\nThe history of the woman’s-club movement can be briefly stated:\nForty or fifty years ago woman found herself suddenly on the threshold\nof a new and larger life. The introduction of machinery and great combinations of capital which commenced at that time took from her many\nof the trades and professions which underly the home, and brought her\nface to face with the fact that she must follow those trades and professions\ninto the competitive labor market. It goes without saying that the limited\nand individual training which she had received had illy fitted her to avail\nherself of then existing conditions.\nWomen who are obliged to support\nthemselves learn their lesson in their daily lives, but the large number of\nwomen\n\nwho\n\nlive in their own\n\nhomes, with\n\nsome\n\nleisure, cast about for a\n\nmethod by which they can fit themselves, not only by acquiring a fuller\nknowledge, but also by working in association, to take their part in social\nlife.\n\nThis education\n\nin the woman’s club, and\n\nthe small\n\nliterary clubs\n\nand study classes which have been organized all over the country, are\nthe foundation on which has been built the great club movement.\nFrom\nthe literary club was evolved the department club, with its large membership and constructive work. Perhaps the women’s clubs owe their strength\nto the fact that they realized early inthe history of the movement how vain\n- is knowledge which is not put to use, how harmful is sentiment which is\nnot transmuted into action.\nThe department clubs have been organized into the following sections;\neducation, philanthropy, social\n\neconomics, home, art and\n\nscience, litera-\n\nture and philosophy.\nMany of the purely literary clubs have a department of education.\nI could fill my entire half-hour with a detailed account of what has\nbeen accomplished in the educational field by one or two great department\nclubs whose large membership enables them to influence public opinion ;\n\na\na\n\n"}
{"page": 85, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nCO-OPERATION\n\nOF WOMAN’S\n\nCLUBS\n\nIN PUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n75\n\nbut were I to do this, I should fail to give you an idea of the breadth and\nscope of the educational\n\nwork of the women’s\n\nclubs.\n\nI have, therefore,\n\nconfined myself to the work of the general and state federations.\nIt is\nnow seven years since the general federation of women’s clubs was organized. All clubs are eligible to membership which have no political or\nsectarian test for membership.\nThe first four years of the federation was\nThe charter membernaturally devoted to perfecting the organization.\nship of the federation represented about fifty clubs, and at the biennial, in\n1894, 365 clubs sent delegates, and five state federations, namely, Maine,\nUtah, Kansas,\n\nIowa, and\n\nMassachusetts.\n\nThe\n\nbenefits\n\nresulting\n\nto the\n\nclubs from membership in the general federation had become so obvious\nthat the five state federations had been organized to enable the small clubs\nof the state, which could not afford to join the general federation, to have\nThe meetings of the state federations are held\nthe same advantages.\nannually, while the meetings of the general federation are biennial; that\nof ’92 was held in Chicago; ’94, in Philadelphia; ’96, in Louisville, and\nTo attend these, many of the delegates must\n’98 will be heldin Denver.\ntravel long distances, and the expense of the journey is often great.\nThe meetings of the state federations render it comparatively easy for\ndelegates from small clubs to attend, both as regards the distance and the\n\nexpense.\nThe\n\nformation\n\nof state\n\nfederations was\n\nalso advisable, as the state is a\n\npolitical unit, thoroughly understood, and the people of many states have\ncharacteristics in common, and have the same local needs, so that any one\n\nsystem of study or method of work adopted bya\nable to all the clubs of that state.\n\nare only one or two years\nIowa, one\n\nold, have\n\nof the oldest state\n\nThe state\n\nincreased\n\nfederations, has\n\nstate federation is acceptfederations, most of which\n\nrapidly in membership.\na membership of over 180\n\nclubs.\nThese state federations are all formed auxiliary to the general\nfederation.\nThe work of the general federation from 1894-96 was assisting in the\nformation\n\nof state federations, and\n\nsuch was\n\nthe success\n\nof the move-\n\nment that the following states were organized : New Hampshire, Vermont, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Ohio,\nIllinois, Michigan, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Kentucky, Tennessee, Missouri,\n\nArkansas, Georgia, Colorado, Washington, and the District of Columbia.\n_ The work of the general federation from 1896-98 will be devoted to\nfurthering a knowledge of and an interest in the educational conditions\nof the United States, both in the state and public-school systems.\nAt the biennial in Louisville in 1896 the following motion was unan-\n\nimously adopted:\nResolved, That we recommend to the clubs a study of the science of education and of\n\neducational\n\nconditions\n\nexisting in their cities, to the end that the united influence of\n\n"}
{"page": 86, "printed_page": null, "text": "76\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nwomen’s clubs may be exerted for the betterment of the state system of education from\nthe kindergarten to the university.\nResolved, further, That we specially urge effort to emphasize systematic instruction\nin ethics in the public-school curriculum.\n\nIn furtherance of this action the following committee was appointed :\nChairman, Mrs. Mary E. Mumford, of Pennsylvania; Miss Margaret J.\nEvans, President of the Minnesota state federation and Principal of Carleton College, Northfield;\nAlica\n\nMrs. Electra\n\nBradford Wiles, President\n\nof the\n\nN. Walton, of Massachusetts ; Mrs.\nIllinois\n\nfederation.\n\nMrs. Mum-\n\nford has resigned from the committee on account of her long absence in\nEurope.\nMiss Evans has succeeded her as chairman, and Mrs. Robert\nEmory Park, Chairman of the Educational Committee of the Georgia\nfederation, fills the vacancy caused by Mrs. Mumford’s resignation.\nThat part of the movement which relates to the study of ethics in the\npublic schools was introduced as the result of an able essay by Miss Evans,\nentitled “‘The\n\nPublic\n\nSchools a Moral\n\nFactor in the Nation,” which was\n\nread at the biennial.\nA circular letter was prepared by the committee,\nembodying the suggestion that the clubs should study the state public-school system of education, and when thoroughly acquainted with\neducational conditions should exert their influence to secure needed legislation, good school boards, good superintendents, skilled teachers,\nimproved sanitary conditions of schoolhouses, and should endeavor,\nabove all, to co-operate with the school authorities.\nThe circular recommended that the state federation appoint a committee of three to take\ncharge\n\nof the educational\n\nwork of the state, to issue a circular\n\nletter of\n\nsuggestions, and to arrange a programme for one session on education at\neach annual meeting; and, further, that each club appoint a committee of\nthree, and devote one session or more of the club year to the consideration\nof the public-school system of their locality. These suggestions have been\n\nvery generally adopted by the state federations\n\nand by the clubs of the\n\ngeneral federation, and, as facts speak louder than words, I will endeavor\n\nto give a concise résumé of the work undertaken in the cause of education by the state federations.\nEvery state federation has thus far carried out the suggestion that one\nsession of each annual meeting should be devoted to a consideration of\nthe educational status of the state.\nTo the state of Maine belongs the honor of having been the first federation to inaugurate the study of the educational work, and Mrs. Woodward, of Bangor, was the first chairman of an educational committee.\n\nThe\n\npresident, Mrs. Briggs, reports that since the formation of the Maine federation great interest in the schools has been aroused; that in response to\na circular asking every club to appoint a committee of women to visit the\nschools in their city or town and to report; that these committees discov-\n\n"}
{"page": 87, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nCO-OPERATION\n\nOF\n\nWOMAN’S\n\nCLUBS\n\nIN PUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nTal\n\nered many school buildings to be in a terrible condition, and that they\nwere changed for the better. <The teachers were encouraged by the interest\nevinced.\nThe president states that the federation will give special attention to the betterment of the rural schools during the official year.\nThe Massachusetts,\n\nNew York, Michigan, and New Hampshire federa-\n\ntions will devote the meetings in the autumn to the consideration of the\nI specially recommend the\neducational status of their respective states.\nprogramme of study which the committee has just issued.\nMiss Gaines, President of the New Jersey federation, reports great\ninterest in education, and that some clubs are maintaining lecture courses\nat nominal\n\nprices on the study of education, literature, and science.\n\nMrs. Wiles, President of the Illinois federation, reports great interest\nin Illinois.\nA circular letter was issued to the clubs in 1895. The Illinois\nwomen have now the school suffrage and also vote for the trustees of the\nstate university.\nThe last two years have shown a wonderful awakening\nin the interest felt in the schools and in the time devoted to visiting them.\nMiss LeBaron, the chairman, credits this in large part to the club influence and to the school suffrage.\nSome clubs report receptions to teachers\nand receptions to parents and teachers.\nMrs. Stoutenborough, President of the Nebraska federation, writes\nthat the resolutions of the general federation have been indorsed, and\nthat special attention will be given to education ; that the women’s clubs\nall over the state are evincing great interest in the subject, and that the\nState Teachers’ Association has invited the co-operation of the women’s\nclubs to assist in the programme of the next annual meeting.\nMrs. Hansford,\n\nPresident\n\nof the Kentucky federation, reports\n\ngrow-\n\ning interest in education, and that the Kentucky legislature has recently\npassed a law allowing women to vote for school trustees.\nThe Washington state federation, whose meeting occured on June 23,\nheld a symposivm on education.\nThe annual meeting occurred so late\nin the month that I am unable to give an account of any action taken.\nMrs. Allen, President of the Missouri federation, reports that a course\nof study has been sent out to all the clubs of the state; that Mrs. Boslog’s\npaper on the “ Child Problem in America,” which excited such enthusiasm\nat the last annual meeting, has been printed and sent to all clubs throughout the state.\nMrs. Morris, President of the Wisconsin state federation, has appointed\na committee consisting of one representative from each congressional\nPapers on state institutions have been sent to the clubs, and\ndistrict.\nneeded changes in the supervision and management of the state schools\nThe clubs are requested to give a session to the\nhave been suggested.\nconsideration of these papers, that they may be in a position to secure\nThe committee has presented a memointelligent and concerted action.\n\n"}
{"page": 88, "printed_page": null, "text": "[General\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n78\n\nrial to Governor Schofield and the State Board of Control, asking for the\nintroduction of a system of manual training in the state school for dependent children at Sparta, and a favorable reply has been received.\nof the\n\nMrs. Thayer, President\n\nColorado\n\nfederation, reports\n\nthat\n\nthe\n\nplan proposed by the general federation has been adopted, and committees\nhave been very generally appointed by the clubs to report on the status\nof education in their localities and to evolve plans for practical work suited\nto the needs of the club.\nThe federated clubs of Denver have established free kindergartens,\nwith baths in connection, and have succeeded in securing the passage of a\nlaw admitting the kindergarten into the public-school system. They have\nalso adopted the system of circulating photographs and reproductions of\nthe best pictures, and holding meetings for the mothers and kindergartens\nin the lower part of the city, providing a programme of music and showing\npictures.\nMothers’ meetings in the public schools have also been organized, where the teachers and parents meet.\nThe teachers, many of whom\nThe State Superinare club women, have organized a teachers’club.\ntendent of Public Instruction and the county superintendent are both\nwomen\n\nand\n\nmembers\n\nof the Denver\n\nWoman’s\n\nClub,\n\nwomen are members of the school board of Denver.\nalso been established, and kitchen gardens.\nMrs.\n\nLowe,\n\nPresident\n\nof the\n\nGeorgia\n\nfederation,\n\nand\n\nseveral\n\nclub\n\nNight schools have\nhas\n\nsucceeded\n\nin\n\naccomplishing almost arevolution throughout the state in the educational\nsystem by the interest awakened through the work of the committee, which\nkeeps in touch with all developments in the educational line suited to the\nneeds of that section. An outline of study was sent out by the committee\nto every club in Georgia.\nThe teachers are co-operating by helping to\nform reading circles throughout the counties, and great success has\nresulted from this movement.\nMiss Evans, of the Minnesota state federation, reports that the subject\nof the teaching of ethics in the public schools and industrial training are\nreceiving careful attention from the clubs. The literary clubs are requested\nto co-operate in cultivating a taste for good literature, and carefully prepared lists of books, suitable\n\nfor children and young\n\npeople, are sent to\n\nthe clubs, to be placed in turn in the hands of teachers and parents.\nPlacards were also placed in the public schools throughout the state, containing simple directions of what to do to beautify the city. One club\nreports that the post mistress has requested copies of the placard for use\nin the post office, and also by the mayor for use in the city hall and council\nroom.\nMrs. Jennings, President of the Utah federation, has appointed a committee on education, and great interest was aroused by the three able papers\npresented at the last annual meeting on the subject of education.\n\n"}
{"page": 89, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nCO-OPERATION\n\nOF WOMAN'S\n\nCLUBS\n\nIN PUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n79\n\nThe state federation in several instances secured the introduction of\nfree kindergartens. Maine has done good work in this respect. New Jersey\nhas encouraged the movement to establish free kindergartens by the clubs\nof the state.\nThese have been organized and maintained by clubs until,\nthe boards of education took charge of them, and in some instances appropriations have been made for their support.\nMrs.\n\nLockwood,\n\nPresident\n\nof the\n\nDistrict\n\nof Columbia\n\nfederation,\n\nreports that the special work of the year is to secure the co-operation of\nthe national and local officers to introduce kindergartens into the publicschool system. The bill is before Congress, and its passage is confidently\nanticipated by the federation.\nThe Arkansas federation is co-operating with the State Froebel\n_ Association to establish a state kindergarten normal school.\nDuring the\ncoming winter several free kindergartens will be established in Little\nRock.\nThe Georgia federation is establishing kindergartens.\nThe Atlanta\nWoman’s Club has supported a school of forty-one pupils the past year.\nIn most of the states the first practical work inaugurated by any club\nwas to establish free kindergartens, and the kindergarten system has no\nmore enthusiastic supporters than the women’s clubs of the country.\nThe indirect result of the study of the school systems and of the wise\naction of the kindergarteners in holding mothers’ meetings has been the\nformation of mothers’ clubs.\nTwenty of these clubs are now making a\nstudy of school subjects in Minnesota.\nQuite a large number of Michigan clubs are doing earnest work in\nthe line of child study. The Illinois federation co-operated with the\nIllinois Society for Child Study, in holding the recent child-study congress\nin Chicago. The Chicago Woman’s Club gave its auditorium to hold meetings, and the federation contributed over two hundred dollars towards the\nexpenses.\nMany kindergartens are supported by the clubs all over the\nstate. The clubs are also interested in the interior and exterior decora‘tion of the schoolhouses.\nThe Woman’s Literary Union of Portland\nraised six hundred\n\ndollars for interior decoration of the schoolhouses, the\n\nco-operation of the school board was secured, the walls of the schoolrooms were decorated, and good prints and photographs were hung on\nthe walls, and the effort made to bring the best that art has to offer to\nthe schools.\nThe art clubs belonging to the New Hampshire federation\nare placing pictures on the walls of schools.\nSome wonderful work is being done in Illinois by clubs hitherto purely\nliterary or artistic in decorating schoolrooms, donating pictures, busts,\nThe musical clubs are taking an interest in the musical\nand bas-reliefs.\nIn Wisconsin the decoration of the schoolhouses\nwork of the:schools.\nhas commenced, and the task of procuring and mounting good repro-\n\n"}
{"page": 90, "printed_page": null, "text": "80\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n[General\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nductions of the best pictures has been taken up by the club women, especially in Sparta and Berlin.\nThe Northfield clubs of Minnesota have made a collection of sixty\ngood copies of classic art to represent the history of art. These pictures\nmake a valuable addition to a school library.\nThe clubs have not been backward in securing legislation for the\nThe Maine federation represented twenty-four bills to\nschool system.\nthe last legislature\n\nto secure\n\nbetter conditions\n\nin the public schools, and\n\nIllinois has been interested in securing legistwenty-two were passed.\nThe Missouri federation prepared a bill to the legislature asking\nlation.\nthat the law be so amended that women be allowed to serve on school\nboards.\nThis bill passed the house, but was lost in the senate.\nThe next\nlegislature will, however, surely pass the bill. The Georgia federation\nhad a bill before the legislature, which has been favorably reported by the\neducational committee, to open all appointments of educational offices to\nwomen.\nThis federation has also a petition before the trustees of the\nstate university to admit women as students, and soon a bill to secure\nthis will be presented to the legislature.\nTwenty of the state federations have reported on their educational\nwork.\n\nVermont,\n\nPennsylvania,\n\nOhio, and\n\nIowa\n\nare\n\nengaged\n\non\n\nother\n\nlines of work, as town and village improvement associations, and public and\ntraveling libraries.\nSo much has been accomplished by the federations in\nestablishing public and traveling libraries that it would be necessary to\nwrite a separate paper to give a detailed account of what has been done\non this line.\nThe great problem of today is the correlation of life, and educators\nare devoting all their energies to the correlation of studies and of the\ndifferent grades of instruction.\nIt is now time to begin the process of\nthe correlation of working powers and the conservation of energy which\nwould result from such correlation.\nSo much work is being duplicated\nbecause we are not willing to co-operate and learn each of the other.\nThe interest in education which is evinced by women should be utilized\nby the National Educational Association, and by the powerful influence\nexerted by these two organizations there could be secured for the public\nschool the very best that can be obtained, in school buildings, text-books,\nliberal salaries, teachers’ pensions, skilled teachers, and necessary appropriations.\n\nI venture to make a few suggestions in regard to the co-operation\nwhich can be extended by the women’s clubs in aiding the teachers.\nFirst, in the rural schools—and this plan was suggested by the Commissioner of Education in his address in Boston before the home congress.\nThe largest number of children receive their education in the rural\nschools, and it is very difficult to assist the children when they once leave\n\n"}
{"page": 91, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nCO-OPERATION\n\nschool, which, even\n\nOF\n\nWOMAN’S\n\nCLUBS\n\nunder the most favorable\n\nIN PUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n81\n\ncircumstances, they usually\n\ndo at the age of thirteen or fourteen.\nAlmost every child at that age\nhas developed a taste for some one thing, and a committee- of the\nwomen’s\n\nclub\n\nof\n\nthe\n\nlocality\n\ncould,\n\nby consultation\n\nwith\n\nthe\n\nteacher,\n\ndirect the reading of the pupil in that line. It is impossible to ask the\nteacher to do this alone.\nAll over the country, even in the rural districts,\nthe schools are overcrowded, and the tendency continually to introduce\nnew branches of study overworks the teachers, so that no extra burThe members of a town or village\nden should be placed on them.\nclub can, with comparative ease, acquaint themselves with the home needs\nof the children, and very little exertion would enable them to collect\na school library. Under their direction the child could continue his\neducation after leaving school, and through books an element of intellectual enjoyment would be introduced into the family, which would be\nthe saving of many a young life. Traveling libraries could be utilized\nfor the benefit of the schools if the teacher could secure some outside\nassistance, and this is a practical way for the members of the educational\ncommittee\n\nof the woman’s\n\nclub to evince\n\ntheir\n\ninterest\n\nin the\n\nschools.\n\nThe Superintendent of Public Instruction of Georgia and the county\nsuperintendents have co-operated with the club women and teachers in\nthat state, organizing reading circles in the school districts.\nAt Hinsdale, in Illinois, is a unique experiment conducted by the\nwoman’s\n\nclub\n\nof that\n\nplace, in a night school.\n\nIt is almost a memorial\n\nto the woman who organized it, as she died a few months after the school\nstarted.\nThis lady had a young girl in her employ who was very intelligent, and who often seemed at a loss what to do with her evenings.\nIn\nthinking it out the lady evolved the plan of the night school, and, in\nconsultation with her friends, found there was a number of young girls\njust beyond the school age upon whose hands the evening hung heavy.\nThere was a new public-school building in the town, and the board of\neducation granted the use of a room with heat, light, and janitor service.\nThe school began its session with about twenty pupils and two teachers,\nbut within a week so numerous were the applications for admittance that\nProfessor William C. Paine, principal of one of the schools in Chicago,\nwas asked to take charge of it. In addition to the boys and girls who\ntook\n\nsome\n\nof the\n\nmore\n\nadvanced\n\ncommon-school\n\nstudies, there was\n\na\n\nlarge class of young men and women who wished to continue their\neducation, and most surprising of all was an application from thirty\npeople of foreign birth who desired to perfect themselves in the English\nThere are now over a hundred pupils, and the school sessions\nlanguage.\nare held three evenings a week and are two hours long. There is no\ncharge for tuition, even the books and other necessaries are furnished\nfree. This plan is so simple that it is surprising that other towns and\n\n"}
{"page": 92, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n82\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nvillages have not thought of it, and its success is a proof of how greatly\nThe expense is small, as most of the teaching is gratuitous.\nit is needed.\nAnother excellent plan would be for a state federation, or for any club\nwhich could afford it, to engage a good speaker on education, who could\ngive practical suggestions, to speak before clubs and teachers’ meetings\nand present plans of co-operation.\nThe general officers of the state federation and the educational committee should be invited to attend state and county teachers’ meetings,\nand teachers will find them intelligent listeners and willing learners.\nI welcome the fact that mothers’ classes are being formed all over the\ncountry in connection with the work of the women’s clubs.\nMrs. Bourland, of Pontiac, Ill., has evolved what is, in my opinion, the best plan yet\n\nsuggested\n—a conference of fathers, mothers, and teachers.\nThis idea\nis in the line of the correlation of forces.\nThe child was not born into\nthe home to be educated by the mother alone, and any child educated without the co-operation in the school and home of both men and\nwomen has received but a one-sided and limited development. Above all,\nthe child should not feel that education is an experiment.\nAll those clubs which are able to do so should invite the teachers to\ntheir receptions and field days, and the superintendents and principals of\nthe city in which the state federation meets should also be invited to\nattend the educational session.\nThis would not only be of advantage to\nthe club members, but it would also raise the profession of teaching in\nthe estimation of the public.\nThe\n\nvacation\n\nschools\n\ncould be, in some\n\nof the smaller\n\ncities and in\n\nvillages, inaugurated by the women’s clubs.\nI have always regretted\nthe adjournment of the clubs for so long a summer vacation, and\nthink that committees\n\nmight hold over to further the movement towards\n\nvacation schools and directed play for the children.\nThe long summer vacations are more or less demoralizing for both parents, teachers,\nand children, and the formation of such schools on wise and helpful\nlines would be of inestimable benefit to the whole community.\nThe practical supervision of schoolhouses, and especially of the sanitary regulations, is a work which it is important for women’s clubs to\nundertake.\nThe superintendents and teachers are often unable to secure\nneeded reforms in this direction from the school boards.\nIt needs an\noutside influence.\n\nThis\n\nis so in the rural districts, where the schools are\n\nrarely visited ; these schools are often in so unsanitary a condition that it\nis hardly possible to send a child from a decent home to such a place.\nThe women of the community by united effort can have the grounds\nsurrounding a school put in order and the outhouses in decent condition. All the good instruction given in the school is vain unless\ndecency characterizes the outward semblance.\n\nPat\n\n"}
{"page": 93, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFROM\n\nA PUBLISHER'S\n\nSTANDPOINT\n\n83\n\nA word as to the committees of visitation.\nVisiting the schools is\noftener done in the spirit of investigation than of visitation, and women\nwho intend to go to the schools in such a spirit had better stay at home.\nThe best teacher shows to disadvantage under criticism, and anyone listening to a class in a critical attitude affects both teacher and pupil. I\nregret, myself, any tendency to report on the personnel of the school. It\nseems wiser to me to report on the school from a general point of view,\nrather than from the personal, and I am sure that teachers can assist this\nby their attitude toward visitors; and, by consultation with parents and ;\nbe helped, because no one person or no one\n\ncommittees, can themselves\n\nprofession has spoken the last word of wisdom, and it is for this reason\nthat I so earnestly urge your co-operation with the educational committees of the federation.\nThey need you, your practical experience, your\nunselfish\n\ndevotion, your\n\npatience, your\n\nexact knowledge;\n\nand you need\n\nthem, their influence on public opinion, their co-operation with you both\nin the schooJroom\n\nand\n\nin the\n\nhome;\n\nabove\n\nall, each\n\nneeds\n\nthe other\n\nin that spirit of reciprocity which is the foundation of the federation.\nAnd more than all else, the child needs this co-operation, that he may no\nlonger have the divided sense, but may know that the parent and teacher,\nhome and school are working together to insure a broad and harmonious\ndevelopment, which goes with the law and authority of life.\n\nEDUCATION\nBY\n\nGILMAN\n\nFROM\n\nH. TUCKER,\n\nA PUBLISHER'S\n\nAMERICAN\n\nBOOK\n\nSTANDPOINT.\n\nCOMPANY,\n\nNEW\n\nYORK\n\nCITY.\n\nOn behalf of the fraternity of schoolbook publishers, I desire, first of\nall, to recognize the honor you have done our craft by courteously\naccording us a place on your programme.\nYou have doubtless long\nregarded us as a legitimate “third estate” on the outside of the great\ncouncils of education.\nYou now ask us to publicly justify our interest in\nall*these special topics of thought which year by year draw together these\ngreat educational assemblages, and it is a welcome privilege to respond.\nThe publishers are, of course, regarded primarily as a commercial\nbody ; but their semi-public functions toward the teachers and the schools\nwould be very poorly performed if limited by the narrow view of mere\nOur business has another side, recognized by every\nmerchandising.\nintelligent publisher, so that in its true, broad, and ideal scope it is\nwholly at one with the spirit which animates the best work of the teacher\nand superintendent in carrying forward the great work of public education.\n\nWe, therefore, feel that there should be the utmost sympathy at all\n\n"}
{"page": 94, "printed_page": null, "text": "84\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\npoints between the makers and the users of schoolbooks, and that everything which can lead to a clearer and more complete understanding is an\neffectual contribution to a common cause.\nGENERAL\n\nCONSIDERATIONS.\n\nThe relation of schoolbook publishing to the schools, or to the broader\nsubject of education, offers many interesting. points. The development\nof the business of text-book publishing, say in the past hundred years,\nin the nations which are foremost in education, if its full history could\nbe presented, would mark in detail the steps of progress in education\nitself; but this would be most emphatically true of the United States,\nwhich almost merits the distinction of being the inventor of text-books.\nWhen we compare the numbers and kinds of text-books published in our\nown country for the use of schools, say fifty years ago, with those that\nare published today—a comparison of hundreds with thousands—we\nrealize what an increasingly large part books hold in our educational\nscheme, and what an enlarged influence and responsibility have come to\nthe publisher. This great multiplication of books may not be an unmixed\ngood, but that it is, on the whole, an enormous\n\neducational\n\nhelp, no one\n\nwill be rash enough to deny; and this state of things-has come about in\nresponse to the demand which you, as leaders of educational thought,\nhave created; so that at the bottom the responsibility and the credit are\nyours.\nThe question of the use and misuse of text-books is wide and deep,\nand has itself been the origin of many books and endless discussion.\n\na\nAes\nea\n\nSome cynic, I believe, has even raised the point whether the invention of\n\nthe art of printing has, on the whole, been a blessing to the human race;\nbut nevertheless text-books have remained, and their use has increased.\n\nThe speller was at one time banished from what was regarded as the\nprogressive school; the mental arithmetic had a like fate; technical\ngrammar has suffered somewhat of an eclipse; but books on even these\nsubjects are finding their way back into favor with the leaders.\nThe just\ncriticism made upon the books of the old time, and upon a certain class\nof books devoted to the older methods, was that they enslaved the schools\nand teachers by a dry routine, and furnished the letter which killeth, and\n\nnot the spirit which maketh alive. But this is not true of the books chiefly\nin use in this country today. It may be stated as the truth, that books of\nthis description are now used only by those who have not educated themselves up to the use of better standards and better methods; that the\nnumbers are somewhat\n\nlarge, however, is not the fault of the publisher,\n\nwho simply fulfills the office of supplying the demand.\nThe fountain\ndoes not rise above its source.\nBut with increased numbers of books\nhave come great improvements in methods, and especially a great\n\n|El\nA\nSe\ne\n\n&A\nOr\nW\nOM\n\n"}
{"page": 95, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFROM\n\nA PUBLISHER'S\n\nSTANDPOINT\n\n85\n\nimprovement in the manner of using such books.\nWhere formerly there\nwere fifty or a hundred books forming a chain of routine which practically\nenslaved the schools, there are now thousands of books, but they are used\nby skillful teachers as the handy and efficient tools of their profession. *\nThe question about text-books today is only one of form and method.\nAnd here there is nothing fixed or absolute; changes in methods of\nteaching, fashions, fads, whims, are always in evidence and moving on, not\n\nalways\n\nmarking\n\nof real progress, possibly oftener going round\n\nsteps\n\ncircles ;but they are an indication of life in education.\n\nin\n\nMovement is life,\n\nand stagnation is death.\nIt does not follow that all old schoolbooks\n\nare bad, and\n\nthat all new\n\nones are good.\nWhat could be more foolish than not to hold on to so\nmuch of the world’s experience as has been proved valuable up to the\npresent time?\nConservatism must be joined with radicalism if a wise\nbalance is to be held.\n\n»’\n\nIn the world’s literature it is the old and standard,\n\nthat which has really become crystalized, that comprises the chief value.\nIs it too much to say that there are old and standand text-books that\ncan be very little improved upon, and that there are methods which have\nhad the vogue of years that cannot summarily be set aside because something else is simply new?\nBooks on literature, like school readers, must\npresent virtually the same matter; it is only their form, and not their\nsubstance, that can be changed.\n‘The principles of mathematics remain\nthe same; language, literature, history always present the same facts;\npolitical, social, and metaphysical subjects do not vary much. The natural\nsciences have the same basis, and only need to keep pace with new discoveries and modern discussion.\nAnd it must also be ever remembered\nthat the text-books which make the most efficient tools in the hands of\nteachers of a high degree of ability and skill often prove very sorry instruments in the hands of another class of teachers not so intelligent or\n_ skillful.\nThere is also another practical fact known to publishers—that books\nregarded as of a very high degree of meritin one part of the country are\nnot at all acceptable in another part. The character of communities, of\nwidely separated states or sections—in other words, the environment—\nis found practically to be a governing element in the choice of kinds of\ntext-books.\nThis happens sometimes even in different parts of the same\nstate, and is a matter not easily explainable. These idiosyncrasies perhaps\ngrow out of the freedom of our republican life. Communities are\naccustomed\n\nto take care of themselves with the utmost freedom, in their\n\nown peculiar ways; as one might say, it is in accordance with the genius\nof our institutions.\nBooks of real merit have a certain personality, and, like persons, they\nattract or repel. The ideal education comes from a contact of person-\n\n"}
{"page": 96, "printed_page": null, "text": "wede\nNATIONAL\n\n86\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nalities, of mind with mind; the live teaching force is always the feacher\nThe pre-eminent teacher can sometimes put the best part of\nhimself.\nhimself into a book, and so the book\n\nbecomes characteristic.\n\nThere are\n\nreally living books, attractive, popular, successful within their own circles,\nand yet indescribable, but containing certain elements of individuality or\npersonality, such as distinguished the intelligent, clear-headed, magnetic\nThey have a flavor that attracts and impresses, and which\nteacher.\nendows the subject with a living speech.\nThere is a shallow and dangerous popular belief, unhappily now rife\nin many states and communities, that a schoolbook is only so much paper,\nprint, and binding, and that anybody can produce it at short order, at its\nmere mechanical cost, and that the results produced by its use in schools\nwill be just as satisfactory as the use of any book whatever.\nThis is an\nemphasis of the evil of text-book routine in its worst form. State uniformity, state publication, state contracts in the interest of mere cheapness are\nits outcome.\nI have referred to the makers of schoolbooks as authors,\nand not editors, because the real schoolbook is a creation; the best\n\nthought that can be put into printed pages, in the most skillful form that\ngenius can contrive, under the great stress of competition to produce the\nmost excellent, is none too good to help out and supplement the teaching\nabilities of the average teacher, and give life and reality to the subject\ntaught.\nSuch books can be produced only where there is the freedom of\nan open and ambitious competition, and where, without fear or favor,\nmerit\n\nshall win, and where the rewards of success are worth\n\nstriving.\n\nthis intense\n\nAnd every publisher knows to his dear cost how much oftener\n\nhe fails than succeeds, even under this condition.\nThe modern\n\nAmerican text-book, the last product of text-book evolu-\n\ntion, is in all ways a marvel of the art of book making.\nIn the first place\nthe publisher and the author are on a keen and persistent hunt to find\neach other; the publisher, to find the one appointed man or woman best\nqualified and equipped to write the best possible book on a given subject,\nor the best from a given standpoint—and there may be several worthy\nstandpoints; and the author, or army of would-be authors, to find a publisher ready to print, and competent to push into circulation, the book\nwhich he believes will improve, even to the point of revolutionizing, the\nteaching of his favorite subject, and bring him fame and fortune.\nWhen\nthis junction has been effected, then come into use all the facilities which\na completely organized publishing house can command to bring out the\nbest product.\nFirst, there is careful and skillful editorial supervision,\nwhich performs a great part in shaping and adapting material which most\noften comes to hand like a diamond in the rough; next there are not\nomitted such pictorial illustrations as explain and emphasize the text, and\nsuch diagrams, plans, and maps as tend to make clearer and more com-\n\n"}
{"page": 97, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFROM\n\nA PUBLISHER'S\n\nSTANDPOINT\n\n87\n\nplete the impression aimed at. The work of editor and artist is then\nsupplemented by the finest art of the printer and the binder, and thus the\nattractive and substantial book finally appears.\nJust as the American\npublic school differs from the public schools in Germany, in England, in\nFrance, in Canada, by its spontaneity, the freshness\n\nof its methods, and\n\nits strongly marked individuality in its local habitat, so the product of\ntext-books in the United States differs from the product of text-books in\nother lands.\nTHE\n\nPUBLISHER’S\n\nRELATION\n\nTO\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPROGRESS.\n\nThe part of the publisher is both to follow and to lead, to supply the\nwant that exists and to create a new and better want.\nThe first and\nobvious duty of the publisher is to supply the existing demand, and this\nin a way takes care of itself.\nThe publisher’s second and higher duty is\nconstantly to watch the steps of educational progress and provide books\nwhich will, at the same time, create and fulfill a better and higher demand;\nand, stimulated by an ambition to lead and excel, this the progressive and\n\nlive publisher isalways doing.\nThe editorial department of a well-organized publishing house keeps a close watch over educational tendencies, the\ndevelopment of this or that educational theory, the exemplification of this\nor that phase of teaching, the doings of this or that particular group of\nenthusiastic, growing teachers.\nIt is easy to see what a close relation\nmust exist between the editorial department and the teaching world to\nbe able to form a correct judgment of the hundreds of manuscripts that\nare presented for inspection.\nThis is an age of great transition, and in no department of life’s work\nis transition so evident asin methods of teaching.\nThe present tendencies\n\nand\n\ntransitions, wise and unwise, old and new, are sifted, put into\n\nform, and given to the educational world by such epoch-making reports\nas that of the Committee of Ten, the Committee of Fifteen, the Committee\non Rural Schools.\nThe editorial department must be in close touch with\nthese reports, with the doctrines contained, with the philosophy preached,\nand must seek to materialize them in such a way as to make them usable\nin the schools.\nPublishers study the educational sentiment and crystallize it into\ndefinite shape, providing text-books having acommon basis, thus tending\nto assist in unifying the educational interests of the whole country.\nWhatever interests educators interests publishers; the same problems\nconfront both; both should be equally alert, active, and ready to take up\n\nimprovements; if anything, the interest of the publisher is keener in\nthese improvements than the interest of any. individual. Unless the\nUnless he keeps\npublisher plans wisely his whole capital is jeopardized.\nin touch with the newest and best educational thought, embraces the good\n\n"}
{"page": 98, "printed_page": null, "text": "83\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nand brings it to the front, and makes his house the headquarters for the\nbest that is to be had, he loses prestige, he loses business, he loses profits,\nHence, apart from any\nand must inevitably go to the wall in time.\nhigher motives, the publisher is compelled by his pecuniary interests to\nkeep to the forefront of educational progress.\nThe course of text-book publishing is an evolution, following closely\nYour deliberations here today\nthe trend of educational discussion.\nThe publisher is a clearing\ndetermine the text-books of tomorrow.\nhouse of educational ideas. A superintendent in a good place may do\nmuch by his individual effort. He preaches his doctrine, presents his\nviews, guards with watchful care his own schools and his own teachers.\nThe publisher gathers the personal views and personal influence of the\nbest educators in all parts of the country and draws them together,\ncrystallizes their thought in books, and by distributing those books\nthroughout the country multiplies a thousandfold the influence of any\nindividual educator.\nThe publisher is a conservator of educational interests.\nThe personality of an active teacher or superintendent may tend to propagate bad\nmethods; and wherever he goes and impresses his personality he may\nextend these bad methods.\n<A publisher may publish a book containing\nbad methods, ‘but under the law of the survival of the fittest the poor\nbook perishes and the good book survives.\nHence, the publisher’s net\nresultant effort is always toward improvement, in this respect having the\nadvantage over any individual educator.\nTHE\n\nPROPER\n\nUSE\n\nOF\n\nTEXT-BOOKS.\n\nIn the best style of teaching of course the text-book is always subordinate.\nBooks are bad masters, but good servants.\n‘They are not to\nbe used as crutches to help those who could not otherwise walk, but are\nto be placed in the hands of the skillful as fine-edged tools. The wise\nteacher may omit, may add, may*smodify—in a word, may adapt the text\nto the wants of the hour, and thus extract and use to the greatest helpfulness.\nWhile the highest type of teacher may be a living text-book, time\ndoes not suffice, and the burden is too heavy for wholly personal work.\nBut with ordinary or inferior teaching-—and who shall say, despite all\nimprovements, how much of this sort of teaching still prevails throughout\nthe breadth\n\nof\n\nthis country?—the\n\ngood, usable text-book\n\ne\ne\n\non\n\nis the chief\n\ndependence, the indispensable tool which almost wholly shapes the final\nteaching result.\nAnd notwithstanding the days of talking, explaining, and lecturing, I\nam old-fashioned enough to believe that the real, downright study of the\nproper book by the pupil is a most useful adjunct in any course of mental\n\ntraining for the young.\n\nett\niy\nee\nei\nvie\nsal\nnth\ncit\n\n"}
{"page": 99, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFROM\n\nA PUBLISHER'S\n\nPARTISANSHIP\n\nSTANDPOINT\n\n89\n\nIN TEXT-BOOKS.\n\nThere is a class of text-books on such subjects as history, political\neconomy, civics, and sociology in which facts and truths concerned are\nopen to differing and partisan views.\nBut the publisher cannot advocate\nthe principles of a party; his true course is to give all honest and capable\nwriters a fair hearing.\nHe is not responsible for the views of the author ;\nat the same time he should discourage and, within reasonable bounds,\nlabor to prevent the propagation of injurious extremes.\nIn respect to United States school histories he is in a delicate and\nresponsible position.\nThat thirty years after the close of our Civil War\nthere\n\nshould, in some quarters, be a revival of intense\n\nsectional\n\nfeeling,\n\ngiving rise to little less than a clamor for the use of such school histories\n~ as shall most markedly favor the partisan views of either one side or the\nother, is nothing less than a distinct national calamity.\nCharles Sumner, as intense a partisan as ever fought for complete\nliberty, was equally earnest for a full nationality, and advocated in the\nUnited States senate, with all the fervor of his great eloquence, that the\ntrophies of the Civil War should not be cherished, but should be utterly\ndestroyed.\nIn this he was in agreement with the great and patriotic\nminds of all ages, from Greece and Rome down to England, Germany,\nand France.\nNo more patriotic or worthy service can be performed by\nthe publishers than to hold the balance even and ‘to discourage the\npropagation of views and doctrines by extremists that tend toward disagreement and disruption, and instead to promote a broad and liberal\nspirit of fraternity and nationality ;and to this worthy end the leaders of\neducational thought in this country should rally to their support and hold\nup their hands.\nThere is another threatening, narrowing influence that may well be\nmentioned in this connection—the tendency in some states towards\nlimiting and localizing the production and use of schoolbooks within\ntheir own narrow borders.\n‘This is the ambition of the local politician;\nbut the strong tendency of such a policy cannot be other than destructive\nto that best education which “ves only in the sunlight of freedom.\nWriters of the best text-books, like the greatest teachers, are rare; they are\nnot to be found in every village, city, or even state.\nAnd when found,\nno\n\nmatter\n\nwhere—in\n\nKansas,\n\nin Texas,\n\nin New\n\nYork, Wisconsin,\n\nor\n\nno part of the country should be deprived of the fruit of\nMassachusetts—\ntheir labors, and no author of merit should be content with a less field of\nIt is by such freedom, and a fair\ncompetition than the whole country.\n\nfield for all comers, and by such a market, restricted by no sectional or\n_ state line, that the scale of merit is raised to the highest attainable point\n[- and the best results achieved.\n\n"}
{"page": 100, "printed_page": null, "text": "od\nte\n\nTHE\n\nCOST\n\nOF\n\n[General\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nNATIONAL\n\ngo\n\nSCHOOLBOOKS.\n\nFor some unaccountable reason there is a widespread misapprehension\nin respect to the cost of schoolbooks to the school patrons, and of the\ntotal amount expended for text-books in the different states and in the\nThis false idea has taken such a strong hold on cercountry as awhole.\ntain states and communities that under the hot breath of a certain class\nof politicians it has been fanned into a flame of passion, until the single\naim has seemed to be to get cheap books, irrespective of all other considThe gravity of this evil necessitates its mention, and calls for\nerations.\nthe dissemination of correct information on this subject.\nAccording to a series of investigations in different states, based upon\nstatistics and reliable\n\ninformation, the conclusion has been reached\n\nthat\n\nthe consumption of schoolbooks in the public schools from year to year\namounts, in cost to the purchaser, to a sum which would be equal to ten\ncents for each inhabitant, or about forty cents for each enrolled pupil.\nThis includes highschool books and all.\nAccording to the estimate of the present population of the United\nStates, January 1, 1897, as given in the ‘World Almanac,” upon a report\nfrom\n\nthe\n\ngovernors\n\nof the states, our\n\npopulation\n\nis 74,036,761.\n\nThis\n\nwould make the schoolbook business of the United States (cost to the\npeople) $7,403,676.\n’\nThe costs and profits of the business are closely calculated as follows:\nManufacturing cost,\n\n-\n\n-\n\n=\n\nae\n\n-\n\not\n\ndia\n\n-\n\n=\n\n-\n\n$3,964,525\n\nThis embraces paper, printing, and binding,\n- $2,464,525\nAnnual cost composition, illustration, electrotypes, repairs on plates,\nrevisions, editorial supervision, -\n\nCopyrights paid to authors,\n\n:\n\nBooks distributed free for samples,\n\nTotal,\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n.\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n600,000\n\n-\n\n600,000\n\n-\n\n-\n\n300,000\n\n- $3,964,525\n\nAgents’ salaries and expenses,\nWoke\ncima)\nInterest on investment of $10,000,000 in the business, Advertising and circulars,\nGeneral expenses of distribution, including rents, taxes, insurance, salaries, freight, postage, general merchandising, and discounts,\nDeterioration of machinery, shop-worn stock, etc.,\n-\n\nBad debts and losses,\n\nTotal, -\n\nSubtracting\n\nbe\n\n-\n\n-\n\n8\n\n-\n\nOR\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\nee\n\nthe total expenses\n\nof the business\n\n-\n\n900,000\n600,000\n200,000\n\n1,000,000\n150,000\n148,000\n\n-\n\nere\n\nfrom\n\nea\n\nthe\n\nee\n\namount\n\nreceived for the books, we have $441,151.\nThis added to the $600,000\ninterest makes $1,0415;151, the total return on an investment of $10,000,-\n\n000 equal to 10.41 per cent.\nThis certainly is not exorbitant.\nIf the\ncost of the machinery of distribution is criticised, such as the expenditure\n\n"}
{"page": 101, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions |\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFROM\n\nA PUBLISHER'S\n\nfor agents, it is replied that such expenses\n\nSTANDPOINT\n\ngI\n\npertain to nearly every legiti-\n\nmate business, and that no substitute which has been tried has been found\n\nsuccessful in business practice.\nAccording to Commissioner Harris’ latest report, the total expenditure in the United States for public education for the school year 1894—\n95 was $178,215,556.\nThis, of course, does not include money expended\nfor schoolbooks, except in the few states which at that time furnished\nIt is thus seen what avery small proportion the cost of\nfree books.\ntext-books bears to the sum of other educational expenditures.\nIt is less\nthan 3 per cent. of the total.\nIt is interesting to note from the last census report the amounts produced in some other classes of manufacture as compared with the amount\nestimated\n\nfor schoolbooks.\nFor instance, artificial flowers and feathers,\npaper bags, $5,000,000; cigar boxes, $7,000,000; while such\nluxuries as confectionery are noted at $55,000,000; liquors— distilled,\nmalt, and vinous— $289,000,000; tobacco and cigars, $195,000,000; and\n\n' $9,000,000;\n\nyet the only thing that seems obnoxious to criticism is the $7,000,000 that\nis expended for schoolbooks.\nThe figures which I have presented in regard to schoolbook publishing cannot, I think, lack interest\n\nto you;\n\nnor\n\nthe fact that, of the net\n\nresults achieved, one house at least pays more than $200,000 a year to its\nauthors.\nSomething cannot be had for nothing, and it is for you, the makers\nof public opinion on educational matters, to say whether the relatively\nsmall outlay for the best text-books that wide and free competition can\nfurnish is not about the best paying investment for its schools which the\npublic can make.\nIs it not, therefore, your duty to direct the public\nmind back from the mere consideration of cheapness to the higher and\nmore vital considerations of intrinsic merit and a suitable adaptability to\ndesired educational ends ?\nCOMPETITION.\n\nI have assumed throughout this paper the existence of a most active\ncompetition in this country in text-book making and publishing.\nIn an\nexperience of thirty years of active connection with this business I have\nseen no period of ten years in which the competition to produce the best\nbooks—and no end of them in numbers —has been greater, or the enterprise to get them into use has been more active, than in the decade just\nYou, among the elders, are qualified to judge of the cornow closing.\nThis seems a proper place for me to say also\nrectness of this statement.\nthat there has never been at any time, or in any quarter, any agreement\nor understanding among publishers which has in the least degree even\ntended to restrict any house or firm in putting such prices upon the books\n\n"}
{"page": 102, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n92\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nI\nof its production as the demands of free competition have dictated.\nsay this in the interest of truth, and to clear up an existing misapprehension; and every publisher will indorse this statement.\nWhen you can invent a method of cornering the market of brains, you\ncan then set up a monopoly of intellect, and when\nestablish a monopoly in schoolbook publishing,\n\nthis is done, you can\nbut not until then.\n\nThis topic leads directly to another cognate subject, which is based upon\nthe recognition of the existence of the competition described.\nTHE\n\nEVILS\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMERCIAL\n\nSIDE\n\nOF\n\nPUBLISHING.\n\nThat such evils exist it would be folly to deny, but that they have\nbeen very greatly exaggerated and too widely advertised is equally true.\nQuestionable practices in the adoption of text-books require the consent\nof two parties; the school side no. less than the publishing side is\ninvolved, and it is equally for the interest of both that whatever evils do\nexist should be eliminated, or at least to the greatest possible extent\nminimized.\nLet us meet the question squarely and fairly.\nI beg you to recognize that schoolbook publishing, as a business, has\nto fit itself to the environment of today, which surrounds the carrying on\nof all other kinds of trade.\nIt is not, in this respect, a thing apart, and\ncannot possibly be made so. The laws governing it have not been made\nfiat or choice; they are the laws of its development by evolution, and\nhave to be accepted as such.\nIn the beginning one man was the author, the manufacturer, the\nbusiness manager, and the traveling agent to dispose of his books, just\nas in the primitive school the teacher was at once the teacher, principal,\nand superintendent.\nFollowing the laws of trade growth, the great publishing house, with its organized departments of editing, manufacturing,\nagency, and selling, has become established.\nIn the market the schoolbook agent has become the most active factor between the schools and\nthe publisher. These agents are selected almost exclusively from the\nranks of the teachers; the traveling agent has a particular territory which\nhe is expected to canvass.\nHe has an intimate personal acquaintance\nwith the teachers, superintendents, and members of school committees in\nhis particular field. He should be acquainted with teaching in its different phases, should be a judge of good work, quick to see improvements,\nacquainted with the best devices in methods of teaching, the idiosyncrasies of communities, and, above all things, be ready and able to answer\nquestions relative to the contents, teaching qualities, and advantages and\ndisadvantages of the books upon, his firm’s list of publications.\nHe\nshould be a valuable assistant to the editorial department in calling\nattention to the particular transitions and changes going on within his\ndistrict or territory. Like the circuit rider of the early days in our coun-\n\nati\nsit\nelit\npaa\n<an\n5\n\n"}
{"page": 103, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sod\nTO\neS\nA\n\nSessions]\n\nEDUCATION FROM A PUBLISHER'S STANDPOINT\n\n93\n\ntry’s history, he carries from point to point the latest educational intelligence, the story of the last success or failure, and is usually a welcome\nvisitor in every community.\nThe story of the operations of the agent\nruns parallel with the story of the growth and development of the\nschool system.\nMore, even, than the educational journal he is the factor\nwhich has most to do with the unifying of work on progressive lines in\nthe smaller communities.\nBut are schoolbooks always adopted upon their merits, and will not\na poorer book sometimes succeed with efficient agency work where a\nbetter book fails of adoption without such support?\nUndoubtedly this is\nsometimes true.\nBut in what other department of trade is it not true?\nAnd while human nature exists, and human influences prevail, such things\n_ will sometimes happen.\nBut in the actively promoted schoolbooks of\ntoday no book is so poor that it does not answer a fair purpose, so that\nno lasting damage to the school can occur.\nBut occasionally are not wrong and pernicious influences made use of\nto accomplish the adoption?\nPossibly there may have been such\ninstances.\nBut when it is considered that the numbers of adoptions in\nany one year run into hundreds\n\nof thousands, the lapses, such as they are,\n\nmake a very small percentage.\nIn the heat of a fierce competition it is\nnot always easy to draw the line where the merit of the book ends and\nfriendship and favoritism begin.\nIt must be remembered that the world\nis held together by human relationships, and in a country so full of politics as ours, where everything is touched by its influence, even sometimes\nthe selection of teachers and preachers, is it strange that this should\noccasionally touch the adoption of text-books?\nBut the charge that any publishing house sets up a policy and bases\nits business upon it—a policy which is something other than the general\nexcellence of its productions and the promotion of their use on other\n\ngrounds than that of their intrinsic merit—is a statement too idle to\ndeserve the notice of a denial. Among all publishers these evils are\ndeprecated, and no means are spared to prevent them.\nDishonest\nadoptions are the very rare exception to the rule, for there are\nliterally hundreds of thousands of honest adoptions to one that is not\nso.\nThese evils have been grossly exaggerated; sometimes by disappointed competing agents, sometimes by credulous moralists whose\nenthusiasm has clouded their judgment.\nThis has been not only\na detriment to the publishers, but a disparagement and disgrace to\nteachers and school officers, and it is time to call a halt in this campaign\nEvery publisher will join heart and hand with you\nof double slanders.\nin the endeavor to make schoolbook selections\nschools\nthe\nrepresent\nwho\nthey ought to be. Instead of withdrawtransactions\nmoral\nthe perfectly\nand reviling, let all come forward and\ncriticising\nof\ning to a position\n\n"}
{"page": 104, "printed_page": null, "text": "w\n94\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nactively help to add to the sum of existing good by eliminating all existing\nevil. That it is the publisher’s interest to force upon his customer a poor\ncosting\n\nbook, when a good one\n\nmore\n\nno\n\nin paper,\n\nprint,\n\nbinding,\n\nand\n\ncopyright will insure him a lasting future market, is a charge that deserves\nto be scouted to the winds whence it proceeds,\nCHANGES\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLBOOKS.\n\nThere is a widespread popular notion that schoolbooks are changed\noftener than the best interests of the schools require, and that the publishers are responsible.\nMost states have restrictive laws, prescribing\nperiods of adoption of from three to six years, which are in the interest\nof a wise conservatism.\nBut while these laws are a useful barrier against\nindividual\n\ncases\n\nof excessive\n\nchanges, it is still true that, on an average,\n\nbooks remain in use two or three times as long as any of the laws prescribe, and that the life of a good book lasts from ten to twenty years.\nPublishers are criticised for publishing too many new books, for revising\ntheir books too often, all merely to make changes in books necessary;\nthey are equally criticised for continuing the publication of too many old\nbooks and forcing their continued use, and for not keeping them thoroughly revised, so blocking the way to improvements.\nThus by the\ninconsiderate they are condemned if they do, and they are condemned if\nthey don’t; and it is a trying position to hold the scale even.\nAs\nbetween most extreme views, the truth lies in a middle ground.\n‘Taking\nthe country throughout, schoolbooks are not changed too often.\nThis is\nnot saying that there are not some unnecessary and ill-advised changes\nand often an artificial emphasis placed on the necessities of change.\nNor\nis it saying that sometimes old books are not too long continued in use.\nBut here is just the place where, on account of trade competition, the\npublishers cannot reasonably be expected to be the conservators.\nThe\nresponsibility of regulating these matters lies with teachers, superintendents, and school boards, in whose hands is lodged the power.\nThey\nare,\n\nand\n\nmust\n\ncontinue\n\nto be, the\n\narbiters who are to decide all these\n\nquestions of change, either acceding to or denying the agents’ importunities, as they view the matter, in the clear light of public interest.\nTEXT-BOOK\n\nADOPTION\n\nAND\n\nSUPPLY.\n\nWith one almost continuous session of Congress, and the frequent and\nprolonged sessions of the legislatures of forty-five states, we are blessed\nor cursed with many laws, and with constant changes of laws. This\nthreatens the simplicity of a republican form of government with becoming a labyrinthian complexity of laws which even judges cannot unravel\nand interpret.\nThis plague of over-legislation has not omitted the\nschools, and especially the adoption and supply of text-books.\nThe poli-\n\nRs\nP\n«o>yen\n\n"}
{"page": 105, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFROM\n\nA PUBLISHER'S\n\nSTANDPOINT\n\n95\n\ntician attacks this subject with a courage born of ignorance.\nUniformity\nand cheapness are apparently the things chiefly considered, under the\nguise of state uniformity, by state adoption and state contract, or by state\npublication.\nAll independence and individualism in text-books are\nkilled by this Procrustean method.\nThe needs and preferences of different communities are disregarded, the voice of teachers and local superintendents and school boards is stifled by a centralizing and paternal\nIf\npolicy, and dangers of political jobbery are immensely augmented.\nexperience has taught anything, it is that those schools are best served\nwith suitable text-books where the competition is the freest, and especially where a fair degree of local option prevails in the selection.\nThis is\na principle that ought to have the indorsement of every organized educational body in this land, as fundamentally in the interest of good schools.\nThe adopting unit should be the township or the county, for when it gets\nto be greater than this, the teacher, whose right it is largely to determine\nIn this way,\nthis question, is put one side and his influence minimized.\ntoo, local needs can be recognized and supplied, and a proper individualism maintained, as against a system which aims to take the independence\nand life out of a system of schools by a plan compelling all concerned to\nthink exactly alike.\nThe question of text-book supply is an all-important one—how to\nmake it adequate, prompt, and reasonably cheap.\n‘“ Free books” has been\nthe most general recent answer, but this plan is not suited to all states.\nMoreover, it has only been carried so far as to lend books for the pupil’s\nuse for the time being.\nThe full possession and ownership of the books\nby the pupils for use and reference at all times, in the school and at home,\nare the further necessary step to make the free-book plan complete. When\nthe supply is not a public one there should be a plan for the books to reach\nthe children’s hands as directly as may be from the publishers, at the lowest\ncompetitive prices, without adding any intermediate profit, except the\nnecessary and reasonable cost of distribution.\nLocal option in the selection and direct supply at the lowest publishers’ prices are two points which\nmeet the requirement and cover the whole ground.\nCONCLUSION.\n\nOf the volume that might be written on the relation of the publisher\nto the schools I have only here and there touched a few of the most\nobvious points. But it is easily seen that the relation is a close one, and\nthat the work of the publisher all along the line is absolutely identified\nwith the work of the teacher, superintendent, and school board, and that\n\nco-operation and sympathy are the necessary watchwords ; excellence and\nWe will give you our best service\nimprovement in education profit both.\nin an active, high-minded business enterprise, and you will help us by\n\n"}
{"page": 106, "printed_page": null, "text": "96\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\n£\n.\n“\n\napproving our endeavors, and in preparing for us better and better books.\nThis is the freedom and union which will best subserve the public\ninterest.\n\nEDUCATION\nBY\n\nALEXANDER\n\nOF\n\nGRAHAM\n\nTHE\n\nBELL,\n\nDEAF.\n\nWASHINGTON,\n\nD.\n\nC.\n\n[STENOGRAPHIC REPORT. ]\nMr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen:\n\nAt this late hour I can do no more than take advantage of the invitation of the President to make a few remarks, giving you the points of\nthe paper I had intended to present.\nYou all know that there is a great movement among teachers of\n. the deaf seeking to bring their work more into affiliation with the work\nof the public schools.\nThis found expression in a meeting in connection\nwith\n\nthe\n\nNational\n\nEducational\n\nAssociation\n\nin Madison, Wis., in 1884.\n\nIt also found expression last year in an express desire of teachers of the\ndeaf, teachers of the blind, and others, to become more closely affiliated\nwith this organization and to form a department for the consideration of\nthe education of those requiring special methods in their instruction.\nThe education of the deaf should be of special interest to you, for the\nteacher of the deaf has far more difficulties to encounter in the work of\ninstruction than the greatest difficulties that you can experience.\nIn looking back upon the history of the education of the deaf we\nfind that the first attempt at instruction of a deaf-mute in America\noccurred more than two hundred years ago in the town of Raleigh, Mass.,\nwhen the Rev. Mr. Philip Nelson attempted to teach a deaf and dumb\nboy to speak. The noise of this achievement went abroad, and it was\nstated that Mr. Nelson, in his presumption, had attempted to imitate the\nmiracles of Christ by healing a dumb child.\nThe community was very\nmuch aroused at this, andin 1679 a meeting of the neighboring ministers was held to consider this “‘miracle.”” They brought this poor deaf\nand dumb boy, Isaac Kilbourn, before\n\nthem\n\nand\n\nexamined him.\n\nThey\n\ntalked to the boy, and he did not answer them.\nHe did not seem to hear\nanything they said, and so poor Mr. Philip Nelson was “sat down upon.”\nHis efforts to teach the boy brought only reproach upon him, and he\nhad to retract all intention of being so presumptuous as to imitate\nthe miracles of Christ. Now, it is a very strange thing that this same\nprocess led to the establishment of schools for the deaf in other countries. We read in Bede’s “ Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum” how\nBishop John cured a dumb man by blessing his tongue ;how he made the\n\nil\nNae\nao\nGIN\nth\nle\nNR\nGS\n\n;\n\n§\n\n:\n\n"}
{"page": 107, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nDEAF\n\n97\n\nman put out his tongue to begin with, and then the sign of the holy\ncross was made on the tongue, and he signed to the man to say “a.” He\nsaid “a,” and‘ b,” and so on through the whole alphabet.\n\nAfter that he\n\ngaye syllables to the man,and he imitated those; then he gave him whole\nwords ; and after a while the man burst into speech, and talked away, and they\ncouldn’t stop him; and he kept telling his inmost thoughts all that night\nand the night following.\nNow, stripped of the miraculous, of course that’\nwas simply a case of articulation teaching, and the same thing happened\nThe ministers of the Roman church, quite different\nin other countries.\nfrom our ministers in the New England states, instead of crushing out\na supposed miracle, helped it all they could; and so we had schools arise\nThe results were looked upon as miracin the Roman Catholic church.\nOne Pedro de Ponce, of Spain, was especially famous throughout\nulous.\nall the world.\nBut these schools were too much for the generation in which they\nappeared.\n‘The results were supposed due to the miraculous powers of\nthe priests, and. these schools hardly survived their founders.\nIt was\nnot until the latter part of the last century that permanent schools\nappeared anywhere, that have lasted until our day. At the end of the\nlast century there were only three schools for the deaf in the world— the\nschool of Braidwood, in Edinburgh ; theschool of Heinicke, in Germany,\n\nand the school of the Abbé de VEpée, in Paris.\nThere was no school in\nAmerica.\nThe American deaf children had to be sent to Europe to be\neducated.\nWe know of four deaf children who were sent to the school of\nBraidwood in Edinburgh.\nOne was the child of Mr. Francis Green, of\nBoston ; and three others were children of Mr. Bowling, of Virginia.\nThey were there taught to speak with their mouths, audibly and well;\nand they came to understand the movements of the mouth by watching the mouth of the speaker.\nThey received a good common-school\neducation.\n\n1783\n\nMr.\n\nFrancis\n\nbrought the work\n\nGreen, the father\n\nof Thomas\n\nof one\n\nBraidwood\n\nof these\n\nchildren, in\n\nto the attention\n\nof the\n\nworld in a work published in London under a very curious caption: “ Vox\nOculis Sudjecta, a dissertation on the most curious and important art of\nimparting speech and the knowledge of language to the naturally deaf\nand consequently dumb.”\nThat was the first work upon the education of\n- the deaf written by an American, although published in England. Ten\nyears afterwards the first work published in America appeared in the\ntransactions\n\nof\n\nthe American\n\nPhilosophic\n\nSociety,\n\nby Mr.\n\nThornton,\n\nbeing an essay on “The Art of Teaching Speech to the Deaf and Dumb.”\nIn 1803 Francis Green urged upon the people of America the establishment of schools for the deaf in this country, through the columns of\nthe Mew England Palladium, buthe died in 1809, without having attained\nhis object.\n\n"}
{"page": 108, "printed_page": null, "text": "dicap\nNATIONAL\n\n98\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n[General\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nNow, the other three children who were in the Braidwood\n\nchildren\n\nIt so happened\n\nof Mr. Bowling, of Virginia.\n\nbrother of these children, Colonel William\n\nschool were\n\nthat a hearing\n\nBowling, when he grew up and\n\nmarried, had deaf children of his own, nephews of these first deaf-mutes ;\nIn 1812\nand he was anxious to have a school established in America.\nJohn Braidwood,a grandson of Thomas Braidwood, appeared in America,\nwent to Virginia, and took charge of the children of this Colonel William\nHe opened the first school for the deaf in the United States\nBowling.\nat Hampton, Va., in the year 1812, where the children were taught to\nspeak and to understand speech on the Braidwood, or English, method.\nUnfortunately, this John Braidwood turned out to be a man of very dissipated habits, and, after remaining in charge of the school for a year or so,\nhe departed for regions unknown. His friends helped to establish a school\nin Baltimore and another in New York, but this unfortunate man decamped\nwith the funds, and left the scholars unattended.\nIt was not until 1815\nthat steps were taken which resulted in the foundation of a permanent\nschool for the deaf in this country, “‘The American School,” at Hartford,\nConn.\n\nDr.\n\nCogswell,\n\nof Hartford,\n\nConn.,\n\nhad\n\na deaf\n\nchiid,\n\nand\n\nwas\n\nanxious to have it instructed in this country.\nHe formed an association\nin Hartford, Conn., and they decided to get some young man to go to\nEurope and learn the Braidwood method from England and come back\nand open this school at Hartford, Conn.\nThey selected a young theological student, the Rev. Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet, who was sent to England to learn the Braidwood method of instruction.\nNow, it proved very\nunfortunate for Mr. Gallaudet that this John Braidwood was in America.\nIt is true he was a man of dissipated habits, but he knew all about the\nBraidwood method. When Gallaudet reached England, he was met with\nthe inquiry, “‘ Why wouldn’t you have John Braidwood in your department?’\nHe said he wouldn’t have anything to dowith Mr. Braidwood. Well, then,\nhe could get no information except under conditions with which he found\nitimpossible to comply. He thought he would try some other schools of\nGreat Britain, but he found that the whole art of instructing the deaf in\nGreat Britain was a monopoly in the hands of the Braidwood family, the teachers who had been educated by Braidwood being under bonds not to\nreveal the secrets of the methods to others; so he had to go to France,\nwhere the Abbé Sicard, the successor of the Abbé de VEpée, received him\n\nwith open arms; and the French method of instruction, instead of the\nEnglish, was introduced into America.\nThe Rev. Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet brought with him from the school of the Abbé Sicard a very highly\neducated deaf-mute, M. Laurent Clerc, who was thoroughly familiar with\nthe French sign language ; and together they opened the Hartford school.\nThe French system spread from that school into all the schools on\nAmerican soil. For fifty years there was no other method than the French\n\n"}
{"page": 109, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nEDUCATION OF THE DEAF\n\n99\n\nmethod in use in this ‘country.\nAll the state institutions adopted the\nsign method of instruction.\nIt was not until 1867 that the German\nmethod, which originated in the school of Heinicke, appeared -in this\ncountry, and what is now known as the oral method made its appearance.\nNow, in the sign method of instruction the French sign language was\nemployed as ameans of communication and instruction.\nI had intended\nto give you a specimen of the sign language, that you may understand\nthat it is distinct from what is known as “manual spelling.” It isa distinct\nlanguage, like the French, or German, or Russian ; quite distinct from our\n\nown.\nI will give you a little specimen of the Lord’s prayer, as it was\ntaught to me a good many years ago by a deaf-mute in Boston, which will\nshow you a little of the nature of the language that was originally\n_ employed in all our schools in this country.\nNow, you\n\nwill\n\nobserve that it is not manual\n\nspelling.\n\nMost teachers\n\nhave the idea that spelling upon the fingers, as practiced in many of our\nschools, constitutes the sign language.\nTo show the difference between\nthe one and the other, I will give you a specimen of manual spelling as\nused in the manual-alphabet\n\nschools, like the school\n\nin Rochester,\n\nN. Y.\n\nYou will see that these are two distinct things.\nNow, the sign language which was introduced from France is a most interesting language\nfrom a scientific point of view.\nI do not know of any language that\ncan give you more light upon the origin of all languages, or the way in\nwhich conventional languages arose from natural effects, for you can in\nmany cases trace the relation between the sign language and the natural\npantomime from which these signs originated. Of course, in order to be\na true language the signs have to be conventional.\nIn all languages the\nsigns of thought are conventional; the signs of emotion are natural.\nNow, we have a-close analogy to the sign language in the picture languages that have arisen in the world.\nWe all can understand the significance of ordinary pictures, but these do not truly constitute a language.\n- In order to constitute a language the pictures must be condensed, abbreviated, conventionalized.\nFor example, the full picture of a lion may be\nbrought down to the simple mane of a lion, and then that may change its\nmeaning, and this figure, instead of meaning a lion, may mean strength.\nThe beak of a dove may mean\n\ngentleness.\n\nAnd so, in the case of the deaf,\n\nthe Abbé de I’Epée and his associates have constructed a conventional\nlanguage.\nFrom the natural pantomime the signs have been abbreviated\nand conventionalized.\nLet me give you an illustration:\nThe sign for\nWhy should\nfemale is made by scraping the thumb nail down the cheek.\nthat indicate\n\nfemale?\n\nNow, you cannot\n\nfind out here, because the lan-\n\nIf you want to find out why that meant female,\nguage came from France.\nyou will have to go to Paris, and when you go down the Bois de Bologne\n\n"}
{"page": 110, "printed_page": null, "text": "lmeye)\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nyou will see the French donnes with little white caps and long, white cap\nThe little deaf children first\nstrings that reach almost’to the ground.\nThey picof a woman.\nidea\nthe\ngive\nto\npantomime\nthis\nthrough\nwent\nthe\nperhaps\nand\nsides,\nthe\ndown\ngoing\nstrings\nand\ncap\nlittle\nthis\ntured\nheight\nthe\nand\nwoman,\na\nmeant\nit\nuntil\nabbreviated\nwas\nThis\npetticoat.\nwould indicate a woman or a little girl. The sign became still further\nconventionalized, until now it means a female.\n\nOur\n\nlittle deaf children\n\nI\npick up this sign, and simply understand the action to mean a female.\ndo not know of any more interesting language.\nThe point I would\nimpress upon you is that this sign language is a real language, differing\nfrom the English.\nIts affinities are more with the French than any other\nlanguage\nNow, in 1817 the Hartford school was opened, and this language was used as the basis of instruction.\nThe problem then came to\nthe teachers of the deaf, ‘‘ How shall we teach a deaf child the English\nlanguage?”’\nThe first plan adopted in this country was to teach them\nthe French language, and then go to work through the means of the\nFrench sign language to teach English, as you would teach a foreign\n‘language ; as you would\n\nteach Latin\n\nor Greek ; with the same results—\n\nthat the English language remained a foreign language, and the sign\nlanguage became the language of thought.\n.\nBut I promised not to inflict along address upon you. I shall simply,\ntherefore, point out a few of the changes that have taken place, until the\nwork of the teaching the deaf is gradually approaching the work of teaching\nthe hearing.\nIn 1867 the oral method made its appearance in America,\nby which children were taught to speak, and to watch the movements of\nthe mouth, without the sign language at all, and without the use of man-\n\nual spelling at all.\n\nTwo schools appeared in 1867, one the Clarke Insti-\n\ntution, in Northampton,\n\nMass., and\n\nanother\n\nin New\n\nYork.\n\nThe\n\nnext\n\nyear another oral school appeared in Boston and another in Mystic; and\nthen oral schools began to multiply, and this led to a very great change\nin the methods of instruction in the older schools.\nThe sign-language\nmethod alone was employed up to that date.\nThen the sign schools began to teach speech to their pupils as well as the sign language.\nThey\nattempted to combine the oral teaching with the sign teaching, and that\nprocess has gone on to such an extent that there is hardly a sign school\nleft in this country. They have all practically become converted into the:\ncombined-system schools, in which the pupils may or may not be taught\nto speak.\nNow another change of great significance took place.\nThis movement of teaching speech necessitated the instruction of the deaf at an earlier age than had heretof\nbeen customary.\nore\nIt used to be the case that\nchildren were admitted into our schools at fourteen years of age. The\nbest age for a child to learn speech is very much younger.\nThe age of\n\n"}
{"page": 111, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nDEAF\n\nIOI\n\nadmission was reduced, and the necessity of having younger children\nunder instruction led to the very large employment of women as teachers.. So two of the immediate results of the introduction of the oral\nmethod were the reduction of the age of admission of pupils into our\nschools and the employment of women as teachers.\nThese two lines of\nchange have gone on to such an extent that possibly the majority of our\nteachers are now women.\nThey are found to be much better adapted for\nThe age of admission has been low:\ninstruction in the primary classes.\nered and lowered and lowered, until now we find that infancy is the best\nage, and\n\nwe\n\nhave\n\ninfant\n\nschools\n\nestablished\n\nfor the deaf.\n\nIt has been\n\n, urged that in the teaching of speech, when the vocal organs are flexible,\nand when the children are young and at the natural age when speech is\nIf you\nacquired by hearing children, then is the time to teach them.\nwait until the child gets to be twelve or fourteen years of age, the best\nyears of its life are passed for language learning, and so the infant\nWe have here some of the pioneers of\nschools came to be established.\nthe movement of infant instruction of the deaf. We have the representative of the school of Miss Garrett, principal of the training school for\nchildren under school age, located at Philadelphia.\nWe have the\nThe lowering of the age to such\nMcCowen Oral School, of Chicago.\nyoung pupils necessitated very great and radical changes in the methods\nMethods that were perfectly well suited to children\nof instruction.\nfourteen years of age were entirely unsuited to little babes; and so\nthere has been introduced the kindergarten in the work of instructing\nthe deaf.\nBut the kindergarten is not quite suitable for the purpose\nThe spirit of the kindergarten is all right, but it has needed\nintended.\nThese spethe invention of certain special forms to facilitate the work.\ncial forms\n\nhave come into existence, and we\n\nnow have\n\nforms\n\nof instruc-\n\ntion embodying the kindergarten principles in use in several of our\nschools for the deaf, and notably in the McCowen Oral School, of Chicago. I would recommend all of you to see the methods pursued in that\nschool, because they will be equally helpful to your pupils.\nNow, another result of lowering the age of admission has been found\nin the inadvisability of sending deaf children away from home at a very\nyoung and tender age. You cannot take a little baby three or four years\nof age and send it off toa big institution.\nIf it is to be instructed at\nall, it must remain at home among its own people and with its own\nfriends ; and so has commenced the notable extension of the day-school\nDeaf children are scattered throughout the\nsystem for deaf children.\ncommunity, and you cannot get large day schools except in the great\nWisconsin stands at the head of a new movement\ncenters of population.\nThe state of Wisconsin gives state aid to local towns in\nfor day schools.\nWisconsin, by which a teacher\n\ncan\n\nbe sent\n\nwherever\n\nfour\n\nor\n\nfive deaf\n\n"}
{"page": 112, "printed_page": null, "text": "102\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\n‘These little day\nchildren can be gathered together near their homes.\nWisconsin, and\nof\nsystem\nschools have become a part of the public-school\nhas been\ndesire\na\nAlready\nquite a number of them are in existence.\nMichigan\nand\nIllinois,\nexpressed in the neighboring states of Minnesota,\nfora similar law, providing for the establishment of day schools, in addition to the state’s central institution.\n‘The policy of the states in instructOne word, and I will conclude.\nIt was, in a word, a\ning the deaf in the past was dictated by necessity.\npolicy of centralization ; it was a policy of teaching the deaf children by\ntaking them away from their homes and bringing them together into one\nspecial school.\n\nThe\n\nfirst school, the American\n\nintended for the deaf children\nfound\n\nto be\n\ntoo\n\nnumerous,\n\nSchool\n\nof Hartford, was\n\nStates.\n\nWhen\n\narose, with\n\nthe\n\nof the United\nother schools\n\n,\n\nthese were\nintention\n\nof\n\nbringing into them the children of one state. So this policy of centralization has, up to the adoption of this Wisconsin law, been the prevailing\npolicy of the people.\nIt has resulted, as perhaps might have been anticipated, in making of the deaf an isolated class in the community.\nThey\nhave taken the deaf away from association with their hearing fellows, their ~\nbrothers and sisters and hearing friends. We have made them acquainted\nwith one another, and when we turn them out into the world to earn their\n\nlivelihood they know this language of signs, a foreign language, and they\nare foreigners in their own country.\nThey naturally tend to get together\nin real life and avoid the society of strange, hearing people.\nSo the deaf\nhave become\n\nan isolated class, and the separation of our work from your\n\nwork has led to the teachers of the deaf becoming an isolated band.\nWe have held our own conventions; there have been very few points of\ncontact between the teachers of the deaf and of the hearing.\nThat is\nall to be changed.\nThe plan introduced in Wisconsin favors a policy\nof decentralization.\nIt is much better to scatter the deaf in a community\nduring the process of education.\nBring them together in as small numbers as possible ;separate them as little as practicable from their hearing\nand speaking friends; let them live permanently in the communities in\nwhich they are to live in the future; do not sever the home ties and the\nties with the hearing world; and it will be better for the children.\nThat\npolicy is the policy that is being tried in this state.\nOf course, all deaf\nchildren cannot go to day schools.\nAll deaf children will not go to\nboarding schools and institutions ; but the combination of the two,a state\ninstitution working in harmony with the scattered little day schools, is\ndestined to produce great results ; and the affiliation of these schools with\nthe public schools of the state is of enormous importance.\nThe next step foreshadowed is a closer affiliation with your publicschool system, and the formation of deaf schools in connection with the\n\n- public schools.\n\nOne of the features of these little schools in Wiscon-\n\na\n\n"}
{"page": 113, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF THE DEAF\n\n103\n\nsin has been that they have brought under instruction a large number\nof children who would never go to an institution for the deaf and\ndumb ; who were only partially deaf, but could not profitably receive\ninstruction in the ordinary public school. These children have come into\nthese day schools.\nNow, I might amplify later on, but in conclusion I would suggest as\nto whether there is not an important lesson to be gained from this idea\nYou have in all your schools children who\nin relation to the deaf.\nrequire special instruction. Youhave got children whose eyesight is very\ndefective, and yet you would not send them off to the blind institution,\nbecause they are not blind. You have children who are too deaf to profit\nby instruction in the public schools, but you would not send them off to\nthe deaf and dumb institution. You have got children who are noticeably\nbackward in their development and require special work; you would\nnot send them off to the idiot asylum.\nNow, as to whether this plan of\nan annex to your public-school system might not with benefit be expanded\nand include more than the deaf, I would bring to the serious attention of\nthis association.\nI have in mind a large gathering of the public schools,\noff this for a class of chil-\n\nor the ordinary schools, and of a little annex\n\ndren who require special instruction, with a special teacher in ‘charge,\nwhere you could send children who were partially deaf, children of defective\neyesight, and children who\n\nwere backward\n\nin development, to be espe-\n\nIt has worked in\ncially assisted ; an annex to the public-school system.\nthe case of the deaf, and we commend it to your notice in the case of all\nchildren requiring special instruction.\nOne word more that I had almost forgot. I had hoped to have presented to you today the most marvelous result of education of the deaf\nthat I have\n\never\n\nseen— Miss\n\nHelen\n\nKeller;\n\nbut I cannot do it, and I\n\nthink it will be interesting to youto know why. I went to Boston, hoping\nthat I might prevail upon her and her teacher, Miss Sullivan, to come up\nhere on a little rustication, and pop in among you; but the reason why\nHelen cannot come is that she has been very hard at work upon the\nHarvard examinations.\n\nThis child, that has\n\nbeen\n\ndeaf and\n\nblind from\n\ninfancy, is attending Radcliffe College, with the hearing and seeing pupils.\nOf course, the labor of examination is very great, and those who love the\nchild thought it would be better for her to go right on to the seaside,\nwith the cooling breezes, to rusticate, than to come here and undergo the\n\nexcitement of appearing before a large body.\nBut\n\nI have\n\na letter\n\nfrom\n\nDr.\n\nGilman,\n\nfrom\n\nwhich\n\nextract, giving me the latest news of Helen’s advancement.\n\nI will read\n\nan\n\nDr. Gilman\n\n‘‘Helen has taken the Harvard examinations in Latin, English,\nsays:\nIt seemed to me that\nhistory, French, German, and advanced German.\nby the professor in\ninformed\nbeen\njust\nhave\nI\nand,\nall;\nin\nshe did well\n\n"}
{"page": 114, "printed_page": null, "text": "104\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n[General\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nem\nen\nBet\nwee\n\nThis seemed to me\ncharge that she has passed in advanced German.\ntaken ordinarily\nsubject\na\nnot\nwas\nit\ncourse,\nOf\nthe most severe of all.\nhaving passed\nthat\nSo\nons.\nexaminati\nry\nprelimina\nby a candidate at her\n“T spelled all\nsays:\nhe\nThen\nHelen.”\nto\nin it is exceedingly creditable\nher. Miss\nto\naccess\nelse’-had\none\nno\nand\nthe papers to Helen myself,\nexaminathe\nof\nany\nat\npresent\nnot\nrequest,\nSullivan was, by her special\nn\ncompanio\nconstant\nnow\nand\nteacher\ntions.’ Miss Sullivan is her former\nmy\nby\nped\nhandicap\nbe\nmight\nHelen\nthat\n“I feared\nand interpreter.\ninexpertness, but she was very complimentary to me, and her success\nshows me that I have not entirely failed. Helen fairly reveled in the\nEnglish examination, and evidently wished that it might have been\nmuch longer.”\nIn communicating with Helen the manual alphabet is used, as a rule,\nby spelling into her hand, while she answers by word of mouth.\nShe\nalso has acquired the power of reading the lips of her friends, and it is\nvery interesting to see a conversation carried on between one of the hearing ladies and Helen.\nI thank you, ladies and gentlemen, for your attention.\n\nFOREIGN-BORN\nBY\n\nCHILDREN\n\nMISS°\\JANE\n\nADDAMS,\n\nIN\nHULL\n\nTHE\nHOUSE,\n\nPRIMARY\n\nGRADES.\n\nCHICAGO.\n\nThe following paper is given with great diffidence.\n\nThe writer-has\n\nnever been a teacher, nor even a close observer, in primary schools.\n\nShe\n\nonly had unusual opportunities for seeing the children of immigrants dur-\n\ning and after the period of their short school life. She submits some of\nthe observations and reflections which have come to her concerning the\ngreat mass of those children who never get beyond the primary grades, in\nthe hope that they may prove suggestive to the educators present.\nThe\nobservations are confined to the children of the Italian colony lying\ndirectly east of Hull House, in the nineteenth ward of Chicago, although\nwhat is said concerning them might be applied, with certain modifications, to the children of Chicago’s large Bohemian and Polish colonies.\nFor the purpose of this paper it will be best to treat of the school as\na social institution, within which a certain concentration of social interests takes place, for the purpose of producing certain social results. This\n\nis certainly legitimate, if we take Dr. Dewey’s statement that “ the school\n\nselects, and presents in an organized\n\nmanner, influences and instruments\n\nwhich may expedite and facilitate the socializing of the individual.” Certainly, after the child leaves school his experiences consist of his partici-\n\na\n\n"}
{"page": 115, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nOREIGN-BORN\n\nCHILDREN\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nPRIMARY\n\nGRADES\n\n105\n\npation in the social life in the various groups of which he is a member, or\nwith which he comes in contact.\nWhatever may be our ultimate conception of education, and however\nmuch we may differ in definition, as doubtless\n\nthe members of this con-\n\nvention do widely differ, we shall probably agree that the ultimate aim is\nto modify the character and conduct of the individual, and to harmonize\n\nand adjust his activities ; that even the primary school should aim to\ngive the child’s own experience a social value; and that this aim too\noften fails of success in the brief sojourn of the child of the foreign\npeasant in the public school.\nThe members of the nineteenth ward Italian colony are largely from\nsouth\n\nItaly, Calabrian\n\nand\n\nSicilian\n\npeasants,\n\nor\n\nNeapolitans,\n\nfrom\n\nthe\n\nworkingmen’s quarters of that city. They have come to America with a\ndistinct aim of earning money, and finding more room for the energies\nof themselves and their children.\nIn almost all cases they mean to\ngo back again, simply because their imaginations cannot picture a continuous life away from the old Surroundings.\n‘Their experiences in Italy\nhave been that of simple, out-door activity, and the ideas they have\nhave come directly to them from their struggle with nature, such a handto-hand struggle as takes place when each man gets his living largely\nthrough his own cultivation of the soil, with tools simply fashioned by his\nown hands.\n\nThe women,\n\nactivities than the men.\n\nas in all primitive life, have had more diversified\nThey have\n\ncooked, spun, and\n\nknitted, in addi-\n\ntion to their almost equal work in the fields. Very few of the peasant\nmen or women can either read or write. They are devoted to their\nchildren, strong in their family feeling to remote relationships, and clannish in their community life.\nThe entire family has been upheaved, and is striving to adjust itself to\nits new surroundings.\nThe men for the most part work on railroad\nextensions through the summer, under the direction of a padrone, who\nfinds the work for them, regulates the amount of their wages, and\nsupplies them with food. The first effect of immigration upon the women\nis that of idleness.\n\nThey, of course, no\n\nlonger\n\nwork\n\nin the fields, nor\n\nmilk the goats, nor pick up fagots. The mother of the family buys all\nthe clothing not only already spun and woven, but made up into\nIt is, indeed, the\ngarments of a cut and fashion beyond her powers.\nmost economical thing for her to do. Her house cleaning and cooking\nare of the simplest ; the bread is usually baked outside of the house, and\nAll of those outdoor and\nthe macaroni bought prepared for boiling.\ndomestic activities, which she would naturally have handed on to her\ndaughters, have slipped away from her. The domestic arts are gone,\nwith all their absorbing interests for the children, their educational value\nand incentive to activity. A household in a tenement receives almost no\n\n"}
{"page": 116, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n106\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nFor the hundreds of children who have never seen wheat\nraw material.\ngrow there are dozens who have never seen bread baked. The occasional\nThe child\nwashings and scrubbings are associated only with discomfort.\nsort\nexciting\nmost\nof\nof these families receives constantly many stimuli\nhis\nuse\nto\ny\nopportunit\nfrom his city street life, but he has little or no\nenergies in domestic manufacture, or, indeed, constructively, in any direc-\n\ntion. No activity is supplied to take the place of that which, in Italy, he\nwould naturally have found in his own home, and no new union is made\n\nfor him with wholesome life.\nItalian parents count upon the fact that their children learn the\nEnglish language and American customs before they themselves do, and\nact not only as interpreters of the language about them, but as buffers\nbetween them and Chicago, and this results in a certain, almost pathetic\ndependence of the family upon the child. When a member of the family,\ntherefore, first goes to school, the event is fraught with much significance\nto all the others. The family has no social life in any structural form,\nand can supply none to the child.\nIf he receives it in the school, and\ngives it to his family, the school would thus become the connector with the\norganized society about them.\nIt is the children aged six, eight, and ten who\n\ngo to school, entering,\n\nof course, the primary grades.\nIf a boy is twelve or thirteen on his\narrival in America, his parents see in him a wage-earning factor, and the\ngirl of the same age is already looking toward her marriage.\nLet us take one of these boys, who has learned in his six or eight\nyears to speak his native language, and to feel himself strongly identified\nwith the fortunes of his family.\nWhatever interest has come to the minds of his ancestors has come\nthrough the use of their hands in the open air; and open air and activity\nof body have been the inevitable accompaniments of all their experiences.\nYet the first thing that the boy must do when he reaches school is to sit\nstill, at least part of the time, and he must learn to listen\n\nto what is said\n\nto him, with all the perplexity of listening to a foreign tongue.‘ He does\nnot find this very stimulating, and is slow to respond to the more subtle\nincentives of the schoolroom.\n‘The peasant child is perfectly indifferent\nto showing off and making a good recitation.\nHe leaves all that to his\nschoolfellows who are more sophisticated and who are equipped with ~\n\nbetter English.\n\nIt is not the purpose of this paper to describe the child’s\n\nlife in school, which the audience knows so much better than the writer,\nbut she ventures to assert that if the little Italian lad were supplied, then\n\nand there, with tangible and resistance-offering material upon which to\nexercise his muscle, he would go bravely to work, and he would probably\nbe ready later to use the symbols of letters and numbers to record and\ndescribe what he had done; and might even be incited to the exertion of\n\nsas\n\n"}
{"page": 117, "printed_page": null, "text": "AY\n\nSessions]\n\nMPORE/GN-BORN\n\nCHILDREN\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nPRIMARY\n\nGRADES\n\n107\n\nreading to find out what other people had done. Too often the teacher’s\nconception of her duty is to transform him into an American of a somewhat snug and comfortable type, and she insists that the boy’s powers\nmust at once be developed in an abstract direction, quite ignoring the\nfact that his parents have had to do only with tangible things.\nShe has\nlittle idea of the development of Italian life. Her outlook is national and\nnot\n\nracial, and\n\nshe fails, therefore, not only in knowledge\n\nof, but also\n\nin respect for, the child and his parents. She quite honestly estimates the\nchild upon an American basis. The contempt for the experiences and\nlanguages of their parents which foreign children sometimes exhibit, and\nwhich is most damaging to their moral as well as intellectual life, is doubtless due in part to the overestimation which the school places upon speakThis cutting into his family loyalty takes\ning and reading in English.\naway one of the most conspicuous and valuable traits of the Italian child.\nHis parents are not specially concerned in keeping him in school, and\nwill not hold him there against his inclination, until his own interest shall\ndo it for him.\nTheir experience does not point to the good American\ntradition that it is the educated man who finally succeeds.\nThe richest\nman on Ewing street can neither read nor write—even Italian.\nHis cunning and aquisitiveness, combined with the credulity and ignorance of his\ncountrymen, have slowly brought about his large fortune.\nThe child himself may feel the stirring of a vague ambition to go on\nuntil he is as the other children are; but he is not popular with his schoolfellows, and he sadly feels the lack of dramatic interest.\nEven the pictures and objects presented to him, as well as the language, are strange.\nIf we admit that in education it is necessary to begin with the experiences which the child already has, through his spontaneous and social\nactivity, then the city street begins this education for him in a more natural way than does the school.\nThe south Italian peasant comes from a life of picking olives and\noranges, and he easily sends his children out to pick up coal from railroad tracks or wood from buildings which have been burned down.\nUnfortunately, this process leads by easy transition to petty thieving. It is\neasy to go from the coal on the railroad track to the coal and wood which\nstand before the dealer’s shop; from the potatoes which have rolled from\na rumbling wagon to the vegetables displayed by the grocer. This is apt\nto be the record of the boy who responds constantly to the stimuli and\ntemptations of the street, although in the beginning his search for bits of\nThe outlets offered\nfood and fuel was prompted by the best of motives.\nto such a boy by the public school have failed to attract him, and as a\ntruant he accepts this ignoble use of his inherited faculty. For the\ndynamic force which the boy has within himself, the spirit of adventure\nand restless activity, many unfortunate outlets are constantly offered.\n\n"}
{"page": 118, "printed_page": null, "text": "108\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nThe school, of course, has to compete with a great deal from the outNothing is more\nside in addition to the distractions of the neighborhood.\nboy longs to go\nthe\nfascinating than that mysterious “down town,” whither\nto stay\npossible,\nif\nto sell papers and black boots; to attend theaters, and,\ngreat\nthe\nof\nall night, on the pretense of waiting for the early edition\nnothing\nIf a boy is once thoroughly caught in these excitements,\ndailies.\ncan save him from overstimulation, and consequent debility and worthlessness, but a vigorous application of a compulsory-education law, with a\n\nCee.\noo\n\ntruant school; which, indeed, should have forestalled the possibility of his\n\never thus being caught.\nIt is a disgrace to us that we allow so many Italian boys thus to waste\ntheir health in premature, exciting activity; and their mentality in mere\ncunning, which later leaves them dissolute and worthless men, with no\nhabits of regular work and a distaste for its dullness.\nThese boys are not of criminal descent, nor vagrant heritage. On the\ncontrary, their parents have been temperate, laborious, and painstaking,\nliving for many generations on one piece of ground.\nHad these boys been made to feel their place in the school community; had they been caught by its fascinations of marching and singing together as a distinct corps; had they felt the charm of manipulating\nactual material, they might have been spared this erratic development.\nMark Crawford, for many years the able superintendent of the Chicago\nHouse of Corrections, has said that in looking over the records of that\ninstitution he found that of 21,000 boys under seventeen years of age\nwho had been sent there under sentence less than eighty were schoolboys.\nThe school is supposed to select the more enduring forms of life, and\nto\n\neliminate, as far as\n\npossible,\n\nthe\n\ntrivialities\n\nand irrelevancies which\n\nactual living constantly presents.\nBut, in point of fact, the Italian child has received most of his interests upon the streets, where he has seen a great deal of these trivialities,\nmagnified out of all proportion to their worth.\nHe, of course, cares for\nthem very much, and only education could give him a clew as to what to\nselect and what to eliminate.\nLeaving the child who does not stay in school, let us now consider\nthe child who does faithfully remain until he reaches the age of factory\n\nSw\ngent\nM\nSAM\nAL\n\nwork, which is, fortunately, in the most advanced of our factory states,\nsourteeD years.\nHas anything been done up to this time, has even a\n\nbeginning been made, to give him a consciousness of his social value?\nHas the outcome of the processes to which he has been subjected adapted\nhim to deal more effectively and in a more vital manner with his present\nlife ?\n:\nIndustrial history in itself is an interesting thing, and the story of\n\ne\na\ne\na\nee\n\n"}
{"page": 119, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nOREITGN-BORN\n\nCHILDREN\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nPRIMARY\n\nGRADES\n\n109\n\nthe long struggle of man in his attempts to bring natural forces under\nhuman control could be made most dramatic and graphic.\nThe shops\nand factories all about him contain vivid and striking examples of the\nhigh development of the simple tools which his father still uses, and of\nthe lessening expenditure of human energy.\nHe is certainly cut off from\nnature, but he might, be made to see nature as the background and\nmaterial for the human activity which now surrounds him.\nGiottio portrayed the applied arts and industries in a series of such marvelous\nbeauty and interest that every boy who passed the Shepherd’s Tower\nlonged to take his place in the industrial service of the citizens of Florence.\nWe, on\n\nthe contrary, have\n\nsucceeded\n\nin keeping our\n\nfactories, so far as\n\nthe workers in them are concerned, totally detached from that life which\nmeans culture and growth.\nNo attempt is made to give a boy, who, we know, will certainly have\nto go into one of them, any insight into their historic significance, or to\nconnect them in any intelligible way with the past and future.\nHe has\nabsolutely no consciousness of his social value, and his activities become\ninevitably perfectly mechanical.\nMost of the children who are thus put\nto work go on in their slavish life without seeing whither it tends, and\nwith no reflections upon it. The brightest ones among them, however,\ngradually learn that they belong to aclass which does the necessary work\nof life, and that there is another class which tends to absorb the product\nof that work.\nMay we not charge it to the public school that it has given to this\nchild no knowledge of the social meaning of his work ? Is it not possible\nthat, if the proper estimate of education had been there ; if all the children\nhad been taught to use equally and to honor equally both their heads\nand hands; if they had been made even dimly to apprehend that for an\nindividual to obtain the greatest control of himself for the performance\nof social\n\nservice, and\n\nto realize within\n\nhimself\n\nthe value\n\nof the social\n\nservice which he is performing, is to obtain the fullness of. life— the\nhateful feeling of class distinction could never have grown up in any of\nIt would then be of little moment to himself or to others\nthem?\nwhether the boy finally served the commonwealth in the factory or in the\nlegislature.\n=\nBut nothing in this larger view of life has reached our peasant’s son.\nHe finds himself in the drudgery of a factory, senselessly manipulating\nunrelated material, using his hands for unknown ends, and his head not\nat all. Owing to the fact that during his years in school he has used his\nhead mostly, and his hands very little, nothing bewilders him so much as\nthe suggestion that the school was intended as a preparation for his work\nin life. He would be equally amazed to find that his school was supposed to fill his mind with beautiful images and powers of thought, so\n\n"}
{"page": 120, "printed_page": null, "text": "SS\n\nme)\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nthat he might be able to do this dull mechanical work, and still live a\nreal life outside of it.\nI know a boy who has finished the third grade, and who shovels coal\nall day, with no notion of where the coal comes from nor of the processes\nof combustion, nor of anything else connected with it. Yet it would\nhave been far easier to have taught him all of,those things than his\nlaborious reading and writing, which he never uses, and is fast forgetting.\nHis reading was supposed to have extended his intercourse far beyond\nthe limits of his immediate environment in time and space ; but he has\nnever learned to read with enough facility to enjoy it, nor has he ever\nmade enough connection between his reading and his outside world to\ninduce him to go on with it under difficulties.\nForeign-born children have all the drudgery of learning to listen to,\nand read and write an alien tongue; and many never get beyond this\nfirst drudgery.\nI have interrogated dozens of these children who. have\nleft school\n\nfrom\n\nthe third, fourth, and fifth grades, and I have met very\n\nfew who ever read for pleasure.\nI have in mind an Italian boy whose\narithmetic was connected with real life, while his reading was not.\nHe\nis the son of a harnessmaker who, although he can neither read nor\nwrite, kept his little shop, and slowly made money.\n‘The great ambition\nof his life was that his son Angelo should be enough of a scholar to keep\nhis books and to read him the daily papers ; for he had a notion that the\nlatter told you when and how to buy leather to the best advantage.\nAngelo was kept steadily at school until he was in the fifth grade.\nHe\nused to come every evening to Hull House for help in his arithmetic,\nbringing with him slips of paper on which was written the amount of his\nfather’s sales during the day. His father himself could not add, but\nremembered accurately what he had charged for each thing he had disposed of. Before Angelo left school he read fairly well from the Fifth\nReader.\nFive years have passed since then, and, although he keeps the\naccounts of the shop in which he had a vivid interest from the first, he\nhas almost wholly forgotten how to read.\nHe occasionally picks up a\npaper and attempts to read it to gratify his father, but he reads it badly\nand much dislikes the proceeding.\nThere is one fixed habit, however, which_the boy carries away from\nschool with him to the factory. Having the next grade continually\nbefore him as an object of attainment results in the feeling that his work\nis merely provisional, and that its sole use is to get him ready for other\nthings. This tentative attitude takes the last bit of social stimulus out of\nhis factory work, and he pursues it merely as a necessity.\nHis last chance\nfor a realization of social consciousness is gone.\n.\nFrom one point of view the school itself is an epitome of the competitive system, almost of the factory system.\nCertain standards are held\n\ne\ne\n\n"}
{"page": 121, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nMOREIGN-BORN\n\nup and worked\n\nfor;\n\nCHILDREN\n\nand, even\n\nin the\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nPRIMARY\n\nGRADES\n\nschool,\n\nthe child\n\ndoes\n\nWat\n\nlittle work\n\nwith real joy and spontaneity.\nThe pleasure which comes from creative\neffort, the thrill of production, is only occasional, and not the sustaining\nmotive which keeps it going.\nThe child in school often contracts the\nhabit of expecting to do his work in certain hours, and to take his pleasure\nin certain other hours; quite in the same spirit as he later earns his\nmoney by ten hours of dull factory work, and spends it in three hours of\nlurid and unprofitable pleasure in the evening.\nBoth in the school and\nthe factory his work has been dull and growing duller, and his pleasure\nOnly occasionally, in either\nmust constantly grow more stimulating.\nplace, has he had a glimpse of the real joy of doing a thing for its\nown sake.\nThose of us who are working to bring a fuller life to the industrial\nmembers of the community, who are looking forward to a time when\nwork shall not be senseless drudgery, but shall contain some selfexpression of the worker, sometimes feel the hopelessness of adding\nevening classes and social entertainments as a mere frill to a day filled\nwith monotonous and deadening drudgery; and we sometimes feel that\nwe have a right to expect more help from the public schools than they\nnow give us.\nIf the army of school children who enter the factories every year\npossessed thoroughly vitalized faculties, they might do much to lighten\nthis incubus of dull factory work which presses so heavily upon so large\na number of our fellow-citizens.\nHas our commercialism been so strong\nthat\n\nour\n\nschools\n\nhave\n\nbecome\n\ninsensibly\n\ncommercialized,\n\nrather\n\nthan\n\nthat our industrial life has felt the broadening and illuminating effect of\nthe schools ?\nThe boy in the primary grades has really been used as material to be\nprepared for the grammar grades.\nUnconsciously his training, so far as\nit has been\n\nvocational at all, has been in the direction of clerical\n\nwork.\n\nIs it possible that the business men, whom we have so long courted and ~\nworshiped in America, have really been dictating the curriculum of our\npublic schools, in spite of the conventions of educators and the suggestions of university professors?\nThe business man has, of course, not said\nto himself: ‘I will have the public school train office boys and clerks for\nme, so that I may have them cheap;” but he has thought, and sometimes\nsaid: ‘‘Teach the children to write legibly, and to figure accurately and\nquickly; to acquire habits of punctuality and order; to be prompt to\nobey, and not question why; and you will fit them to make their way in\nthe world as I have made mine.”\n3\nfor his children,\ndesires\nhe\nwhat\nto\nas\nsilent\nbeen\nworkingman\nHas the\nhe has allowed\nas\nthere\nhim\nfor\ndecide\nto\nman\nbusiness\nthe\nand allowed\n\n"}
{"page": 122, "printed_page": null, "text": "es\n\n1)\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nthe politician to manage his municipal\nsuffered\n\nfrom our universal\n\naffairs?\n\noptimism, and\n\n[General\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nOr has the workingman\n\nreally believed\n\nthat his chil-\n\nlife at all, but that his sons\n\ndren would never need to go into industrial\nwould all become bankers and merchants ?\nCertain it is that no sufficient study has been made of the child who\nenters into industrial life early, and remains there permanently, to give him\nsome set-off to its monotony and dullness; some historic significance of\nthe part he is taking in the life of the commonwealth ;some conception\nof the dignity of labor, which is sometimes mentionéd to him, but never\nWe have a curious notion, in spite of all our realism, that\ndemonstrated.\nit is not possible for the mass of mankind to have interests and experiences of themselves which are worth anything.\nWe transmit to the children of working people our own skepticism regarding the possibility of\nfinding any joy or profit in their work.\nWe practically incite them to get\nout of it as soon as possible.\nI am quite sure that no one can possibly mistake this paper as a plea for\ntrade schools, or as a desire to fit the boy for any given industry.\nSuch\na specializing would indeed be stupid when our industrial methods are\ndeveloping and changing, almost day by day. But it does contend that\nlife, as seen from the standpoint of the handworker, should not be emptied\nof all social consciousness and value, and that the school could\n\nboy infinitely more\n\nflexible\n\nand alive than\n\nhe is now\n\nand forces of nature which, in spite of all man’s\n\nmake the\n\nto the materials\n\nactivities, are unchange-\n\nable.\nWe do not wish to hold the school responsible for what should be\ncharged up to the industrial system, but we may certainly ask that our\nschools shall not feed and perpetuate the baser features and motives of\nthat system.\nThe isolation of the school from life—its failure to make life of more\ninterest, and show it in its larger aspects—the mere equipping of the children with the tools of reading and writing, without giving them an\nabsorbing interest concerning which they wish to read and write, certainly\ntends to defeat the very purpose of education.\nThe foreign-born child in the primary grades is given neither a greater\nuse of his own powers in the social direction in which he will have to use\nthem, nor yet an ability to share in the experiences of others.\nI have ventured to speak thus frankly concerning the public school to\na body of educators, because I realize that no one is so anxious as the\nteaching body itself to make the schools as effective and valuable as possible; and I may, perhaps, be able to realize even better than the teachers\ncan how dependent a neighborhood of foreign-born colonists is upon the\nschool as a socializing and harmonizing factor.\n\nTy\nhe\n\n"}
{"page": 123, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nLVHYANCED\n\nBY\n\nMATERIAL\n\nTOM\n\nAND\n\nBISHOP\n\nJOHN\n\nSUPPORT\n\nHIS\n\nFOR\n\nRURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nII3\n\nTEACHERS.\n\nH. VINCENT,\n\nCHAUTAUQUA.\n\n[ABSTRACT. ]\n\ners ”\n\nThe address was an abridgment of Bishop Vincent’s lecture on “Tom and His TeachHe defined Tom as the American boy, and considered Tom’s teachers chiefly out-\n\nside\n\nof the\n\nschoolroom, insisting\n\nthat tones of voice, incidental\n\nreferences\n\nat table and\n\nfireside, style of furniture, pattern of carpet, tint of ceiling, discussion of everyday news,\nstreet-corner talk, bulletin announcement of theater and circus, architecture of schoolhouse,\ndress of teachers, and the very atmosphere in which Tom sleeps-—all are educating influ-\n\nTom is at school twenty-four hours every day, and his teachers are legion. There\nences.\nare minor matters which the speaker wished to emphasize before presenting the radical\nand all-important teachings which Tom should receive.\nHe pleaded for the careful consideration of other people, the burdens which through Tom’s carelessness they are compelled to bear, the servants in the kitchen, his mother, her various domestic cares, etc.\n\nHe\n\n- insisted upon reverence for old age. The radical things which the address pleaded for are:\nI. Tom should be taught to account himself a person and not a thing, a cause\nand not merely an effect. He should be not a floating log, but a tug-boat with the propelling power within.\nHe should have moral courage to stand for what he knew to be\nright, and that in the presence of classmates and companions.\n2. Tom, being a person, should be trained to independence, earning his own living,\nthough his father be a millionaire, and this as much to create in Tom’s mind a profound\nrespect for people who are compelled to support themselves as to guarantee his own\nlivelihood.\n3. The address emphasized the law of interdependence.\nTom should know and care\nfor and minister to the well-being of the fellow next to him.\nHe should consider himself\na member of society, and should live for the general good. ‘The address made plea also\nfor the law of interdependence as applied to Tom’s employers.\nThe most effective teacher\n\nthat Tom has between fourteen and twenty-one years of age is the man who pays him for\nservice.\n4. A very important rule in Tom’s training is this: Never give Tom up. Teachers\nshould not be discouraged with pupils because they are slow. Many men never mature\nuntil they are thirty or forty years of age. Some men surprise their old neighbors by some\nachievement at fifty. It is an inexcusable thing in the teacher to discourage a boy who is\nslow and dull. Tom should never be given up on the moral side. He is a person, and\nnot a thing. God deals with us all as persons.\nHe gives us liberty; he restrains us; he\ngives opportunity.\nSpeaking with reverence, the bishop said: “It sometimes takes the\nAlmighty Father eighty years to get a grip upon a human soul.” Therefore, Tom’s\nteachers at home and in society should never give Tom up.\n-\n\na\"\n\nTHE\n\nNEED\n\nBY\n\nOF\n\nENHANCED MATERIAL\nTHE RURAL SCHOOLS.\n\nB. A. HINSDALE,\n\nIt is easy to understand\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nFOR\n\nMICHIGAN.\n\nhow it was in ancient\n\n“money is the sinews of the state’? was\near}\n\nOF\n\nSUPPORT\n\nnarrowed\n\ntimes that the phrase\ndown\n\ninto ‘‘money is\n\n"}
{"page": 124, "printed_page": null, "text": "fGeneval\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n114\n\nWar is at once a very prominent and a very costly\nthe sinews of war.”\nform of state activity. Still, we may well question whether the saying did\nnot, in being narrowed, lose more in comprehensiveness than it gained\nAt least, what Cicero said of war is just as true of many other\nin point.\nIt\nservices of the state; their sinews are an infinite amount of money.\nwell-being\nhuman\nto\nis very true that patriotism, public spirit, and devotion\nshine resplendent in history; it is also true that, in every healthy state\nthere is, and there must be, a large amount of unrequited public service;\nstill the great qualities just named have never proved themselves to be\nsufficient to sustain, for an extended period of time, any of the great services of the state. .Nor can such a thing be expected. What is more, even if\nvoluntary effort could sustain the state, the need of material support would\nbe dispensed with only in part, because the burden would be merely\nshifted from the shoulders of society to the shoulders of some of its individual members.\nThat the sinews of public instruction on the present scale are a great,\nif not an infinite, amount of money is so obvious a fact as hardly to call\nfor enforcement.\nAlready the educational budgets of the most progressive countries have grown to great dimensions, and they are all the time\nincreasing.\n‘The expenditure for common schools in the states of our\nunion for the year 1894-95, not including payments on outstanding\nbonds, amounted to $178,215,556, more\n\nthan\n\ndouble\n\nthe annual\n\ncost of\n\ncarrying on the federal government before the Civil War; and there is\nevery reason to expect that we shall cross the century line three years hence\nwith an aggregate common-school expenditure of $200,000,000.\nThe\nstates\n\nof New\n\nYork\n\nand\n\nPennsylvania expend\n\nmore\n\nthan $20,000,000 a\n\nyear each on their schools.\nIt is unfortunate that we cannot ascertain absolutely what part of the\nexpenditure for public elementary education is made in urban schools\nand what part in the rural schools.\nThe Bureau of Education, for the\n' best of reasons, has not charged itself with the responsibility of finding\nout these facts. It would be difficult, or rather impossible, to draw a line\nbetween urban schools and rural schools that would not be arbitrary,\nbecause it is impossible to draw such a line between the urban and the\nrural population of the country.\nStill, existing statistics do throw some\nlight on the problem.\nThe Census Bureau calls a concentration of population of more than\n8,000 persons a city, and counts all such concentrations as urban population. ‘The remaining population is, therefore, technically speaking, rural.\nIn 1894-95 there were, according to the Commissioner of Education, 574\nsuch\n\ncities in the country.\n\nNow,\n\nsome\n\nof the educational\n\nstatistics of\n\nthese cities are extremely interesting when put in comparison with the\ncorresponding statistics of the whole country, or, better, of the rural parts\n\n"}
{"page": 125, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nENMHANCED\n\nof the\n\ncountry.\n\nMATERIAL\n\nThree\n\nSUPPORT\n\ncomparisons\n\nFOR\n\nwill\n\nRURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nLENS)\n\nbe made,\n\nthe year\n\nbeing\n\n1894-95.\nThe 574 cities counted school property valued at $236,846,394, while\nthe rural districts counted such property valued at only $203,025,296.\nApproximately the ratio is 23 to 20.\nThe 574 cities expended for schools $74,721,332; the rural districts\nThe ratio, approximately,\n\n$103,494,224.\n\nis 74 to 103.\n\nThe 574 cities enrolled in their schools 3,302,841 pupils to 10,889,491\n\npupils enrolled in the rural schools.\nThe approximate ratio is 33 to 108.\nThis is a very striking showing.\nWhile the 574 cities own more than\nhalf the common-school property of the whole country, and expend something more than 41 per cent. of the total amount of common-school funds,\nthey teach less than 24 per cent. of the total number of common-school\n- pupils.\n\nThese statistics suggest some interesting reflections.\nOne is that the\ntest made is a very imperfect one, because a great many schools outside\nof the cities are urban schools to all intents and purposes.\nIf we could\ndraw the line with a reasonable approach to accuracy, the contrast would\nbestill more striking. Another is that schools in cities are necessarily more\nexpensive than schools in the country, so far as certain large items of\nexpenditure\n\nare\n\nconcerned ; building\n\nof services all cost\n\nmuch\n\nmore.\n\nA\n\nsites, buildings, and\n\nthird\n\nreflection\n\ncertain kinds\n\nis that, when all due\n\nallowance has been made for the greater cost just mentioned, the greater\nexpenditure for urban schools in a general way is the measure of their\nsuperiority over rural schools.\nIt may also be remarked that urban\nschools, in some respects, are much less expensive than rural schools, pro-\n\nvided the two kinds of schools are made equally good.\nFor example,\n1,000 children could be given a good high-school education in a city high\nschool much more cheaply than the same number of children could\nbe given a similar education in village high schools.\n\nIt is true, also, that\n\nchildren taught in the country have some advantages over children taught\nin the city, as their freer and closer intercourse with nature; but scholastically their position is much inferior to that of city children.\nThe relatively small cost of rural schools means that the country children, as\na whole, are taught in inferior schoolhouses by inferior teachers, and for\nmuch shorter periods of time. This last point, which is an important one,\ncan be statistically fortified.\n\nIn the 574 cities of 1894-95\n\nthe average\n\nof the school year was 190.1 days. The corresponding average for the\nrural schools is not given by the Bureau of Education, but the average for\nthe whole country, taking city and rural districts together, was but 141.4\nae\n\nae\n\ndays. That is to say, the average city child has an opportunity to attend\nschool nearly fifty days each year more than the average child of the\nwhole country.\n\nIt may be remarked, again, that if we could separate the\n\n"}
{"page": 126, "printed_page": null, "text": "apo\n\n116\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\ntwo classes of pupils with an approach to thoroughness, and could ascertain the average length of the city school year and of the country school\nyear, the contrast would be far more marked.\nIf there was opportunity to examine the subject carefully, going into\ndetails, it would be easy to show that in large parts of the country, and\neven in whole states, the material support of the rural schools is most\ninadequate, no matter whether we compare it with the material support\nenjoyed by the city schools or witha reasonable provision for the purpose.\nThousands of country schools are eking out a miserable existence, subsistBut such examination is\ning in a starving condition on a pitiful income.\nnot at all necessary to show that the rural schools, as a whole, need\nThe subject is a painful one.\nNot much\nan enhanced material support.\nimagination is necessary to enable one to see the millions of children who\nattend the rural schools pleading for a redress of grievances with respect\nto the education that they receive as a preparation for life. No onslaught\non the rural schools is intended; the fact that a great number of these\nschools are either good or excellent is in nowise denied or forgotten, but is\ndistinctly admitted ; still the stubborn fact remains that, on the whole, the\n\nmaterial support of these schools is inadequate and stands in urgent need\nof enhancement.\nHow shall this enhanced support be provided?\nBefore answering this question, two or three others must be considered.\nCould better use than at present be made of the material resources\nthat the rural schools now enjoy?\nCould the present support of these\nschools be made to go farther, as measured in education, than it goes now?\nAnd if these questions are answered in the affirmative, this additional one\narises: What changes in organization and administration are necessary in\norder that this reform may be made?\nThese last questions may be all\nconsidered together.\nMoreover, the brief consideration that they will\nreceive may be confined to a single important feature.\nThere are now scattered over the country tens of thousands of schools\nthat are carried on under the greatest disadvantages.\nThese schools are\nvery small, and they are poorly provided for in respect to material equipment and financial support. For example, last year there were over 1,000\nschool districts in Michigan that enumerated less than 25 youth each of\nlegal school age, while 70 counties contained 468 districts that enumerated\nless than 15 such persons each. The number of pupils enrolled in the\nschools is not given in the public statistics. There lies before me, however, a showing made by the county commissioner\n\nof one of the old and\n\nwealthy counties of the state, namely, Hillsdale county.\nThere were 166\nschool districts and 165 schools.\nSix schools had 10 pupils or less\nin attendance ; 17 had more than 10 and not more than 15; 22 had more\nthan 15 and not more than 20. The smallest school in the county\ncounted 5 pupils ; 2 schools had 7 each; 1 had 8 pupils; 2 had 10 each.\ntot\n\n"}
{"page": 127, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nENHANCED\n\nMATERIAL\n\nSUPPORT\n\nFOR\n\nRURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nLey)\n\nThe 6 schools that contained 10 pupils or less each had, in the aggregate,\n47 pupils, and the cost of these schools for the year was $833.85.\nIn 1893 Vermont had 153 schools of 6 pupils or less each.\nIn 1892\nthere were\n\nbetween\n\n1,000\n\nand\n\n1,200\n\nschools\n\nin Maine\n\nthat enrolled\n\n12\n\npupils or less.\nMassachusetts, in 1893-94, reported 16 towns with an\nThe\naggregate of nearly 100 schools, having an average of 11 pupils.\nreport of State Superintendent Skinner of New York for 1896 states that,\nin 1870, there were 1,500 school districts with an average attendance of\nless than 10 pupils, while in 1896 there were more than 3,500 such disMr. Skinner makes the surprising statement “that the average\ntricts.\ndaily attendance for all strictly country schools in the state does not\nexceed ten pupils for each school.’”’ “In hundreds of districts,” he continues,\n\n“the\n\nnumber\n\nof\n\nschool\n\ndistrict\n\nofficers\n\nexceeds\n\nthe number\n\nof\n\npupils.” This is going beyond Ohio, where, until a few years ago, the\nschool officers of all kinds were about three times as numerous as\nthe teachers employed in the schools.\nSo it would appear that the district school in the Empire state is coming to be what the biologists call a rudimentary organ, which Mr. Darwin,\nin accordance with the doctrine\n\nof natural\n\nelection, holds to be the sur-\n\nvival of an organ that was once serviceable.\nThe organ has perished, as\nhe contends, through disuse.\nHe finds examples of such organs in the\nstump of a tail in tailless breeds of animals, in the vestige of an earin\nearless breeds of sheep, and in the minute dangling horns that sometimes\nappear in hornless breeds of cattle.\nNow, it is needless to argue to men who are familiar with the subject\nthat, as a whole, the best schools are\n\nimpossible under such conditions as\n\nthese.\nThe material equipment is likely to be poor; the money to pay\nfor appliances and teachers is almost certain to be insufficient ; the\nmaterial for suitable grading is wanting; while the danger is very great\nthat, owing to the absence of the spur that comes from numbers, the functionary will take the chair of the teacher, and the pupils will be uninterested and spiritless.\nIt is not surprising, therefore, that Mr. Skinner\nshould have heard of a teacher of a two-pupil school who asked to\nbe relieved from her contract; the only cause for surprise can be that\nhe had not heard of more such teachers.\nIt is well known that the number of persons who teach in the common\nschools in any year is considerably greater than the number of schools.\nThis means frequent changes of teachers and short periods of service.\nThis excess of teachers over schools is found mainly in the country, not\nin the villages and cities. In Michigan 141 teachers were employed in\nIn 1886 Calhoun\nthe course of the year 1891-92 for every 100 schools.\ndifferent times\nat\nteachers\ndifferent\n342\ncounty, in that state, employed\nof the county\nschools\nthe\nwhile\nand\n;\nwithin the year to fill 158 positions\n\n"}
{"page": 128, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n118\n\nwere\n\nin session\n\non\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nthe average\n\n[General\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n8.4 months, the teachers\n\nserved\n\non\n\nthe\n\naverage only 3.8 months each.\nThe first remedy for the sad state of things thus briefly portrayed is\nSchool districts must be abolished,\nconsolidation of the country schools.\nschoolhouses be abandoned, the number of schools and teachers be\n\nreduced, and the children be brought together at fewer points in much\nThis subject in its various bearings is considered quite\nlarger numbers.\nfully in the report of the Committee of Twelve on Rural Schools. There\nis also every reason to expect that the subject will be brought before the\nTwo or three\ncountry, and the attention be secured for it that it merits.\nbrief observations concerning it will answer the present purpose.\nIn the first place, consolidation is not by any means everywhere possible. On this point physical and social conditions are peremptory. Multitudes of children will be taught in small, ungraded schools, or they will\nnot be taught at all. Secondly, a small isolated school is not necessarily\na poor school.\nYouth in great numbers are taught, and well taught, in\nsuch schools.\nWe are not to associate fate with the small school any more\nthan with the large one.\nStill, unusual effort and wisdom are undoubtedly needed to overcome the unfavorable conditions of the small rural\nschool.\nOnce more, no one should for a moment imagine that the consolidation of schools, even when\n\neffected, will prove to be a panacea for\n\ncountry education. When all has been done in the direction of consolidation that is possible, problems will still remain to be solved that are at\nonce difficult and important.\nWe have been dealing with the subject indirectly and negatively.\nBut\nwhen all has been said and done, so far as putting the present material\nsupport of the rural schools to better use, the subject is not exhausted.\nThere still remains urgent need of a positive enhancement of resources.\nHow shall this be provided?\nThe\n\ngeneral\n\nanswer\n\nto this question is that all, or nearly all, of the\n\nstate systems of financial support need to be revised; some of them need\nto be revised very thoroughly.\nThe subject is an extensive one, and very\ndifficult, and nothing can be attempted in this paper more than to state\nsome of the changes that need to be made.\nIn the first place, the basis of school taxation in many states is altogether too narrow.\nThe burden of school maintenance is thrown mainly\nupon small local taxing units, sometimes the town or township, and\n\nstill\n\nmore frequently the school district.\nOne of two things happens: either\nthe people are overburdened, or the schools are inadequately supported.\nAt present the greatest inequalities in the rate of taxation and in the\ncharacter of the schools exist. The state passes a law requiring all towns\nor districts to maintain schools a certain number of months each year,\nand then leaves them, regardless of their resources, to struggle with the\n\n"}
{"page": 129, "printed_page": null, "text": "Vi\n\nSessions]\n\nENHANCED\n\nMATERIAL\n\nSUPPORT\n\nFOR\n\nRURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n119\n\nquestion of school support.\nIn Rhode Island some districts are taxed\nfourteen times as heavily as others to keep up their schools, and Connecticut exhibits a similar disproportion.\nIn New York still wider divergences\nAnd so in many other states.\npresent themselves.\nThe remedy is clear enough.\nIt is to widen the basis of school taxation.\nLocal taxation for schools should neither be abolished nor be\nreduced\n\nto insignificance;\n\non the other\n\nhand, such\n\ntaxation\n\nshould\n\nbe\n\nemployed to a reasonable extent; but there is urgent reason for calling\nWith the exception of\nin the large taxing units to assist the small ones.\ncities, towns, and\n\nvillages, the local\n\nschool\n\ndistrict, in the old sense of\n\nthat term, should be abolished, as well for purposes of taxation as for\npurposes of administration, and in its place some larger unit, as the townIt is impossible to recommend\nship or the county, should be substituted.\n- a particular scheme; so much depends upon the political institutions and\nother factors existing in particular states.\nIt is true that there are\ninequalities in townships as well as in school districts, and in counties as\nwell as in townships; still the important fact remains that the larger the\narea of taxation the less such inequalities are found to be. Once more,\nthe reasons for calling the state, or the social whole, to the financial support of the rural schools are just as cogent as the reasons for throwing a\ncertain amount of the school maintenance upon the local units.\nInequalities in respect to wealth existing among the smaller divisions\nof the state are very great, much greater than the inequalities existing in\nthe number of youth calling for education, and in the cost for education,\nprovided it is good education.\nThe Census Bureau does not furnish us\nwith tables showing the average wealth of the country per capita of the\npopulation by counties, but it does give us the average per capita-value of\nreal estate, including the improvements.\nThe highest and lowest county\naverages on this basis will be given for a few leading states.\nIn Illinois the highest average is $1,311.90; the lowest, $164.64.\nIn\nMassachusetts the corresponding averages are $1,554.10 and $466.65; in\nNew York, $1,733.35 and $305.80; in Ohio, $1,562.56 and $265.99; in\nPennsylvania, $1,049.88 and $187.36.\nThese statistics tell their own\nstory, but if we had averages including personal property as well as real\n\nproperty, the story would be told in a still more emphatic way.\nThe different states raise their school funds in quite different ways.\nIt will suffice to speak of the varying ratio of state taxes to local taxes.\nIn the South Atlantic states 38.1 per cent. of the cost of common schools\nin 1894-95 was raised by state taxation, 51.3 per cent. by local taxation;\nwhile in the North Central states only 9.9 per cent. came from the states\nSome of the states levy no state\nto 75.4 per cent. from the localities.\nCarolica raises 83.3 per cent.\nNorth\nwhile\nform,\nor\nway\nschool tax in any\nSometimes a much larger\nway.\nthat\nin\nof her total school expenditure\n\n"}
{"page": 130, "printed_page": null, "text": "“\n\n120\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nportion of the cost of public education should be assumed by the state as\na unit, and then again a much larger portion should be devolved upon\nthe local taxing units.\nThis is the important matter\nOnly one point more will be presented.\nWhile closely connected with the subject\nof distributing school funds.\nlast treated, distribution is still a distinct question by itself.\nVery strange methods of distribution have sometimes been employed.\nThe most remarkable one that I have ever come upon formerly prevailed\nin Vermont.\nThis was to divide the state money among the heads of\nfamilies according to their respective number of children of school age,\nwithout directing how it should be applied to its object, or even requiring\nthat it should be applied to an educational object at all. A man might\nuse the money that fell to his share to purchase a brood sow, if he saw\nfit.\n\nA historian of the state, himself\n\na Vermonter,\n\nhas well remarked:\n\n“This singular application of the funds could not have greatly furthered\nthe cause of education, though it may have stimulated the increase of\npopulation, for to the largest families fell the greater share in the distribution of the school money.”\nBut probably nothing so absurd as this can\nnow be anywhere found.\nMany states apportion their general funds to townships or school districts according to their enumeration of youth of legal school age. This\nisa most absurd method to follow, because it obviously fails to carry the\nmoney where it is most needed.\nFor example, two school districts lying\nside by side enumerate forty and twenty children respectively; one district receives twice as much money as the other, and yet the cost of keeping up the two schools, if they are equally good, is practically the same\nin one case as in the other.\nAgain, funds are sometimes apportioned\naccording to the number of pupils enrolled in the schools, or perhaps\nthe number enrolled for a fixed period of time.\nThis method may stimulate school attendance, or it may possibly stimulate fictitious enrollment,\nand it is certainly open to the fatal objection urged against the enumeration method. It does not carry the money where it is most needed. Much\nthe same may be said of school attendance as a basis for apportionment;\nwhich is also open to the additional objection that it works in favor of\nthe graded schools and against the ungraded schools, since attendance is\nmuch more regular in the one than in the other.\nIt is, indeed, to be\nsaid that, on the surface, all of these methods seem to be fair; an aver-\n\nage always makes a favorable\nman;\n\nimpression\n\nupon\n\nthe mind of the average\n\nbut a mere glance into the heart of the matter reveals the fact that\n\nthey are all ensnaring and unfair. They do not bring the help of the\nstrong to the support of the weak.\nStill more obnoxious is the rule sometimes followed, as it is in part in New York, which\n\non the basis of the last national census.\n\nCensus\n\ndistributes\n\ndex\n\nthe funds\n\npopulation at any time\n\n|\n\n"}
{"page": 131, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nCLASSIFICATION\n\nAND\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nIN RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n121\n\nis but a rude measure of educational needs, while the great relative\nchanges that take place in the course of ten years in different units of\ndistribution stamp it as a most irrational measure.\nWhat, then, shall the method be?\n\nAfter devoting much\n\nattention to\n\nthis question [ am constrained to say that the needed relief can be found\nonly in the adoption of the school or the teacher as the unit of distribution; that is, a certain sum of money, large enough measurably to accom-\n\nplish the purpose, called a “distributive portion,” a “district quota,” or\nsomething else, no matter what, shall be set apart for each school, regard-\n\nless of its size, that complies in all respects with the requirements of the\nlaw. This method is exemplified, though in quite different ways, by the\nstates of Massachusetts, New York, New Jersey, and California.\n\nI do not\n\nnow indorse the technical rules followed by any one of these states; I\nspeak only of the principle involved.\nIt is easy to say that no method\nbased on this principle will work absolute justice; that is not to be\nexpected ; but, properly qualified and limited, this principle will not work\npractical injustice, and it will carry the help of the state or social whole\nto those localities where it is most needed. Without this principle, at our\npresent stage of social progress, it is impossible to carry out, even approximately, the sound American doctrine that the property of the state shall\nbear the burden of educating the youth of the state.\nThe substance of this paper may be summed up in four propositions:\n(1) The rural schools urgently need an enhanced material snpport.\n(2)\nThese schools could use their present resources in a much more productive way than at present, if a reasonable policy of consolidation were carried out.\n(3) The enhanced support called for must, in some cases, be\nobtained by employing larger units of taxation\n\nagain by using smaller units.\n\nfunds or income derived from state taxation\nor the teacher as the basis of distribution.\n\nCLASSIFICATION\n\nBY\n\nDR.\n\nW.\n\nT.\n\nAND\n\nHARRIS,\n\nshould\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nUNITED\n\nthan at present, and then\n\n(4) The method\n\nSTATES\n\nof distributing\n\nstate\n\nrecognize the school\n\nIN RURAL\n\nCOMMISSIONER\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS.\n\nEDUCATION.\n\nThe Committee of Twelve has made a careful study of the defects of\nrural schools, with a view to suggest practical remedies.\nIt appeared to that committee, first, that such schools need financial\naid. There is on an average less money per capita in country than in city\n\ndistricts.\n\nBesides this, there are fewer pupils per teacher.\n\nWith\n\nsmall\n\n"}
{"page": 132, "printed_page": null, "text": "crg\nAy\nwe\n\np22\n\nNATIONAL\n\nschool\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nfunds it is not possible to hire skillful and scholarly\n\n[General\n\nteachers,\n\nnor\n\nfor full terms.\nThe remedy for this state of things is obvious, and it is practicable in\nrich\n\nstates.\n\nThe state\n\nmust\n\ncome\n\nto the aid of the\n\nrural\n\ndistricts, and\n\ninsure it a sufficient fund to employ trained and experienced teachers.\nMany states have moved in this matter, and many more are able to do so.\nBut will the rural-school problem be solved when an increase of funds has\nprocured good teachers for eight or ten months’ annual session?\nCan a rural\nThe committee had arrived at a more serious question.\nschool with a good teacher be a good school ? It will find in its ten,\ntwenty, or thirty pupils all grades of advancement, from the beginners at\nfive years to those who have had seven or eight years of schooling, and\nattained the age of sixteen years or more.\nThese pupils cannot be taught\nin classes to any great extent ; there must be many recitations, and consequently short ones.\nLet there be good teachers, and they will certainly\nBut what can a good teacher do in a\naccomplish more than poor ones.\nfive-minute recitation ? One of the accomplishments of a trained teacher\nis his ability to probe the pupil’s understanding of the lesson and set him\nto thinking about the relations of what he has just learned to that he has\nlearned at a former time, either at school by study or by experience in the\nevents of his life.\n\nBut even\n\nthe skilled teacher\n\ncannot, in a five-minute\n\nrecitation, probe the pupil’s knowledge of the lesson and connect it with\nall its threads of relation.\nHe cannot teach the pupil habits of deeper\nthinking.\nMoreover, the pupil, if he recites by himself, or if in a class of\ntwo or three, does not gain the great advantages that come from reciting\nin a class of twenty pupils substantially equal in ability.\nFor each\npupil in a class learns as much from his fellow-pupils as from the teacher\ndirect.\nHe can see the one-sidedness of the recitations of his fellows.\nThey have learned some things that escaped his attention, but have\nneglected others that he has learned well. There is too great a disparity\nbetween the pupil’s view of a subject and the teacher’s view to make a\nthorough mutual understanding possible, except through the mediation of\nthe class. Each pupil learns more from the teacher’s criticism of the work\nof the others than from the criticism of his own work.\nEvery recitation reveals to the pupils of the class many points of view\nthat they had missed in the preparation of their lessons ; some have missed\nthis point and some that point. They learn also to criticise the text-book\nand overcome their superstitious reverence for what they find printed\nin books.\nWe must admit that even the good teacher is handicapped in the rural\nschool.\nHe cannot use his best devices.\nAlmost without exception the work of the normal school goes to prepare the future teacher to handle classes. The class is the instrument\n\n"}
{"page": 133, "printed_page": null, "text": "SY\n\nSessions]\n\nCLASSIFICATION\n\nAND\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nIN RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n123\n\npresupposed in the school.\nIt is the tool which must be used with skill.\nBut the ungraded rural school affords only five or ten minutes for recitations, and the class cannot be handled with skill in so short a time.\n\nFully possessed with an appreciation of the value of the class recitation, the earnest reformer of the rural school has proposed to classify or\nBut his effort to escape from the evils of\ngrade it like the city school.\nshort recitations and individual instruction has only thrown him upon a\nHe has avoided Scylla by running upon Charybdis.\nworse evil.\nHe has\nbrought pupils into classes, but they are of such diverse qualifications that\nthey hinder instead of help one another, and they also balk the efforts of\nthe teacher.\nThus we come from one evil to another in our attempts to remedy\nthe defects of the rural school.\nThe bright boy or girl, if given a text-book and assigned regular tasks,\nwill make much progress even in the country school, and without the help\nof the class recitation.\nThe dull boy and the average boy will also do\nsomething.\nIt is not the best, but it is worth while even at its worst.\nIn attempting to remedy this state of things, however, an evilof greater\nmagnitude is developed.\nNot only in the rural schools of some states,\nbut in the villages of all the states, and also in the suburbs of cities, there\n\nare found schools in which pupils are classified in such a manner as to\nbring together pupils of widely different degrees of advancement—the\nbest and poorest pupils being separated by an interval of a year or two,\nor even three years.\nIn fact, the classes of nearly one-half of our cities\nare separated by a year’s interval, as in college, and as a consequence\nwithin each class there are wide differences of degrees of advancement—\n-as wide at least as the interval\n\nbetween the classes, and sometimes wider;\n\nbecause the tendency is to separate the degrees of advancement more\nwidely as the work goes on. It happens, therefore, that the chief care in\nthe management of the work of instruction in a system of city schools\nis to grade or classify the pupils in such a manner that the interests of\nsome are not sacrificed for those of others. The effect of placing pupils\nof different degrees of advancement in the same class will be to urge\nunduly the backward ones, while the pupils in advance of the average in\nWhen bright scholars\nthe class will have too little work assigned them.\nare kept back for dull ones they acquire loose, careless habits of study.\nWhen pupils of slower temperament are strained to keep pace with quick\nand bright pupils they become discouraged and demoralized. Even when\npupils are well classified at the beginning of the year, differences begin\nto develop from the first day, and after two or three months of good\ninstruction a large interval has developed between the advancement of the\nslow ones and that of the bright ones. Besides difference in temperament\nthere is difference in regularity of attendance on account of sickness and\n\n"}
{"page": 134, "printed_page": null, "text": "124\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n[General\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nMoreover,\nfamily necessities ;these things affect the rate of progress.\n.\ndifferences\ndevelop\nthe degree of maturity and amount of previous study\nexactly\nof\nare\npupils\nNo two\nClassification in a school is never absolute.\nThere are probably no two pupils alike in\nthe same degree of progress.\nability to do the daily work of the class. From this it is evident that\nThere should be promotions\nthere should be frequent reclassification.\nof the best ones from below into the class above, and a few promotions\nAfter such promofrom the best of that class to the next class beyond.\ntion has been made through all, or a portion, of the classes of a school\nfrom the lowest, each class will find itself composed\n\nof fair, average, and\n\npoor scholars, together with a few of the best from the next lower class in\nplace of the few that each has lost by promotion.\nNew hope will come\nto those pupils who were before the poorest in the class, and there will be\nnew stimulus given to the best pupils who have been promoted to a higher\nclass, for they will have to work earnestly to attain and hold a good rank\nin the new class.\nBut the quick and bright ones thus promoted will gradually work their way towards the top of the class again. The slow ones\nin the class may be passed by successive platoons of bright ones introduced\ninto the class from below, but they will pick up new courage on every\noccasion when they find themselves brought to the top of the class by the\nprocess of transferring the bright ones who had begun to lead them into\ntoo fast a pace. This sifting-up process, as here described, corrects the\ndisease known as “ lock-step” in the graded schools. The sifting should\ntake place as often as there develops a decided difference in degree of\nadvancement between the best and poorest pupils of a class.\nIn practice\nthis is found to occur once in two or three months.\nThe rural schools, when small, do not find it possible to make\n\nclasses\n\nto any great extent, except in reading, writing, and spelling.\nIn the larger\nrural schools, however, there is an attempt to introduce the city plan of\nclassification, but, as a matter of course, the classes have to be very small.\n\nWhat is bad about these small classes is that the intervals\n\nfrom one\n\nclass\n\nto another, instead of being ten to twelve weeks, as in a good city school,\n\nare from one to two years.\nThis works a great evil. It leads to careless\nteaching on the part of the teacher, who has to adapt his instruction to the\naverage of the class, knowing at the same time that such instruction lacks\ninterest to the best pupils, because they are already familiar with the subjects, and knowing, secondly, that it is too difficult for the least advanced\n\npupils, for the reason that they lack the insight which a year’s or a half\nyear’s more study has given to the pupils of average advancement.\nCity\nschools, village schools, and rural schools that grade their pupils with\nintervals of a year or more between the classes are to be criticised chiefly\nfor this fault. They are called “stiflers of talent” because they do not\nprovide sufficient work for their ablest and brighest pupils, but keep them\n\n"}
{"page": 135, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nCLASSTFICATION\n\nAND\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nIN RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n12 5\n\nmarking time with less advanced pupils.\nMoreover, they discourage the\nslower pupils by requiring more work of them than they can accomplish.\nThis difficulty in regard to classification: exists not only in public\nschools, but often in a more dangerous form in private schools.\n\nIt is, per-\n\nhaps, the greatest evil at present existing in the organization of the schools\nof the\n\nUnited\n\nStates,\n\nrural\n\nand\n\nurban.\n\nIn\n\nthe\n\nfirst, second, and third\n\nyears of primary work classification does not present serious difficulty,\nbecause of the greater number of beginners—say, pupils of eight years\nAbout 69 per cent. of the pupils in the cities and villages of\nand under.\nthe country are in the first three years’ work; twelve per cent. are found\nin the fourth year’s work, 7 per cent. in the fifth year, 4 per cent. in\nthe sixth year, 3 per cent. in the seventh year, and 2 per cent. in the\nTo form large classes and thereby produce economical\neighth year.\ninstruction the pupils beyond the fourth year must be brought together\nin central schools, and it is to this problem that the attention of state\nboards of education is called by the Committee of Twelve.\nThis recommendation of the committee will not seem important to those\nschool directors who fail to understand the value of class recitation and of\nits dangers when forced on the pupils of small schools of different degrees\nof advancement. A rural school of one hundred pupils would have, under\naverage conditions, nearly seventy in the work of the lowest three years,\nand these would make five classes of fourteen pupils each, with intervals\nof about half a year of advancement—\nnot a very bad classification if\nreadjusted often by transfer of the pupils making most rapid progress\ninto the class above.\nBut there would be only thirteen pupils in the next\nyear’s work, namely the fourth.\nThis would give two classes of six or\nseven each.\nThe fifth year would have seven or eight pupils, and the\nsixth, seventh, and eighth years all together would have only nine or ten\npupils.\nIf three teachers took charge of this central school of one hundred pupils, one could do better work with the seventy in the lowest three\nyears’ work than the one who took the highest three years’ work with only\n\nten pupils.\nThe number of rural schools having few pupils may be estimated from\nthe fact that in Rhode Island 158 schools out of a total of 263 have an\nIn Vermont there are 153 of these\nattendance of less than ten (1895).\n(1893); in New York 2,983 are\neach\npupils\nschools with less than six\nConsolidation by transporta(1895).\nten\nreported as having less than\nstate is the most promising\nthe\nof\nexpense\ntion in suitable vehicles at the\nthe same time improving\nat\nand\nremedy, reducing the cost of instruction,\nthroughout all regions\ncities\nand\nits quality. The increase of villages\nof pupils to cenremoval\npenetrated by the railroad makes possible this\nin more and\ndistricts\ntral schools and the discontinuance of outlying\nmore towns every year.\n\n"}
{"page": 136, "printed_page": null, "text": "126\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nBut inasmuch as the evils of classification with wide intervals between\nclasses are not generally understood, it is likely that the concentration of\npupils into village schools will not be so great a good as it might be.\nFor it is quite a common belief that the formation of three or four groups\nor classes for the eight-years course of study is a good thing. Some go\n“ It\nso far as to say that it is better than the close grading of the cities.\nneeds.”\nis more flexible, more elastic, or more adjustable to the pupils’\nThese words “elastic” and “flexible” are used in a new and strange\nmeaning here. The best city grading is “flexible” and “ elastic,” because\nIt is\nthe intervals between classes are small— only ten or fifteen weeks.\neasy to promote the brighest pupils over such a small interval when they\nbegin to show power to do a much larger amount of work than the majority of the class. They will find it possible to keep up with the average of\na higher class. But suppose that the grading or “grouping” has two\nyears’ intervals between classes, as it would have if there were four groups\nin the elementary school— or, say, nearly three years, as it would have if\nthere were only three classes or groups; then it would be a much more\nserious matter to promote from one class to another, because of the\namount of useful matter omitted.\nInstead of being elastic and flexible,\nthe four-group or three-group system is rather to be called ‘‘brittle”’ and\ninflexible—a Procrustean bed.\nAll schools at work need constant readjustment of classification, and this can be made when the intervals between\nclasses are at their minimum; thirty classes between the first year and\neighth year are possible in large schools in cities.\nThat all cities do not avail themselves of this possibility is one of the\nmost serious defects in American school supervision.\nIt is very important, therefore, that the rural schools shall not adopt\n\nthis evil unnecessarily as they grow into village schools by growth of\npopulation and by transportation of pupils to central schools.\nKeep the\nclasses small in central schools, and do not try to economize by saving in\nnumber of teachers until the schools become large enough to permit this\nwithout making large intervals between classes.\nIt isa terrible arraignment of the schools graded on the one-year, twoyear or three-year-interval plan to accuse them of stifling talent in the\nbright pupils and of discouraging the dull pupils until they lose their\nself-respect.\nThe old, ungraded school did not commit this error of destroying the\nhabits of industry in bright pupils by yoking them with dull ones, or of\ndestroying the self-respect of the dull ones by constantly provoking comparison between them and their companions unequally yoked with them.\nWith increase of pupils there ought to come improvement in the\ninstruction of the school invariably, and it will come if the evils of the\n\ngraded school system are understood as well as are its advantages.\n\nSe\n\n"}
{"page": 137, "printed_page": null, "text": "ONE\nNA\nPRS\n\nSessions]\n\nKIND\n\nTHE\nBY\n\nHON.\n\nKIND\n\nHENRY\n\nIOWA;\n\nOF\n\nMOST\n\nOF SUPERVISION\n\nSABIN,\n\nCHAIRMAN\n\nSUPERVISION\n\nSTATE\nOF\n\nMOST\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nOF\n\nNEEDED\n\nOF\n\nTWELVE\n\nL277\n\nNEEDED.\n\nPUBLIC\n\nON\n\nINSTRUCTION,\n\nRURAL\n\nSCHOOLS.\n\nThe doctrine of supervision is in itself most wholesome and efficacious.\nIt implies uniformity in those things which are essential, freedom of\nchoice in those things which are nonessential, and in all things that\nenthusiasm and spirit which are created by acting with others for accomplishing\n\na common\n\npurpose.\n\nThis,\n\nhowever,\n\nmust\n\nbe\n\ngranted\n\nat the\n\nWhile in many places the schools have been greatly benefited by\noutset.\nwise, intelligent, and rational supervision, in other places they have been\nhindered in their progress, stunted in their development, and dwarfed in\nThe narrowness of his\ntheir growth by the supervision of the martinet.\npurpose, his attention to the minutest details of school management, his\nattempt by means of rules, regulations, and restrictions to bring all things\nto the level of lifeless uniformity, are not conducive to the development of\nstrong, vigorous school life. The pedant in the supervisor’s office is a\nnuisance that ought not to be tolerated even for a single day. You may\ncall it close\n\nsupervision,\n\nbut it is unjust,\n\ninhuman,\n\nand\n\nin some\n\ncases\n\nWe do not want this in the country\namounts to an absolute tyranny.\nschool.\nSupervision is a blessing or a curse in proportion to the degree of\nintelligence and skill with which it is administered.\nThe personality of\nthe supervisor, which someone\n\nsays “consists\n\nof consciousness, character,\n\nand will,” is worthy the first consideration.\nHe should be selected\nwith reference to his peculiar fitness for the duties of his office. In this\nrespect the city schools have an advantage, arising from the fact that the\nsuperintendent is usually chosen from a number of candidates because he\nseems to be the one having the highest qualifications, while the county\nsuperintendent is too often sifted out by the whirligig of politics, with\nreference to such availability alone, or in order to balance the ticket.\nThe tendency manifested in many states to require some qualifications as\nto character, scholarship, and experience from the candidate who aspires\nto the office of county superintendent is one of the most hopeful signs of\nimprovement in the nature and efficiency of rural-school supervision.\nThe country schools need a supervision which in its entirety and its\nwholesome effects challenges the respect and support of everyone who is\ninterested in the welfare of the schools. They need a supervision which\n‘The supervisor should\nis broad in its scholarship without being shallow.\nbe well grounded\nmust\nhe\nbut\neverything,\nknowing\nof\n_make no pretense\nin those studies which enter into the rural-school curriculum.\n\nHe\n\nshould\n\nhave a varied and successful experience in this kind of work before he\n\n"}
{"page": 138, "printed_page": null, "text": "128\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nenters upon the duties of his office, in order that he may be able to devise\nand execute plans looking to the best education which it is possible for\nthese schools to afford. A man may know’the entire process of manufacturing Bessemer steel and not be a good blacksmith; he may be an adept\nin the sciences, or at home in languages or literature, and yet not be able\nto manage a school of forty pupils; so he may be a most excellent disciplinarian, and an exceptionally good instructor, and be lacking in the\nqualifications necessary to success as a supervisor of a system of schools.\nWith all our progress in philosophy and our study of pedagogy, the\ndogma of individuality has not received its share of attention.\nHence,\nin selecting a suitable person to oversee a system of rural schools, in\naddition to a reasonable education, and\n\nto a clean personal\n\ncharacter, we\n\nshould look for the power of adaptability to circumstances, and the ability\nto discern the fitness of things, so that he may accomplish all that which\nis possible without attempting the impossible.\nThe integrity of his heart,\nthe nobleness of his aim, the honesty of his purpose should be so patent\nin his life as to render him secure in the respect and confidence of all with\nwhom he comes in contact.\nHe should be ready at all times to assert his\nrights as an American citizen, and people will respect him the more for\nit. The people generally have no use fora political coward.\nAt the\nsame time he should concede to others whatever rights he claims for himself. There is no occasion for his engaging in unseemly political squabbles, nor for intruding his peculiar views when they will render him\nobnoxious or injure his influence.\nWe regret that the office of county superintendent must for years to\ncome be political in its nature, but the officer himself should be a politician only in the highest and broadest sense of that word.\nThe time will\nundoubtedly come when politics will be eliminated from the election of\nschool officers. Until then we must make the best of circumstances and\nelect to the office of supervisor or superintendent persons who carry their\nconscience\n\ninto their work, and\n\nwho, therefore, will, when inducted\n\ninto\n\noffice; regard in its fullness their official oath. Such men of either party\nwill conduct themselves as citizens and not as partisans, and will discharge their duties, looking only to the highest welfare of the schools.\nThe person who is chosen to act as a supervisor of rural schools should\nhave the qualities of leadership developed in the highest degree.\nHe\nmust himself\n\nbe a thinker as well as a student, and\n\nhe must\n\nbe able to\n\nincite others to think and study. In the isolation of the country school\nthe teacher too often has no ideals, and consequently no ambition.\nIt is\nthe business of intelligent supervision to suggest these high ideals of\nwork as the end which the teacher must aim to accomplish.\nTime is\noften wasted by the supervisor in suggesting new methods to teachers\nwho have no idea that there is any better way than they have been doing\n\na\nse\nIP\ncl\nAm\n\n"}
{"page": 139, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nKIND\n\nOF SUPERVISION\n\nMOST\n\nNEEDED\n\n129\n\nsince they obtained their first certificate; he might as well whisper the\nnews of the day in the ears of the dead.\nI would rather have in a teacher\none divine spark of originality, lightened up by enthusiasm and zeal in\nher work, than all the knowledge that is contained in a thousand pages\nof the dead lore of the past. I do not by any means wish to be understood as decrying the study of pedagogical laws, but the country\nschool-teacher who is forced to cram herself with the dry words of a textbook which she has not the intellectual power to comprehend, prescribed\nby a supervisor as a prerequisite for obtaining his official signature to her\n_ certificate, is to me one of the most pitiable objects on God’s green footstool. The supervision needed in the rural school is one which inspires\nenergy, enthusiasm, and zeal; which awakens a desire to know the best;\nwhich says, ‘“‘Come, let us study, let us think, let us reason, let us dis-\n\n- cuss.” Such supervision opens the doors and the windows, that the light\nof.nature may come in; drives out old traditions, and ushers in the reign\nof intelligence,\n\nknowledge,\n\nhumanity,\n\nand\n\nlove, which\n\ncharacterize\n\nthe\n\nnew education.\nNow, as to the purpose of the supervision needed in the rural school.\nIt-is here that the most lamentable failure is made.\nThe supervisor visits\nthe school, examines the pupils, looks through the register, praises a few\nthings and criticises many, and, with his little notebook in his vest pocket,\ngoes on to the next district.\nHas he done all that is required of him?\nNot by any means.\nHe must note at such a visit the tone and spirit\nabroad\n\nin each school, the relations which exist between\n\nthe teacher and\n\nthe pupils, and the morale, which is evidenced by cheerful obedience and\nstrict attentionto the business of the hour.\nIf the visit of the supervisor\nin the country school leaves no lasting influence upon the teacher and the\nchildren, it would\n\nbetter not\n\nhave been made.\n\nIf he examines a class, it\n\nshould not be with the narrow purpose of ascertaining how little they know,\nbut with the broader purpose of discovering along what lines they need\nencouragement, in what respects they are improving, and whether their\ntraining is such as to induce power of thought, habits of investigation\nand freedom of expression, which things are lost sight of in the routine\nwork too prevalent in every section of the country.\nThe influence of a refined, cultured scholar in the person of the\nsupervisor is not to be lost sight of. Sometimes he is the only medium\nthrough which bright pupils receive an aspiration which awakens a desire\nto attend a school offering larger advantages. The supervisor has a threefold function.\nHe examines in order that he may test the possession of\nknowledge on the part of teacher or pupil; he inspects that he may in a\nmeasure ascertain the quality of the work and control or organize the\nmanagement; he supervises in order that as an adviser and friend he may\npoint out errors and suggest remedies, encourage honest efforts, and wel-\n\n"}
{"page": 140, "printed_page": null, "text": "130\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nThe\ncome signs of improvement in methods of discipline or instruction.\nIt is only by regarding\ntrue supervisor is much more than a teacher.\neach of these functions that the supervisor may bring his work into\naccord with that of the teacher and the pupil, and thus unite for a common purpose all the interests of the school.\nFormerly the office of supervisor embraced that of examiner of\nThere are many counties or districts even now in which\nteachers alone.\nthe fitness of the teacher is determined by the per cents. recorded against\n‘This has led to a great evil, in that it induces teachers to\nher name.\nstudy for marks.\nThey study questions, not subjects, and test themselves\nFor this purpose books are published\nby the number they can answer.\nEducational journals\nfilled with nothing but questions and answers.\ncrowd their columns with last month’s examination questions, and of late\nthey have taken to furnishing answers and solutions, as helps to teachers.\nAs a consequence the rural school-teacher becomes exceedingly narrow,\nhaving little depth of knowledge, or breadth of foundation upon which to\nbuild her work.\nShe does not cultivate habits of study or investigation.\nOnly an independent thinker can make an independent teacher.\nEnthusiasm in presenting knowledge is born of enthusiasm in pursuit of\nThe prevailing method of examining teachers, as a test of fitknowledge.\nness for their work, is an exceedingly ingenious device for enabling them\nto conceal their ignorance.\nThe examination has its limitations, but this is neither\n\nthe occasion to discuss them.\n\nthe time nor\n\nThe need of the school is a supervision\n\nwhich can reach beneath this accumulated\n\nmass of rubbish, and judge the\n\nqualifications of the teacher not alone by what she knows, but rather by\nwhat she can do in the schoolroom.\nThe teacher who has crammed for\nthe examination ought to be detected and rejected as surely as the one\nwho fails to meet the prescribed standard.\nTo give the rural school\nthe needed supervision, the supervisor must know what is the criterion of a good teacher and the elements of good teaching.\nHe must\npossess the ability to select the teachers whom he commissions, not only\nin accordance with the results of the examination, but having regard to\nbreadth of knowledge, as evinced even in the answers to technical questions. He must be guided not alone by a system of percentages, but by\nher evident ability to stamp the impress of her character upon her school.\nHe must endeavor to determine the question, ‘‘ What will be the influence\nof this teacher over the pupils, and in the community at large?”\nIt is\nworse than folly for the supervisor to send out teachers who in knowledge, character, or adaptability are poorly prepared for their work, and\nthen by some process of close supervision attempt to correct their errors\nand to convert them into respectable teachers.\nOf all the duties incumbent upon the supervisor there is no one which requires more wisdom\n\naes\nas\na\n\n"}
{"page": 141, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nKIND\n\nOF SUPERVISION\n\nMOST\n\nNEEDED\n\nLB\n\nand skill, greater intelligence, and the exercise of more common sense\nthan this of determining the fitness of persons to enter upon the work of\nteaching children.\nThe supervision needed by the rural schools has still another mission.\nThe low state of public opinion, which accepts the conditions of poor\nschools as the best\n\nattainable,\n\nis due\n\nto the fact that the school\n\nis not\n\nappreciated, and that the work which it ought to do is not well understood.\nThe supervision of rural schools should be made to include the\nduty of awakening public concern, and of strengthening the entire tone\nand trend of thought, as it is directed towards the promotion of educaThis is a new field for supervision, and one in which it\ntional interests.\nought to achieve most beneficent results.\nThe supervisor of rural\nschools should be acquainted with the material resources of his district.\nHe should not only know what constitutes good farming, the grazing\ninterests, the dairy, the rotation of crops, but the prevailing industry of\nthat region should be so familiar to him that he can converse intelligently\nwith the inhabitants and convince them that he knows something besides\nThe object is not alone to gain an influence over them, but to\nbooks.\nbring the school into touch with the home life of the community about\nit. For this reason the supervisor should make himself well acquainted\nwith the prevailing conditions of the wage-earners of his territory, in\norder that the instruction of their children may commend itself to them\nas sensible and as calculated to meet their present and prospective wants.\nNew thoughts, better methods, live matter, and\n\nstronger\n\nincentives must\n\ncome to the country school through the efforts of rational supervision.\nThe dawn of a new education for these schools will break over the\nhorizon as soon as we can bring to the aid of the teacher the light of\nscience, and the knowledge of common things. It is not to invite the\nfarmer or the miner to the school, but to take the school to the farm or\nthe mine, and to show the pupils that here, before their eyes, are the\n\nfoundations upon which have been built the great natural sciences of our\nday. I have only touched upon the remote borders of a subject which\nopens in many directions. But it cannot flourish under any system of close\nThe teacher must have great latitude; she must be herself a\nsupervision.\nlover of nature in its various forms and be able to interpret the language\nof rocks, and trees, and flowers ; the running brook, the snows of winter,\n\nand the fruits of autumn. The wise and intelligent supervisor aids and\nencourages her and her pupils and commends her work in these new\nlines, as he does that included in the regular school curriculum.\nThe supervision needed by the country school must concern itself\nalso with school\n\nextension, lectures, and\n\nlibraries.\n\nThe\n\ncounty\n\nassocia-\n\ntions must be supplemented by meetings of the directors and parents for\nIn these the supervisor must be the moving\nconsultation and advice.\n\n"}
{"page": 142, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n132\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n[General\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nspirit. The isolation of the country school can be broken up through\nThe establishment and maintenance of\nthe influence of these meetings.\na ready and popular advocate.\nsupervisor\nthe\nin\ngood roads must find\nschool grounds should be\nrural\nthe\ninfluence\nhis\nof\nUnder the stimulus\nThere\nand convenient.\nneat\nbuildings\nschool\nthe\nmade attractive and\nthe\nchanged\nhas\nman\none\nof\nwork\nthe\nwhich\nin\nare instances on record\nof\nconfidence\nthe\ngain\nto\nfirst\nhad\nhe\nbut\ncounty,\neducational aspect of a\nalong\nfor\nhim\nre-electing\nand\nelecting\nby\nthe people, and they responded\nseries of terms.\nI am inclined to close as I began.\nThe country schools do not need\nwhat we ordinarily call close supervision.\nIt is as unsuited to their wants\nas would be the close grading of the city schools.\nThe supervision\nneeded by the rural schools must be intelligent and rational.\nIt must\nabound\nstrong,\n\nin common\nmanly, and\n\nsense, be able to adapt itself to circumstances, be\nvigorous, so that the character of the supervision\n\nshall commend the wisdom of the supervisor.\nThere must be added also\nan element of permanence in office, so that the supervisor may feel that\nhe has time in which to work out his plans, and to demonstrate the\nfeasibility of his theories.\n‘The supervisor must be kept in the field every\nday of the school year, when it is possible.\nHe should have all the\nclerical help he needs, but the worst use that can be made of him is to\nkeep him in the seclusion of his office, at work over papers and reports.\nThe vacations should not be entirely free from field work, for then he\nshould be with the people and school officers, looking after school\ngrounds, advising with directors or trustees in regard to the repair and\nimprovement of buildings, or the erection of new ones, consulting with\nthem as to the choice of teachers, the text-books\n\nmost\n\nsuitable\n\nfor their\n\nschools, and the general educational interests of the district.\nThe supervision which I have attempted to mark out is that of a live,\nenthusiastic man, in sympathy with educational progress, in touch with\nthe common people, consecrated to his work, who thinks no sacrifice too\ngreat, no labor too severe, when made in the cause of the common district\nschool.\n\nINTELLECTUAL\nBY\n\nD. L. KIEHLE,\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nNEEDS\nOF\n\nOF RURAL\n\nPEDAGOGY,\n\nSCHOOLS.\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF\n\nMINNESOTA.\n\nThe most attractive part of any civilizationis the material instruments\nwhich it has devised, and which are indispensable to its progress.\nThis\nis equally true of that part of our civilization which is included in our\nschool system.\n\nWe have schoolhouses, in beauty, comfort, and healthful-\n\nes\ne\n\n"}
{"page": 143, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nINTELLECTUAL\n\nNEEDS\n\nOF RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nL323\n\nness, such as the world has never before seen; we have text-books which,\nin elaborateness, simplification, and taste, excel all before them; we have\n\napparatus that presents in distinct form, and for separate study, every\nform, every phenomenon, and every principle known to natural ‘science;\nwe have organization, systems, and methods all elaborately wrought out\nand offered for use.\nIt is assigned to this part of the general discussion of the rural-school\nproblem to consider what is necessary to make all this material effective\nin the proper education of the children of rural schools; in other words,\nwhat intelligence is required to wield these instruments of education, and\nwhat spirit must be embodied in this material mechanism in order that it\nmay serve its purpose.\nWe must begin by calling to mind the purpose of\neducation, and what, in its application to rural schools, it ought to accom-:\nplish for them.\nIn general, it is to introduce the child into the civilization into which\nhe has been born, to give him power intelligently to appropriate its\naccumulated experience, to understand its peculiar problems, and to\nmake most skillful use of present possessions for his higher comfort and\nwell-being.\nIn short, it is to prepare him for the most complete living\nwithin his environment of which he is capable—for acomplete living as a\nhuman being, satisfying the demands of his physical nature in material\ncomforts, and of his social, esthetic, and moral\n\nnature in cultivated\n\ncon-\n\ntact with the life of the race.\nNow, education considered as a development of the powers of the\nindividual as man or woman is quite the same the world over; but as the\nunifying of the individual with his environment, the methods must change\nwith changed conditions.\nWithout doubt the most marked separation\nexists between rural and town or city life. The latter is based on social\nrelations.\nIts spirit is interdependent and co-operative.\nThe former is\nbased on the soil, and its spirit and tendencies are largely mechanical in\noccupation, and socially segregating and independent.\n~\nThis general problem of education applied to our rural schools, therefore, is this, how to prepare the youth of the country to live their lives\nmost fully and worthily —not as toilers, and not for mere sustenance, but\nas men and women of the race, who in taste and understanding are to live\nthe larger lives of the social and intellectual world.\nIt is, doubtless, the most difficult of all. undertakings in education to\nenable each individual to live his own\n\nbest life, within\n\nthe limitations\n\nof\n\nThe natural tendency is to\nhis subjective and his objective environment.\nto expend all energy in\nstandard,\ntraditional\nand\nfix upon some accepted\none’s surroundescaping\nin\nand\nreadjusting one’s personal characteristics,\nwealth ; the\ncovet\npoor\nthe\nHence,\nis.\nings in order to be what another\nman, and\nprofessional\na\nbe\nwould\nwealthy covet nobility; the mechanic\n\n"}
{"page": 144, "printed_page": null, "text": "134\n\nNATIONAL\n\nthe boy on the farm would\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nabandon\n\n[General\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nthe farm for what seems to him the\n\nparadise of city life.\nEducational systems have contributed their full share to this mischievous tendency, having done much in educating our youth away from their\nThe school\nnative environment without educating them into another.\nambition\nthe\nworthy\nas\naccepted\nis\nthat\nlife\nsocial\nof\nideal\nrepresents some\nfashion,\nthe\nset\nschools\nthe\nhence\n;\nclasses\ngoverning\nand\nof the cultivated\nunworthy.\nimpliedly\nis\nrecognize\nnot\ndo\nschools\nand what the\nNot many years ago our education recognized only the demands of\nprofessional life, and the culture, knowledge, and training that were\nespecially appropriate to professional life were offered indiscriminately to\nall classes, with\n\nthe\n\nresult\n\nthat all positive\n\nintellectual\n\nmovement\n\nwas\n\n-toward professional lives.\nLater, when agricultural life began to assert itself and demanded\nrecognition in our education, there were established so-called agricultural\ncolleges, which were nothing more nor less than the classical school with\nits atmosphere of ancient form and spirit, with some theoretical and\npractical agriculture attached, yet offered as if for those whose intellectual\nand social conditions excluded them from the more respectable subjects\nof abstract and classical study. The men in charge represented cultured\nlife, and the industries as found in the great social and industrial centers.\nThe result was that they invariably educated away from rather than into\nthe rural life and\n\nits occupations, which they were\n\ncreated to serve, and\n\nwere, therefore, justly condemned by the farmers whose sons they had\nundertaken to educate.\nIn our city schools we have made great progress in broadening our\ncurriculum of education, by which we undertake to prepare each individual\nfor a successful and contented life in his particular environment, whether\nindustrial or professional, whether as as employer or employé.\nBut in\nthe country, and\n\nin the interest of agricultural\n\nlife, we have just entered\n\nupon the solution of this phase of our educational problem.\nOur district school is an ungraded arrangement of matter and method adopted\nfrom the schools of the city. The governing impression seems to be that\nthe country is but a suburb for a sort of probationary life for the paradise\nof the city, and the country school a trial school for the teacher who\nhopes for promotion to the grades of a city. But the worthier view,\nand that which has inspired. this discussion, is that it is an independent life of itself, as dignified and as worthy of ambition as any other,\nand, accordingly, that its education should be organized and conducted\nin its interest, in the application of all facts and laws of science, economics,\n\nand zesthetics for its intprovement.\nThus far the most valuable contributions in this direction have appeared in those. forms of education\nbelonging to adult life.\n\n"}
{"page": 145, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nINTELLECTUAL\n\nNEEDS\n\nOF RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n135\n\nFirst are the agricultural colleges and_ schools.\nImperfect as the\nearlier movement was it did send out men who were nearer the people and\nmore interested in agricultural education than the most of their teachers.\nFollowing this we have entered upon the second and more effective\nstage —the conduct of the agricultural school.\nThe agricultural school has cut loose from all the restraints of the\nclassical\n\nschools, and, following the example of manual training\n\nschools,\n\nit organizes its course of study wholly in the interest of agricultual life.\nIt lays down as its fundamental principle that agriculture in rural life is\nan industry that offers, beside remuneration and healthful employment,\nthe fullest and finest exercise of the scientific ability in the study of nature,\n\nof eesthetic\n\ntaste\n\nin the adornment\n\nof home, and, in this age, abundant\n\nopportunity for social and literary culture in the\nextended circulation of books and periodicals.\n\nmultiplication\n\nand\n\nIn such aschool the boys are those who have had their taste, ideas, and\n\nexperiences cultivated by life-long contact with farm life. They are\neducated in immediate contact with the farm.\nTheir education consists\nin the applications of science to the material of rural life and agricultural\nindustry.\nThe product of such a school is a cultured\n\nAmerican\n\ncitizen, living on\n\nhis farm, conducting it with intelligence and scientific insight into the\nvarious processes that are going on about him, and with the enjoyment\nthat comes from intelligent self-respect and application of the operations\nof nature.\nThe next contribution that has been made to rural education has been\nin farmers’ institutes.\nThese are short sessionsof farmers, generally of\nthe most enterprising and intelligent class, who are addressed by scientific\nagriculturalists upon the practical matters of agricultural life. Here you\nwill see the most complete examples of object lessons and laboratory\npractice. At one lesson the whole class is gathered about a cow, ora\nsheep, or a hog, discussing\n\nits characteristics, its heredity, and\n\nthe best\n\nmethods of its culture. At another, they study the dairy and its products.\nAt a third, the housewives are gathered about the instructor in domestic\neconomy, who not only illustrates processes, but gives the scientific\nThe result is that we have farmers who not only use more\nexplanations.\nprocesses, but have the enjoyment that comes from\neconomic\nand\nrational\ndrudgery and more intellectual and social interslavish\nand\nless physical\ncourse.\n\n;\n\nIt has been the universal rule that the children are served last. Education had made great progress among men long before the schools for\nAfter the same\nchildren felt the influence of progressive movements.\nrestraints of\nthe\nunder\nstill\nare\nchildren\nfashion, the schools for country\nmatter by\nthe\nand\nmethods\nvery\nthe\nancient methods, and rigidly exclude\n\n"}
{"page": 146, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n136\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n[General\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nwhich their parents are made intelligent and practical. They may read\nthe stories of Homer, the tales of Shakespeare, and study the geography\nof Asia, but to bring into the schoolroom a squirrel, a bird, or a bug\nwould surprise the neighborhood, and to take the children into the fields\nand by the streams to study the formation of land surface and the effects\nof water currents would hazard the salary of the teacher for taking holiday\nwithout authority.\nI submit, then, that the first intellectual need of rural schools is a curriculum of study furnishing materials and methods that are natural to the\nlife they live. It is quite unnecessary, at this time, to elaborate any outline or course of study. I need only refer you to the ample provision of\nmaterial made by your Committee on Rural Schools, whose report is now\nbefore you.\nI come now to the second\n\nof the intellectual\n\nneeds\n\nof rural schools,\n\nand upon which depends the efficacy of all else —I mean, of course, the\nteacher. A civilization in either of its types can only be introduced and\nengrafted by life that embodies its spirit. The machinery of civilization\nset up among a barbarous people will not develop the industries.\nThe\nliterature of the world set up in libraries will not change rudeness to culture. The Bible itself, with all the developed products of Christian life in\nliterature, churches, and\n\nceremonies, will not of itself purify and\n\nelevate\n\nthe lives of heathendom.\nIt is only life that begets life, and that of its\nown kind.\nIt is only as the institutions and products of civilized life are\nmade the instruments of the life itself that they can be effective in elevating others to the same plane. ‘This law holds equally good in respect to\nrural schools.\nThe civilization of the age has ennobled its institutions,\nmeans\n\nof expression,\n\nits literature\n\nin recorded\n\nexperience,\n\ndiscoveries,\n\ninventions, and speculations, its science and its philosophy; and for its\nschools it has systems, architecture, text-books, apparatus, and libraries,\nbut all these, to be effective in educating the youth, must be the instruments of influence in the hands of a teacher whose ambition kindles its\nlike, and whose attractive power in thought and feeling draws to itself and\nmolds to like forms the spirits of youth with whom it comes in contact.\nAll this is a very old doctrine, exemplified a thousand times, from the\ndays of Socrates in Athens to Abélard in France, all the way down to the\nhumble service of our university settlements, as well as in the whole history\nof Christian missions.\nThe first service required of the teacher in rural schools is to represent\nin himself aspiring intelligence and character, by taking the children of\nthe soil, living their segregated and mechanical lives, and introducing them\nto the society, thought, and achievement of the race.\nThe second service required is that he represent in himself and in his\nteaching the dignity and honor that attach to the occupations of country\n\na\nr\n\n"}
{"page": 147, "printed_page": null, "text": "5\n\nSessions]\n\nINTELLECTUAL\n\nNEEDS\n\nOF RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n137\n\nlife. Youth gets its ideas from the standard set before it. When manual\nlabor is performed by slaves and menials, freemen and the cultured avoid\nit. When manual training came to be represented in our public-school\nsystem by scholarly and cultivated men, who handled the saw, the shovel,\n\nand the plane in company with the pupils, then labor took honorable rank,\nand students became skilled mechanics.\nWhen domestic economy was\ngiven a place in our schools, and our girls, who had never seen kitchen\nwork done by any but uneducated servants, and that most mechanically,\nsaw their teachers with skill and intelligence do the same, and make\nit the topic of interesting observations and an application of their knowledge of chemistry and hygiene—it was at once taken out of the rank of\nIt\nmenial employment and given honorable rank as a worthy pursuit.\nmust be in this same way that country life and country pursuits will be\nWhen the teacher\nprompted by the educating influence of rural schools.\nwith scholarship and a character that commands respect and admiration\nwill in like manner represent the spirit of rural life, and utilize the environment of rural life for the exercise of intellectual power and industrial\nskill, we shall have not only educational results, but, what is more, we shall\n\nsee agricultural life taking higher rank and given greater consideration by\nthe introduction into it of skill, intelligence, and self-respect.that is begotten of education.\nIt is not in my mind that rural schools shall educate for country life,\nas if to exclude their youth from the pursuits of the city, but that they\nshall do their share in the magnificent undertaking that seems to be the’\npeculiar calling of our public-school system, namely, to conduct its education to the end that all artificial distinctions, by which men are ranked\nin honor and social respectability according to the accidents of nationality, birth, and vocation,\n\nmay\n\nbe obliterated, and\n\nmen\n\nranked\n\naccording\n\nto character, and the virtues of philanthropy and intelligent industry. We\nhave already done more than all the world before us. For our daughters\nas well as for our sons, for all of every religious faith, for white and black,\n\nfor rich and poor, our schools are all free. From the narrow lines of\nclassical culture we have broadened to include all languages, all literature,\nthe clerical—\nFrom the single occupation—\nall science, and all history.\nwe have\nlearning,\ngreatest\nas the only one requiring highest culture and\nof\nmultitude\na\nto\nby our education given social and intellectual standing\nOur\nschools.\nindustries, in which are represented the best culture of our\neducation should do the same for rural life and its industries, when intel-\n\nligence shall apply itself to making it, first more remunerative, then more\ncomfortable in the hygiene and ornamentation of the home, and, finally, in\n\nbringing it into social and intellectual touch with the great world about it.\nThen, when rural life is made congenial to intellectual and social culture,\n\nand when its occupations\n\nhave been dignified by the exercise of the skill\n\n"}
{"page": 148, "printed_page": null, "text": "Ar\n138\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nthat comes from education, we may leave our youth to satisfy their own\npreferences in the selection of an occupation according to their several\ntastes and natural fitness.\nIn this discussion thus far we have had in mind the individual teacher\nreflection, we\n\nin the schoolroom, but, upon\n\nshall\n\nsee\n\nat once\n\nthat\n\nthis\n\nindividual teacher is but a factor, a part of a system, including the school\nthat prepares him, and the supervision that directs him.\n\nI am, therefore,\n\nof the opinion that in securing for our rural schools the teaching they\nrequire we shall have to face the question of special preparation of teachers\nfor them. In the history of our modern movements for the enlargement of\nthe scope of education we see that as long as the classical and scientific school\nprepared the teachers it was quite impossible to develop manual training\nschools, but as soon as teachers of manual training could be sent out from\nthe schools of manual training, they and their schools took educational\nSo, too, as long as teachers of agriculture were prepared in the\nrank.\nclassical\n\nand\n\nscientific\n\nschools, the farmers\n\ncomplained, and justly, too,\n\nthat their boys were turned to every vocation but that of their fathers.\nThus far our training schools for teachers have been organized for, and\nconducted after, the ideal of city schools and city life, and the complaint\nis universal that the disposition of teachers is more determined as they\napproach graduation to escape the conditions of country life and the\ncountry school.\nShall we say that all this is a necessary condition of\nthings, and must we allow that as we perfect our system of education we\nmust intensify the prevailing disposition of our modern civilization to\nabandon country life and crowd into cities? I do not believe that we are\ncommitted to this unnatural and dangerous alternative. On the contrary,\nthe indications are very distinct that the reaction from the centralization\nof social cast in industries and learning has begun, that the claims of the\ncountry are as distinctive as those of the city, and that we are required to\nprovide for rural schools in courses of study and in teachers with the same\ncare that is shown the mechanical industries in manual training.\nThis, however, is a problem\n\nthat belongs\n\nto our normal\n\nschools\n\nand\n\nwhich I commend to their attention with a reference to the suggestive and\nvaluable contributions made to this subject in the report of the Committee\nof Twelve on Rural Schools, especially the two articles found in the\nappendix,\n\nnamely, “School\n\nCourses” and ‘The\n\nFarm\n\nas\n\na\n\nCenter\n\nof\n\nInterest.”\nNext is the intellectual need of adequate supervision.\nThe superintendent must not be a mere representative of country politics, nor of the\nunprogressive, unintelligent drudgery of common farm life ; neither should\nhe be a mere representative of the schools and courses of the city. watie\nought to embody the spirit of farm life, and in his selection of teachers\nand in his supervision he should contribute to the ideal of rural school life.\n\n"}
{"page": 149, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nMARCH\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nIDEAL\n\n139\n\nTo discuss the obstacles that beset this movement would take more\ntime than belongs to this paper.\nHowever great the difficulties to progress, they are disappearing.\n‘The great intellectual and political movement, that has begun in the country and has already made itself felt in\nhigher\n\neducation,\n\nwill\n\nsoon\n\napply itself to the interests\n\nof its common\n\nschools, and will require a corresponding consideration of this important\nand peculiar department of our educational system.\n\nte\n\nMARCH\n\nBY CLINTON\n\nOF, THE\n\nSCOLLARD,\n\nIDEAL.\n\nCLINTON,\n\nN. Y.\n\ni\n\nNo hoary sage, enamored of gray eld,\nHowe’er so keen his eye,\n\nHas ever pierced the Past’s obscuring veil,\nAnd, in the mythic morning-time, beheld\n\nWhere the primeval founts of Knowledge lie.\nIn vain does man assail\nThe starry bastions of the midnight sky,\nSeeking the source of light,\nThe awful Infinite ;\n\nAnd so in vain\nMan’s rapt desire to read the riddle plain,—\nThe source of that incalculable store\nThat in the brain foregathers more and more.\n1B,\nHave we not known,\n\n“In the lush upland regions overgrown\nWith beech and bracken, in a quiet dell,\n\nMossed at the edge,\nAnd overhung with sedge,\nA tiny pool, a crystal woodland well,—\nA little thing half-hidden from the day?\n“A little thing,” we say;\n\nYet from so small a source\nMay sweep a Hudson in majestic course,\nA Mississippi take its seaward way!\n\n"}
{"page": 150, "printed_page": null, "text": "140\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nSo is it with that immemorial spring\nHid in the illimitable uplands of the Past,—\nVariant and vast,\nThe well of Knowledge.\nThrough the successive ages widening,\nThe floodtide from it cast!\nTi\n\nEre Susa was, or gardened Babylon\nLifted its pillared porches to the sun,\nAmid the cumbrous coil of human life,\nThe interblended calm and strife,\nWere men who stood above, apart,\n\nMighty of brain and militant of heart,\nThe freshening founts to swell\nThe onward sweep from the sequestered well.\nThere was a time\n\nWhen pulsed the current like a choral chime\n\nET\nEe\ne\n\nCelestially sublime ;\nWhen ran the tide as clear\n\nAs is the hyalescent atmosphere ©\nRound\n\nSt. Elias in Alaskan snows,—\n\nThe Periclean age of high repose.\nAgain the flood grew broad\nWhat time the imperial Augustus awed\n\nThe outland peoples with his mighty sway,\nAnd, on Judean hills, the “‘ Lamb of God,”\nA little child, within the manger lay.\nTV~\n\nWho giveth to this tide?\nProphet and poet and the argus-eyed\nSearcher into all problems intricate\nWhether they be of science, or the fate\nThat on the soul doth wait.\nHappy the age wherein\nThese high-inspired and lofty figures dwell !\nTheir truth triumphantly assoils the sin ;\nThe stream flows broader from the living well.\nOne haunted by the old Greek loveliness,\n\nWho has his final home\nIn alien loam\n\nf\n\nBeneath the many-battled walls of Rome,\nSang sweet of Beauty’s purifying power ;\n\nie\ntei\nen\ndacanae\nehste\nin\ntalhasi\n6\newe\nben\npier\nier\nt\nea\nsa\nFo\n\n"}
{"page": 151, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nMARCH\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nIDEAL\n\nAnother voice, of rapture none the less,\n\nLong stilled for aye\nBy the chill billows of blue Spezzia bay,\nLoud chanted Justice and man’s equal dower.\nWith cup at lip, heroic Socrates,\n\nShakespere, the myriad-minded one,\n\nGrave-thoughted Emerson,—\nSuch souls as these\nLeave to all time the richest legacies.\nV.\n\nWhichever be the plan,\nNature through mankind, or through Nature man,\n’Tis Nature is the great idealist,\nFashioning from out the somber morning mist\nMountains\n\nof rose and hills of amethyst;\n\nMolding with incomparable toil\nFrom out the base essentials of the soil\nThe immaculate lily-tower,\nAll grace and sweetness centered in a flower;\nPrisoning within one small wood-warbler’s throat\nEcstatic note upon ecstatic note.\n\"Tis those close cleaving unto Nature, then,\nWho are the master spirits among men,\n.\n\nIdealists,\n\nHolding their noontide and nocturnal trysts\nWith what is lofty, elemental, pure,—\n\nThe essences divine that shall endure.\nVI.\n\nUpon them let us keep\nOur vision fixed while flee the fateful years,\nAs doth the mariner on the storm-vexed deep\nUpon the beacon-star by which he steers!\n\nTheir shining names\n\n.\n\nAre ours as well as Fame’s,\n\nf\n\nVi\n\nWhate’er the beauteous mold in which they wrought\nTheir mind-ennobling thought ; —\nWhether with Phidian skill\nIn marble reproducing mortal will,\nOr limning, Raphael like, the human form\nTill on the canvas it seems live and warm,\n\nI4I\n\n"}
{"page": 152, "printed_page": null, "text": "eec\n142\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nOr welding states fragmental into one\nAs did our hero-hearted Washington.\nVIL.\nAlas, for obdurate souls that will not heed\n\nThe seer’s exalted voice of prophecy,\nThat will not follow where the climbers lead\nAlong life’s radiant hilltops, glad and free!\nBut plait a crown of cruel thorns for those,\nThe men of mastery and of rapt insight,\nWho, fearless, face the blinded bigot’s blows,\n\nAnd stand, unswerving, for the truth and right ;\nWho place the good of all o’er that of self,\nAnd honest penury o’er dishonest pelt;\nWho keep alive the patriot’s holy ire\nAgainst the truckler and his low desire,\nAnd hold the honor of a nation’s shield\nShould bear no stain upon its fair white field !\nVEY\n\nHave we not read how great Canute of old,\nSitting within his chair of beaten gold\nBeside the shore where dashed the thunderous sea,\n\nTo show how small is earthly sovereignty\n*’Gainst Nature’s laws and their imperious sway,\nBade the upheaving waves their course to stay?\n“Thus far,” he cried, “no further shalt thou go!”\nBut lo,\nThe impetuous forward flow,\nWith unabated bound,\n\nAnd deep, triumphal sound,\nSwept on and broke the royal seat around!\nAs impotent, and no whit wiser, they\n\nWho deem that puny human power can stay\nThe spirit’s course on its celestial way!\nIX.\n\nLife’s real\nOutreaches longing hands for the Ideal ;\nNever was nurtured an aspiring soul\nThat did not dream of a more lofty goal,\nWith recompense more glorious set therein,\nThan the clay-cumbered feet of man may win.\n\nSte\nDy\nates\nge\n\n"}
{"page": 153, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nAS\n\nHEART\n\nOF PEOPLE\n\nCHANGED\n\nTOWARDS\n\nSCHOOLS?\n\nI 43\n\nWithin the artist’s mind the imaged saint\nIs fairer than his finest brush can paint;\nThe poet’s fancy far outwings his word,\nAnd the musician’s music, what is heard ;\n\nAnd never lover lived who did not grace\nWith ideal beauty the beloved face !\nIt is this touch of heaven that bids us hope\nBy sure degrees we may ascend the slope That leads to those aerial summits whence\nThe spiritual inner sense,\nMounting beyond the mortal vision-line,\nMay soar to the divine !\nxe\n\nOh ye who, valiant-hearted, in the van\nOf human progress march,\nLet not your eyes from off the hills be drawn,\n\nBut watch the aureate splendor of the dawn\nTransfigure all the sky’s expanding arch!\nTis the eternal, slow-unfolding plan\nThat the Ideal, like the beaconing light\nOf morning o’er the height,\nShall guide mankind forever up and on.\nIf toward the gleam be turned the lifted face,\nBehold it shall be written of the race:\nThey live and shall live, for those cannot die\nUpon whose altars burn ideals high,\nWho worship nothing base!\n\nMaple\n\nHLART\n\nBY CARROLL\n\nIOL- GIS PEOPLE CHANGED\nITS SCHOOLS ?\n\nG. PEARSE,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF SCHOOLS,\n\nLOWAKDS\n\nOMAHA,\n\nNEB.\n\n[STENOGRAPHIC REPORT.|\n\nThe question is, I think, a pertinent one for us. The message I bring\nis a plain and homely one, but I believe it touches the schools very closely\n—the schools of the whole country.\n-The public-school idea was present from the beginning in New England.\n\nlished.\n\nAs soon as shelter and food were\n\nprovided, the school was\n\nestab-\n\nThe child must learn to read that he might not be ignorant of\n\n"}
{"page": 154, "printed_page": null, "text": "ol,\n\n144\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nHe must learn some useful\nthe holy Scriptures and the capital laws.\nemployment that he might not become a drone or a vagabond.\nThat learning might not perish from out the colonies, the university\nwas set up, where the ministers of the new land might receive such training as had made the clergymen who came with the immigrants a mighty\nforce in shaping the policies and institutions of the growing commonwealth.\nSome school there must be where boys\nThis brought a new need.\ncould get such learning as would fit them for entrance to the university.\nHere, then, was the complete foreshadowing of our modern school\nsystem — the common schools for giving the elements of knowledge; the\nsecondary schools (then called grammar schools), where boys might be\nfitted for the university and get some knowledge of the humanities; the\nuniversity, giving the higher education; the training in the home of the\nhand and judgment through the teaching of some craft, which has been\nrevived inour day in the manual-training and trade schools.\nThe idea of universal, popular education took firm hold upon the\npublic policy of the states and upon the imagination of the American\npeople.\nProvision was made to teach all children.\nAs the ball rolled, it grew.\nNew studies were added from time to\ntime.\nArithmetic came early, with writing, completing that trio, the\n“three R’s.”” Geography presented itself, and was admitted, and English\ngrammar came also. Algebra and bookkeeping sometimes crowded in.\nPhysiology and hygiene claimed attention.\nThen music, which had long\nbeen used as a recreation and inspiration, began to be taught as a science.\n‘Drawing followed for its use and for its influence.\nThe training of the\nhand and eye received more attention in the way of manual training in\nthe high schools and in the lower grades.\nSewing and cooking began to\nbe added here and there.\nPhysical culture assumed a place.\nThe best teachers had greatly increased skill over the ancient pedagogue, and competition for the best teachers among the more enterprising schools had largely increased teachers’ salaries.\nFollowing the\nexample of other great business organizations, superintendents of schools\nhad been employed to have general care and direction of the large school\nsystems.\n‘Teachers of special subjects had been freely employed, as well.\nas supervisors to direct work in music or drawing, or other special\nbranches.\nAnd all this had come about with very little opposition.\nThe\nnew studies as they came in received a few shafts of ridicule.\nBut the\nheart of the people was with the schools.\nThey were the schools of the\npeople, and to him who came and pleaded in the name of the schools\nnothing was denied.\nThe schools were riding on the crest of the wave of prosperity and\npublic favor. The people of the nation were busy increasing their wealth\n\nB\not\n\n"}
{"page": 155, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nMAS\n\nHEART\n\nOF PEOPLE\n\nCHANGED\n\nTOWARDS\n\nSCHOOLS?\n\n145\n\nand developing the resources of the country.\nThe money for the schools\nwas freely furnished, and often far too little scrutiny of its expenditure\nwas exercised.\nBut a few years ago conditions changed.\nProsperity fled.\nDevelopment was checked.\n‘The wealth of the people ceased to accumulate.\nCapital fell idle or began to be eaten up by operating expenses.\nThe\ngrasshopper of taxes, which had not been felt in the midst of general\nNot only were financial conditions\nprosperity, now became a burden.\ndistressing, but in the general slackness of business people had time to\nthink of their unhappy condition.\nThe time was no longer filled by the\npleasing employments of selling goods to paying customers, clipping\nDeprived of accustomed\ncoupons, or collecting interest on mortgages.\nemployment, the people were uncomfortable, and had ample leisure to\nrealize their unhappiness to the full. A critical spirit filled the air, and\nthis spirit did not fail to take account of the public schools.\nThey have been denounced for extravagance and waste; as the leech\nthat was taking the life blood of the body politic; as the nursery and hotbed of “fads;” as the agency which is setting young people above\ntheir station, and rendering them unwilling to take up the disagreeable\nbut necessary duties of life as their fathers did.\nFor these few years\nthe schools have borne heavily the yoke of public condemnation.\nIn\none great city it has been proposed to decrease the salaries of teachers\none-third.\nIn hundreds of cities and towns salaries have been reduced.\nCities have dispensed with their supervisors of music and drawing.\nThe\nhigh school has been attacked as contrary to the spirit and intention of a\nproper public-school system.\nThis storm\n\nof criticism, and\n\nthese\n\ndrastic\n\nmeasures, some\n\nof which\n\nhave been proposed, some put into effect, have fairly given rise to the\nquestion whether or not the heart of this people has changed towards its\nschools.\nIt is a question which each of you will wish to answer in the light of\nhis own experience.\nHaving raised the question at this time, however, I\nthink I shall make bold, for the purposes of my argument, to give an\nI do not believe that our recent\nanswer, and to give it in the negative.\nunpleasant experience indicates a loss of public regard for the schools, or\nIt may indicate that we have not, in the conduct of the\nof belief in them.\nschools, kept closely enough in touch with the people, for whom the\nschools exist and upon whose loyalty and favor the schools must rely for\nIt may indicate that we have not taken the people\nfuture well-being.\nas to our plans, and as to what we were doing\nconfidence\nour\nenough into\nIt may indicate that\nfor our use.\nproviding\nwere\nthey\nwith the money\ninitiative, and to\nown\nour\nupon\nact\nto\nprone\ntoo\nwe have been somewhat\nthe advice and\nsecuring\nfirst\nwithout\nplans\nnew\nset about the operation of\n\n"}
{"page": 156, "printed_page": null, "text": "q\n\n146\n\nNATIONAL\n\nconsent of these\n\nmasters\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nof ours.\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nIt may, I believe it does, indicate\n\nEe\n\nall\n\nthese things, and so, when stress and grinding times have come, we and\nour plans have been too nearly strangers to those we have been called to\nserve. Ibelieve, if we learn from the discomforts of the past few years\nthat the people must accompany the schools upon the path of progress,\nthe suffering will have been for our enduring profit.\nBut here among ourselves it may be proper for us to go alittle farther\nand acknowledge that sometimes the finances of the schools have not\nbeen well managed ; that sometimes we have paid too dear for our whistle.\nThis has sometimes been true because the broth was brewed by too many\ncooks; because the sovereign people dabbled too freely in the management of details.\nIn these cases the result has been much as it would be\nif the merchant or real estate agent, those eminently respectable and\nresponsible\n\nmembers\n\nof the city council, had assumed\n\nresponsibility\n\nin\n\nBut often it\ndetail for operating the new engine at the city waterworks.\nhas been true because of a lack of proper knowledge as to what education\nshould cost.\n\nThe member\n\nof the board of education, holding his office\n\nHe\nfor three years, cannot be expected to have this expert knowledge.\nis an authority on matters pertaining to his own business; but this is not\nThe need of expert advisers\nhis own business, it is the public business.\nin municipal affairs is coming to be recognized; men who know how\nmany gallons of water per day for each inhabitant a city needs; what street\ncleaning should cost; at what rate a city might profitably make its own\nIn the same way a knowledge of\ngas ; at what cost it should be paved.\nthe cost of education\n\nis coming to be a part of the needed equipment for\n\nri .\n\nein\nales\nAa\nE\nee\nOE\nM\ntet\nI\neo\n\na man who aspires to superintend a system of schools, just as is a knowledge of the subjects his teachers are to present to their pupils, or of the\nfaculties of the mind, and the laws of the physical and mental growth.\nIt has not been, often it is not now, the fault of superintendents that\nthey do not have this knowledge.\nThere has been no school in which to\n\nacquire it, except the dear school of experience.\nBut in some way the\nknowledge must come.\n‘The area of low barometer is central over the\nfinancial side of school management just now.\nMore injury seems to\nthreaten from ignorance of values and of proper cost than from ignorance\n\nof school subjects, or of the laws of development.\nThose connected with\nthe schools cannot afford to be at ease in this matter until the normal\ncost of education per child in average daily attendance is as well known\namong us as the cost of hauling freight per ton per mile is known among\n\nrailroad men.\nmeae has told us that science is comparison.\nThe best means of\nSome Pabisou $0 far has been afforded by the tables published in the reports\nof the United States Commissioner of Education.\nThese cannot, however, go into such detail as is often desirable, and the process of their\n\nBima\nweet\nre\nae\n1S\nhe\nSpe\nge\nae\n\n"}
{"page": 157, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nEXTREMES\n\n147\n\nissue is necessarily slow.\nThe best source of information for purposes of\ncomparison should be the reports issued each year by the leading cities,\nand by the various states.\nThese reports have not been by any means\nuniform in plan, nor have they made clear the same items of income and\noutgo.\nFor this reason instructive comparison has been difficult, often\nimpossible.\nCannot this association bring about some uniformity in these fiscal\nreports?\nMight not a committee, appointed by this body, consider the\nmatter of acommon\n\nplan and\n\nform\n\nfor state, for city, and, perhaps, for\n\nvillage school financial reports?\nWould it not be a long step toward\nproviding a standard for comparisons, and thus reducing the matter to a\nscientific basis?\nMight not the National Educational Association in this\nway just now render a distinguished service to the cause of education ?\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nBY O. T. CORSON,\n\nSTATE\n\nEXTREMES.\n\nCOMMISSIONER\nCOLUMBUS, 0.\n\nOF COMMON\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nEducational extremes have their origin in educational extremists, of\nwhom there are many varieties.\nThey can, however, be grouped into two\ngeneral classes—those who are perfectly satisfied with what has been\ndone in the past, and those who propose and demand undesirable,\n‘unreasonable, and, very frequently, impossible things for the future.\nThe\nfirst class is fairly represented by the man who absolutely refused to look\nat the new moon because of his unbounded admiration and love for the\nold. The motto of this class is: Whatever has been is right and cannot\nbe made better.\nIn this class are found the educational fossils of the day,\nwho bear the same relation to the educational world that the rock fossils\ndo to the physical world —show plainly the different stages of growth\nand development.\nThe second class, having once glanced at the new moon, seem to be\npossessed with the idea that it is their own creation and therefore worthy\nof their veneration and worship.\nThey are so infatuated with the new\nthat they fail to realize their very close connection with the old, for which\nthey henceforth have nothing but scorn and contempt.\nTheir motto is:\nWhatever has been, or is, is wrong and must be changed.\nBetween these extremes —satisfaction with everything as it is, with no\ndesire to investigate with the object of improvement, and dissatisfaction\nwith everything as it is, with the constant attempt to change educational\npolicy, courses of study, and methods of teaching to suit the demands of\n\n"}
{"page": 158, "printed_page": null, "text": "IA\nOe\n\n148\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCA TIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nvisionary theorists who have neither experience, foresight, judgment, nor\ncommon sense, the teachers of the public schools are constantly in danger,\non the one hand, of falling into that state of self-satisfaction which means\nprofessional decay and\n\ndeath,\n\nand, on\n\nthe other\n\nhand, of becoming\n\nthe\n\nvictims of a policy so unstable as to result in the most superficial work in\nthe class-room and in the loss of confidence on the part of the people in\ntheir public schools.\nAt the risk of being considered too conservative by many, and even\nnon-progressive and old-fogyish by some, I must give expression to my\nhonest conviction that, in the first place, there is in this country today a\ntendency to go to the extreme in the educational policy, proposed by\nsome, of practically ignoring the common people in the management and\ncontrol of the common schools which they own and support, and which,\nI am thoroughly convinced, are very near their hearts. The conclusion\nat which some school superintendents seem to have arrived, that the public\nschools cannot trust their own product, is a sad comment either on the\nschools themselves or on the lack of judgment which has led to such a\nI have nothing but words of severest condemnation and\nconclusion.\ndenunciation for the interference of the professional politician in the\nmanagement of the educational affairs of his community.\nI believe that\nthe very safety and perpetuity of our government demand that our public\nschools be kept free from the influence of both political demagogues and\nsectarian fanatics.\nBut in our attempt to free ourselves from the reign of\nthe political demagogue it is neither desirable nor necessary that we\nignore the people and institute the reign of the educational autocrat\nwhose opinion is law and whose action is final. It is well to remember\nthat good schools and all true and enduring educational progress and\nIf\nreform must have their roots down deep in the hearts of the people.\nhalf the time and thought now spent in devising some plan by means of\nwhich teachers and superintendents can be entirely relieved from responsibility to the people were spent in developing a strong educational sentiment among the people and thereby bringing them into closer sympathy\nwith the work of the schools, the cause of public education would be\ngreatly advanced.\nI believe, therefore, in boards of education elected by the people and\nresponsible to the people ; in superintendents who are ready and willing\nto be advised and directed within proper limits by such boards, and in\nteachers whose tenure of office shall be secure enough to encourage faithfulness and efficiency, but not so secure as to make possible permanency\nin spite of laziness, incompetency, and inefficiency.\n\nee\ni\n\n“ep\naP.2ne\n\ntet\note\n\nIt is in the formation of a course of study, however, that the extremist\n\nfinds his greatest opportunity.\nIt is admitted by everyone that a course\nof study should be in a certain sense a growth, but it is also true that it\n\nQe\nRe\nAt\n\n"}
{"page": 159, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nEDUCATIONAL EXTREMES\n\n149\n\nhas its limitations.\nThe old régime of the “three R’s” was in many\nrespects narrowing, but it is possible that even this extreme, to which no\nsensible, progressive person has any desire to return, may be preferable\nto the opposite extreme, to which we are now tending in so many schools.\nIt is at least reasonable to conclude that it will take several round-tables\nlike the one held at Indianapolis last February to determine the exact\nI am certain these limitations were not\nlimitations of the “three R’s.”\ndefinitely settled at that meeting.\nThe greatest objection to overloading a course of study is found not\nin the inability of pupils to get the scores of lessons assigned in the great\nmultiplicity of subjects, but in their failure to develop, in the getting, any\nmental power or ability to do continuous, independent, hard work.\nThe\nlittle girl was not far wrong who, going home from an intermediate grade\nwith her arms full of books, and after spending two hours in going over\nher lessons with her mother, replied to the suggestion that she now\nunderstood them by saying: ‘‘ Understand them ! why, we are not expected\nto understand them, we are just expected to get them!”\nIt is in the\ngetting of lessons so numerous that the undertaking or digesting of\nthem is impossible that, in my judgment, is found the danger of the\npresent tendency of going to the extreme of undertaking to teach a\nlittle of everything to the boys and girls of our primary and intermediate\nschools.\n\nIf the\n\nactive, earnest,\n\nand\n\nreally successful\n\nteachers\n\nof these\n\ngrades could be heard in a committee of the whole, I am positive that\ntheir united voice would be in favor of less quantity and more quality\nand thoroughness in their work, and they would be joined by a united\nrequest from the best high-school teachers in the land that their schools\nbe supplied with pupils who know a few things thoroughly and as a\nresult of such thoroughness have the power to do independent work, the\nlack of which power is today driving thousands of students from our high\nschools and colleges.\nThe\n\nextremes\n\nto which\n\nwe\n\nare\n\ntending\n\ntoday\n\nwill, if unchecked,\n\nsoon furnish our country with the educational hothouses and forcing\napparatus so aptly described by Charles Dickens.\nHear his description\nand judge whether it does not in some respects apply to the conditions\nexisting in some of our modern schools:\n‘Dr. Blimber’s establishment\nwas a great hothouse, in which there was a forcing apparatus incessantly\nAll the boys blew before their time. Mental green peas were\nat work.\nproduced at Christmas, and intellectual apparatus all the year round.\nMathematical gooseberries (very sour ones too) were common at untimely\nseasons, and from mere sprouts of bushes under Dr. Blimber’s cultivation.\nEvery description of Greek and Latin vegetable was got off the driest\n\ntwigs of boys under the frostiest circumstances.\n“This was all very pleasant and ingenious, but the system of forcing\n\n"}
{"page": 160, "printed_page": null, "text": "150\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nThere was not the right taste\nwas attended with its usual disadvantages.\nMoreover,\nabout the premature productions, and they didn’t keep well.\none young gentleman with a swollen nose and an excessively large head\n(the oldest of the ten who had gone through anything) suddenly left off\nblowing one day and remained in the establishment a mere stalk. And\npeople did say that the doctor had rather overdone it with young Toots,\nIt\nand that when he began to have whiskers he left off having brains.”\novercrowded\ntheir\nwith\nschools,\nmodern\nour\nof\nsome\nthat\n‘possible\nis\ncourses of study, also have a tendency to overdo it with similar results.\nAs one extreme naturally necessitates another, it is not at all surprising that we find over-crowded courses of study accompanied by the proposal of unnatural and unreasonable methods of carrying them out.\nThose who go to the extreme of insisting that everything shall be taught,\nwhen presented by a practical teacher with the impossibility of doing it,\nbring forward the beautiful doctrine of correlation, and explain away all\nthe difficulties of presenting so many subjects by showing that all the\nknowledge of the universe can be grouped around one common center.\nAs to what that center is no two persons agree, and while the principle of\nuniting to a reasonable degree subjects that have a natural connection is\nalready practiced by all successful teachers, the difficult problem of how\nto correlate the correlators remains unsolved.\nIt is a matter of sincere regret to many earnest teachers that so\nimportant a principle as correlation is often made a laughing stock by\nthe senseless extreme to which it is carried by some who have evidently\nonly very recently discovered its existence.\nIn fact, this extreme is equaled only by the extreme to which that\ngreatest of all studies—the study of the child —is carried by some persons\nwho are engaged in the work, not that they may actually know the child\nin his real condition, but that they may have the reputation of being\noriginal investigators. To a teacher who really studies children as they\nare, some of the so-called modern discoveries resulting from original\ninvestigation are, to say the least, very humorous.\nTo be told that a\ncareful and scientific investigation has revealed the wonderful fact that\nSanta Claus appears to have a strong hold upon the hearts of boys and\ngirls of all ages makes us tremble at the dense ignorance in which we\nhave all been living. To know that children actually like colored pictures\n\n&tm\n\nSa\n\nbetter than black and white ones, and that, up to the exact age of twelve,\n\npictures of cats and dogs performing tricks are more acceptable to them\nthan works of art, is certainly very important to the earnest teacher who\nis striving to train intellect and develop character.\nIt is encouraging to know, however, that in the midst of these extreme\ntendencies, of which the time allotted only permits a mere mention, there\nis genuine progress in the work of education, and with united effort on\n\nee\nee\ne\ns\nC\n\n"}
{"page": 161, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nWHAT\n\nNOT\n\nTO\n\nDO\n\nI5t\n\nthe part of teachers and patrons it is possible so to conduct the public\nschools that they shall have each year that genuine growth and improvement which come neither from a foolish worship of the old nor a sentimental love for the new, but from a just and sensible appreciation of the\ngood there is in both.\n\nWHAT\nBY\n\nMISS\n\nESTELLE\n\nREEL,\n\nlistening\n\nTO DO.\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\nOF\n\nAfter\n\nNOT\n\nto these\n\nOF\n\nPUBLIC\n\nINSTRUCTION,\n\nSTATE\n\nand masterly addresses,\n\nI feel\n\nWYOMING.\n\neloquent\n\nthat I have nothing zew to offer you, but, coming from the West, as I do,\n\nI want to tell you what the West demands of the East.\nOur population\nin the far West is largely composed of young men.\nA great many young\nmen took Horace Greeley’s advice, and the result is that, with us, young\nmen hold most responsible positions.\nWe want the East to send us young men and women properly equipped\nfor the battle of life, and by that I mean young people whose educational\nfoundation has been well laid. We do not care for the graduate of a\nhigh school, college, or university, who has a diploma with a long list of\n’ologies, but who has no practical knowledge.\nTo help us and help\nthemselves they must be clear-headed, accurate students, who have been\ntaught to think instead of memorize.\nLooking backward through the reports of the thirty-eight years’ existence of the National Educational Association, many volumes and almost\ncountless pages of positive advice have been published and many new\nmethods advocated.\nMay I venture to call your attention at this time to\na very few of the things which are to be avoided.\nDo not sacrifice the practical for the liberal.\nWith a most profound\nregard for the liberal in this world, I have yet a profounder regard for\nthe practical.\nIt was said by Herbert Spencer.that many of the miseries of human\nsociety are due to over-legislation.\nIt may be the case, as some would\nhave us believe, that some of the evils of life are due to over-education.\n\nWe certainly cannot have too much education, but our education is\nIt is not the education which makes us masters\noften not well-balanced.\nof ourselves, our capabilities, and our conditions.\n\nOur education\n\nshould\n\nequip us for the particular work in the world for which we are destined,\nbut many of our pupils leave school with as hazy an idea of their\nThe time is coming when, to\ncapabilities as they had before entering.\nsucceed, our young men and women must be able to do at least one\n\n"}
{"page": 162, "printed_page": null, "text": "Jo\n»\n\n152\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nthing well, and our education should develop and encourage this quality.\nIn the West\nSomething definite, or special, is looked for in everyone.\nwe want the education that develops personality and makes men useful.\nToday the demand is for men who are not afraid to work, or, as we say\nout West, men\n\nwho can “rustle.”\n\nTo develop a pupil’s personality is one of the most practical things a\nteacher can do. One reason why I mention this is because, in the West,\nabove all things we want leaders.\nWe want men who know what they can\ndo and who have high ideals.\nThere was a professor of English literature and rhetoric in Bowdoin\nCollege who had, as pupils, Franklin Pierce, Longfellow, and Hawthorne.\nHawthorne, the greatest prose writer America has ever produced, and\nLongfellow, our finest poet, received their inspiration from that quiet,\nretired teacher in Bowdoin.\nScores and scores of our great men have\nbeen inspired by such men as Thomas Arnold and Horace Mann, teachers\nwho developed personality.\nIt is only by this means that one’s heart is inspired ; therefore, do not\nsacrifice your personality.\nYou know in your own life that such and such\na teacher aroused you.\nOther teachers were very learned, but their personality did not seem to impress you at all. We know it is personality\nthat counts in the world; therefore, our education should develop it.\n\nNext, do not sacrifice your individuality to new methods.\nDiscriminate among methods, and use those which are best adapted to the child’s\nneeds.\nWhatever methods the originality of the teacher may devise,\nthe idea of stimulating thought and inspiring new life should be always\npresent.\nIt is mental power that the world needs, not acquirement of\nknowledge.\nAgain, do not make the teaching profession a stepping-stone to something else. There is, among teachers, a greater amount of undeveloped\ntalent than in any other calling.\nI have known, and I now know, teachers who would, under different conditions, have made their mark in\njournalism, in music, in business, who are lamentable failures.\nAnd here\nI want to say to you, fellow-teachers, that if your heart is not in your\n\nwork, if your soul does not prompt it, drop out of the ranks of the teaching profession.\nWe are not all of us “born teachers ;” we have not what\nis called the “knack of teaching,” and when we find that the work is\nuncongenial, unsatisfactory, we should take up some other occupation,\nfor we shall never find happiness in the work.\n“Blessed is he who has\nfound his work; let him ask no other blessedness,” said Carlyle. A multitude of women who, upon leaving school, are obliged to provide for\ntheir own support, cannot enter the professions; they must enter upon\nsome occupation which does not require a long course of special training,\nand they turn to the profession of teaching as yielding the quickest\n\nO\n\nhe\nww\n\nee\nee\na\n\n"}
{"page": 163, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions |\n\nreturns.\n\nWHAT\n\nWhen\n\nwomen\n\nfeel, as men\n\nNOT\n\nTO\n\nDO\n\ndo, the permanent\n\n153\n\nnecessity of fitting\n\nthemselves for their life work, and choose a profession because of their\nability in a special line of work; when they stop to think that the first\nconsiderations which ought to determine the choice of teaching as‘a_profession are, first, love of the work and love of children, and, second, phys-\n\nical health and energy combined with clear-headed common sense, they\nwill have a foundation upon which may safely be reared a superstructure\nthat will reach from the “lowly earth to the vaulted skies.”\nThen, and\nnot until then, shall we stand in the golden age of great achievements.\nNow a word, not\n\nto the teachers, but to the school\n\nboards.\n\nAt the\n\npresent time the question of civil-service reform is being discussed in all\nparts of the country, and the general verdict of the people is that the basis\nof civil-service reform-is the proper reward of merit, and that faithful\ngovernment servants are not to be dismissed by reason of the advent of a\npolitical party to power.\nIs it not time to apply the civil-service-reform\nidea to our own profession?\nIf, in our general government, it is deemed\na wise policy to have clerks appointed for at least four years, why should\nit not prove a wise policy to employ teachers for the same length of\ntime?\nThe profession of teaching requires as careful preparation as any\nother calling in life. A good teacher must be an expert in his knowledge\nof human nature; he must know about the developing processes of the\nhuman mind; he must understand the philosophy of education, and he\nmust not only be familiar with the best methods of transmitting knowledge, but he must discriminate between methods and be able to employ\nthe best at the right time.\nYears ago it was believed that what one knew\nthat he could teach, but I am happy to say that now a distinction, and a\nwide distinction, is made between knowing and the ability to impart\nknowledge. The appointment of teachers for not less than four years would\ncertainly increase the effectiveness of their work.\nFrequently, during the\nlast months of school, teachers are in such an unsettled condition, owing\nto the uncertainty of retaining their positions, that they are unable to do\ntheir best. In the schools of a western city there was a young woman in\nthe primary department who was, in many respects, an ideal teacher.\nHer teaching was skillful, and her success with her pupils apparent.\nYet,\nfor several months preceding the close of each year, she was in a continuous state of nervous excitement through fear of not being re-engaged.\nShe, and thousands of teachers like her, are entitled to as much considera-\n\ntion by those in authority as any government official or clerk.\nAnd now, in closing, do not think that the days of heroism\n\nare over,\n\nI remember visitand that the calling of a teacher requires no sacrifice.\ning a Wyoming country school; after a hard day’s trip, in which I had\ndriven sixty-five miles, fording the Platte river twice, I came to a cabin,\nhalf dug-out, consisting of one room divided by a curtained partition;\n\n"}
{"page": 164, "printed_page": null, "text": "154\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nhere the teacher boarded, and that night I slept on the floor rolled up in\nThe next morning I started with her to visit her school, and\nblankets.\nA rough board room, with dirt floor, and\nsuch a pitiful school building!\na sliding board for a window, an old stove on three\n\nlegs, and, for pupils,\n\ntwo forlorn little children.\nThis teacher rode eight miles a day, carrying\na child on the horse behind her, fording the Platte river morning and\nevening ; often cold and wet, she had her own wood to cut and her fire\nto make.\nYet she hoped to retain her school another year, as she had\na helpless father dependent upon her, and she was so pleased that the\ndirectors had promised to put glass in the window and lay a floor, and\nthe children were doing so nicely, she told me.\nIf this is not heroism,\nI know not what is.\nIf we believe in our common schools, and believe that they are the\nhope of the country, we must believe that the teacher has a mission, and\na high one.\nAs was said by Benjamin Rush, “There is but one method\nof preventing crime and of rendering our republican form of government\ndurable, and that is, by disseminating the seeds of virtue and knowledge\nthrough every part of the land. I am so deeply impressed with this opinion that, as the best proof of my affection for my native country, my\nadvice to the guardians of her liberties would be, ‘Establish and support\npublic schools in every part of every state in the Union.’”\nWhen this is done, and teachers are chosen because of their love of the\n\nwork, there will be developed men and women whose strong personality\nwill stamp itself upon the nation’s history, and in each individual\n“The tongue will be framed to music,\nAnd the hand be armed with skill;\n\nThe face be the mold of beauty,\nAnd the heart the throne of the will.”\n\nTHE\nBY WILLIAM\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nB. POWELL, SUPERINTENDENT\n\nOUTLOOK. |\nOF SCHOOLS, WASHINGTON,\n\nD. C.\n\n[STENOGRAPHIC REPORT.]\n\nThe outlook, what is it? It depends upon the point of view very\nlargely.\nEach man who talks will talk from his own point of view.\nTo\nme the outlook is encouraging; not altogether satisfactory, but very promising. ‘Twenty-five years ago the public schools educated only the upper\n40, 50, or 60 per cent. of the pupils who were talented, and barred out by\na system of examinations and promotions the 4o or 50 per cent. for whom\nreally the public schools exist in this free nation, which is controlled by\n\n"}
{"page": 165, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nthese people.\n\nThis\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nOUTLOOK\n\n155\n\nhas been changed, in part; it is changing\n\nrapidly,\n\nand\n\nthat is why I say the outlook, to me at least, is encouraging.\nThe\nthought of the day is what will best suit the child, and so the child has\n\nbeen set uppermost in the minds of men and women who are teaching\nschool; and, when the child is studied, we begin to see how we have\nbeen proceeding, and how we ought to change what we have been\ndoing.\nAnd lo, what a change has come over this country in fifteen years, in\none important aspect\n— that the school exists for the child, and not for itself.\nIt is a wonderful thing, but you cannot study the child without discovering that he is delighted with the world around him, with things that\nhe sees, with things that he handles, with things that he can make; more\ndelighted in these things than he is in marbles.\nThe children are using\ntheir hands in the primary schools in making things and in adjusting\nthings; they are using their eyes in seeing things; they are using their\nlittle feet in going after things; they are using their hands and eyes and\nfeet, in correlation with the brain, for the acquisition\n\nof knowledge,\n\nand\n\nwhile they are acquiring knowledge in this correlated effort they are making mind.\nThis is the correlation that is at the basis of all human educa_tion, correlation of hand and body with mind in the process of knowledgegetting, and in the process of mind-making.\nThus the girls move along\nthe road of knowledge, learning to read and write, and learning to cook.\nThe boys engage in the shop, and boys and girls of all ages engage in manipulating with the hands, in the use of the whole body, in making and in\ndoing\n— with the result of the greatest happiness in the world to the child;\nwith that infinite happiness with which the boy plays baseball;\n\nwith that\n\ninfinite happiness with which the boys and girls play tag; and all the\ntime with no loss to the actual gain of knowledge; with no loss to spelling, but\n\nan actual\n\ngain; with no\n\nloss to penmanship, but with an\n\nactual\n\ngain; with no loss to a knowledge of history and grammar, but an actual\ngain; all along the line an actual gain. This is the outlook from my\nstandpoint.\nFrom my point of view the child is happy; the child likes\nto go to school.\nHe didn’t like to go to school, with its punishment and\ncredit marks.\nI believe the child would rather be in school than out\nof it, where school is properly conducted.\nMake your schools attractive\nand interesting to the children, and they will be filled. It can never be\nIt will be done only by teaching the child as God\ndone by compulsion.\nintended he should be taught. Study the child, and see how he thinks.\nThere are things being accomplished by the study of the child. That\nis what we are accomplishing by making a study of the child. We are\nlearning what he ought to know; we are learning what he wants to know,\nand we are learning how he can know the most easily and the most\nnaturally.\n\n"}
{"page": 166, "printed_page": null, "text": "156\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nTo mea\n\ngreat benefit\n\nThis, to me, is the outlook.\n\n[General\nhas\n\ncome\n\nfrom\n\n_ manual training. This puts manual training in the primary school, where\nThis puts manual training in the hand of the child when the\nit belongs.\nThis\nbrain is forming, when his hand will help to make the brain.\nthe\nchild\nevery\ngives\nand\nbe,\nmakes the kindergarten what it ought to\neyes,\nhis\nhand,\nhis\n,\nwhere\nblessed privilege of going to the kindergarten\nhis feet, his brain, and\n\nhis heart shall\n\nbe trained in correlation, making a\n\nman of him right through.\nYou know that is the civilization that has\ndeveloped in the middle states, where men’s brains and hearts and hands\nwork together.\nAnd you know how that civilization has swept across\nthe continent to the other sea. The grandest civilization that the world\nhas ever seen is that made up of a correlation of the hand and brain,\nbecause they have worked together.\nYou remember that other civilization in the South, where\n\nthey had\n\nslaves who did the manual work, and\n\nthe educated did nothing but think; they did not work.\nOne civilization\nis made up of that grand correlation which the modern primary school\ngives to every child.\nThe other civilization was made up of a segregation\nof one line of activities and a suppression of the other.\nThe outlook to me is encouraging, because I see that the primary\nschool with all these improvements is growing in influence and power.\nMore men and women are believing in it. All this has emancipated the\npupil, who was a slave before.\nFormerly the teacher was simply a master. We have come to believe that one great trouble with all our schools\nis that we do not know enough to teach school. It is perhaps one of\nthe encouraging features of the general outlook today, that we believe\nwe must know more to teach school.\nAnd so I say the great blessing of\nemancipation has come to the teacher, and teaching school is not a burden any more, but one of the most delightful professions in the world,\nwhen carried on from this point of view.\nNow, what has become\n\nof the\n\nthree\n\nR’s?\n\nWhy,\n\nour\n\nbest graduate\n\nfrom the colleges ten years ago could not read English as well as our\nfifth-grade pupils can today. Boys from the grammar schools or high\nschools fifteen years ago could not write English very much better than\nfirst and second-grade children do today.\nToday the child learns in\nschool to think and act and do—to create. The child has become a\ncharacter.\nHe has become an independent thinker; and the child has\nbeen doing this form of work better than ever he did it before.\nI am\ntalking from my own experience; I do not know what yours has been.\nOur schools are a very different thing from what they were twelve\nyears ago. A school is not a place for tasks. Any school is not what it\nought to be where the children do not attend as willingly as they will\nhunt squirrels or go fishing or play tennis.\nWhy should it have been a\ntask all of these years? Why should it have been necessary to keep a\n\n"}
{"page": 167, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nHOW\n\nSHALL\n\nAMERICAN\n\nHISTORY\n\nBE\n\nTAUGHT?\n\n157\n\ngad in the schoolroom to make boys and girls learn when they delighted\nto hunt birds’ nests?\nAnd why shouldn’t the child delight in school?\nNo, it will never be a task for the child to learn, if he is taught\nrightly.\n\nSHALL\n\nBY\n\nJAMES\n\nAMERICAN HISTORY\nSHELIONS OR TN\nM.\n\nGREENWOOD,\nMO.,\n\nBE TAUGHT\nPARALLELS?\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nPRESIDENT-ELECT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nIN\n\nCROSS\n\nKANSAS\n\n(CiMING\n\nASSOCIATION.\n\n[STENOGRAPHIC REPORT. ]\n\nWithin the space of 290 years is included\n\nthe history of our country\n\n— a history clearly lying within what one may call the historic period, not\n\ncovered by the dim, uncertain guesses at the truth.\nOne of the living\nquestions is, How shall each one of the common branches be taught?\nAnd this inquiry is as applicable to teaching the history of our country as\nto any other branch that engages the attention of American teachers.\nThe statement of the question on the programme, “In cross sections\nor in parallels,” is significant.\nThe mere announcement is enough to\nattract the attention of all persons present interested in the teaching of\nhistory.\nWere I to ask those of you who are teaching United States history, if fifteen anecdotes were to be related by the same individual, and he\n\nwould start in and give alittle introduction to the first anecdote, and then\ndrop it and take anecdote No. 2, and then pass to anecdote No. 3, and so\non through to fifteen, with a slight introduction to each, and then return to\nthe first and give alittle bit more of it, and then to the second, and so on—\nwould it be an interesting manner of relating anecdotes?\nJust think of\nthis for a moment!\nIs this not the same in principle as the method by which the history\nof the United States is studied?\nPerhaps this plan of historical study is\nthe best we have yet thought out. I leave it here forthe present. But the\none who destroys ought to be able to reconstruct—to put something\n\nbetter in the place of that which he destroys.\nAll recognize the importance of giving the boy or girl at first a general survey of the history of our country.\nThere are but two or three subjects in our common schools that touch\nthe moral nature of the child. He is touched through literature and history, and also through personal influence.\nHis moral nature is not\ninspired much by arithmetic, and I cannot find that he is influenced\nIn a country like\nlargely by grammar and other subjects he pursues.\n\n"}
{"page": 168, "printed_page": null, "text": ".\n\n158\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nours, where the citizen ought to understand not only present issues, but\nalso past ones, and the great crises through which the nation has\npassed, it is imperative that the history of our country should occupy a\nprominent place in the common-school course.\nThen, first let the pupil take a rapid survey of the history, of this\ncountry, and then take it up in what I have denominated parallel lines.\nLet him learn how the nation has spread from a few settlements along the\nThis is true territorial growth.\nAtlantic coast out over this continent.\nOnce started on that part of our history, carry it through from what it was\nto what it is. He will learn how these great areas were acquired, and what\nThis is simply a suggestion; I\nled to their acquisition, and the results.\nhave not time to enumerate details.\nAnother point regarding the settlements along the Atlantic coast:\nHow did the people begin to go into the back country, and how did the\nback country trade with those nearer the seashore ? What were those little\nIndian trails, those paths blazed upon the trees, the going up stream in a\ncanoe, or walking up, and there trading with\n\nthe Indians, and then float-\n\ning down to the settlement again? How were these things done? Compare that early beginning with what we have today. Think of it! Twelve\nmillion horse power of steam bringing the back country into the cities and\ntowns, and only eight million horse power engaged in the manufactory of\nthe products of this country.\nThink also of the difficulty of travel in\ngoing back only a few miles from the first settlements in those days, as\ncompared with the means of communication from the East to the West,\nfrom\n\nthe\n\nNorth\n\nto\n\nthe\n\nSouth, from\n\nBritish\n\nAmerica\n\nto the capital of\n\nMexico, in these days. Take into consideration all the questions when\nthe pupil has commenced to study the means of travel and the channels\nof trade in the light of their present development.\nEvery department of\nour history should be studied on parallel lines with every other department.\nAnd when once the study of trade and travel and traffic and of\ncommerce, not bounded by the sea, but encircling the globe, is seized\nupon, a faint conception is lodged in the minds of our boysand girls how\nthe products of one country are exchanged with the products of the world.\nMilwaukee is a city of 250,000 people, a center of intelligence, of art,\nof culture, of influence, refinement, and progress.\nBehold what her citizens\nhave done in fifty years! Truly have they made a magnificent city.\nOnce, in conversation with Mr. Charles Dudley Warner, he said, “ We\n\nhave to come to this western world to see cities building;” and how true\nitis! ‘Take the little huts of 250 years ago, then a hundred years later,\neven of fifty years ago, and see what has been the advancement in rural\nand public architecture.\nOne of the grandest lessons in progress is\ntaught in the structure of our buildings, both public and private.\nTake up the political history of our country.\nStudy it from the begin-\n\n"}
{"page": 169, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nSOME\n\nTENDENCIES\n\nOF MODERN\n\nEDUCATION\n\nning to the present time.\n\nStudy it clear through.\n\nit grew;\n\nwhat\n\nwhat\n\nit is-‘now;\n\nit was when\n\nwhat it was when it started in Virginia;\n\nShow how it was; how\n\nit started\n\nwhat\n\n159\n\nit was\n\nin Massachusetts ;\n\nas Jefferson\n\nunder-\n\nstood it; what it is now.\n\nUnited States history can be divided into ten or twelve parallel lines,\nor perhaps a less number.\nCertainly it is true that by studying history\nalong parallel lines the striking facts in connection with each parallel can\nbe easily strung together and better remembered.\nIt is historical evolution.\nLadies and gentlemen, I leave the question with you.\n\nSOME\nBY\n\nJAMES\n\nA.\n\nTENDENCIES\nFOSHAY,\n\nOF MODERN\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION.\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nLOS\n\nANGELES,\n\nCAL.\n\nThe present rushing age of progress, with its great wealth and enthusiastic people, and its many improvements in method and direction, necessarily makes changes in our educational policy. As we stand on the verge\nof the new century and look back, we note that the ideas generally held\ntoday concerning education and the purposes to which their educating\ninfluences should be applied are greatly in advance of the ideas of former\ntimes ; and this fact gives us glorious hopes of the future.\nOne marked tendency of the times is toward a universal diffusion of\neducation.\nAt the beginning of the present century our people, as a\nwhole, had the elementary public school only; the colleges could benefit\nfew, except the sons of the wealthier classes; but now a complete system,\n\nfrom the kindergarten to the university, is free to all.\nNot only is education more widely diffused than formerly, but its\ncharacter is greatly altered.\nTwo and one-half centuries ago, when the\nfree school was established in the New Haven colony, there was little\ndifference of opinion as to what should be taught.\nSince then many customs, religions, and prejudices, and some of the worst zsms of which we\ncan conceive, have come to this country, making the conditions very different, and thus demanding of the schools work along new lines to meet\nthese conditions.\nOur experience has taught us that the first work of the school is to\nmake American citizens; and to that end the modern education is placing\ngreat stress upon teaching the obligations and duties of citizenship; not\nonly in the higher grades, but in the lower grades also. The children of\ntoday are the hope of the nation; and those who have the administration of\nschool affairs have realized the necessity of teaching them to be loyal and\nThey are taught not only to read and\ndevoted to their country’s interests.\n\n"}
{"page": 170, "printed_page": null, "text": "160\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nstudy the constitution, but to realize their obligations to support and\ndefend it. They understand that this nation is a grand and noble co-operand that they are soon to be members of this association,\native association,\n\nentitled to all its privileges and subject to all its responsibilities.\nWe have just celebrated our nation’s birthday with festivities, rockets,\nbombs, and illuminations, showing our joy and gratitude that the labors\nof our forefathers have been so fruitful, and that the anticipations of the\n‘The observance by our\nfounders of the Republic have been realized.\nschools of other special days set apart for the states and nation, the birthdays of our noted men, and days commemorating epochs in our country’s\nhistory, is doing much to inculcate in the children the purely democratic\nideas of our people. The sentiment of patrotism is fostered, too, by the\nfact that day after day the children work in school buildings over which\nthe “Star-Spangled Banner” floats, and that they are taught gladly to\nsalute it and pledge to it their allegiance.\nAnother important feature of education at the present day is the\namount of attention piven to child study. Teachers in the primary grades\nare paying more attention to the teaching of children than the teaching\nof subjects. They are studying the children, to know their needs, instead\nof dealing out in a certain order, without regard to the pupil’s previous\npreparation, that which is prescribed in the course of study.\nModern\neducation does not consist in assigning pages of a text-book and then\nhearing the recitations, but in the development of the children; and this\nrequires that the teacher should know the necessary conditions for the\nbest growth.\nA knowledge of the psychology and the physiology of\nchildhood is essential to one who would teach in the schools of today.\nModern research is furnishing reliable information that mind growth and\nbody growth are not independent, but that they operate together.\nTeachers, physicians, and mothers are assisting the leaders in child study,\n\nin collecting data needed to perfect the science.\nThus there is being\ngiven to the world a new educational philosophy, designed to assist in\nbringing the highest development to man.\nIts importance is recognized\nnot only in state, county, and city organizations for child study, but in\nthe department of the National Educational Association devoted to that\npurpose.\nIt is this thoughtful consideration of the nature and needs of children\nthat has led to the introduction of industrial education, and we are pleased\nto note that every year sees more and more attention given to this work,\nnot so much\n\nto fit pupils, while at school, for mechanical pursuits, but as\n\na means of mental development.\nIndustrial education has passed the\nexperimental stage, and is received for its value in disciplining the intellect and training the hand.\nManual training schools should not be considered as trade schools,\n\n"}
{"page": 171, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions |\n\nSOME\n\nTENDENCIES\n\nOF MODERN\n\nEDUCATION\n\n161\n\nunless they are places where regular trades’are taught; and such schools\nare usually private.\nWe do not attempt to teach trades in our public\nschools any more than we attempt to make lawyers or doctors; but the\nknowledge obtained in the manual training exercises of the general school\ncourses will prove beneficial not only to mechanics, but to professional\nThis knowledge makes a bond of sympathy between\nmen and employers.\nemployer and employé, and will do much towards closing the gap between\nlabor and capital. This addition to our courses of study assists not only\nin preparing bread winners, but in preparing citizens useful to society\nand the world.\nThere seems to be better preparation and equipment in this regard\nfor the kindergarten and high school than for the primary and grammar\ngrades.\nThe cities, however, are adopting courses of work for all grades,\nand before long the famous sentence of Dr. Woodward,\nthe whole child to school,” will be realized.\n\nof St. Louis, ‘‘ Put\n\nSociety in the past has looked down on the man who wore the soiled\nclothes of the mechanic and the large boots of the rancher; it should be\nunderstood that hand work is in reality brain work, and the more brain in\nthe hand the better it can accomplish what has to be done.\nWeare rectifying many such abuses, which have been prevalent in our country, by\ninculcating in our public schools the principle that true and noble manhood deserves as full and prompt recognition on the ranch and in the\nworkshop as in the pulpit or the office.\nManual training is an illustration of the practical tendency of modern\neducation.\nThe world says to the young man or woman, ‘What can you\ndo?” not, ‘‘ How many subjects have you taken?”\nOur schools, which\nare for the people, must furnish the education demanded by the people;\ntherefore, growth through self-activity of body and mind by means of\norganized play, occupations, etc., is carefully put forward in the kindergarten ; different forms of manual training are taught in the primary and\ngrammar grades; in the high school the commercial course is made a\npart of the curriculum, and technical training is being given in our colleges and universities.\nThe same practical tendency appears in the\nincreased attention given to the natural sciences.\nHigh schools and colleges which formerly gave but a few months to these subjects now have\nfull scientific courses.\nBut the fact is recognized that the training of the mind and hand is\nnot sufficient.\n\nThis age is asking for mez, not professors, not\n\nscientists,\n\nbut men of personal worth and stability, who will not be swayed from the\ntruth and right, and who will see that justice is not perverted and that public\nThey must not only be intelligent,\noffices are not given to spoilsmen.\nHonesty is as essential to business as the plumb line to the\nbut honest.\nWe cannot afford to send educated rogues out of our schools.\nmason.\n\n"}
{"page": 172, "printed_page": null, "text": "162\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nA tendency of modern education is to pay more attention to moral\ntraining, to the education of that finer part which is to furnish the motive\nfor using all that is learned in other lines.\nDiscarding examinations as the basis for promotion, and causing the\npromotion to depend upon the fidelity and success of daily work, has\nIt is realized\ndone much to remove deception on the part of the pupil.\nthat ethical teaching\n\nmust\n\ncome\n\nmainly, not\n\nfrom text-books, but from\n\nthe noble and gracious personality of the teacher.\nThe teacher must\ninspire to high ideals, and be what we would have our children become.\nExamining boards of education are beginning to see that the first qualThe\nification of the teacher is a personal character above reproach.\nteacher must be the living example of morality and correct dealing,\nand improve the grandest opportunity for doing good by sending her\nrefining influence to the parents and the home.\nHeretofore too much attention has been paid to the cultivation of the\nintellect, without directing the knowledge to anything beyond an intellectual occupation.\nThe tendencies of modern education, as we have\nseen, are to remedy this, to have more of the practical and less of the\ntheoretical ; also to teach the “dignity of labor,” and the value of occupations other than those purely mental, and to inculcate morality and patriotism.\n\nModern education aims, in short, to discover and satisfy all the needs\n\nof the pupil, both those growing out of individual nature and those resulting from his present and prospective environments.\nThese tendencies\nare some of the most important and helpful ones; there are others, some\nof which are less favorable, which time will not permit me to discuss.\n\nLHEQIWENTIETH\nBY\n\nJAMES\n\nL.\n\nHUGHES,\n\nCENTURY\n\nINSPECTOR\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOL.\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nTORONTO,\n\nONT.\n\n1. The schools of the twentieth century will be free. The nineteenth\ncentury schools are called free because attendance at them is free.\nThe child will be free in the twentieth century school.\nFree growth is the\nonly full growth.\nSubordination dwarfs the human soul at any stage of its\ndevelopment.\nThere will be no truly free men till the children are made\ntruly free. The coercive, mandatory, cumpulsory spirit will become but a\nshameful memory, when teachers aim to develop the divinity in the child\ninstead of making their supreme purpose the restriction of its depravity.\nWhat weak, imitative, conventional, indefinite, unprogressive, dependent,\n\nservile men and women most schools have made of the beings who were\noriginally created in God’s own image! How much worse they would\n\n"}
{"page": 173, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nTWENTIETH\n\nCENTURY SCHOOL\n\n163\n\nhave been if they had been subject to school discipline during all their\nwaking hours!\nHow original, self-reliant, self-directing, and progressive\nthey might have been!\nHow much of independence and helpfulness\nand executive tendency they had when they first went to school compared with what they had on leaving school!\nThe schools should not\nbe catacombs in which are buried the selfhood, the originality, and the\nexecutive tendency of childhood.\nSchools should be gardens in which\neach child grows to be its grandest, most complete self. The child can\nnever become its real self so long as adulthood blights it and dwarfs it by\ndaring to stand between it and God.\nLiberty is the only sure basis for reverent, co-operative obedience.\nAnarchy is not born of freedom; it springs from coercion.\nIt is a poisonous fungus that grows from the tree of blighted liberty. It grows rank\nand noisome from the sap that should have developed stately trunk,\nspreading branches, and rich foliage.\nFungi come not on the tree of\nfull, free growth, but where blight has brought decay and death.\nConscious subordination secured by coercion blights and dwarfs the tree of\nliberty.\nLiberty does not mean freedom from law, but freedom through law,\nin accord with law.\nThere may be life under law, or deadness under law.\nLaw itself may be used to develop or dwarf life. Its true use develops\nlife, and power, and freedom.\nFalsely used as coercive restraint it\nweakens\n\nhuman\n\ncharacter.\n\nHuman\n\ncontrol, like divine\n\ncontrol, should\n\nbe prompted by love, based on love, and exercised inlove.\nLoving sympathy is man’s strongest controlling force, as well as his greatest life-giving power.\nDivine law is often necessarily restrictive of wrong, but\nit is lovingly restrictive.\nIt is stimulating and growth-giving; never\ndestructive.\nCoercion may repress evil; it never eradicates it. Coercion\nnever made a child creative, and creative power is the central element\nin education.\nCoercion does more than restrict the power of the child:\nit corrupts its ideals. The common and unnatural dread of divine\nauthority arises from degradation of human authority into unreasoning,\nunloving coercion.\nThe greatest improvement yet wrought by the new education is the\naltered attitude of adulthood towards childhood in disciplining it. The\nreformation of the coercive ideals of adulthood has only well begun, however; the twentieth century will complete the reform.\nWhen adulthood\nrecognizes divinity in each child and learns that the highest function of\ntraining is to develop this divinity, not merely to restrict depravity, then\nwill the schools become what Froebel aimed to make them: “Free repub-\n\nlics of childhood.”\nThe dominating elements in a child’s life are love of freedom and\nproductive activity. The unity of these elements is the only basis for\n\n"}
{"page": 174, "printed_page": null, "text": "164\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nSpontaneity in productive self-activity develops active\ntrue discipline.\ninstead of passive obedience, co-operation instead of obstinacy and stubbornness, activity instead of inertness of character, energy instead of indolence, positiveness\n\ninstead of negativeness, cheerfulness\n\ninstead of dull-\n\nness, independence instead of subserviency, and true liberty instead of\nanarchy.\nThe truest educational progress of the ages has been toward harmony\nbetween control and spontaneity, guidance and freedom, obedience and\nindependence, submission\nand liberty.\nRestriction, coercion, and\ndomination must be removed from the list of disciplinary agencies.\nRestriction dwarfs, coercion blights, and domination destroys individuality. Across the end of every schoolroom, opposite the teacher’s desk,\n\nshould be printed the motto: “The school should be a free republic of\nchildhood.”\n2. Teachers will not try to dominate the interest of the child in the\ntwentieth century school.\nThe pupil’s self-active interest is the only persistent propelling motive to intellectual effort.\nIt alone makes man an\nindependent agent, capable of progressive upward and outward growth\non original lines. It alone stimulates the mind to its most energetic\nactivity for the accomplishment of definite purposes.\nSelf-active interest\nis the natural desire for knowledge appropriate to the child’s stage of\nevolution, acting with perfect freedom;\nit is the divinely implanted\nwonder power unchecked by restriction and undiminished by the substitution of the interests of others.\nThe development of self-active interest is the highest ideal of intellectual education.\nSchool methods in the past have substituted the teacher’s suggestion for the child’s spontaneous interest, and have thus rendered\nit unnecessary, if not impossible, for the pupil’s own self-active interest\nto develop.\nInterest is naturally: self-active, and it retains this quality in\nincreasing power, unless parents or teachers interfere with its spontaneity.\n“Every child brings with him into the world the natural disposition to\nsee correctly.” The most unfortunate children are those whose untrained\nnurses, untrained mothers, or untrained teachers foolishly do for them\nwhat they should do for themselves, and point out to them the things\nthey should see for themselves, or, worse still, things they should not see\nat all at their stage of development.\nMother and child should not always\nsee the same things in their environment.\n“See darling,’ may prevent\nthe development of the child’s power to see independently.\nThe child’s\nown mind should decide its special interests.\nMost parents and teachers make the mistake of assuming that they\nshould not only present attractions to the child’s mind, but also arouse\nand direct its attention.\nWhenever this is done by any agency except the\nchild’s own self-active interest, its power of giving attention is weakened.\n\n"}
{"page": 175, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions |\n\nTHE\n\nTWENTIETH\n\nCENTURY\n\nSCHOOL\n\n165\n\nNo two children should be attracted by exactly the same things or combinations of things during a walk in the country, or in any other gallery\nof varied interests.\nThe special selfhood of each child sees in the\nouter what corresponds to its developing inner life. The individual\npower to see in the outer that which is adapted to the development of the\ninner life, a¢ present most active, is the arousing source of all true interest.\nWhen a teacher\n\nsubstitutes\n\nhis own\n\ninterests\n\nfor those of the child, the\n\nchild’s interest is weakened and made responsive instead of self-active.\nUnder such teaching the real life of interest dies, and teachers, after killing it, have in the past made energetic and often fruitless efforts to galAllowing the motives of\nvanize it into spasmodic responsive action.\nothers to stimulate us to action is no more true interest than allowing\nThe\nother people’s thoughts to run through our minds is true thinking.\nresponsive process in each case is really prohibitory of the real self-active\nprocess which lies at the root of true growth.\nThe teacher of the twentieth century will multiply the conditions of\ninterest.\nWhatever he can do to make the child’s external environment\ncorrespond with its inner development he will do carefully, and attractively.\n\nHe will know that, if the conditions are\n\nappropriate, interest\n\nwill\n\nalways be self-active, and that only by its own activity can it develop\npower.\nResponsive interest never develops much intensity, energy,\nendurance, or individuality.\nWhen teachers complain that children are not interested in the work,\ntheir statements are usually incorrect.\nIt would be more accurate to say\nthe children are not interested in the teacher’s work.\nAdulthood must\nnot interfere so much with childhood.\n3. In the twentieth century school the child will be trained to find\nmost of its own problems. The child discovers its own problems before it\ngoes to school.\nWhen it reaches the school its problems are showered\nupon it by the teacher. This difference in educative process is the chief\nreason for the rapid development of children before they go to school\ncompared with their development afterwards.\nBefore the twentieth century\nends it will not be correct to define a school as a place in which self-active\ninterest is checked,\n\noriginality\n\ncondemned,\n\nand brain\n\ndevelopment\n\nand\n\nco-ordination sacrificed to knowledge-storing.\nIf anyone claims that\nsuch a definition is unfair to the nineteenth century schools, let him consider carefully what the condition and character of a man would be if he\nhad been kept in school during the whole of his waking hours till he was\ntwenty-one years of age. It will not always remain true that the race\nshall receive its brain development and co-ordination, and its individual\ncharacter force, chiefly outside of school. The schools of the coming\ndays will not weaken minds by the processes of storing them.\nThe power of problem discovery is much more useful than the power\n\n"}
{"page": 176, "printed_page": null, "text": "166\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nProblem disof problem solution, both to the individual and the race.\ncovery is more educative than problem solution.\nIn the near future the pupils will find most of the questions which\nthey and their companions have to answer in daily work or periodical\nexaminations. They will value the answers, too. They will require training in this work, but in giving such training teachers will have the pleasant consciousness that they are working with God and not against him.\nThe race creeps where it should soar because the child’s natural\npower to discover new problems is not developed.\nThe wonder power\nof childhood,\n\nwhich\n\nMr.\n\nMcChoakumchild\n\nproposed\n\nto destroy,\n\nis the\n\nsource of greatest intellectual and-spiritual evolution.\nWe fail to reach\nour best individual growth, and our highest fitness for aiding our fellows\nin their upward progress, on account of our intellectual and spiritual\nblindness.\nWe are surrounded by material problems, intellectual problems, and spiritual problems which are never revealed to us, but which we\nmight see and solve if our power of discovery had been developed in the\nschools as assiduously as our mind-storing was carried on.\nGreater\npower of problem discovery will lead to increased power of problem solution, and larger capacity and desire for mind-storing.\n.\n4. Teachers will distinguish clearly between responsive activity and\nself-activity, between expression and self-expression, in the twentieth cen-\n\ntury school.\nThe neglect of selfhood and the warping of selfhood have\nbeen the greatest evils of school life in the past. Self-activity includes\nthe motive as well as the activity.\nIt must be originative as well as operative, or selfhood is not developed.\nEven kindergarteners often fail to\nsee the full meaning of Froebel’s fundamental process of human growth,\nself-activity. The highest ideal of executive development given by any\nother educator is co-operative, productive activity on the part of each\nindividual.\nFroebel’s ideal is co-operative, productive, creative activity.\nActivity, even in response to the direction or suggestion of the\nteacher, is infinitely better than the old-school processes of information\n—reception, in promoting intellectual development and in co-ordinating\nthe motor and sensor departments of brain power.\nEvery method that\ntends to make the child an executive agent is based on a productive educational principle.\nBut there is a wide and vital distinction between\nresponsive activity and true self-activity.\nEach individual has three elements of power—originative power, directive power and executive power ; responsive activity does not demand the\n\nexercise of originative power at all, and develops directive power imperfectly. The central element of selfhood is originative power.\nA man’s\noriginative power constitutes\nhis individuality. Originative power develops,\nas all other powers develop, by full opportunity for free exercise.\nFroebel made self-activity the fundamental law of growth, with the purpose\n\n"}
{"page": 177, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions |\n\nTHE\n\nTWENTIETH\n\nCENTURY\n\nSCHOOL\n\n167\n\nof developing the complete selfhood of each individual.\nUnless the self\nof the individual is active, the development is partial and defective in\nits most important element. There are yet few school processes or methods\nthat demand true self-activity.\nTrue self-activity includes the motive\nthat impels to action as well as the resulting act.\nIn every study, and\nespecially in every operative study, the orginative and directive powers\nshould act with the operative powers.\nEducation is defective in its\nmost vital part, if originative power is not developed.\nTeachers should test every process in their work by the attitude of\nthe pupil’s selfhood in relation to it. Is the pupil’s selfhood passive or\nactive?\nIs his activity responsive to the suggestion or instruction of\nanother, or is it the result of an effort to accomplish a purpose originating with himself?\nDoes it result from outer stimulation or inner motive ?\nIf action\n\nresults\n\nfrom\n\nouter\n\nstimulation,\n\nwhat\n\nis the\n\nnature\n\nof\n\nthe\n\ninducement to activity?\nIs it mandatory or reasonable?\nDoes the\nexternal influence coerce the pupil or merely guide him?\nDoes it\ndevelop interest or weaken it? Is it a temporary motive which logically\ntends to make the pupil self-active and gradually gives place to inner\nmotives and interests that continue the action spontaneously, or does it\nleave the pupil inert and passive when the external stimulus is removed ?\nCan activity induced by commands, or by personal power, will, magnetism, or other influence of the kindergartener, teacher, or parent, be made\n\nas energetic and as definitely productive as true self-activity in the\nacquisition of knowledge, in the development of the brain both in its\nsensor and its motor departments, or in defining the individuality of the\nchild?\nIt is only by thus testing their own work that teachers can be\naroused to the energetic mental condition that leads to reform and discovery.\nOne of the commonest\n\nfallacies in the list of educational\n\ntheories\n\nis,\n\n“Expression leads to self-expression.’’\nExpression and self expression\nare the results of two widely different intellectual operations.\nSelf and\nexpression should never be divorced.\nExpressive power has been trained,\nso far as it has been trained at all, independently.\nIt has not been\nrelated to the selfhood of the child. The theory has been: Train the\npower of expression, and the selfhood will in due time develop and be\nable to use the power of expression we have so thoughtfully provided for\nit. The amazing stupidity of this course has begun to reveal itself. To\nsome the revelation of the folly of training expressive power and neglecting the selfhood that is to use it came with such force that it led them to\n‘Develop the\nthe other extreme, and they have propounded the maxim:\nThis theory is infinitely\nselfhood, and expression will take care of itself.”\nnearer the truth than the old one—the one still practiced almost universally. It is true that clear, strong thoughts never lack expression.\n\n"}
{"page": 178, "printed_page": null, "text": "168\nON\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\nee\nee\neee\n\n[General\neee\n\nHenry Irving was right when he said: “If you are true to your individuality, and have great original thoughts, they will find their way to the\nhearts of others as surely as the upland waters burst their way to the sea.”\nBut it is also true that the schools should cultivate the powers of expresEvery form of expression\nsion, and add as many new powers as possible.\nshould be developed to its best limit by the schools ;expression in visible\nform by construction, modeling, painting, drawing, and writing, and\nexpression by speech and music, should receive fullest culture in the\nschools.\nTo add new power of expression opens wider avenues for the\nexpression of selfhood and thereby makes a greater selfhood possible.\nThe supreme folly of teaching has been to attempt to cultivate the powers.\nof expression and neglect the selfhood that has to use them.\nIt is not\nwise in correcting this mistake to make another, by leaving developed\nselfhood without the best possible equipment of expressive power.\nSelf\nand expression cannot be divorced without weakening both of them.\nThe revelation of the utter folly of training the powers of expression\nand neglecting to train the selfhood at the same time has been almost\nentirely confined to the forms of visible expression.\nThere are many\ngood schools in which writing, drawing, and other forms of visible expression are now used from the first as means of revealing selfhood, to enable\nthe pupil to make his inner life outer, but in which the processes for\ndeveloping the powers of oral expression are still as completely unrelated\nto selfhood: as they were in the darkest days of preceding ages.\nThe\nprocesses of culture of the powers of oral expression have undoubtedly\nimproved, but still the dominant principle is the fallacy, ‘‘Expression\nwill lead to self-expression.”\nThe schools train in the interpretation and\nexpression of the thoughts of others, in the vain hope that to express the\nthoughts of others in the language of the authors will give power to\nexpress orally in good form the original thought of selfhood.\nThere\ncan be no greater fallacy. Actors have more power than any other\nclass to interpret and express the deepest and highest thoughts of the\ngreatest authors, but, although they are accustomed to appearing before\nlarge audiences, very few of them have well-developed powers of selfexpression.\nResponding to the motives of others does not cultivate\nour own motive power; allowing the thoughts of others to run through\nour minds does not make us original thinkers; expressing the thoughts\nof others does not develop the power of self-expression.\n5. The school of the twentieth century will give increased attention\nto physical culture, to arrest the physical deterioration of the race, and to\nstrengthen it intellectually and physically.\nPlay will become a definite\nelement in human development throughout the entire course of school\ntraining, especially in cities and towns.\nIt will some day be possible to\nfind children of the fifth generation reared in a city.\n\n"}
{"page": 179, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nWINNERS\n\nOF MEN\n\n169\n\n6. They will give manual training for educational, not economic, reasons, and to all children, especially to younger children, instead of to\nsenior pupils, as at present.\n7. They will teach art as the highest form of expression to qualify for\nclearer interpretation of the artistic ideals of the leaders in human evolution, and to enlarge the expressive power of humanity.\n8. The supreme purpose of the schools of the twentieth century will\nbe to develop a strong, self-reliant, self-directing individuality, and to train\nit by the experiences of school life to become a co-operative element in\nan interdependent community.\nThe community ideal will dominate all\ndepartments of life work in the new century—national, religious, social,\nindustrial, and educational.\nThe greatest educational advance of the\nearly part of the century will be the unity of school and home in the\ndirect as well as the indirect training of the child.\nAll the forces of\ncivilization will co-ordinate around the child. The district school will\nbecome a center of uplifting influence, in which will be focused the\nhighest aims of the community, and through which will be revealed the\ntransforming ideal of unity or inner connection, or the interdependence\nof the brotherhood of man.\n\nWINNERS\nBY\n\nJAMES\n\nH.\n\nCANFIELD,\n\nOF MEN.\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nOF\n\nOHIO\n\nSTATE\n\nUNIVERSITY.\n\n[STENOGRAPHIC REPORT. ]\n\nIn these few moments it will be necessary to put assertion in the place\nof argument, to speak very briefly, and, as usual under such conditions,\n\nto speak subject to misunderstanding and misquotation\n—if quoted at all.\nI beg you will understand at the very outset that I yield to no man\nin recognizing that a keenly developed and a keenly sensitive intellect\nstands at the very threshold of all successful human activity. The history\nof the peoples of the earth shows that development of thought-power has\nbeen such as to put this last in point of time, though higher than that\nwhich has come earlier.\nFirst has come that which manifests itself in\nand through imagination and sentiment.\nIn all literature the history of\nthe race has its first expressions in poetical forms. That has always been\nfollowed by oratory—when men of action, men who are determined to\nsecure action on the part of their fellow-men, men full of impassioned\nfire and fervor, undertake to add to the imagery of poetry that kind of\nexpression that stirs the wills of others and melts them in one grand\ncrucible, out of which shall come, later, superb movement\n\nand form.\n\n"}
{"page": 180, "printed_page": null, "text": "170\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nAs men become more conservative, they\nAfter this comes prose.\nso the intellect comes at last into full recand\nbecome more thoughtful;\nognition, into place and power— just as sometimes I think that the brightBut the intellect itself, without\nest stars appear last above the horizon.\nside of man; the intelemotional\nthe\nof\nthe stimulus of the imagination,\nlect that seems satisfied with itself and with\n\nits own\n\naction, that does not\n\ngo out and find its highest and best expression in and through the exercise\nIt may have a\nof the will-—is really of little consequence to the world.\nplace in the construction of encyclopedias; it may possibly render a\nservice in close and logical argument, in connection with rather mechanical forms of proof, of distinct assertion of premise and conclusion.\nBut\nafter all, that which every nation\n\nneeds, and that which every nation must\n\nhave if it is to live, is the intellect not dominated by the imagination, by\nthe emotion; an intellect not subservient to impulse that leads to wild and\nriotous living; but the intellect which is ever warmed and quickened into\nnew life and into constructive life by these other potent factors in man.\nNow we have reached a point in education when we begin to realize\nthe value of this powerful intellect, this keen intellect, this apprehensive\nintellect, this intellect that can ask questions and answer them, that can\nselect the premise carefully and go quickly and directly to a conclusion\nthat cannot be shaken.\nBut in education, as in all other things, we are\nonly too apt to stop right there. We are apt to forget the other faculties\nand powers, even to let them fall into disuse —until we already know that\nthey have become weak and indeed are disappearing.\nThe history of\nnations that have gone into oblivion shows that when the intellectual point\nhas been reached, the other factors or forces being forgotten, dry rot\nbegins, and then comes universal decay.\nTherefore, I have not, and dare\n\nnot, put mere thinking, no matter how strong and accurate, as the best\nand highest type of intellectual or individual development. We need this,\nit is true, in the great work we have before us.\nThis is a marvelous work.\nI fancy at times that we only half understand it. In a single sentence, we\nare to bring into existence that true democracy in which riot and war and\nstrife are things of the past, in which every citizen is a perpetual benediction to every other citizen.\nIn this great work the largest factor is,\nwithout question, the public schools.\nA keen intellect may make a mana\nleader of his fellow-man in a work like this. It is quite possible for him\nso to arrange the scheme of movement, so to see the details of the advance\nand so present these to his fellows, that they will accept his leadership, —\neven though he has not won them to himself.\nBut such leadership is\ntemporary ‘and sure to fail. That there are leaders of men by the score\nwho are never winners of men is certain. But if we are to succeed with\nthe work which we hope to carry to full fruition in the public schools, we\nmust have winners of men.\n\n"}
{"page": 181, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nWINNERS\n\nOf course, winners of men\n\nOF MEN\n\nare leaders of men;\n\na0\n\nand in education this is\n\nthe leadership that we must have. We must have men who are determined to\ncount and to be counted, and for more than one, in the great sum of life.\n\nWe must have men who are determined to strike twelve every time they possibly can, every time the opportunity offers. We must havemen and women\nwho are not content to be human flints that never strike fire, but men and\nwomen who propose to strike fire, and to see that the fire is communicated,\n\nand that it burns in the hearts of their fellow-men.\n\nWe need those who will\n\nfeel that they are in the community, not simply to teach, but to serve, and\n\nto serve all interests of the community. We need teachers who will realize\nthat only in this large and generous service are they to find life in any true\nsense of the word.\n\nWeneed\n\nteachers who will understand, and will mani-\n\nfest in their daily lives, that they clearly understand that there is a wide\ndifference between getting a living and getting life—as much difference as\n_ there is between earth and God’s blue sky. We need men and women\nwho will insist upon having the place that rightfully belongs to them in\nthe community, and who are willing and determined to grow, even though\nthey must endure all the pains of growth. We need men and women who\nare willing to move forward quietly and humbly, with all due sense of\ntheir imperfections ; yet who propose to move forward, and who will stand\nWe need men and women who\nfour-square to all the winds that blow.\nwill make themselves felt in the community, as well as simply be known.\nWe need men and women, who when they pass down the street, will carry\nwith them something of that pervasive influence referred to by a friend\nof mine in a western city, who said, as I pointed out a quick-stepping\nyoung fellow: “Why, when that man walks down Main street real estate\ngoes up 15 per cent.!”” We need men and women who believe that they\ncan paddle their own educational canoes, and paddle them up stream if\nWe must have men and women who can stand steady under\nnecessary.\nfire. What a superb courage that demands, and yet how many a forlorn\nhope has been wrought into glorious victory by that courage!\nWe need\nmen and women who do not fear to express themselves lest they may possibly find themselves without a place; men and women who, because they\ndare\n\nexpress\n\nthemselves\n\nhonestly,\n\nintelligently,\n\nunselfishly,\n\nearnestly,\n\nnobly, truthfully, are never out of a place!\nThe people of this country, my friends, appreciate all this; and the\nstandard by which we are to measure people hereafter is entirely changed\nfrom the standard of the past.\nHeretofore we have been measuring men\nby what they got out of us. Now we are going to measure them by what\nFrom this time on, this principle of giving life that\nwe get out of them.\nwe may get life, this principle that is as old as the teachings of the Master,\nthis principle of large and intelligent service for others —this is to be the\nprinciple that is to dominate all American society worthy to be called\n\n"}
{"page": 182, "printed_page": null, "text": "WZ\n\nAmerican.\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nWe need men and women who will walk on the sunny side of\n\nthe street always;\n\nnever under a cloud.\n\nWe\n\nneed\n\nmen and women\n\nwho\n\nare never discouraged because they cannot at once put hands upon all\nthat they think they need, that they believe necessary to their work; men\nand women willing to work with a definite purpose, with long-continued\npatience, to labor with divine love. I tell you that in spite of all that has\nbeen said in the\n\npress and\n\neverywhere\n\nelse, upon\n\nthe street\n\ncorners, in\n\nprivate and in public, about the American public school, to thousands of\npeople it is still a sealed book and an enigma, and to other thousands it\nis simply a phrase with which they may conjure and juggle in their own\nbehalf.\nWe must have in the teaching ranks intelligent men and women,\nwho can go into society at large and prove what the public school is, what\nis its value, what is its power; and by their common sense—the most\nuncommon of senses—and by their executive ability, by their capacity\nfor organization and administration, by their sincerity and earnestness, by\nthe fact that others see that they never waver in their loyalty, by the\nsteadiness with which they set themselves to their task——bring man after\nman and section after section of the community into this larger knowledge,\nthis better appreciation of the work that we are doing.\nWe have large educational revenues today, and we must have these.\nBut we must administer these so wisely and so well that there shall be no\nreasonable ground of complaint on the part of those who thus liberally\ntransfer to us these great sums from the public treasury.\nWe are able to\ndo much today; but we must be able to do more tomorrow, because we\nhave men and women teaching who can draw around them a larger circle\nof those who can and will co-operate actively and intelligently in all this\ngreat work.\nGive us something of this power of enthusiasm—this divine\nmadness\n— which we seem to have lost! Take Germany; see the tendency there to worship mere expert knowledge.\nYet I would not decry\nsuch knowledge nor attempt to lessen its value.\nTake France; see the\ntendency to accept mere brilliancy of intellect and activity of movement.\nWe in America must have all this, but far more.\nGive us a keener and\nlarger appreciation, each in his own sphere, of the power to dream dreams\n\nand to see visions—of the desirability, of the necessity, of this power.\nWoe to the land and to the people thereof when their prophets prophesy\nno more and their people no longer see visions!\nLet us have something\nof this power, even though it lack what some men foolishly call worldly\nwisdom.\nLet us determine to press forward with our work, without perpetually counting the cost. I would to God there were more of us who\ndid not stop so long to count the cost that we never do anything but\ncount the cost !\nWith a greater enthusiasm, with more bravery and true heroism, than\never before let us take hold of this great problem—the education of the\n\n"}
{"page": 183, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions ]\n\nLINES\n\nOF\n\nGROWTH\n\nIN MATURING\n\n£73\n\ngreat common people of America in the common schools of America.\nwhole country lies open\n\nThis\n\nto our hand, the fields are white for the harvest,\n\nthe door swings wide, the way is broad and clear for all American teachers to become winners of men.\nI can only say, in closing, somewhat as one of old addressed the\nchosen of Israel: Come out from among the stuff, stand head and shoulders above your fellows, be anointed with the holy oil of a divine enthusiasm,\nwork —WORK—with earnestness of purpose and with power; and be\ncrowned as you have a right to be crowned — kingly citizens and citizen\nkings.\n\nLINES\nBY\n\nRICHARD\n\nG.\n\nOF GROWTH\nBOONE,\n\nIN MATURING.\n\nPRINCIPAL\n\nYPSILANTI,\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nMICH.\n\nPestalozzianism may be said to comprise three somewhat distinct, if\nnot altogether new, factors in the teacher’s conception of education: (1)\nthat it is a process of development or unfolding, and only incidentally\none of acquisition and possession ; (2) that it is an ethical process, and\nmeans to socialize the individual to the end that all community relations\nshall be safer and more tender, and (3) that the primary means for initiating and furthering this evolution of the individual is the systematic\nstudy of things in the form of what has come to be known as objectlessons for the elementary grades and laboratory science for the higher\nclasses.\nOf these three distinctive characteristics of the system the emphasis\nwhich\n\nit, himself\n\nand\n\nhis associates\n\nincluded,\n\nput\n\nupon\n\nthe\n\nindividual\n\ndevelopment as above scholarship in education, is pronounced and vital,\nand places Pestalozzi high among the world’s educational leaders.\nClearly this was no discovery of Pestalozzi ; that is, no exclusive discovery. Others had glimpsed the truth before, as others have done since;\nsome of whom have but vague notions of either the personality of Pestalozzi or the Yoerdun movement.\nBut this forerunner of Froebel and\nmodern\n\nteaching\n\nsaw,\n\nas\n\nno\n\nothers\n\nof his time\n\nsaw,\n\nthe\n\nforce of the\n\nprinciple requiring immediate touch with things as a stimulus to learning,\nas a determining law of the school.\n.\nWith Pestalozzi this contact with nature, and the constant use of it,\nserved as a stimulus, not as that upon which to draw.\nThey were made\n\nthe means of developing or unfolding the child’s powers, and only incidentally of value in themselves.\nDevelopment, maturing, was the end.\nThe thought is common enough now; poorly comprehended by most\n\n"}
{"page": 184, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n174\n\nteachers,\n\nmaybe,\n\nbut\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nnevertheless\n\n[General\n\nASSOCIATION\n\npersuasive\n\nin a\n\nway,\n\nand\n\nreforming.\n\nWe say educaBoth the term and the idea haunt pedagogical literatures.\nGrowth is exalted in\ntion is development and teach as if it were storage.\nprecept and, in practice, is crowded out of recognition by the supposed\nclaims of the daily life and the dominance of the traditions of the well-\n\ninformed.\nJust what are the outward signs of an inward spiritual growth is not\neasily determined ; perhaps it is indeterminate.\nThe modern emphasis put upon development as distinct from scholarIt is held\nship seems to be rather an intuition than distinct knowledge.\nIt is easier to apprehend educaby faith, not followed by eyesight.\ntion as a process of unfolding, a true development, than to observe and\ncomprehend its successive changes and discriminate its forms and changes.\nThat poet of nature and of the human\n\nbeautifully phrases the common\n\nheart, Wordsworth,\n\nthought in words\n\naptly and\n\nnot less pedagogical\n\nthan poetic, as follows:\n“So build we up the being that we are:\nThus deeply drinking in the soul of things\nWe shall be wise perforce. ....\n. .. . Whate’er we see,\nWhate’er we feel, by agency direct\nOr indirect, shall tend to feed and nurse\nOur faculties, shall fix in calmer seats\n\nOf moral strength, and raise to loftier heights\nOf love divine, our intellectual soul.”\n\nThe interpretation of this is not hidden: we shall grow more wise;\nshall gain in steadiness of moral strength and rise to loftier heights in the\nexercise of divine love. But what are the steps in this growth toward\nwisdom which comes “perforce” to him who “drinks in the soul of\nthings’?\nMay the unread teacher, or any teacher, recognize the successive levels of “the intellectual soul”?\nThe vision of details by the\npoet is not expected; but to the teacher, as daily guide and lessonhearer, it is obvious that ignorance of them may be fatal. Life appeared\nto Froebel to be a “progressive development from lower to higher grades\nof being.’\nBut what are these suecessive grades here characterized as\nlower and higher? Elsewhere he defines this development as a “‘ perpetual, uninterruptedly continuous, unseparated whole,” always “rising from\none stage to another.”\nBut, more specifically, he saw that, in addition to increase\n\nin bulk\n\nor\n\nquantity, the idea of development means “an increase in complexity of\nstructure, an improvement in power, in skill, and in variety, in the performance of natural functions.”\nMr. Bowen, in his biographical commentary on Froebel, summarizes his teachings upon this point by saying\n\n"}
{"page": 185, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions ]\n\nLINES\n\nOF GROWTH\n\nIN MATURING\n\n175\n\nthat “increase in bulk will be represented by an increase in the amount\nof material retained in mind—in the memory; development will be a perfecting, so to speak, of the structure of the mind itself, an increase of\ninsight into the connectedness of knowledge, an increase of power and\nskill and variety in dealing with knowledge, and in putting knowledge to\nProgress in the mass, and in the individual as\nall of its natural uses.”\nwell, has always been an advance toward clearer perceptions— not necessarily more of them—greater exactness, a more decided marking of\nlimits, and the discarding more and more of what is extraneous.\nIn the\nindividual, education that is development “aims at producing clearness,\nquickness, and soundness of observation ; a mind capable of retaining\nand readily recalling what it has learned, with power to combine and use\nwhat it knows; able to grasp the general ideas and principles which\nunderlie particular cases, rapid and sagacious in drawing inferences, sound\n- and wise in reasoning ; full of interest and pride in its work, moved by a\nsense of what is good and true and beautiful ; energetic, honest, strong\nIt is compreThis is most admirable.\nin purpose, full of kindness.”\nhensive of the best things the growing mind covets.\nIt is far removed\nfrom simple utility standards.\nEducation on this plane means fullness\nof life. It is an excellent summary—but at best an unclassified inventory, something like St. Paul’s catalogue of the “ fruits of the spirit ”—\nIt affords a charming\nsuggestive and many-sided, but not typical.\nAs a working programme it would\ndescription, but is scarcely a guide.\nbe valueless.\nMy only contention is, without intending to be controversial or hypercritical, that the doctrine that education is development has the soundness of a creed; we believe in it, but it constitutes no working guide.\nThe conviction, once universal, that education was\n\nscholarship, was defi-\n\nnite, and might be followed.\nWith this in mind there was no doubt\nabout courses of study, and the objects of education, and school methods.\nTheoretical pedagogy was simple and easily mastered.\nThere was no\nneed for a science of education.\nThere was no science of education.\nThe pedagogical creed had but one article, and teaching was an art.\nBut as the body of teachers came to think of and habitually to interpret education as a process of maturing or unfolding, realizing potential\nfunctions, and that exercise of faculty is the means of development, the\nwork of the schools was greatly complicated.\nYou will doubtless concede\nthat in all ages and among all peoples the clearest insights of seers and\nprophets have discovered the same thing. This truth is believed to be\nmore generally held today by teachers and mothers and interested guardians of children than ever before.\nEducation may be thought of in terms of its instrumentalities; in\nMost people\nterms of its products; or in terms of the process involved.\n\n"}
{"page": 186, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n176\n\n[General\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nThey think of it in terms of the\nare familiar with its first meaning.\nof the school, for which they\nequipments\napparatus, the furnishings and\ninseparably with teaching.\nitself\nhave paid or must pay money. It connects\nremoved from their confar\nis\nIf education be described as a process, it\nnaturally, wholly apart\nplace\nIf it be characterized as taking\nception.\nvitalizing the influand\nfrom the school, or enveloping and permeating\nences\n\nof the\n\nschool,\n\nthe idea, in the presence\n\nof many\n\nwell-balanced\n\nadult minds, but untechnical and non-professional, becomes hazy and all\nbut unintelligible.\nAnd yet this is, in substance, I take it, of the modern conception of education, as a process of maturing.\nMoreover, we\nhold the process to be germinative and not architectural ;mind grows\nand unfolds, and is not constructed or built up.\nAgain, another large class of people, good people as the world goes,\nthink of education in terms of mental or physical possession or attainment.\n\nEducation\n\nmeans\n\ninformation,\n\nor,\n\nbetter still,\n\nknowledge\n\nor\n\nscholarship.\nKnowing many things, one is educated; knowing much, in\naccepted groups of standard subjects, one is scholarly.\nTo persons who\nare themselves possessed of abundant learning he who has not mastered\nthe traditional\n\ncurricula\n\nof the schools\n\nis, therefore, uneducated, what-\n\never else he knows or can do. Faith in the virtues of rich scholastic\nattainments easily becomes restrictive, and the college-bred man is slow\nto concede an equivalent training or efficiency from outside school halls.\nTo another education means skill, resourcefulness, adaptability, successful manipulation, effective execution.\nOne’s power to achieve results\nis the measure of his education.\nTo be effective in public influence, successful in business, possessed of mechanical skill and ingenuity; to have\npleased the public taste with well-written books ; to paint, to carve, or do\nbattle, or legislate with insight and wisdom ; to explore, to discover or\ninvent—are tangible marks of real education.\nWhat leaves these out\ncannot be real education.\n\nAll else may be omitted, and the man\n\nstill be\n\neducated.\nIn the judgment of a third class, of growing numbers, too, education\nconnects soundness of character, integrity of life and profession, honesty,\npurity of motive, intended and habitual straightforwardness.\nFor the\naccomplishment of these are all tasks and exercises.\nHe is well educated\nwho\n\nhas learned\n\nto be good, to live unselfishly, and to realize the com-\n\nmon virtues in his daily walk.\nHere are four somewhat distinct views of education.\nThree of them\nregard education as a result, as something to be possessed; and one, the\nmeans or instruments employed for working out this result.\nBut in the\nconception of education as development these means and products are\nonly incidents, or more or less certain accompaniments.\nThe cardinal\nfact is the maturing process.\nIt is this upon which current emphasis\n\na\n\n"}
{"page": 187, "printed_page": null, "text": "ay\n\nSessions]\n\nLINES\n\nOF GROWTH\n\nIN MATURING\n\nlay\n\nseems to be converging.\nWhatever may be the practice in the schoolroom, this seems to be the theory: that education is a change that takes\nplace in mind, rather than any coveted result of such change.\nInformation, skill, discipline, character, are mental\n\nproducts.\n\nSo are\n\na genial temper, a chastened will, seriousness, sincerity, and patience.\nThe teacher will have these things in mind in the process that is here\ncalled education.\nThe conviction is all but universal that the process\nthat does not result in giving some sort of needed power, or discipline, or\nIn most minds eduskill, or other efficiency, is a waste of one’s years.\nThey are the outward marks of\ncation is connected with these qualities.\nBut the inward change is more fundamental than\nan inward change.\nIt ought not to\nany specific power, or discipline, or skill, or efficiency.\nneed saying, perhaps does not, that it is of far less moment what a child\nknows than how and with what spirit he knows, the projective, forwardlooking interest that masters him.\nGathering up the threads of what has been said in the preceding\npages, mind would seem to grow or mature in the following distinct\nways :\nFirst: It is obvious that while an increase in the number of experiences\nmay not be the highest form of mental growth, as it is not all, it constitutes one very important factor.\nNot only does the adult, if he be mentally grown or developed, have a larger store of judgments and insights,\na greater aggregate of opinions, joys, pleasures, pains, satisfactions, and\ninterests than the child; but for any given moment his experience seems\nto be richer.\nThis cumulative tendency of the mind—thrifty and curious\nadvance agent of the soul—lies at the foundation of all scholarship.\nNo\neducation is satisfactory that does not assure one of a reasonably large\nand definite accumulation of significant group facts. One difference of\nnote between the two educations called the zew and the o/d takes its rise\nhere.\n\nThe one said, Learn facts, and\n\nthe more of them\n\nthe better.\n\nTo\n\nthe other, facts are seen to have value for the mind only as they type |\nfacts—significant of a class. Froebel said to teachers, “ Plant mother\nthoughts’ —thoughts that multiply themselves into a line of descendants.\nA thing to be worth either teaching or learning is one that easily and\nnaturally gathers other things about it and relates them to it. The one\ntheory differs from the other, therefore, not in saying, Minify scholarship\nor neglect information ; but in standing for the selection of such matter\nas may be called representative, centripetal, and organizing.\nBut education has to do with not only increasing the aggregate of\nexperience, but a growing complexity of the operations of the mind.\nWhere there is a healthy process of maturing, remembrance gives place to,\nor is supplemented by, recollection—percepts by concepts, present and\nAnd the principle will at\ntransient interests by distinct and vital ones.\n\n"}
{"page": 188, "printed_page": null, "text": "178\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nonce be recognized as the subjective ground for a course of study, and the\ngradation of schools, the distribution of lesson matter, and the form and\n\nIt is acommonplace thought, but more far-reachsequence of questions.\ning in its consequences, and more conditioning as a principle of teaching\nAll the stages of life are upon\nthan the young teacher is ready to allow.\nsuccessively higher planes, in this respect the law of the moral life being\nexactly the same’as that of the intellectual life. We are all more or less\nprone to forget this, or else have never learned that, in the entire life of\nthe child, the law of increasing complexity holds good.\nHis pleasures\nand sorrows, his interest in nature and people, his occupations and games\nand leisure, his love of the beautiful, his fears and hates and standards of\n\nconduct, his sense of personal rights and unselfish interest in others—\nmust be measured and interpreted by the same law of an increasing\nmastery over complex problems of mind and heart.\nA third way in which the maturing of mind manifests itself is in the\ngreater accuracy of its movements and.the clearer definition of its images.\nSharp, clear-cut\n\ndiscriminations, well-defined\n\npleasures and\n\nsatisfactions,\n\nunquestioned choices and purposes, distinct perceptions, a conscious and\nintended bias of mind and heart—these belong to maturity, not to childhood.\nIn the process of maturing all processes become better defined.\nThere is a growing accuracy of mind, a definiteness and precision and\npositiveness of boundary in feelings and thoughts and motives.\nIt is an\nentirely natural process, but may be greatly furthered by the school or by\nany wise direction.\nHold the child responsible for all the accuracy of\nfunction and clearness of vision which his experience justifies.\nBe sure\n_ that his words are the legitimate prompting of his understanding.\nKeep\nhim up to his best.\nOne of the most dangerous forms of leniency, the unkindest form of\nintended kindness, is that which allows a child to become addicted to\nuncouth and disorderly thinking upon any affairs. Dawdling means slow\nsuicide for both mind and heart. Sharp, clear-cut, purposed living upon\nhigh planes is the ideal.\nA fourth form of improvement in human maturing is in the increased\ncontrol over one’s actions and the relatively less of life that is given over\nto spontaneous or impulsive doing.\n\ne\n\nEither the power or the habit of deliberate action, as taking the place\nof haste; taking time to consider; planning, experimenting, adjusting\nmeans to ends in some intelligent way ; all revision of experience in however simple form; restraining one’s feelings or behavior to accomplish\ncoveted personal ends; bearing disappointment and loss; honorable\nconduct in the presence of temptation to crookedness\n—as concrete cases\nmay be, separately and collectively, unimportant in themselves; but as\nmeans of working a rational self-mastery, or, what is better, as signs of\n\ne\na\ne\nee\n\n"}
{"page": 189, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nLINES\n\nOF GROWTH\n\nIN\n\nMATURING\n\n179\n\ncontrol and a habit of considerateness already attained —such experiences\nare invaluable.\nIn a greater or less degree every one of them may be found exemplified in the conduct of every normally maturing child in every grade\nthroughout the school.\nThe teacher is interested to know the fact, and\nto be able in a sure way to recognize the more or less visible signs of this\nHer foresight must plan occasions for his exercise of\ngrowing control.\nchoice and self-guidance, and the realizing of preferences, and the purposed handling of instruments\n\nof expression;\n\nand, best\n\nof all, frequent\n\nopportunities for creative work.\nTo grow in self-direction there must be\nfrequent exercise of the power, purposed, continuous, and fitted to child\nexperience, always inviting to greater effort.\nNo system of education is worth much, whatever its other merits, that\n\nfails to do this in some-degree for every child.\n\nTo be dependent\n\nupon\n\nothers, to be easily led, to show temper in trivial matters, to live in, and\n\nbe satisfied with, the passing day, contradicts whatever\nmade\n\nfor education.\n\nand every instant.\n\nclaims\n\nBut this control, if it be real, touches\n\nEvery\n\nintellectual\n\nemotions, occupations, amusements,\n\nfunction,\n\nmay be\n\nall the life,\n\nand bodily skill, the\n\ncome gradually, and\n\nin time, under\n\nthe law of purpose and intelligent direction\n— self-direction.\nAmong the several forms under which mental growth appears none\nis more commonly recognized, or generally well understood, I suspect,\nthan what may be termed facility——the ease with which the mind performs its accustomed acts, and the readiness with which it takes up with\nthe new and the more difficult.\nOne purpose of all training is to mechanize right-doing of every sort. What once was done with effort only is\nnow easily done.\nThe purposed achievement that required attention is\nrepeated or used unthinkingly, and well used.\n‘There is no loss of effectiveness, and there remains the power to make every unconscious, or\nautomatic, action conscious and regulated as occasion demands. Promptness of judgment, quickness of perception, readiness in forming one’s\nimages,\n\na facile\n\nrecollection, cheerful\n\nsacrifices, generous\n\nunselfishness,\n\nspontaneous, hearty joy in one’s pleasures, are signs of a healthy maturity,\nas much to be coveted as it is unusual.\nThese would seem to be legitimate aims to be kept before all classes by all teachers.\nNo exercise of\nthe intellect or the heart whose much repetition leaves it unfamiliar and\ndifficult has done its perfect work. Voluntarily to choose an act as right\nand do it cheerfully shows a high degree of goodness.\nThere is no\nvirtue in the mere struggle to avoid being bad. If there be a struggle,\nthe virtue consists in having ended it, once and for all, so that future\nrectitude is easy. Facility is to be coveted in every wholesome exercise.\nIn no respect does the educated adult differ more widely or more\nfundamentally from the untrained child than in the growing recognition\n\n"}
{"page": 190, "printed_page": null, "text": "a\n\n180\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n‘ASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nof the moral quality in actions, and the disposition to regulate one’s conTo the child few things are either right\nduct in terms of its standards.\nSoon it is the majority of\nActions are merely indifferent.\nor wrong.\nThe\nEvery day revises the classification,\nactions that are indifferent.\nline of division, for the average individual, gradually encroaches upon\nThe field of recognized\nthe group of indifferent actions, and naturally.\nmoral interests enlarges.\nThe moral quality is seen to inhere in an\nincreasing number of one’s experiences.\nWhat yesterday was regarded\nas purely impersonal and neutral presents itself today as having ethical\nbearings and involving responsibility.\nBut recently the youth did\nunthinkingly and habjtually what he comes to perform with misgivings\nor refrain from doing altogether.\nThe moral sense is developing.\nPrimarily the child——-the young child—does as right what pleases\nhimself;\n\nlater the standard is what pleases others, that is, some others—\n\nhis parents or teachers, or others in authority over him.\nIn time he\ncomes to be guided by,the real or supposed utilities in behavior; he\nregards as right those actions that pay, 2. ¢., that yield him some advantage in a personal or social or economic way.\nIn the beginning he\nvalues some present advantage, for which, upon occasion, he substitutes\na distant, but more inviting good.\nStill further, in place of this standard\nof utility, he comes to regulate his conduct by the standards of those\nabout him.\nPublic opinion is his all-sufficient guide.\nHe does as others\ndo, and counts as safe what others approve.\nTo this is added in time a\nrecognition of some things as right and having authority because of the\nrace’s experience ; their test in many lands at different times, their widespread use and final approval.\nHistory, literature, art, invention, government, ethics, religion, industry, are full of such lessons.\n\nThese may be called the elementary stages in the process of moralizing life. Each stage has some advantage over the preceding.\nFrom\ndoing as pleases one to have submitted to recognized authorities ; to have\nreplaced obedience to external control by a judgment from within; to be\nagain corrected by the larger estimates of public opinion, and in time by\nthe net results of the race’s best insights—is a somewhat gradual but\nsure progression along an ascending scale. The child has gained at\nevery step. More and more life everywhere takes on the moral quality,\nand few indifferent actions remain.\nThe field of responsibility has\ngreatly extended; and if, along with the recognition of this universally\nmoral aspect of the world, there goes a disposition to measure one’s conduct by the revised standards, education would seem to be doing her\nperfect work.\nAlong with this moralizing of life, an incident of it, and re-enforcing\nit, is the process by which the individual is socialized.\nhat is, one form\nof growth that belongs to education is the more intelligent consciousness\n\ni\nGF\nyn\nA\n\nee\nee\na\ne\n\n"}
{"page": 191, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nLINES\n\nOF GROWTH\n\nIN\n\nMATURING\n\nof the individual that he is one of many, sharing\n\n181\n\ncommon\n\ninterests\n\nand\n\nmutual limitations.\nThe child loves society, but is imperfectly fitted for\nliving in it. Life for him is centripetal and exacting.\nThings, and\nother people, exist for him.\nThey are meant to come his way and serve\nhis want.\n\nHe must learn, as he will\n\nlearn, to be co-operative\n\nand\n\nself-\n\nforgetting.\nHe comes to do for others as others have done for him; or\nHe sees the\nrather, he comes to act with others for the common good.\nincreasing richness of the life that accompanies this union with others,\ncombining into institutions, and the more transient local organizations,\nand\n\nthat\n\ncan\n\ncheerfully,\n\nand\n\ndoes\n\nhabitually, subordinate\n\nitself to the\n\ngeneral welfare, and measures its privileges by its duties. Education that\nleaves out this form of improvement is growth in a partial and narrow\nsense only.\nIt is insular and disintegrating.\nThe problem of school education is twofold. How to fit the individual\nfor the larger and most fruitful inner and personal life finds its complement in the question of how to introduce him to a high and conscious\nparticipation in the results of the race’s culture, in the\n\nform\n\nof science,\n\nart, religion, ethics, philosophy, invention, the social police, and intellectual commerce.\nThe process’is a natural one.\n‘The schools can only\nhelp it on.\nBut the schools cannot afford to be found not helping it on.\nTo this end are made to contribute not only the games and concert of the\nlittle folk, but the lessons in history and story, the economic aspects of\nstudies, the class constitution of the school, and whatever reasonable reg-\n\nulations grow out of the massing of children into groups and schools.\nNo claim upon the teacher has more far-reaching consequences for either\nthe child or the community than this—that instruction shall have in\nmind the increasingly complex social life he must live, and consider how\nbest to fit every child for it.\nFinally, the process of education as growth appears in what is well\ncharacterized as solidarity of mind.\nBy a process of integration the\nmany-colored manifold of one’s experience is woven into one pattern.\nThe lights and shadows of life—joy and sadness, fortune and misfortune\n—take their respective places in the general design. But it is one design.\nThe tendency is to make the life one and organic. This is the ideal with\nthe teacher for every child.\nIn the perfect life, what the heart prompts\nand mind approves is one.\nThen an active memory shall no longer be\na menace to the judgment. Precedent shall re-enforce the understanding.\nDuty and pleasure shall have become allies when the highest self-interest\nis found to coincide with the common good, and duty and privilege are\n\nseen to be equivalents.\n\nThis solidarity of mind is (1 and primarily), a massing of one’s experience, and (2) the converging and co-operation of one’s powers, the\nwhole mind functioning as a unit.\n\nThe\n\nformer\n\ncalls for correlation\n\nof\n\n"}
{"page": 192, "printed_page": null, "text": "182\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nstudies, that the act of instruction shall help on the tendency toward\nintegration; the latter requires alertness and a rich and inviting environSIEM.\n\nOne should rather\nChild experience is multiform, but not manifold.\n* speak of his experiences ; education is to convert them into experience.\nIn childhood they are numerous,\n\nbut shifting, without\n\nfixed connections,\n\nfluid. The process of maturing is a process of organizing these discrete\nexperiences into an individual whole, giving it the quality of the body of\nknowledge.\nThinking and feeling, consciously in the adult, as spontaneously in the\nchild, come, easily and surely, to find their issue in doing.\nThey are no\nlonger two functions, nor yet two sides of the same function; but rather\ntwo stages or orders of the mind’s acting.\nIn a like manner, understanding and expression, and purpose and expression, correspond and supplement each other.\nTo wish my friend a good is to do him good to the\nextent of my ability.\nExperience tends to round itself out.\nProcesses\nre-enforce each other.\nA reliable memory makes judgments safe. A\ncontrolled imagination expands the field of the understanding.\nRefined\nfeelings make one sensitive to impressions and multiply perceptions.\nOne’s purposes are clearer and more positive if grounded upon accurate\nknowledge and given direction under the influence of an abiding interest.\nMotives are refined as life is broadened and the heart is touched.\nBy all of which discussion is meant simply that one aspect of education is this integration of experience and the concert of faculties. Growth\nof mind appears in its increasing solidarity.\nIt becomes more consistent\nwith itself. Contradiction between precept and practice becomes less\nfrequent.\nLearning and efficiency are more often found united; learning and virtue are seen to be of kin.\nAlong with a sound mind ina\nsound body is implied a pure heart as justifying both; and an education that does not aim to accomplish something of this for every\nchild has not even begun aright.\nSchool education, not less than the\npreaching of the pulpit, must seek a wholeness of life that is the first\natonement.\nScrappiness of learning will not accomplish this.\nMuch\nlearning, in the sense of knowing many things, is deceptive and often\ncruel. What is learned without in some way being lived is vain or hindering.\nCulture, to be a spiritual force, must permeate the whole life;\nso of goodness, a sense of the beautiful, one’s habit of industry, the forms\nof courtesy. To be kind to one’s equal, but not to one’s servant; to be\ndiligent in business and neglect one’s home; to exalt the beautiful in\ndress and furnishing, and be indifferent to it in one’s manner and habit;\nto be good when convenient or when it is easy, and to be cross in\nadversity —is neither courtesy, nor industry, nor refinement, nor goodness, but only their semblance.\nIt is this identification of learning with\n\nre\na\ne\nT\ne\n\n"}
{"page": 193, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nHIGHER\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nSOUTH\n\n183\n\nlife that must save education, if it be saved, from the charge and blight\nof formalism.\nBesides an increase in the number of accurate mental pictures, and an\nincrease in the accuracy, control, and facility of the mental process, and\nthe mastery of successively more difficult and intricate operations, directed\ngrowth seeks the cultivation of a rich and constructive foresight and the\ntwofold process of moralizing and socializing the individual, to the end\nthat the whole life be perfected and mankind be improved.\n\nHIGHER\nBY\n\nGEMRGE\n\nT.\n\nEDUCATION\n\nWINSTON,\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nIN THE\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nSOUTH.\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF\n\nTEXAS.\n\nThe highest expression of a people’s life is found in its instrumentalities of education.\nFor two hundred years the life of the southern\npeople, rural in occupation and semi-patriarchal in character, was marked\nby the highest development of individualism and by lack of community\norganization.\nThe mass of the people were educated, not by schools,\nnewspapers, and lyceums, but by churches, courthouses, and _ political\ndiscussions.\nIt was a church-going people, among whom\nhabitual\nabsence from worship, or inability to follow the preacher through the\nendless divisions and subdivisions of his historico-metaphysical discourse,\nwas\n\naccounted\n\na mark of inferior, if not defective, understanding.\n\npreacher was the scholar\nselect\n\nschool, wherein\n\nof every community,\n\nmathematics,\n\nLatin, and\n\nThe\n\nand usually conducted\nthe hickory switch\n\na\n\ncon-\n\nstituted a strong trivium of culture.\nWhat the newspaper and the lyceum were to the North the courthouse and the hustings were to the South.\nTo the county courthouse\ncame, at least six times a year, every able-bodied citizen.\nHere was a\nforum for the display of the best learning in the community, whether\nlegal, historical, or scientific.\nHere titles to property were transferred,\nand issues of life settled by descriptions of the Trojan war, the death of\nSocrates, or the downfall of the Roman empire.\nGreat speeches were\ntalked over, memorized, and handed down from father to son; each’\ngeneration came in turn to hear, in the county courthouse, the best\nthought, the largest learning, and the noblest aspirations of its greatest\nleaders.\nPolitical campaigns were less frequent, but equally efficient, as\npopular educators.\nIt would have been difficult to find a voter in the\nOld South who had not listened to political discussions from noon until\nnight. The amount of popular intelligence on political subjects would\n\nscarcely be credited by one who had not witnessed it through personal\n\n"}
{"page": 194, "printed_page": null, "text": "184\n\ncontact.\n\nNATIONAL\n\nMen\n\nwho\n\ncould\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nneither\n\nread\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nnor\n\nwrite\n\nwere\n\n[General\n\nfamiliarized,\n\nthrough political discussions, with the best thought of the continent,\nand frequently quoted, not merely the ideas, but the very language\nemployed by Marshall in legal opinions, or by Webster in forensic\ndebate.\nAmong such a people higher education was mainly an instrument for\nthe training of leaders. The southern college reflected the life around\nit. It existed, not in response to a demand for popular education, but\nin response to a demand for leaders in political, social, and professional\nlife. Its foremost students were learned and scholarly, but the college\nworld, like the outside world, esteemed scholarship less highly than\ncharacter.\n\nThe\n\nsouthern college, therefore, was a nursery rather of man-\n\nTo be faithful in\nhood and character than of learning and scholarship.\nfriendship, to be truthful, generous, and courageous, to keep one’s honor\nin return for confidence\n\nbestowed\n\nby teacher or fellow-student,to\n\nmake\n\nan honest failure rather than dishonest success—these were the standards\nmost esteemed in the higher education of the Old South.\nThey may all\nThis ideal\nbe summed up in the single phrase, ‘To bea gentleman.”\nhad its cheap side in artificial class distinctions, social gewgaws, and\nundue emphasis on dress and manners; but its. sterling worth and genuine\npower were manifested in the purity and happiness of social and domestic life, and\n\nin public\n\nlives, unsullied\n\nby love\n\nof lucre, and\n\nfree from\n\nscandal ; in the incorruptible integrity of southern statesmen, who molded\nthe destinies of this nation in the agonies of birth, and guided them\nafterwards for half a century.\nIts loftiest expression was made by Henry\nClay, who said, “I’d rather be right than be president.”\nIts highest\nmanifestation was in the life and character of Washington, who will\nremain forever the finest type of humanity, nobly illustrating the superiority of character over intellect.\nIt cannot be denied that colleges and universities in the southern\nstates have failed to keep pace with the progress of education, either in\nAmerica or in Europe.\nThe reasons for this are not far to seek.\nIn\naddition to one already suggested, namely, the emphasis of character culture above mental culture, there is another, which goes directly to the\nroot of the matter and explains, not only the collapse of higher education\nin the southern states immediately following the war, but also its revival\nsince, upon a stronger foundation, and its rapid development in harmony\nwith the educational system of the country.\nIt is a notable fact that the earliest attempts at higher education in\nthe South were made through institutions supported by public taxation, or\nendowed by public grants.\nIt is notable also that they were organized\nwith plans of instruction, and equipped with instructors representing the\n\nbest ideas and the best learning of their time.\n\nBut they lacked the vital.\n\n"}
{"page": 195, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nHIGHER\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nSOUTH\n\n185\n\nprinciple which gives power of growth to every living organism; they\nwere not a natural evolution, growing out of and founded upon lower\nschools for popular education, but were an articifical creation, demanded\nfor a special purpose by a special class. They did not rest upon the confidence and patronage of the Great People; they were not fed by public\n\nschools, and did not grow, for lack of food to grow on.\nThe southern universities were dependent upon a small, dominant\nclass for their maintenance and development; and the overthrow of this\nclass by the fortunes of war destroyed at one blow the southern institutions for higher education.\nWith the establishment of public-school systems in all the southern\nstates there has come a new conception of higher education, and a\nstronger basis for its support and development.\nTwo generations have\nnow been educated in the public schools of the South, and are demanding\nhigher education.\nThey are making a genuine demand, which is echoed\nin every public school and heard in the halls of legislation, and will not\nbe satisfied until at least every larger state is provided with one thoroughly equipped state university.\nThe hope of higher education in the South depends upon the state\nuniversities, and the hope of state universities is based upon the development of public schools.\nThe southern universities are rapidly fulfilling\nthis hope, in the face of continued opposition and threatening dangers.\nThe South is undergoing a social, political, and industrial upheaval\nas great as an earthquake.\nThe people are feeling their power, and\nmanifesting it in every direction.\nIn South Carolina the leaders of the\nrevolution have almost destroyed a well-equipped state university in their\nzeal to build up so-called colleges for the people.\nIn that state, once\nfamous for culture and learning, the penalty is now being paid for higher\neducation separated by a broad chasm from the life of the people. A\nnoble university, resting, not upon the foundation of public schools and\npopular desire, but upon the needs of a small class favored by birth or fortune, was swept from its foundations by one political storm. A like fate\nhas threatened every southern university. Political destruction, or political\ncontrol of state universities, is today the most serious obstacle that con-\n\nfronts higher education in the South; but the danger is only temporary.\nSuch folly cannot triumph, nor long endure.\n<A single experiment will\nprove conclusive. In North Carolina, during the period of reconstruction,\nthe state university was turned over to the political spoilsmen. A brief\nThe\nexperience of three years taught a lesson that will last a century.\ndoors of the university were closed, its halls were deserted, its campus\nwas grown up with weeds. Twenty years ago it began a new life, placing\nitself at the head of the movement for public education, and already it\nhas surpassed its former illustrious record, and is rapidly becoming estab-\n\n"}
{"page": 196, "printed_page": null, "text": "186\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nIn the recent legislature demolished in the affections of the people.\nto increase its endowment, and\nunited\nrepublicans\nand\ncrats, populists,\nenlarge its curriculum.\nWherever a southern university realizes the necessity and the value of\npopular education, and uses its power to guide, inspire, and strengthen\nthe public schools, it is growing as an institution for higher learning.\nHigher education must rest upon lower, and both must be evolved from\nthe life of the people. The southern universities are realizing this mission,\nand are struggling to perform it. They are centers of the strongest forces\nthat are producing the life of the New South; they are becoming the\nhead and heart of public education; the impulse for the scientific study\nof history, politics, government, finance, and sociology ; the inspiration\nand the guarantee for freedom of opinion in all things. They lack endowment and equipment ; but, as they grow in usefulness, they will grow in\npublic esteem, and will receive ample endowment from public grants and\nprivate philanthropy.\nBut their new life and growth are steadily resisted by educational\nforces of great power.\nThe Protestant denominational college in almost\nevery southern state has opposed the building up of state universities. In\nNorth Carolina two college presidents, both ministers of the gospel, leaving their college duties, lobbied in the state capitol and addressed\narguments before committees of the legislature to prevent the maintenance of the state university.\nThe largest body of Christians in that\nstate, for three successive years, formally assembled in religious convention, demanded that the state cease to support its university, its normal\nschool, its agricultural and mechanical college, and thus retire from the\nfield of higher education in favor of the churches.\n‘The same battle has\nbeen fought, or will be fought, with more or less violence in every\nsouthern state.\nNo one can doubt the issue.\nIt is a fight against the\nfundamental principle underlying American institutions-—a principle\nwhich recognizes the power of every community, whether it be state,\ncounty, or city, to draw\n\nupon\n\nall the wealth and all the forces that it has\n\nproduced, for furnishing every child in its borders with a complete education.\nIt is the old fight of the Jesuit against public schools; the old\nfight of ecclesiastical authority against popular government.\nSuch an\nissue can find but one answer from the American people.\nNot every denominational college is making this fight. Many are\nin sympathy with public schools, and are nobly assisting the state\nuniversities, recognizing their own limitations, and, especially, the impossibility of their becoming organic factors in public education while\nremaining under ecclesiastical control.\nThe average church college in\nthe southern states is contributing to the advancement of higher education by creating a desire for mental culture among large classes of peo-\n\n~“\n\n"}
{"page": 197, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nHIGHER\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nSOUTH\n\n187\n\nple who are mainly controlled by religious agencies ;and the best of\nthem are elevating their standards of scholarship and pursuing lofty ideals.\nThere is little reason, however, to hope for considerable expansion, exten-\n\nsion, or improvement of higher education through their instrumentality.\nTheir endowments are small, without hope of early or large increase;\ntheir equipment is inadequate ; the selection of their faculties is circumscribed ; and they cannot come into organic union with the public\nschools.\nThe hope of future development lies in state universities,\n\nand in such church colleges as may be enabled, like Harvard, Vale, and\nColumbia, by private munificence and public support to outgrow their\necclesiastical environment, and become genuine American universities. It\nis a noteworthy fact that every college or university in the southern\nstates whose life goes back beyond the present century, excepting the\nRoman Catholic college in Georgetown, was either non-denominational\nin its origin or has since put aside its denominational character.\nThe genius of the American people and the free spirit of their insti;\ntutions are unfavorable to organized ecclesiastical control of their educational, social, political, or industrial life.\n\nThe community alone\n\ncan act\n\nIt only has the power, the perpetuity, the\nfor the common welfare.\nresponsibility to public sentiment, and the argument of public necessity.\nThe South is learning the lesson of community power, and is using it\nto secure for the community all the blessings which government can\nIts theory of government for two hundred years. has rested upon\nafford.\nIt has taught the doctrine of individual\nthe basis of individualism.\neffort, individual\n\npower, individual\n\nachievement.\n\nIn pursuance\n\nideal it has produced the highest types of individual manhood.\nern life demands\n\norganization.\n\nof this\n\nBut mod-\n\nIts variety, its complexity, its intensity,\n\nand “its magnitude are too great for control by individual power.\nThe\nforces that govern it must be the organized forces that compose it. Government can no longer be administered by the few, however strong in\ncharacter, intellect, and power.\n\nGovernment\n\nis become a combination\n\nof\n\nthe people, wherein each individual is a responsible unit. The watchword\nof the century is organization, the organic union of all forces that make\nfor a common purpose.\nGermany spoke it when, organizing her intellectual forces into a\ngreat system of education and her physical forces into a splendid army,\nshe wrested from France the German provinces, and stood erect among\nEngland speaks it daily\nthe nations of the earth, one united fatherland.\nin her organization of the banking, the trade, and the commerce of the\nworld. America spoke it upon the field of Gettysburg, where was established forever the organic union of all the forces upon this continent that\nmake for human progress.\nThe South is learning the lesson of organization; she is learning that\n\n"}
{"page": 198, "printed_page": null, "text": "188\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\ncommunities are greater than individuals ; she is learning that that government\n\nis not the best which does the least, but that which does the most,\n\ncompatible with individual effort and individual liberty. The New South is\nIt is organizing to secure better instrumenthe South of organization.\nits material resources, better means of proof\ndevelopment\ntalities for the\nn, better markets for its products.\ntransportatio\nfor\nfacilities\nduction, better\nsystems of public education.\nbetter\nsecure\nto\nespecially,\nIt is organizing,\nYear by year it has increased the tax rate for the support of public\nschools, resolutely facing the problem, not only of its own education, but\nthe still greater problem, the greatest that ever confronted a people, the\nproblem of educating and developing the negro.\nShe does not shrink\nfrom its solution.\nFor two centuries she carried in her arms the negro\nslave; for two centuries more she will carry upon her back the negro\nfreeman.\nThe progress of higher education in the South, and the hope of still\ngreater development, may be seen most clearly in Texas.\nSixteen years\nago Texas had 3 graded schools, it now has 930; it then had not one\npublic high school, it now has 468; it then employed less than 5,000\nteachers, it now employs over 14,000; it then spent less than $1,000,000,\nit now spends over $4,000,000; it then enrolled\n\nless than 200,000\n\npupils,\n\nit now enrolls more than 700,000; it then conducted 7 summer normal\nschools, with an attendance of 451 teachers, it now conducts 75 normals,\nwith an attendance of nearly 4,000.\nThere are 60 public high schools\nin Texas, preparing pupils for the university, and 4oo others will soon\nreach the same standard. The Houston High School is preparing students\nfor Harvard University.\nIts instruction is superior, in most respects, to\n\nthat offered by our best universities fifty years ago. Its enrollment\nincludes one-seventh of the entire school population.\nThe best thought,\nthe best energy, and the best ambition of the continent are working to\nbuild up these schools.\n‘The Waco schools employ teachers representing\ntwenty-seven states of the Union, and over thirty colleges and universities.\nThe University of Texas is only thirteen years old, but its faculty\nincludes forty-seven teachers, representing the culture of twenty-three\nAmerican and European universities.\nIts enrollment of students is 752;\nits endowment 2,000,000 acres of public land and $650,000 of bonds.\nThe recent legislature increased the appropriations for the maintenance\nand equipment of every state institution for higher education, and gave\n50,000 acres of public land as a nucleus for a negro university.\n\n. Texas invites her daughters, as well as her sons, to all her opportunities for culture. They come gladly, not in a spirit of unhappy restlessness\n\nBoE of discontent\n\nwith\n\nnature’s\n\ndecree\n\nof sex, but with\n\nresolute\n\naia\nto fit themselves, by larger culture, for the completer realization of woman’s mission in life. They cling to the ideal of domestic\n\n"}
{"page": 199, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions |\n\nHIGHER\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nand maternal duty. They cultivate the heart more\n\nSOUTH\n\n189\n\nthan the mind, relying\n\nupon its guidance in the gravest problems of life. When mind whispers,\n“Why cling to unhappy marriage?” heart replies, “I love my children more than myself.”\nWhen mind suggests, “Why cling to religion\nthat you cannot prove ?” heart replies, ‘‘ Religion is true for me that gives\nme comfort and joy.” When mind says, “ Demand the ballot and have a\nvoice in government,”\n\nheart replies, “I will not vote, because\n\nI will not\n\nfight to enforce the ballot.”\nWonderful progress in education has been made during the last sixteen years in Texas, but it is only a beginning, Texas is the youngest of\nthe southern states, but the greatest in resources, in population, and in\ndesire for progress. Her territory is almost as large as England and Germany; is larger than the thirteen original states excepting Georgia.\nHer\nsize, her position, her-fertile soil, her genial climate and inexhaustible\nresources, easily mark her as the empire state of the South.\nShe is destined to be upon the Gulf what New York is on the Atlantic, Illinois on\nthe lakes, and Washington or California on the Pacific. She is the great\ndepot between North and South America.\nGreat are the resources of Texas, but not greater than her people.\nA\nmighty stream of manhood is pouring into Texas from all the states of\nthe Union and all the nations of the earth, forming a people strong in\ncharacter, vigorous in intellect, broad in sympathy, resolute in purpose,\nand progressive in methods.\nHere the idea of education as the supreme\nfunction and duty of government was born with the state itself. Sixty-one\nyears ago a handful of heroes declared the independence of Texas, charging it as a crime against Mexico and ground for revolution that it had\nfailed to establish any system of public schools.\nTexas is a southern state edited by Yankees and foreigners.\nHere\nthe New South nurtures the Old in lessons of thrift, energy, enterprise,\nand public progress; here the Old South nurtures the New in the old-time\nvirtues of modesty, unselfishness, honesty, friendship, and hospitality.\nThe South is adopting new instrumentalities of culture, but is not\nrejecting the old. With larger plans and fuller equipment she is cultivating intellect, but she still believes that character is greater.\nIn her colleges and universities there is a steady effort to increase knowledge, to\nelevate scholarship, to inspire enthusiasm for learning, and to improve\nmethods of culture; but each and all of these are still esteemed mainly\nAs the highest\nas instrumentalities for the making of a perfect manhood.\nthe southern |\nso\nuniversities,\nits\nin\nfound\nis\nlife\nexpression of a people’s\nand popschools\npublic\nof\nfoundation\nnew\nthe\nupon\nuniversity, resting\nthe new\nwith\nmanhood\nindividual\nof\nideal\nold\nular support, blending the\nlife\nbroader\nand\nstronger\nthe\nrepresent\nideal of universal education, will\nWashington\nhumanity\nto\ngiven\nhas\nwhich\n—a people\nof the southern people\n\n"}
{"page": 200, "printed_page": null, "text": "ae\nwe\n\nNATIONAL\n\n190\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n[General\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nand Jackson, Jefferson and Marshall, Lee and Farragut ;a people which, by\nheroism in war, by fortitude in humiliation and defeat, by the resolute\nmaintenance of high standards of honor amid the temptations of poverty,\nand by quick adaptation to new and rapidly changing conditions of life,\nhas shown itself to possess the strongest qualities of manhood, and to be\ncapable of the highest moral, physical, and intellectual culture.\n\nTHE\nBY THE\n\nREV.\n\nDEMOCRACY\n\nOF LEARNING.\n\nLYMAN ABBOTT, EDITOR-IN-CHIEF OF “THE OUTLOOK”\nPASTOR OF PLYMOUTH CHURCH, BROOKLYN, N. Y.\n[STENOGRAPHIC\n\nAND\n\nREPORT.]?\n\nThis great assemblage is itself a witness to the significance of the topic\nannounced, an assemblage which would have been impossible in any other\nepoch of the world’s history, and would be impossible today in any other\ncountry than America.\nOther lands may possess older universities and\nmay claim more excellent ones, but only in democratic America would it\nbe possible to gather 8,o00 or 10,000 instructors, engaged in the work of\ngiving education to 16,000,000 children of the common people.\nThere seems a certain impropriety in my venturing to address such an\nassemblage as this, containing the most renowned and most expert educators in the country, ifnot in the world.\nI can bring no expert knowledge;\nI cannot discuss school methods.\nIt would be a supreme piece of egotism\nfor me to assume to do so. But it may be worth your while to take a little\nof your valuable time to consider some of the fundamental principles\nwhich underlie this great, vital movement which you are carrying out, as they\nare seen by one who speaks for the parents, for the children, for the common people.\nAnd itseems to me that sometimes it is well that we should\npause in a great movement like this, which we must believe has large and\ndivine significance, and consider its foundation, its animating spirit, and\nits ultimate ends.\nWe have entered in this country upon a sublime and even awful experiment.\n\nWe\n\nhave\n\nhere\n\n60,000,000\n\npeople, soon\n\nto become\n\nee\nj\n\n100,000,000,\n\nwithout any common traditions, any common religious belief, any common race connection, any common language or literature, any government\nor authority over them, any trained aristocracy to lead them.\nWe have\n‘gathered here to try an experiment never before tried in the history of\n*It is a matter of regret that only a partial report of this excellent address was\nobtained. Dr. Abbott spoke without manuscript, and the official stenographer of the\nassociation was accidentally absent. The report herewith presented is copied from the\nMilwaukee Sentinel of July 9, 1897. —Ep.]\n\nee\nie\nC\nm\ni\ni\n\n"}
{"page": 201, "printed_page": null, "text": "Wy\n\nSessions |\n\nTHE\n\nDEMOCRACY\n\nOF LEARNING\n\nIg!\n\nthe world, and certainly not on any considerable scale. Aristotle said\ngovernments were divided into three classes—government by the one,\ngovernment by the few, and government by the many.\nWe have added\na fourth: government by all—self-government.\nThe foundation principle of our institutions is, first, that every man\nshall govern himself, and that fm all those matters in which his own interests are predominant he shall not be ruled by any man, even though he\nbe better than himself.\nThe state regulates these things which belong\nto their common interest, and the whole nation takes up so much as is\nleft, that is, only those things which do not concern the individual exclusively, but do concern the entire body of the citizens inthe nation. This\nis Our experiment— government by the people, self-government.\nAnd\nwe are not so crazy in Americaas to believe that an ignorant and immoral\nman is competent to govern himself, or an immoral community to govern\nitself. We hold in America to the doctrine of self-government, but we\nhold, as the basis of self-government, self-education, and as we will have no\none to rule over us and determine what our laws shall be, so we will have\n\nno one to educate us and determine what our education shall be. Our\nself-governmént rests on our self-education.\nThis is the foundation of\nour public-school system.\nWe will not give it to private enterprise,\nwe will not trust it to the hands of an individual, though we desire the\nco-operation of the individual parent.\nWe will not trust it tothe church.\nWe have tried education\n\nat the hands of the church, the Roman\n\nCatholic\n\nchurch in Europe and the Protestant church in the New England states,\nand it has not accomplished what we desired.\nWe have resolved in\nAmerica upon self-government, resting on self-education, and we are in\nthis land teaching ourselves, as we are governing ourselves.\nNow, whether this experiment is wise or not I am not here to discuss.\nWise or unwise, we have entered upon it, and we are going on until it is\na sublime success ora stupendous failure.\nIt isidle for Carlyle or Ruskin\nto summon\n\nus back to feudalism.\n\nIt is idle for Professor Peck, of Col-\n\numbia University, to say that the only good governments have been\naristocratic governments, and that we must limit the education of the\ncommon people and provide education for the aristocratic class. Whether\nthe system is wise or unwise, we are going on withit.\nFor my own part,\nI believe in its success.\nI am a democrat from the crown of my head to\nthe soul of my feet. My democracy is not political. It is a religious\nfaith.\nI believe in God, because I believe in man as God’s son, and in\nman because he is God’s son; not in black or white, good or bad, German\n\nor English, ecclesiastical or non-ecclesiastical men, but in men as men.\nAnd our standard of educaWe are going on to try this experiment.\nIf we\npublic education.\nby\nachieved\nbe\nto\nend\nthe\nby\nus\nfor\ntion is fixed\nthen\nself-government,\nfor\nbasis\na\nas\ntry an experiment of self-education\n\n"}
{"page": 202, "printed_page": null, "text": "Se\n\n192\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\neverything which is necessary to make good citizenship is to be a part of\nour school curriculum.\n\nIfthe state has a right to educate at all, it has a\n\nright to educate in all the elements of character that are necessary to good\ncitizenship.\nIdo not say that it may not do more: I cannot enter into\nthe disputed question of state universities; I simply affirm that, if our\npopular government rests on popular education, then our education\nmust include all the elements of life that are necessary to make good\ncitizens.\nThe good citizen must be able to understand his fellow-citizen.\nHe\nmay learn German or Polish, but he must learn to understand the English\nlanguage.\nHe must know how to express himself to his fellow-citizens.\nHe must be able to speak and to write the English language.\nHe must\nknow the world he lives in, and especially his own country.\nHe must\nunderstand something of geography.\nHe must know the experiments of\nthe past, lest he repeat the blunders of the past. He most know something of history.\nHe must know the great thoughts of the great thinkers.\nHe must find his leaders in the great thinkers of the past, whose thoughts\nmake literature.\nHe must learn enough of science to be able at least to\nearn his own bread.\nThese are essentials to good citizenship; but these\nare not all. He must not only know how to think, he must also know\nhow todo.\nHe must be trained in the use of the motive powers, as well as\ninformed in the facts of the past and the present.\nThe good citizen is to\nlearn first of all how to govern himself; then he is to learn how to co-operate\nwith other men and to exercise a will over other men.\nFor this purpose\nthe motive powers must be trained and educated, as well as the intellectual powers, or this man will not be a good citizen.\nIf the state has a right to educate the man for good citizenship, then\nit has a right to teach him in all that part of morality and religion which\nis essential to good citizenship.\nWe are educating men and women to be citizens, to take part in the\ngovernment. What is the function of government? It is, first, to administer justice. This great population of 60,000,000 people must know what\njustice is, or it cannot elect legislators to form laws, or judges to interpret them. It must, in the second place, know how to administer reform.\nMore and more our penal systems are becoming reform systems. We are\ntaking the boys from the gutters and streets in the name of the people.\nThe people who are to elect the jailers and wardens must understand\nwhat reformation is, or they cannot administer that function of the government.\nWe must know the duties of this nation towards other nations.\nIn the last analysis this people must know what ought to be done when\n\nae\n\nthe harrow of war is burying under the sod thousands of men in Cuba,\nand when the Armenian massacre goes on.\nIt must know—not merely\npresident, congressman, consul, ambassador—this 60,000,000 people\n\na\ne\nSe\n\n"}
{"page": 203, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nDEMOCRACY\n\nOF LEARNING\n\n193\n\nmust know what is our duty to other peoples.\nOur people must\nknow what is their duty towards one another.\nThey must know how to\ndecide the great economic questions presented to them.\nLast fall the\ncountry was agitated from center to circumference over the question of\nhonest\n\nmoney.\n\nThe\n\nfree-silver\n\nman, the gold\n\nman, and\n\nthe bimetallist\n\nthought he had the future of the country best at heart.\nThey differed\nwidely, but in one respect they agreed: we must have honest money.\nIf\nthe people are to determine this question, they must know what honesty\nis as applied to currency.\nThey must not only know; they must have a\n\nIt is not enough that the people\nwill and desire to do the honest thing.\nknow how to read and write and cipher; it is not enough that they know\nthe boundaries of their state ; it is not enough that they know the history\nof the past ;they must know and appreciate the eternal laws of right and\nwrong.\nIf the state has any right to educate at all, if it has a right to carry on\nthis great, wonderful experiment of self-government, it hasa right to educate in those elements of moral life which are the foundation of self-government.\nBut we have been in such a panic lest religion should creep\ninto our schools that we have put clauses in our statutes and constitutions against it, and have arrayed judges at the door to keep it out. We\nhave agreed that we may learn the language and literature and history of\nevery other people, but we must learn nothing of the language or the literature or the history of the Hebrew people.\nWe may study the laws of\nSolon, but we must not study the laws of Moses. All other literature, all\nother history, all other laws our teachers may use, but not the history of\nthe institutions and laws and literature which come most closely home to\nus. It is true that these laws concern us more than the laws of the Greeks\nor Romans; it is true that this race instituted popular suffrage; that it\nwas the first race that maintained no standing army; that it was the first\nto make provision for the education of all the people; that it was the first\nto form separate states into one nation, and to whose schools we can trace\nours as we can trace the oak to the acorn. We must not study of Gideon\nand his brave three hundred. Why? Because we must not study religion ?\nNot at all. We may study religion as much as we please —the religion of\nGreece, or Rome, or India, or China.\nIt is only the religion of the\nHebrews which we must not study.\n\nWhat is there, then, in that religion,\n\nof which we stand in such dread ? “He that hath clean hands and a pure\nheart” is religious, saith the psalmist.\nI do not think that if the aldermen of Chicago had learned that religion in the public schools, it would\nhave injured them.\nTo do justly, love mercy, and walk humbly with\nJustice, mercy, humility —that is the\nGod is religion, saith the prophet.\nHebrew religion. Is there any danger in that? With 200 lynchings in\nthe past year, where is the danger of overdoing justice? Are we so lowly,\n\n"}
{"page": 204, "printed_page": null, "text": "194\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nso self-depreciatory, and so insignificant in our own vision, that we need\nbe afraid of teaching our children what humility means ?\nI do not plead here for public worship in the public schools. On the\ncontrary, I vote against it. It is not the function of the state to provide\npublic worship, and in any community in which there is objection to\npublic worship in the public school the objection should be sustained\nand the worship discontinued.\nI am not pleading for the reading of the\nI want no perfunctory reading of the Bible\nBible in the public schools.\nin the schools. I am not pleading for theological tenets of any kind; for\nNo\ntheology, however important, is not essential to good citizenship.\nRoman Catholic will say that the Protestant does not make a good citizen, or vice versa.\nIt is not theology that I am pleading for. Theology\nis not religion.\nIt is not that kind of teaching which sets the child to\nexamining himself and considering the cause of moral action, and makes\nhim a philosopher before his time. I am not pleading for the Bible as an\nauthority in the public schools. What I am pleading for is this: that if\nthe state has the right to provide self-education, it has the right to provide all the elements necessary to train the children in justice, mercy,\npurity, goodness, faith, hope, and love; to understand how they stand\nrelated to one another, and to see the great laws that underlie all the universe ;to see behind this panorama, what Herbert Spencer has seen, that\nwe are ever in the presence of an eternal energy.\nTo sum all up in asingle sentence:\nThe right of the state to maintain a system of public education is the right of a self-governing community to provide for the education of its own governors, that is, of all\nthe people; this is a right, and a duty, to educate in all the elements\nnecessary to good citizenship; chief among these elements are the principles and the practice of virtue; and experience abundantly demonstrates that there is no better text-book for inculcating those principles\nthan that history and literature of the Hebrew people which we call the\n\nBible.\n\na\n\n"}
{"page": 205, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF\n\nSUPERINTENDENCE.\n\nINDIANAPOLIS\n\nMEETING.\n\nSenn Yio MINUTES:\nEGER Sul DALY:\nMORNING\n\nSESSION.—TuEsnay,\n\nFEBRUARY,\n\n16, 1897.\n\nThe Department of Superintendence was called to order at 9:30 o’clock in the\nassembly hall of Plymouth Church by the President, C. B. Gilbert, of Newark, N. J.\n“ America,” led by Miss Wilkinson, Director of Music, Indianapolis.\n\nMr.\n\nWoolen, representing the Commercial Club of Indianapolis, welcomed\nand tendered the use of the club rooms for the service of the members.\n\nthe\n\nconvention\n\nD. K. Goss, Superintendent of Schools\nbehalf of the teachers of the city.\n\nof Indianapolis,\n\nextended\n\na welcome\n\non\n\nPresident C, B. Gilbert replied to the words of welcome in behalf of the department.\nW.N. Hailmann, Superintendent of Indian Schools, Washington, D. C., presented\nthe report of the Committee on Plans to Collect Data concerning Methods and Courses\n\nof Work in Elementary Schools.\nThe paper of Dr. Hailmann was discussed by N. C. Schaeffer, State Superintendent of\nPublic Instruction, Pennsylvania; Edward R. Shaw, University of New York; C. F.\nCarroll, Superintendent of Schools, Worcester, Mass.; E. E. White, Columbus, O.;\nWilliam T. Harris, United States Commissioner of Education, Washington, D. C.\nThe department then adjourned.\n\nAFTERNOON\nThe\n\nafternoon\n\nwas\n\ndevoted\n\nto\n\nthe\n\nSESSION.\nround\n\ntables,\n\nas follows:\n\n“Child\n\nStudy,”\n\nconducted by M. V. O’Shea, of the University of Buffalo; “College Entrance\nRequirements,” conducted by A. F. Nightingale, of Chicago; “ National Teachers’ Certificates,” conducted by Ossian H. Lang, of New York city, and “ County Superintend-—\nents,” conducted by W. H. Senour, of Brookville, Ind.\n\nEVENING\n\nSESSION.\n\nPresident Gilbert called the department to order at 8 o’clock and introduced\nProfessor Edmund J. James, of The University of Chicago, who gave an address on “The\nThe department then adjourned to the Propyleeum,\nPublic School, the Future College.””\nwhere a reception was given by the teachers of Indianapolis.\n\nSECOND\nMORNING\n\nDAY.\n\nSESSION.\n— WEDNESDAY, FEBRUARY\n\n17, 1897.\n\nThe department was called to order by President Gilbert at 9 : 30.\nThe following committees were announced:\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON NOMINATIONS.\n\nC. J. Baxter, Trenton, N. J.,\nN. C. Dougherty, Peoria, Il., Chazrman,\nC. G, Pearse, Omaha, Neb,\n\n195\n\n"}
{"page": 206, "printed_page": null, "text": "[Indianapolis\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n196\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nAD\nio\n\nRESOLUTIONS.\n\nS. T. Dutton, Massachusetts,\nF, Treudley, Ohio, Chazrman,\nR. H. Halsey, New York,\nF, B. Cooper, Iowa,\nWarren Easton, Louisiana.\n\nDr. Charles DeGarmo introduced the following resolution, which was adopted:\nResolved, That a committee of seven be appointed by the chairman of this meeting to formulate a\ndetailed plan for a report on elementary education, to be submitted to this body at its next meeting.\n\nThe first paper, on the subject of “ The Province of the Supervisor,” was read by L.\nH. Jones, Superintendent of Schools, Cleveland, O,\nby the Supervised\n\nA paper on “ Supervision as Viewed\n\n” was read by Miss Sarah L. Brooks, of St. Paul, Minn.\n\nThe discussion\n\non these papers was led by C. F. Carroll, Worcester, Mass., followed by Miss Sarah Arnold,\nof Boston, Mass.; John W. Carr, of Anderson, Ind.; Frank B. Cooper, of Des Moines,\nla.; F. Louis Soldan, of St. Louis, Mo.; A. E. Winship, of Boston, Mass, and IH.\nJones, of Cleveland, O.; after which the department adjourned.\n\nAFTERNOON\n\nSESSION.\n\nThe afternoon was devoted to the round tables; on “ Public Libraries and Public\nSchools,” conducted by J. H. Van Sickle, of Denver, Colo.; on “Summer Sessions\n\nand the Arrangement of the School Year,’”’ conducted by Orville T. Bright, Superintendent of Schools, Cook county, Jll.; on “The\n\nThree R’s,” conducted by J. M. Rice, of New\n\nYork, and of state superintendents, conducted by John R. Kirk, of Jefferson City, Mo.\n\nEVENING\n\nSESSION.\n\nRall\na\nAe\n0me\n\nProfessor W. M. Tomlins, of Chicago, Ill., delivered a lecture on the subject, ‘‘ Music\n\n“a\n\nin Education,” after which the department adjourned.\n\nPMEVURIDY\n*\n\nMORNING\n\nSESSION.—\n\nTBA\n\nTHuRsSDAY, FEBRUARY\n\n18, 1897.\n\ntats\nie\nca\nSr\n\nThe department was called to order at 9:30 0’clock by President C. B. Gilbert.\nCharles R. Skinner, of Albany, N. Y., President of the National Educational Association,\nafter a few words of explanation, introduced the following resolution :\nWueEreEas, There is now pending before the Congress of the United States a bill amending ‘‘ The Act to\nRegulate Commerce,”’ having for its purpose the prevention of frauds upon the traveling public by restricting\nthe sale of railroad tickets to regularly authorized agents of transportation lines; and\nWueErEAS, The Inter-State Commerce Commission has officially characterized the business of ticket\n\n‘scalping as “‘a fruitful source of crime”’ and a convenient method for the violation of law and the disposal of\ncountérfeit and stolen tickets; and\n\nWuereas, The passenger officials of the transportation lines find scalping offices and scalping practices\nthe greatest impediments to the granting of reduced rates for conventions of educational, religious, and other\nbodies of a similar nature, from the fact that by the use of acids, false stamps, and other means, the destination\nof tickets is frequently altered, the limit changed, and legitimate passenger traffic of the country generally\ndemoralized;\n\nand\n\nWuerEAS, Laws of a similar nature are in force in other countries, and with results satisfactory alike to\nthe public and transportation companies; therefore:\nResolved, That in the interest of public morals, and of the many associations of the country which depend\nfor their success upon reasonable excursion rates, concessions, and privileges, the Department of Superintend-\n\nence of the National Educational Association, in convention assembled, respectfully and earnestly urge the\nCongress of the United States to give prompt and favorable consideration to the bill now pending.\n\nAfter\nadopted.\n\nconsiderable\n\ndiscussion,\n\na\n\nrising vote\n\nwas\n\ntaken,\n\nand the\n\nresolution\n\nwas\n\nMr. E. O. Vaile, of Chicago, offered the following resolution :\nResolved, ‘That in publishing the proceedings of this and future meetings of this department, until\nit is\nordered otherwise, the Secretary of the National Educational Association is hereby directed to use such\nsimplified spelling as may be fixed upon by the following committee ;\n\nOe\nere\nee\nar\ne\nCn\ne\n\n"}
{"page": 207, "printed_page": null, "text": "—_\n\nSuperintendence]\n\nSECRETARY’S\n\nMINUTES\n\n197\n\nDr, W. T. Harris, United States Commissioner of Education, Chazrman,\nSuperintendent F, Louis Soldan, St. Louis, Mo.,\nSuperintendent Thos. M. Balliet, Springfield, Mass.\n\nThis resolution was adopted.\nSuperintendent A, T. Barrett, of Chattanooga, presented the name of that city as a\nplace of meeting for the next year.\nSuperintendent J. A. Shawan, of Columbus; O., presented the name of that city. Superintendent W. B. Powell, of Washington, invited the\ndepartment to meet at that place. A rising vote was taken, resulting as follows: Chattanooga,\n\n133;\n\nColumbus, 56; Washington, 38.\n\nOn motion of Mr.\n\nShawan,\n\nChattanooga,\n\nwas announced as the choice for the next meeting.\nThe Committee on Nominations made the following report :\nFor President, N. C. Schaeffer, of Pennsylvania;\nFor First Vice-President, F. B. Cooper, of Iowa;\nFor Second Vice-Prestdent, E. H. Mark, of Kentucky;\nFor Secretary, W. L. Steele, of Illinois,\n\nThe report of the committee was accepted, and the persons named declared\n\nas officers for the ensuing year.\nPresident Gilbert introduced\nensuing year.\n\nelected\n\nSuperintendent N. C. Schaeffer, the President for the\n\nPresident Gilbert then announced the following Committee of Seven, in accordance\nwith the motion of Dr. Charles DeGarmo:\nW. N. Hailmann, Washington, D. C.,\nL. H. Jones, Cleveland, O.,\nJohn Dewey, Chicago, IIl.,\nMiss Sarah C. Brooks, St. Paul, Minn.,\nS. T. Dutton, Brookline, Mass.,\nMiss Sarah L, Arnold, Boston, Mass.,\nMrs, Alice H. Putnam, Chicago, II.\n\nOn motion of Mr. Hailmann,\n\nMr. Dewey was made chairman\n\nof the committee.\n\nSuperintendent Samuel T. Dutton read a paper on “‘ The Correlation of Educational\nForces in the Community.”\nMiss Ida C. Bender, of Buffalo, N. Y., delivered an address on “The Relation of\nCitizens and Teachers.”\nSuperintendent Aaron Gove, of Denver, Colo., spoke on “The Proper Use of School-\n\nhouses.”\nThe papers were\n\ndiscussed by R. H. Halsey, Binghamton, N. Y.; E. B. Prettyman,\n\nBaltimore, Md.; J. A. Shawan, Columbus, O., and B. C. Gregory, Trenton, N. J.\n\nThe department then adjourned.\n\nAFTERNOON\n\nSESSION.\n\nThe session was devoted to the following round tables: “‘ The Essentials of a Course\nof Study,” led by C. G. Pearse, Superintendent of Schools, Omaha, Neb.; ‘School Sanitation,” led by A. P. Marble, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, New York city; “The\n\nHerbart Society,’ conducted by J. W. Jenks, Professor of Political Science, Cornell\nUniversity; round table of city superintendents, conducted by O. T. Corson, State Commissioner of Common Schools, Columbus, O.\n\nEVENING\n\nSESSION.\n\nThe following resolution was introduced by L. B. Evans, Superintendent of Schools,\n\nAugusta, Ga., and adopted :\nResolved, That a committee be appointed by the President of this department for the purpose of bringing\nto the attention of the National Educational Association at its meeting in Milwaukee the advisability of\nappointing a commission of its members to visit the World’s Exposition at Paris in the year 1900, and such\nother places as they deem necessary, to investigate the display of educational material and product as made by\nthe various countries of the world, and to report their findings and comments thereon to the National Educational Association.\n\n"}
{"page": 208, "printed_page": null, "text": "198\n\nNATIONAL\n\nOn this committee\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nthe following persons were\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nappointed:\n\nL. B. Evans, Chairman ;\n\nW. T. Harris, E. E. White, A. W. Edson, F. Louis Soldan.\n\nDr. W. T. Harris, United States Commissioner of Education, addressed\nment on “Art as Related to Education.”\n\nthe depart-\n\nThe discussion was led by W. H. Maxwell, Superintendent of Schools, Brooklyn, N. Y.\nThe Committee on Resolutions made the following report:\n3\nResolved, That the Department of Superintendence hereby expresses its deep sense of appreciation of\nthe marked courtesies extended to it by the superintendents and teachers of the public schools and by the\nCommercial Club of the city of Indianapolis; and to the President and other officers of the department it\nextends its sincere thanks and congratulations for those arrangements whereby has been insured one of the\n\nmost successful meetings known in the history of this organization.\nResolved, That we recognize the great power of the press in promoting and sustaining public sentiment\nin behalf of education, and express our appreciation of the attention given to the proceedings of this department by the daily papers of Indianapolis.\n\nResolved, That the evidence of educational progress seen in the representative character of this meeting,\nthe breadth of the themes discussed, and the catholicity of their treatment are causes for encouragement and\ncongratulation.\nResolved, That the department views with great satisfaction the increasing efficiency and widening\ninfluence of the National Bureau of Education, and believes that public opinion will sustain Congress in any\naction looking to the placing of this bureau on a level with other bureaus of the Department of the Interior.\nResolved, That we approve the enactment by many of the states of the Union of compulsory-attendance\nlaws, and that we hereby give expression to our belief that state supervision is necessary to the proper enforcement of those laws.\nResolved, That we hereby give expression to our hearty approval of the action of the executive of this\ngovernment in appointing as superintendent of Indian schools one who had been closely identified with the\neducational interests of this country, and especially with the administration of the common schools; and that\nwe cordially indorse the conduct of the Indian schools under the present able management.\nResolved, That approval is hereby given to the proposition that a committee be appointed to draft a report\nsetting forth clearly and in detail what should be considered the minimum standard of professional qualifications to be required for state certificates ;said committee to consist of sixteen members, as follows: The United\nStates Commissioner of Education; the present President of the National Educational Association; the present\nPresident of the Department of Superintendents ; four state superintendents ; three state normal school princi-\n\npals; two principals of local training schools; two presidents of boards of education;\nRespectfully submitted,\n(Signed)\n\nand two others.\n\nF. TREUDLEY, Chairman,\nS. T. Dutton,\n\n< F. B. Cooper,\n\nR. H,. Hatsey,\nWarrEN Easton,\n\nThe report of the Committee on Resolutions was adopted.\nSubsequently President Schaeffer appointed the following named Committee on Uniform State Certificates:\nEX OFFICIO.\nCommissioner W. T, Harris, Washington, D. C.\nState Superintendent Chas. R. Skinner, Albany, N. Y.\nState Superintendent N, C. Shaeffer, Harrisburg, Pa.\nSTATE\n\nHon. O, T. Corson, Columbus, O.\nHon, C, J. Bagster, Trenton, N. J.\n\nHon. Frank Hill, Boston, Mass,\nHon, G. R. Glenn, Atlanta, Ga.\n\nPRESIDENTS\nL. T, Dickinson, Chattanooga, Tenn.\n\nOF BOARDS OF EDUCATION,\nGeo, T. Ettinger, Allentown, Pa.\n\nSTATE NORMAL SCHOOL PRINCIPALS,\nA. R. Taylor, Emporia, Kan.\n\nE. B. Prettyman, Baltimore, Md.\nF, W. Parker, Chicago, Ill,\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS,\n\nZ. X. Snyder, Greeley, Colo.\n\nPRINCIPALS OF LOCAL TRAINING SCHOOLS,\nHarriet M, Scott, Detroit, Mich,\nAT LARGE,\n\nOssian H, Lang, New York, N, Y,\n\nDavid K. Goss, Indianapolis, Ind.\n\nPresident Gilbert then thanked the department for the co-operation it had given him\nin conducting the deliberations, and declared the department adjourned.\nL. B. Evans, Secretary.\n\n"}
{"page": 209, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nMETHODS\n\nAND\n\nPHL\nEe Roe ND\nme\n\nCOURSES\n\nOF\n\nWORK\n\n199\n\nDISCUSSIONS,\n\nOrt\nON PLANS.\n10 COLLECT: DATA\nCONCERNING\nMETHODS AND COURSES OF WORK IN ELEMENTAKY\nSCHOOLS,\nTENDING\nTO PROMOTE\nA\nVITAL\nCONNECTION\nBETWEEN\nSCHOOL\nSTUDIES\nAND\nTHE\nEDUCATIONAL\nPREV LOM LIV\nOl LATO CHILD).\n\nBY W. N. HAILMANN, SUPERINTENDENT OF INDIAN\nD. C., CHAIRMAN.\n\nSCHOOLS, WASHINGTON,\n\nThe purpose of this report is neither to criticise existing methods of\nwork nor to propose new methods.\nIt simply endeavors to emphasize\nthe generally recognized desirability of securing or preserving vital contact between school instruction and the life of the child at every point\nand in every phase of the work.\nWhile the majority of schools may\ndesire to establish and to preserve such vital contact, their success in this\n\nis quite uncertain. This is due not so much to the difficulties of the enterprise, as it is to the lack of unanimity in the details of the aim, to an\nequally unfortunate lack of unanimity of views concerning the essential\nnature\n\nof mental\n\nlife, and, above\n\nall else, to the absence\n\nof familiarity\n\nwith successful experiments in vital teaching.\nIn order to remedy this it is desirable that available data concerning\nsuch experiments be collected, critically sifted, collated, and placed at the\ndisposal of the profession; and the chief object of this report is to point\nout how this may be accomplished.\nWith this purpose in view, the report has formulated in a few practically self-evident propositions the prominent features of the mental acts\ninvolved in the chief directions of life utterance, emphasizing in each\ncase the pivotal phases of activity as the mind turns or is turned to the\nrespective inner or outer stimulus, seeks its bearings and determines its\nattitude, and enters, finally, upon more or less deliberate self-expression.\nThese formulas, as presented in the following paragraphs, will afford a\ncommon ground for the collection of the desired data. They do not,\nhowever, pretend to serve as ultimate principles, but merely as practical\nguides in a thoroughly practical work.\n\n"}
{"page": 210, "printed_page": null, "text": "el\n200\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\n1. Full mental life leads from experience or experiment, through\nThe school recognizes\nthought or theory, to achievement or practice.\nThe beginning of\nsynthesis.”\nto\nthis in the formula “From analysis\nt ; both take\nachievemen\nin\nends\nanalysis is in experience, and synthesis\nOn the side\ncontent.\nit\nplace in thought; guiding the will and giving\nor\nknowledge\nin\nresults\nof experience thought is apperceptive and\nand\nintroceptive\nis\napperceptive ideas; on the side of practice thought\nIn apperception the\nresults in conscious purpose or introceptive ideas.\nmind forms for itself mental pictures of its successive experiences in\nterms of whatever related previous experience it may possess; in introception the mind places its apperceptive capital at the disposal of related\nIn apperception the mind\npurposes, with a view to their achievement.\nadapts itself, as it were, to experience\n\nand\n\nenvironment;\n\nin introception\n\nthe mind controls experience and compels environment.\n2. In thought development on the side of knowledge the genetic\nseries begins with perception and leads through reason to insight.\nThe\nimmediate judgments of perception deal with things and phenomena;\nreason deals with the logical connection of ideas;\n\nthe intellectual discern-\n\nment of insight deals with ideals and their realizations, as a true mediator\nbetween knowledge and the will.\n3. In the liberation of the will the genetic series begins with the\nstimulation of interest, proceeds through attitude, in which the will becomes\nconscious of its object, to its goal in aspiration, in which the liberated will\nhas attained consciousness of itself and of its free power.\nThis merely\npractical view of the subject is in no way opposed to the philosophic theories\nof the essential freedom of the will, nor to the various psychological views\nof its birth in the self-preservative energy of the soul.\nIn the practical\nassertion of its essential freedom, as well as in the practical development\nof its self-directive mastership of life, the will necessarily passes through\nthe phases of process indicated in the formula.\n4. On the achievement side of mental development the series begins\nwith play and, through increasingly purposeful effort, leads to productive\nand creative work.\nIn play the development of power is the reward and\ninstinctive object of the activities involved ; in the pursuits of purposeful\neffort the attainment of some external object, more or less clearly defined\nin consciousness, is the reward of these activities; in productive and\ncreative work man fashions his environment in accordance with the\ninner conscious needs and aspirations of his soul.\nPlay secures growth;\npursuit secures outer well-being; creative work attains inner peace or\nhappiness.\n5. As life expands, social union\n\neae\n\ne\n&\n\n4mi\nw\n,\n\nA\nCe\nP\n\nin purpose and achievement, as well\n\nas sympathy in experience and thought, become desirable. This calls\nfor deliberate attention to the social attitude of the children.\nThese must\n\nS\ne\n\n"}
{"page": 211, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nMETHODS\n\nAND\n\nCOURSES\n\nOF\n\nWORK\n\n201\n\nnow learn to find through thoughtful orientation their respective relations\nto the common work, to adapt themselves to the requirements of their\nallotted parts, and to devote their energies to the common achievement\nwith a minimum of regard for selfish considerations.\nIt should be remembered that in each series of the respective formulas\nthe three terms do not represent distinct and, in themselves, complete processes, but rather phases of one process in which the first term of the\nformula marks, with reference to the observer,\nthird term of the formula, relatively, the end.\n\nthe\n\nbeginning, and the\nThus interest is not a\n\ndistinct and in itself complete mental condition or act, but the initial\nphase of some more or less definite act of self-assertion in which the will,\nunder some inner or outer stimulus (interest), assumes a more or less\ndefinite attitude towards some more or less definite inner or outer object\n(purpose), and, recognizing its own power with reference to the achieve- ment of such purpose, identifies itself with this purpose in aspiration.\nStrictly, in the mind of man, interest, purpose, and aspiration are one and\nsimultaneous; they appear distinct only in the measure in which the\nobserver is hampered by limitations of time in the very constitution of\nhis own mind.\n- Even in the fundamental formula it will be noticed that the three terms\n——experience, thought, achievement—are but the three phases of one\nmental act. In the first of these phases the mind appears as concerned\npredominantly with its own subjective condition, under the influence of\ninner or outer stimulus; in the second it appears as viewing these things\nmore or less objectively and as material available in definite life-utterance ;\n\nin the third such life-utterance reaches its consummation.\nSimilarly\nevery synthesis begins in analysis, and every analysis ends necessarily in\nsynthesis.\nSimilarly, too, apperception and introception designate but\nthe terminal phases of the one process in which ideas are assimilated into\nthe will-life of man.\nVital connection between school studies and the child’s educational\ndevelopment exists whenever these studies are conducted in such a fashion\nas to appeal to full mental life on the pupil’s part in accordance with the\nformulas just presented. The school, in its work, must recognize the fact\n\nthat mental life which does not rest on the pupil’s experience is, like a plant\nlifted out of its soil, doomed to perish without growth or fruitage. It\nmust, on the other hand, remember\n\nthat the legitimate fruitage and pur-\n\npose of all mental activity lie in self-expression, in life-utterance, in\nachievement in which the conscious self-activity of man asserts itself as\nthe determining factor.\nAll thought development must rest on perception and enrich insight which is in direct relation with the purposes\nand ideals of man; all interest must tend to the liberation of will; all\nplay must lie towards productive and creative activity, which, in its\n\n"}
{"page": 212, "printed_page": null, "text": "202\n\nNATIONAL\n\nturn, is impossible\nplay spirit.\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nexcept as it rests on the spontaneous\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nfervor of the\n\nAt all times and in all it does, too, the school should remember that\nfullest mental life is found, not in the achievement of individual ends, but\n\nin the sympathetic co-ordination of individual purpose-life with that of\nothers in common social endeavors and in active mutual devotion to\nworthy universal ideals.\n\nIt should, therefore, establish a vital connection\n\nof school studies, not only with the child’s individual\nalso with\n\nhis social\n\ndevelopment.\n\nIn other words,\n\ndevelopment, but\nit should\n\nnurture\n\nindividual development always with reference to social efficiency, in\nan atmosphere of social efficiency, and in the light of worthy human\nIt should take cognizance of the sociological necessities of\nideals.\nlife, and should stimulate in its work, with increasing distinctness and\nemphasis, such specialization and division of labor and massing of\nindividual effort as the common enterprises at its disposal may permit\nor demand.\nA few illustrations from actual school work will indicate more clearly,\nnot only the full bearing of the formulas presented in this report, but also\nthe character of the data which, in the opinion of your committee, it is\ndesirable to collect, to collate, and to place at the disposal of the profession,\nin order to aid the school in its efforts to vitalize its work.\nIn a first-year grade thirty children were engaged in a number lesson\nwith beads. On inquiry it was found that they were preparing to ornament\nthe teacher’s blackboard for the approaching Friday afternoon exercises,\nwhich parents and friends were invited to attend.\nIt had been decided\nthat, for this purpose, it would be desirable to prepare as many strings of\nbeads as there were children, that each string was to carry forty-eight\nbeads, or four twelves, each twelve made up of four threes—successively\nred, orange, yellow, green.\nOn completion of the stringing, a committee\nof children, selected by a vote of the class, examined the strings as to\ntheir correctness in the work.\nAnother committee, similarly selected,\nplaced the strings on the board in accordance with the preconcerted plan,\na work which involved the careful measuring of “eighteen inches apart”’\nand the rhythmic alternation of the color series.\nIn this exercise the eager, vigorous, spontaneous stretching forth of\nthe child’s play instinct into the light of conscious aspiration is manifest.\nEvery phase and point of the play-work has its legitimate beyond.\nThe\nthrees look to the twelves, the twelves to the forty-eights; each color calls\nfor its successor ; the whole is consciously related to the festoon which is\nto grace the teacher’s board on the approaching festive occasion.\nThe\nschool has provided an almost ideal opportunity for an ideal experience,\nstimulating thought and purpose, securing achievement which, in its turn,\nbecomes again an experience, initiating a mental act of a higher order.\n\n"}
{"page": 213, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nMETHODS\n\nEqually manifest\n\nis the constant urgency in this exercise towards benev-\n\nolence, co-ordination,\n\nAND\n\nrational\n\nCOURSES\n\nunion\n\nOF\n\nWORK\n\nof self-assertive\n\n203\n\nindividuality\n\nin a\n\nworthy common pursuit.\nOn the following Monday this same class was found eagerly engaged\nin measuring a number of things in the room as to their dimensions, in\nconnection with a “game” in which the children had estimated these\ndimensions.\nThe names of the things had been written on the blackboard, and each child had copied this list on a sheet of paper before him,\nadding his estimates of the measurements.\nEach child, too, had made\nfrom stout cardboard a measuring rule of three inches, with subdivisions\nGroups of children were engaged in measuring\nin halves and quarters.\nvarious objects and in entering the results of their work in the proper\nOne of these groups measured a table, three\nplaces on the blackboard.\nfeet\n\nwide,\n\nas\n\nfollows:-3 inches,\n\n6 inches,\n\n9 inches,\n\n1 foot, 1 foot 3\n\ninches, etc.”” Everything was done in a thoroughly workmanlike manner,\nwithout mutual disturbance and with every manifestation of sincere, personal interest in the outcome of the work on the part of every child.\nThe vital connection, in this exercise, between\n\nthe number knowledge\n\ngained in the bead-stringing exercise of the previous week and the higher\nform-knowledge sought in the later “game” is evident, as well as the\nvital adherence to the other formulas in the report, including the lifting\nof individual purpose into social efficiency. Every onward step in thought\nand achievement rests clearly on well-defined experience, provided by the\nschool, and serves, in its turn, as a higher and clearer experience.\nOn\nthe basis of clear perceptions the child reasons in his estimates and, again,\n\nin his measurements; and gains in subsequent drawing exercises, based\non these measurements, ever deeper insight into the form characteristics\nof his environment.\n\ninsensibly,\n\nWhat, at first, came to the child as play is lifted\nbut surely, towards serious, purposeful work, without loss of\n\nspontaneity on the child’s part. From what, at first, seemed but an interesting diversion the children are raised without violence, yet firmly, into\nan attitude akin to that of conscientious devotion to duty. And, throughout, individual efficiency is taught to serve the wider purpose of a social\ngroup of friends, and to find in this service the deep gratification that\nrewards unselfish participation with others in a common work and the\nhigh joy that flows from deeds of active benevolence.\nThey had\nIn a fourth grade the children had been interested indogs.\nbeen asked to bring to the school for the reading lesson some story showEvery child seemed to\ning the usefulness and fidelity of dogs to man.\nbe prepared and eager to contribute his share to the instruction and\nenjoyment of the class. The children, without exception, read clearly\nand well. Their purpose, evidently, was that class-mates and teacher, to\nwhom the story was supposed to be new, should understand and enjoy.\n\n"}
{"page": 214, "printed_page": null, "text": "eS\nnO\n-\n\n204\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nTwo children read from manuscript: they had been unable to find stories\nin print and had, consequently, written down some experience of their\nown or some remembered story. The general interest and attention of\nThe entire exercise was in strange contrast with\nthe class were intense.\nthe ordinary reading exercise, in which all the children and the teacher\nhave the same printed story before them, and in which the content of the\n|\nlesson is not rarely sacrificed to certain technicalities.\nThe teacher informed the visitor that, at a subsequent lesson, the stories\n\nwould be discussed, the principal facts noted down on the blackboard and\nutilized in a variety of language exercises; and that, still later on, the\nchildren would prepare descriptions and histories of dogs with which they\nwere familiar.\nShe said that, on the basis of her previous experience, she\nexpected much beneficial influence from these exercises upon the children’s\nkindly feelings towards animals; she might have justly added “and\ntowards each other.’”’ It may be well to add that the children’s proficiency\nin reading, writing, and spelling was quite unusual for children of this\ngrade.\nIt seems scarcely necessary, however, to point out in detail in\nwhat particulars this exercise was in fair accordance with the requirements\nof our formulas.\nIn another fourth grade the children were engaged in “form study.”\nEach child had received a square sheet of paper of some shade of blue.\nOne of the children, a little girl, dictated simple foldings, looking towards\nthe lozenge.\nAfter each successive folding she asked simple questions as\n\ne\n\nto the geometrical results of the work, and received definite, clear, respect-\n\nful answers. When the lozenge was reached, the teacher assumed control\nin a natural, unostentatious manner: it was evidently now “her turn.”\nShe drew “in the air” a square, an isosceles right triangle, a trapezium, at\n\nlast a lozenge; then its longer diagonal, its shorter diagonal, etc.; and\nreceived from members of the class accurate descriptions of her actions\nand of their effect upon the lozenge, both in words and in drawing.\nSubsequently the children joined in the construction of a social design with\nthe help of their lozenges.\nThis became the basis of an exercise in drawing and coloring, in which the children devised suitable borders for the\ndesign.\n‘T’hese borders, the teacher said, were to be subsequently examined by a committee, selected by the class. The committee was to make\na report on them, accepting or rejecting the suggested borders, and furnishing the reasons for their decisions.\nIn the case of disagreement or\nappeal the teacher gave the final decision.\nIt will be noticed how in this exercise, as a whole, deliberate experiment with reference to relations of form is followed by equally deliberate\nthought under the teacher’s direction concerning the character of the\nnewly found lozenge; how, subsequently, definite purpose is developed,\nutilizing the newly gained knowledge in creative achievement, in self-\n\n~e\nae\ncem\nAy\nOd\nniga\noe\n\naii\nhie\nthi\nb\nes\ned\n\n"}
{"page": 215, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nMETHODS\n\nAND\n\nCOURSES\n\nOF\n\nWORK\n\n205\n\nactive self-expression.\nIt will be further noticed how directly and economically the simple perceptions are led through equally simple, although\nperfectly adequate, reasoning to clear insight into their bearing upon the\nchild’s\n\nideals in the final work;\n\nhow, from a simple, pleasurable\n\ninterest\n\nin the pretty folding sheets, the children gradually lift themselves into the\nattitude of the earnest seeker after knowledge and into the fervent aspiration of the artist; how effectively devotion to a common, social end is\nsecured in helpful, mutual adaptation and without prejudice to individual\ndevelopment and self-assertion.\nIn a seventh grade much interest had been stimulated in the flowers\nof the spring.\nOn the teacher’s desk had been displayed for several days\nbouquets of them, contributions from pupils whose homes afforded them\naccess to the woods.\nIn obedience to the spontaneous desire of the\npupils an excursion was planned, in order to see the flowers in their natural\n\nhomes.\nThe children knew them by name, but knew little of their details\nof structure and habits of life. During the excursion attention was\ndirected to the conditions under which they grew, the character of the\nsoil, moisture, exposure to sunshine, etc. A limited number of specimens\nwere gathered for home and school.\nThe teacher, without ostentation,\nprovided a sufficient supply of spring beauties for further study at school\n\non the following day.\nOn the following day she gave each child a specimen, and led them to\nexamine the details of structure, taught them the uses of each part in the\nlife of the plant, helped them to infer the reasons for cértain peculiarities\nof structure in root, stem, leaf, etc.\nCareful notes were made on the\nblackboard, as the lesson proceeded, by one of the children designated\n\nfor this work.\nOn a following day the class, as a unit and under the guidance of the\nteacher, collated these notes in a systematic essay on the habits and structure of the plant, and to this essay the teacher added a few literary gems,\nin which the spring beauty played apart.\nThe class was then divided\ninto a number of groups, and to each group the teacher assigned the task\nof studying some other spring plant from the number observed during\nIna group of six,\nEach group was again subdivided.\nthe excursion.\nof the hepatica,\nhabits\nand\nlife\nthe\non\ne. g., two children were to report\nin literature,\nplace\nits\non\nreport\ntwo children on its structure; one was to\nplant.\nthe\nof\nsketches\nand one was to furnish one or more artistic\nEach child had given\nThe report day was a joy to all concerned.\nhimself with heart and soul to his work, with a view of furnishing pleasure and information to the class and, possibly, of doing worthily his part\nin a common enterprise; and each one was more than repaid for his\ndevotion by his gain from the contributions of his class-mates.\nHere, again, it seems practically needless to point out how well, on the\n\n"}
{"page": 216, "printed_page": null, "text": "206\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nwhole, in this exercise the various vital connections which this report has\nformulated are secured, with large gains to the subject of instruction, to\nindividual development, and all other conventional desiderata of the\nschool, and with the additional gains of true scientific fervor, generous\ndevotion\n\nto duty in concerns\n\nof social\n\nefficiency, artistic\n\nelevation, and\n\nof life-conthe divine aspiration of benevolence as the prime\nduct.\nSimilar illustrations might be multiplied; others might be added of\ncourses of study, the distribution of work for the year, the daily or weekly\nmotive\n\ntime-tables, the construction\n\nand\n\nuse of the school\n\nplant, the character\n\nand use of school appliances, and a variety of other things that enter into\nthe work of the school.\nIn all of these there may be more or less successful consideration of the laws of vitatconnection.\nThe few types here\nrepresented, however, will have to suffice for the purpose of this report.\nThey indicate with sufficient clearness the character of the data which it\nis desirable to collect, to sift critically, to collate, and\n\nto place at the dis-\n\nposal of the profession, in order to enable schools generally to vitalize\ntheir work more and more effectively.\nThe presentation of data or illustrations of work which is not in\naccord with the principles here enunciated may profitably be omitted.\nTheir presentation and criticism would involve needless controversy and,perhaps, pernicious bitterness of feeling. The task of the committee,\nproposed in this report, is not to make war upon school practices which\nare steadily waning.\nTheir entire attention and energy should be given\nto the presentation of examples of successful modes of procedure, and to\ndeductions from these of reliable rules of action and criteria of method\nat every step, from the simplest lesson in language to the critical study\nof Shakespeare, from the simplest exercise in drawing to the construction\nof a machine or the execution of a work of art, from the preparation of\nthe simplest lesson in drawing to the elaboration of the most complex\ncourse of study. Thus will they aid the armies of earnest and thoughtful\nteachers in their endeavors to realize their hope of bringing every detail\nof school life into full vital connection with the children’s destiny in a\nlife-efficiency which shall be in harmony with the worthy ideal and hopes\nof the social group of which they are a part, and in consonance with the\ndestiny of mankind.\nThe details of this work, the character and manner of distribution of\n\nthe circulars to be sent out, the criteria to be applied to whatever data may\nbe sent in or gathered, their collation, the deduction of simple rules of\naction and criteria of method, and, finally, the form in which the results\n\nof the labors of such a committee are to be presented to the profession—\nall these things must of necessity be left wholly to the committee, and\ncannot even be foreshadowed here.\n\n"}
{"page": 217, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nMETHODS\n\nAND\n\nCOURSES\n\nOF\n\nWORK\n\n207\n\nThe appointment of a committee to do the work here implied is in\nfull accord with the policy of the Department of Superintendence and in\nline with the work heretofore done in this direction by the department.\nThe report of the Committee of Ten upon the chief desiderata of courses\nof study, and that of the Committee of Fifteen upon the proper correlation of studies in such a course, etc., call logically for an effort to determine to what extent the practical work of the schoolroom satisfies the\nphilosophical and economic requirements of these reports, and for measures to make successful work in these directions accessible to the profession at large.\nAmong the plans that have suggested themselves to your committee\nthe following seem to be the most promising of success :\n1. The pedagogic department of some university might readily collect\nsuch data with the help of suitable circulars of inquiry, calling for courses\nof study, detailed descriptions of class work, as well as typical samples of\nwork done by the children.\n2. The pedagogic departments of a number of universities might be\nrequested to unite in similar work under the auspices of the Department\nof Superintendence and of the National Educational Association.\n3. The Department of Superintendence might appoint from its midst\na committee to do this work under the auspices of the National Educational Association.\n4. Plans 2 and 3 might be united by the appointment of a limited\ncommittee of, perhaps, five from the direct membership of the Department of Superintendence, endowed with power to add to its number a\nstated number of representatives of pedagogic departments of universities\nand normal schools.\nEach of these plans has its advantages and disadvantages.\nThe first\nplan secures from the beginning perfect unity of purpose and control, as\nwell as, consequently, a most desirable intensity and concentration of\nwork. On the other hand, it implies much limitation of the field of labor\nand a possible one-sidedness in aim and method which might seriously\nreduce the value of results.\nThe second plan affords the advantages of a wider field of observation\nand of a sufficient fund to defray the necessary expenses, but it suffers\nfrom probable lack of unity in purpose and control, and removes the fund\nfrom the immediate control of the Department of Superintendence.\nThe third plan would, indeed, preserve for the department the immediate control of expenditures, but it would place the details of the work\nupon the shoulders of men whose official duties are not in consonance\nwith the requirements of arduous, scientific research, nor with the stimulation of experimental work in schools not under their immediate\ncontrol.\n\n"}
{"page": 218, "printed_page": null, "text": "i|\n\n208\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nThe fourth plan practically combines the advantages of all the others\nand, thereby, eliminates\n\ntheir disadvantages.\n\nIt secures\n\nsufficient\n\nunity\n\nof control, as well as sufficient intensity and concentration of work in its\n(five) original members, directly responsible to the Department of SuperIt secures the widest possible field of observation and\nintendence.\nbreadth of view on the part of the body of scientifically trained observers.\nIt supplies the necessary funds and places their expenditure in the hands\nof members directly responsible to the donors.\nYour committee would, therefore, recommend that a special committee of five be appointed, to be known as the Committee on the Vital Connection of School Studies and Educational Development in Elementary Schools,\nand whose duty it shall be to collect and to collate data on this subject in\naccordance with the suggestions of the above report, and to report the\nresults of its labors to the Department of Superintendence in the year\n1899; that this committee be empowered to add to its number ten members of the National. Educational Association who are connected with the\npedagogic departments of universities or normal schools ; and that the\nNational Educational Association be requested to place at the disposal of\nthis committee an adequate sum to be expended in the furtherance of its\nwork, under the customary limitations of such expenditures.\nThe tendency of the school and the yearning of the race are for an\neducational practice that will aid the very life of man — individual, social,\nand universal—at every point and in every measure; an educational\npractice that will lead the young to field and forest, to the workshop and\nlaboratory, to hearth and home, teaching them to find highest joy in\nbeneficent industry rather than in indolent pastime and nervous excitement, in the creative activities of a liberated will rather than in the glittering passions of emotion and fancy; an education that will yield workers and\n\nbuilders, discoverers\n\nand\n\ninventors, fathers\n\nand\n\nmothers, useful\n\nand devoted citizens—-open-eyed, open-hearted, open-handed ; an education that will not lose itself in the bogs and morasses of literature, art,\nand mere erudition, but which, resting on the solid gains of these in hisstory and heredity, moves steadily on to fresh conquests, rescuing literature, art, and erudition alike from the heat of passion and the decay that.\nfollows in its train; an educational\n\npractice, indeed, that enters\n\ninto the\n\nvery heredities of the race and lifts it nearer its destiny as generation succeeds generation.\nNothing can so effectively help the advent of such educational practice as the labor of a committee like the one just proposed, taking an\ninventory of whatever examples of successful work it can find of the character described, deducing from these reliable criteria of method and rules\nof practice, and enabling the profession, as a whole, to see and tread\nsecurely the path of life in its work.\n\need\ne\n\n-_\n\n"}
{"page": 219, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nPAPER\n\nBY\n\nN.\n\nMETHODS\n\nON\n\nC. SCHAEFFER,\n\nTHE\n\nSTATE\n\nAND\n\nCOURSES\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nOF\n\nWORK\n\nTHE\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\n|\n\n209\n\nCOMMITTEE.\n\nPUBLIC\n\nINSTRUCTION,\n\nPENNSYLVANIA.\n\nI approach the discussion of this report with a strong feeling of diffidence.\nIt is the sequel to an address delivered at last year’s meeting.\nThe diction of both documents reminds me of Froebel and Hegel and\nSchleiermacher,\n‘The chairman of the committee is our great apostle of\nFroebel; for me to enter his special domain as exegete or critic would\nsavor of trespass and presumption.\nUpon explanations of Hegel Commissioner Harris has a claim which no one has dared to dispute, not even\n\nthe Herbartians. So far as I know, no one has attempted an exposition of\nSchleiermacher in the English tongue.\nIt is true there are occasions\nwhen the influences which remain from earlier studies tempt me to roam\nin transcendental fields of speculation.\nAt such times the mind dwells\nupon general statements of pedagogic truth, upon formule in which\nwords like analysis and synthesis, symbols and things, apperceptive and\nintroceptive, occupy very prominent places.\nWhen, perchance, the mind\ndrops into this subconscious state, I feel as if something wonderful were\nto be achieved by aérial flights of thought, by the formulation of creeds\nwhich differ from the ancient creeds in that they do not sum up the\nbeliefs of the faithful of every age and clime, but hardly represent the\nviews of anybody except the author, sometimes not even the views of the\nauthor twenty-four hours before or after the creed was written. But when\na rap at the door brings me back from the land of pedagogic reveries to\nthe stern realities which confront a superintendent of schools, the out- ©\nlook suddenly changes.\nThe primary teacher who has entered my office\npicks up the programme of the Department of Superintendence. As soon as\nshe has read the caption of the committee’s report, she startles me by\nasking:\n“Is it not a fact that you educators use these high-sounding\nwords and learned phrases to hide your own ignorance of what ought to\nbe done in the training of the child?””\nThe insinuation makes it necessary for me to clarify her ideas as well as my own.\nIn the discussion\nwhich ensues we have no difficulty in seeing clearly that, on the one hand,\nthere is a world of truth and beauty and life which is at hand for educational purposes, and, on the other, there is a host of growing children in\nthe schools who are to be trained into mature men and women. But how\nis the world of truth and beauty to be linked with the mental life of each\nchild?\n\nHow\n\nare the school\n\nstudies, which\n\nhand, to be utilized in the educational\n\nembody the truth nearest\n\nat\n\ndevelopment of the child and of\n\n"}
{"page": 220, "printed_page": null, "text": "210\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nThe preceding paper asserts that there must be a vital connection\nman?\nSays\nbetween the two. “What is meant by vital in this connection?”\nnecesvery\nor\nessential\nmeans\nvital\n“Webster says that\nmy tormentor:\nsary, and also that it means living or relating to life. Who will dispute\nthat the connection between school studies and the development of the\nchild\n\nis essential\n\nor necessary, and who will\n\ndeny\n\nthat\n\nthe\n\nconnection\n\nbetween these studies and the growing child must be a living connection,\nbut what gain is there in such statements for us primary teachers in our\nWhat is the good of all your philosophy if it does not bear\ndaily work?\nfruit in the actual work of the schoolroom ?”\nIn reply I suggest that we turn to one who was greater than Hegel\nand Herbart and Froebel ; to the one of whom we read that he sat down and\n\ntaught, and through the ages he has been known as the Great Teacher.\nIn the record of his life we read:\n‘So when they had dined, Jesus saith\nto Simon Peter, Simon, son of Jonas, lovest thou me more than these?\nHe saith unto him, yea, Lord, thou knowest that I love thee.\nHe saith\n\nunto him, feed my lambs.”’\nIn this figure of speech the lambs symbolize\nchildhood, and the Great Teacher likens the act of teaching children to the\nprocess of feeding the lambs. In other words, the assimilation of foods\nfinds its parallel in the assimilation of knowledge.\nThe assimilation of\nfood is an organic process; organic is the term which Mr. Hailmann\nemployed at Jacksonville. How does the organic differ from the mechanical?\nIna mechanism the relation between the several parts is external.\nIf a cog-wheel or any other part of machinery breaks, I can replace it by\nsubstituting another cog-wheel, or a piece similar in all respects to the\nbroken piece of the machine.\nIn an organism the relation between the\nparts is an inner relation brought about by living forces.\nA branch cannot be broken from a tree and another attached in a merely external way.\nIn the wonderful process of budding or of grafting the bud or the graft\nbecomes a part of the tree through a process of growth.\nWe have\ninstances of substances being incorporated in an organism without this\nliving connection.\n\nA stone\n\nplaced between\n\nthe branches of a tree may\n\nultimately be surrounded and covered by the trunk of the tree; but it\nbears no living relationship to the tree itself. A bullet may lodge in the\nhuman body, it may be encysted, if it is not removed by the surgeon’s\nknife, but it never can be said to be assimilated as an organic part of the\nhuman frame.\nIt it possible to lodge in the mind of the child statements,\ndefinitions, and entire paragraphs which are, indeed, carried by the mind\nas the body carries the encysted bullet, but which are not assimilated in\nthe living way. They may not be incorporated as an integral or organic\npart of the child’s mental life any more than the lead is made part of the\nhuman body or the stone is made part of the tree. Very much of the\nmemorizing at school is a lifeless process. You can get at the bullet in the\n\n"}
{"page": 221, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nMETHODS\n\nAND\n\nCOURSES\n\nOF\n\nWORK\n\n211\n\nhuman body by a surgical process, and you can often get out of the mind\nwhat is learned mechanically by that surgical operation known as the\nexamination.\nThe removal of the bullet leaves the human body in better\ncondition than before; the examination sometimes rids the mind of much\nuseless stuff, which is fortunately dropped as soon as the examination is\nended ; often, however, the examination only serves to fix the useless stuff\n\nso deeply that it can never be eliminated or forgotten.\n\n‘Of all the exer-\n\ncises of the school,” says Fitch, “‘ there is none which has so little heart in\n\nit as learning by heart.” “To know by heart,” says Montaigue, “is not to\nknow at all.”\nPlato, indeed, expresses the same thought when in the “ Protagoras”’\nhe says that knowledge is the food of the mind.\nFood is not assimilated\nas soon as it is swallowed.\nIt must be transformed into something else,\notherwise indigestion is the result.\nAs long as the mind simply holds a\ntruth in the exact form in which it was given by the teacher or learned\nfrom a book, so long it resembles the food which, instead of being transformed into chyme and chyle and blood, remains unchanged in the\nstomach, causing the multitudinous ills of indigestion and dyspepsia.\nSo important is this transformation of knowledge that I venture to\nrecall to your minds a favorite illustration of Gough.\nA crying child was\n‘disturbing the slumbers of every passenger ina sleeping car. A gruff\nminer from the far West, whose patience had* been exhausted, at length\nexclaimed : “I would like to know where that child’s mother is!” The\nperson in charge of the child replied: “In the baggage car in a coffin.”\nThe information communicated in those few words was immediately\nchanged into sympathy.\nThere was not another word of complaint\nthroughout the journey.\nIn the case of the old miner it was further\ntransformed into will, into purpose, for ere long he got up from his berth\nand began to carry the child to and fro, doing his best to make it contented with the strange surroundings.\nIf the lessons of the Old Testament history which are imparted in the Sabbath school remain in the\nmemory in the exact form in which they were given, and do not pass over\ninto action, conduct, and daily life, the teacher has failed in spite of all\nthe answers which the quarterly review may elicit from the class. If the\nlessons in United States history are not transformed into the sentiment of\npatriotism ; if they do not pass into a purpose to live, yea, to die for one’s\ncountry; if they remain a mere tissue of dates and names, and stories of\nbattles and court intrigue—then the lessons in history have not been\nproperly assimilated, the teacher has failed in spite of all the high marks\nwhich his pupils may have made at the annual examination.\nThis, I take\nit, is what Mr. Hailmann means when he says, “‘from experience, through\nthought, to action.”\n“Except the grain of wheat fall into the ground and die, it abideth\n\n"}
{"page": 222, "printed_page": null, "text": "212\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nalone; but if it die it bringeth forth much fruit.” The ideas which lodge\nin the mind must perish in their original form before there can bea harIf an audience can give a\nvest of thought and sentiment and purpose.\nit is not proof positive\noutline,\nlogical\nin\neven\nor\nword,\nfor\nword\ndiscourse\nthat the preacher\n\nStill less is it evidence of success if\n\nhas succeeded.\n\nthey speak of his rhetoric, his delivery, his profundity of thought, or his\n\nThe flock has been properly fed only when the\nbrilliant metaphors.\nideas of the discourse have been transformed into a harvest of thought,\nsentiment, and purpose, and thus have made themselves felt in the life\nand conduct of the audience.\nHere, indeed, we strike the most important phase of the assimilation of knowledge and spiritual truth. The\nfood\n\nis not\n\nmerely\n\ntransformed\n\ninto\n\nchyme, chyle, and\n\nblood;\n\nbut its\n\nelements are carried to different parts of the body and assimilated as\nnerve and muscle, fiber and bone, so that the food becomes an integral\npart of the physical man.\nThe truth on which the lambs are fed is to be ©\nassimilated so as to become essence and life of the soul.\nThe knowledge\nwhich is imparted at school is not to remain as mere theory in the pupil’s\nmind ; its function is not merely to excite\n\ninto activity ; its mission has not been\n\ninterest\n\nand to stir the mind\n\naccomplished\n\nuntil it ‘has passed\n\ninto action, into conduct, into life.\n\nHere my tormentor interrupted me by asking: ‘‘ Do you mean to banish all memorizing from the schoolroom?”\n‘ By no means,” I replied;\n“you must not press a figure of speech until it squeals.”\nMany of the\nwords of thought and faith and hope and love and phrases that are\nemployed in describing the higher life are derived from the world of\nsense and sight, and are figures of speech based upon the relations of\nthings in the physical world.\nIt is possible to push these metaphorical\nexpressions until they convey half-truths or even untruths. In one respect\nknowledge differs from food.\nFood which has been swallowed cannot\nremain in the stomach unchanged for a long time without causing indigestion.\nOn the other hand, a bit of jeweled eloquence, a statement of\ntruth in the form of a definition which marks, perhaps, a triumph of intellect, a gem of thought or sentiment which is valuable by reason of the\nform in which it is expressed or enshrined, may with advantage be treasured in the mind; and it may take years before it is fully understood,\nappreciated, and made an organic part of the mental life of the pupil.\nThe lambs are found in flocks.\n‘The gregarious instinct is an adumbration of the socialelement in man.\n\nInstruction must bear fruit, as the\n\nreport asserts, not merely in the life of the individual, but also in the life\nof society, of the state, of the church, of the race.\n\nFroebel\n\nrefused\n\nto\n\ntake charge of the education of the son of his sovereign, the grand duke,\nbecause the young prince was to be educated apart from other children.\nBenjamin Franklin hinted at this difficulty when, in giving matrimonial\n\n"}
{"page": 223, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nMETHODS\n\nAND\n\nCOURSES\n\nOF\n\nWORK\n\n203\n\nadvice, he said: ‘‘ Young man, beware of only daughters.”\nThe growing\nyouth needs the educative influence of daily contact with companions of\nnearly the same age both in the home and in the school.\nThe committee\ndeserves our gratitude for emphasizing this phase of education.\nAt this point the bell rang. The primary teacher departed ; and I felt as\nif Thad madea valiant defense of Mr. Hailmann’s position, even though I had\nnot fully clarified to myself and my friend the entire content of the report.\nOne suggestion, before I close.\nThe paper assumes that data are to be\ncollected for the purpose of determining methods and courses of work in\nprimary schools which tend to promote a vital connection between school\nstudies and educational development.\nWho is sufficient for this task?\nWhat was the test which the Great Teacher applied to Simon Peter?\n“Simon, son-of\n\nJonas, lovest thou me more than these ?””. Did\n\nhe mean,\n\n“‘lovest thou me more than thou lovest these, the other disciples ?”” That\nsort of jealousy never found a place in the heart of the Great Teacher,\nand wherever it exists it unfits the individual for pedagogic work. Did he\nmean, as Luther translated the passage, ‘‘ Simon, son of Jonas, lovest thou\n\nme more than these love me ?”’ Musta teacher be pre-eminent above his\nfellows, say as a professor in some favorably situated university, before he\ncan undertake to collect the required data.\nIf Luther’s interpretation be\ncorrect, the Lord meant to teach Peter a lesson of humility.\nUniversity\npride is perhaps as great a hindrance to success in work of this kind as\nany obstacle which can be named.\nThere is a third interpretation possible, which Dr. Higbee claimed was better than either of the others. The\nword translated “these” may refer in the original, asin English, to things,\nas well as persons. “Simon, son of Jonas, lovest thou me more than these\nthings, these fishing tackle, this occupation of fishing which puts sheckels\ninto your pocket and gives you standing inthe world *” If in the collection of data you have in view your chair in the university, or your reputation for scholarship and original research, or the preparation of an article\nfor a magazine, or the discovery of something novel which shall draw\nattention to yourself, then you lack the qualification for this kind of work\nand, in fact, for teaching in all its\n\nforms and\n\nphases.\n\nThe\n\nquestion to\n\nSimon Peter is twice repeated, though with the omission of the comparison.\n“Simon, son of Jonas, lovest thou me?”\n“Yea, Lord, thou\n\nknowest that I love thee.’ ‘Feed my sheep.” So close is the relation\nbetween the Great Shepherd and his flock that the supreme affection which\nHe claims for himself passes over to the lambs and the sheep of his flock,\ninsomuch that whatever is done unto the least of his brethren He accepts\nas done unto himself. When the data are collected for the sake of childhood, when the interests of self are\n\nsubordinated\n\nto the interests of the\n\nlittle ones in the primary school, then and only then may\n\nvaluable results from this particular kind of child study.\n\nwe hope for\n\n"}
{"page": 224, "printed_page": null, "text": "214\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nNATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nDISCUSSION.\nDr. Epwarp R. SHAW, New York University School of Pedagogy.—The report of this\nIf I have been able to analyze the\ncommittee emphasizes the higher aim of the school.\nidea of beginning with play\nFroebelian\nthe\nFirst,\nideas:\ntwo\nreport correctly, it embodies\nIn other\nand passing from this, through purposeful effort, to productive, creative work.\nwords, the report lays stress upon the necessity of the self-directed activity of the pupil\nin every exercise which the school imposes upon him.\nTo-evoke self-effort on the part of the pupil is the highest achievement of all method.\nThe reason for this lies in the fact that many more phases of will are thus developed, and\ngreater mobility is given to each series of ideas which the teacher seeks to develop in the\nchild’s mind, and greater power given to the manifold interconnection of these ideas.\nThe whole content of the mind is more easily directed or brought to bear upon the solution of any question presented, or upon the acquisition of new knowledge, when the\nself-effort of the pupil is evoked in fullest measure by the teacher. It is through selfeffort that the child makes the most intelligent, the quickest, and the surest progress. It\nis difficult, we must admit, to evoke in teaching this self-effort of the pupil. But in the\ndegree in which a teacher is able to do this, in that degree is teaching easier, more efficient,\nand its results more abiding.\nThe importance, then, which this report attaches to the\nvalue and the necessity of the self-directed activity of the pupil in acquiring such an\neducation as our schools may give is a point which all engaged in the work of education\nmust concede, and a point which cannot be too strongly or too often forced upon the\nattention of teachers.\nThe main second idea of this report is that of social co-operation on the part of the\nchildren in all their exercises, in order to develop in them a higher regard for altruistic\nends and the sinking of selfish considerations in this desire and effort for the common\ngood.\n\nTo this idea, also, we\n\nmust\n\ngive our hearty assent;\n\nbut, at the same\n\ntime, we\n\ncannot refrain from questioning whether this second aim which the report places before\nus is full enough—whether there is not another point which the report should have\nprovided for. We may question whether the report does not lay too much stress upon\nsinking the individual for the sake of the end of practical good will and benevolence\ntowards all, and does not fail to lay stress upon individual ideals—how these may be\nformed— and the self-realization of these ideals.\n:\nThe main aim of the report is admirable, and the time has come for turning the attention\nof all who superintend, supervise, and teach our schools to the fact that the schools, besides\n\ngiving intellectual development, should have a higher aim than this—an aim transcending\nthat of mere intellectual equipment, namely, a truly moral aim. The Herbartian movement in this country, to which we are indebted not only for much clearer light, but also,\nI must say in passing, for no little confusion, has called attention especially to the ethical\naim of the school; it has brought into the professional consciousness of American teachers\na higher ideal, in that it has urged that the ethical ideal of the school is the highest one.\nWith this idea now taking root, this report is most timely in calling further attention to\nthe idea and seeking to give it a firmer hold in the consciousness of the teachers of this\nland.\nThe purpose, then, of the report and its presentation before this department is\nadmirable and timely, and could it be made to emphasize more strongly how, alongside of\naltruistic, practical good will and\n\nbenevolence, individual ideals may be formed and these\n\nideals realized in the self of each youth, I could give it my strongest commendation.\n\nI\ndoubt not but that the committee will see this, and if the matter is carried further by this\n\n"}
{"page": 225, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nMETHODS\n\nAND\n\nCOURSES\n\nOF\n\nWORK\n\n215\n\ndepartment, attention will be given to this point —the implanting of high ideals and their\nself-realization.\nBut to that part of the report which deals with the collection of data I do not find\nit so easy to assent.\n\nWe have here a scheme or stupendous plan proposed for the collec-\n\ntion of data, and, frankly, I must say that I cannot see how this collection of data is to be\n\naccomplished.\nDoes the committee intend that the proposed commission shall print the\ndata it collects in a large volume for circulation ? Would it be a volume of 300°or 400 or\n500 or more pages?\nThis is a very large undertaking, and I do not see how it can be\nBut suppose the commission should collect large quantities of data and\naccomplished.\nissue them in a volume, is this the best means that can be used to lead teachers to appreciate the great aim which the report emphasizes ? Such a mass of data, consisting largely\nof descriptions of class work and typical samples of children’s work, would be, I believe,\nconfusing and misleading to teachers; they would be unable from its perusal to derive\nthe general principles inhering in those data. It may be replied that this is concrete\npresentation, and that out of this concrete present@tion the abstract generalizations will\ngrow.\nTo my mind the educational principle, namely, “the concrete before the abstract,\nor, the surest way to the abstract is by means of the concrete,” breaks down at this point.\nSuch a collection of data would, I believe, lead to a great deal of rote work and imitation\n\non the part of the teachers, and because of this mass of confusing detail they would fail\nto see the larger problem which it was the intention of the collectors of the data to place\nbefore them; it would lead to narrower work and would not prove the stimulus intended.\nI do not believe, then, that the stimulus\n\ntowards the realization of the higher aim of the\n\nschool can be imparted by a collection of data. If we could have a commission that would\nformulate clearly this higher ethical aim of the school, a commission that would go over\nthe whole\n\nground philosophically and state in clear and\n\ncogent language\n\nthe general\n\nguiding principles to be followed in making the work of the school ethical, in the end\nmuch more would be accomplished than by placing before teachers of the country a collation of data. The statement of these principles would point the way and give each teacher\nthe greatest freedom to work out in an individual manner the means to be employed with\neach class and with each school. This end is to be attained, not by following the specific\nexercises of any teacher, but it must be an outgrowth of the spirit and aspiration on the\nThe end, then,\npart of the teacher who has become thoroughly imbued with these ideals.\nis to be achieved, I believe, through that large spiritual stimulus that would call forth\nthrough liberty and inspiration the best that every teacher could devise. In achieving such\nan end the letter killeth, but the spirit giveth life.\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nC. F. CARROLL, Worcester, Mass.—We\n\nhave not yet reached the\n\nbottom of the whole matter.\nThe report of the Committee of Ten was very valuable and\nhelpful, but did not go far enough.\nThe report of the Committee of Fifteen came along\nin its time, but it also did not go far enough. What we need isa report which will get down\nto the actual practice of the schoolroom in the everyday application of well-known pedagogic principles; in these the opinion of women teachers will be most valuable and\nhelpful. It seems to me that a series of reports of classes actually heard in the school and\nillustrating the proper application of correct principles would be invaluable to the profession. The volume might take 500 pages, but what matters that? The plan proposed is\na good one, and should result in a great deal of good.\n\nDr. E. E. Wuite, Columbus; O.—I desire to call attention to some necessary limitations of the principles announced in Dr. Hailmann’s paper. Thought should not always be\ncarried into achievement; it is not always possible, and it is not always desirable that it\nshould be so. There is a great value in pure thinking unconnected with any efforts at\nIf we should attempt to make actual, visible, and tangible all the thoughts\nachievement.\n\n"}
{"page": 226, "printed_page": null, "text": "2 16\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nthat men think, we would find ourselves involved in much futile, uninteresting, and unnecessary work.\n\nIt occurs to me that just now we need a study of “mztation as well as a study of\nOur courses of study have been the subject of enlargement and extension,\ngeneralization.\nuntil now they have assumed enormous proportions. It is high time that abridgment should\n\nbegin, and a reaction is steadily setting that way. We must not lose sight of the fact that\nintellectual power is the result of pure intellectual gymnastics, and that there is great\nAll literature of the highest order, such as the drama\neducational value in pure thinking.\nand ethics, and all speculative-science of a metaphysical kind are in the domain of pure\nthought.\nWe do not deny the value of what Dr. Hailmann has said, and there is great\nvalue in having each thought worked out practically, as far as it is possible to work it out.\nThat\n\nchought is correct, and\n\nI do not\n\ndeny it; but I wish to set over\n\nagainst it another\n\nthought, which is to the effect that at times thoughts are valuable for themselves — pure\nspeculation has its advantage.\n\nDr. WILLIAM T. Harris insisted that the object of our study should be for the unity\nof principles, and that we should leave the detail of the methods of working out these\nprinciples to the teachers in the various schools. One teacher may have one way of doing\nit, and another teacher a different way, and yet both may be right. A principle may be\none, but its application may result in an infinite number of details. If we should attempt to\ncollect reliable data for illustration, it would take many volumes for even one large city,\nand after they were collected it would be too voluminous for anybody to read.\nThe line\nof vitality leads us to principles. What we want to dois to get the profession alive and\nvitalized by a complete appreciation of essential principle.\nIf that be done, the actual\ndetail need not concern us.\nWhen the Master asked Peter the question, ‘ Lovest thou me more than these ?” he\nmeant to inquire if the apostle loved him more than he loved these details of fish-hooks,\nnets, and preparations for feeding.\nThe object of the inquiry was to lead him away\nfrom the minutize and into the great principle of loving children and saving men.\nDr. Har_Many, in closing the discussion, protested against the ignoring ot the small\n\naffairs of our work. The infinitely great is built upon the infinitely small; everything is\nrelative and depends on how we look at it. There is no difference in the eyes of Him\nwho made everything, whether it be infinitely small or infinitely great. Principles are\nessential, are important, but it is the practice of those principles that we must attend to.\nSome men are capable of pure thinking who are not capable of pure living. Some superintendents will think accurately on pedagogical subjects whose schools, if investigated,\nwill show nothing but mechanical work.\nWhat we want to see is that these principles\nare carried out in the daily work of the schoolroom.\nWhat is the use of having principles\nif they are not put into practice? Dr. Harris and I are viewing this subject from different\nstandpoints.\nHe wishes to theorize about it continually, trusting to teachers themselves\nto absorb his theory and put it into practice. What I wish to do is to say as little as possible about the theory, but to see that the work is done right in the grades.\nAchievement means also thought and means also aspiration. There is in my mind\n\nno doubt about the fact that a thought uttered is an achievement; a book written is an\nachievement.\nWhatever men have done in the realm of pure thought may still be classed\nas among the practical results of life. When. pure thought is expended in mere empty\nsound and has no meaning and no value and contains no truth, then it is to be condemned.\nWhen it results in self-adulation it is worse.\nBut pure thought should result in pure life\nand nobler aspirations.\nFinally, we contend for an independent, American school, utterly divorced from any\n\ndeas of Froebel and Herbart.\n\nWe do not want a Froebelian nor a Herbartian school\n\n"}
{"page": 227, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nPROVINCE\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nSUPERVISOR\n\n217\n\nsystem, but an American school system. America has the character and the independence\nto have an independent system of schools, and it is high time we abandon any idea of\nmodeling ourselves upon any other country.\n\nTHE\n\nBY\n\nL,\n\nPROVINCE\n\nH. JONES,\n\nOF\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nTHE\n\nOF\n\nSUPERVISOR.\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nCLEVELAND,\n\nO.\n\nThere are two parties to the process of supervision of schools-——the\nsupervisor and the supervised.\nI treat the subject from the standpoint of\nthe supervisor.\nYou will then hear from the other side.\nIt is well that\nthe supervisor should speak the first word.\nHe usually fares badly when\nthe other party secures the floor. But I am to speak of the province of\n\nthe supervisor.\nI treat at first of certainties, leaving disputed territory for\nlater consideration.\nIt is proper to say in the beginning that I do not mean that any one\nsupervisor will at any one time do all the things I mention; but that these\nthings are within his province, and necessary, as things go, to the best\nschools.\nI. The supervisor should\n\nset the standard of work, z. e., should\n\nteach\n\nhis teachers what is justly called successful work —a degree of success\nwhich will satisfy reasonable expectations, above which the teacher may\ngo as he wishes to excel, and below which he may fall only at his peril.\nThis work has four prominent methods, all of which are required for the\nfull accomplishment of the work.\nThe most important one is that of\ntesting pupils through written examinations presented by the supervisor,\nwithout notice to either teachers or pupils.\nThe questions for these tests\nshould be prepared with the utmost care, and made to cover the portion\nof the work upon which a judgment is desired.\nIt is necessary to have a\ncare as to the kind of question that is to be put forward when it is desired\nto set up a standard of teaching.\nThe questions should require an application of knowledge rather than its reproduction by memory, since their\ncharacter in this respect will determine, to a great extent, the trend of\nfuture effort by the teacher.\n1. The answer papers written by pupils in response to these questions\nshould be carefully studied by the teacher, but not percented.\nThe desire\nof the teacher to place the results of his teaching in figures should not\nbe encouraged.\nPercenting papers always tends to exalt non-essentials\nbeyond their deserts, and to obscure the less obvious, but more important,\n\nelements of real progress in study and recitation.\n\nWhen\n\nthe teacher has\n\nfamiliarized himself with the contents of the papers, the supervisor should\n\n"}
{"page": 228, "printed_page": null, "text": "218\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\n‘Then the two should confer in a spirit of friendliness, but\ndo the same.\nwith the hope of coming to a conclusion, with reference to the results,\nwhich shall be of future value.\nTo secure the full benefit from such a\nconference there must be absolute frankness and earnestness by both\nparties. All successes must be fairly noted, all failures frankly admitted,\nThen judgment must\nand all mitigating circumstances fully considered.\nbe rendered; and the teacher must understand that the standard applied\nis an expression of the superintendent’s best judgment and intended as a\nguide for future effort.\nSuch a test should come neither at the beginning\nnor the close of a term or a year, but so soon after the beginning as a\nsufficient amount of work has been done to afford an adequate field for\ntesting. The teacher then has an opportunity to profit by such standard\nfor the correction of errors, the supplying of deficiencies, and the general\nimprovement of the work.\nAfterward such tests as are needed in connection with promotion of pupils can be given, but these should not be\nconfused with those referred to above.\n2. The second movement in the matter of setting up standards is the\noral test. This should be given after the written one and should cover\nthe same ground.\nThe questions should be less formal than the written —\nones, and the superintendent, in conducting the test, should be on terms\n\nof good comradeship with the pupils.\nPupils should be encouraged to\nenlarge upon the questions given and express as fully as possible the more\nliberal phases of the teacher’s work, which cannot be so easily reached by\nthe more rigid requirements of written test.\nMany excellences of good\nteaching will manifest themselves in this way, and by contrast failures\nstand out in emphatic prominence.\n‘The teacher should study the work\nwhile in operation and confer with the superintendent about it afterward.\n3. The third is the observation by the superintendent of the actual\nteaching which the teacher does. For this purpose he should make his\npersonality as completely non-effective as possible, allowing the conditions\nin the school to be as nearly as may be what they would be without his\npresence.\nA conference should follow, in which a judgment is pro-\n\nnounced upon the work.\nThe teacher here should be thrown upon the\ndefensive, in that he should be held for a reason for each step of the\nprocess.; and he should be held to show how the principles of education\nare fully vindicated by tangible results.\nPurposelessness in teaching\nshould meet with no encouragement; but native grace and capability\nshould, like beauty, be accepted\n\nas their own reason for being, when\n\nthe\n\nresults are present and incontestable.\n4. The last exercise in this list is that of model teaching by the superintendent. This should be done in the presence of the teacher and under\nas nearly as may be the limitations which the teacher is required to\nobserve.\nA superintendent should never lose the touch with child mind\n\n"}
{"page": 229, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nPROVINCE\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nSUPERVISOR\n\n219\n\nwhich comes only by teaching children themselves.\nHis counsel will be\nmore eagerly sought and more zealously followed by his teachers if he\ncan teach better than they in their own schcolrooms.\nIndeed, whether\nhe can do so or not, a general confidence in his honesty of purpose will\nbe developed by his willingness to subject himself to criticism on an equal\nfooting, vzz., simple merit.\n\nIl. The superintendent or supervisor should create for his teachers\nideals of possible attainment in the different provinces of educational\nwork.\nThis is a work distinctively different in kind from the setting-up\nof standards of work to be immediately realized under existing conditions.\nStandards are authoritative. They should be accompanied by the\ndemand for their immediate and unconditional realization. Ideals should\ndraw by their own attraction.\nThe disturbance which they create is that\ndivine discontent which always has in it an element of hopefulness.\nTo\nhave this element of hopefulness in them, ideals must be founded on the\n‘actual.\nIn order to be full of inspiration, they must transcend what now\nis. Two steps of the procedure are here made plain. It is necessary to\nmake the actional seem rational, and the best seem possible.\nIn many\ninstances ideals are so constructed as to make the corresponding actual\nseem so meager by contrast as to excite little hope and no enthusiasm.\nA wise superintendent will take care to find instances of work in which\nthe methods and results can be shown to have the direct relation of cause\nand effect. The special elements in the methods which are causes of the\nbest in the results may be detached from their encumbering incidents\nand made to stand out glorified in the white light of reason. It is a great\nservice to teachers to show them wherein what they have been accustomed\nto do is the result, after all, of rational effort, though they may have been\nunconscious of its full import at the moment of its doing.\n‘Teachers are\nmore able and willing to begin to study for improvement after they have\nbeen assured that change does not necessarily mean revolution.\nBut it is in the sphere of ideals that the influence of the supervisor, if\nhe be capable, is of supremest worth.\nIdeals of education must be developed in the minds of teachers, so as to inspire to highest and noblest effort.\nThese ideals must express the hope of the future and cast such radiance over the plain path of common teaching as shall make it seem the\nvery way of salvation to pupils and teachers alike.\nTeaching is a thing\nthat cannot be well done for money.\nThe good teacher earns a higher\nsalary than he usually receives, and he should be better paid. He can\nteach better by reason of being better paid; but he must have a higher\nmotive than mere money before he can really earn the higher salary of\nTo be of highest worth he must have the noblest\nwhich he is capable.\nconception of the nature and worth of the work he is trying to do. This\n\nconception or ideal, when it is sufficiently noble, will of itself develop the\n\n"}
{"page": 230, "printed_page": null, "text": "220\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nI\nenthusiasm and consecration necessary to the most efficient teaching.\ntoo\nis\nthat\ngained\nbe\nwill\neducation\nof\nconception\na\nscarcely ever fear that\nhigh, too strenuous, or so high that it cannot be to some considerable\nextent realized. I have occasionally seen a teacher, with an elevated notion\nof his work, unable to realize his ideal from failure to understand the\n\nAt one time in my own experience I\nrationale of its accomplishment.\nheld an ideal of teaching so far above my own power to actualize that I\nBut I chanced to see a young lady teaching a school\ngrew despondent.\nin a little\n\nframe\n\nschoolhouse\n\non North Third\n\nstreet, Richmond.\n\nEver\n\nafter I knew that my ideal was too low; and I must yet study the means\nby which the tension between the ideal and the real could cease by their\nperfect blending. No doubt the highest ideals are never realized; but the\ngreatness of work is nevertheless produced by the presence of the ideal\nwhich lies unrealized within it.\nIt is told of Leonardo da Vinci that, while painting “‘The Last Supper” in the little chapel at Milan, he had little difficulty in painting his\nideal of each face till he came to that of the Christ.\nHere he pondered\nlong, and, when challenged for the reason of his delay, said that, though\n\nhe had a perfect ideal cf the ineffable grace and beauty which should play\nupon the divine-human face, he had not yet discovered the particular\nmixing of the paints and the special disposal of light and shade which\nwould produce this effect.\nHe found it easy to find suggestions for the\nother faces—even for that of Judas. In like manner we have always about\nus examples of poor work; but we wait long for suggestions for the highest and best. Art critics say that the picture was never completed, and\nthat there are some unfinished touches on the face of the Master.\nBut\nthe greatness of the picture is due to the very imagination which here\nalmost passed beyond the sphere of actualization. I am never afraid that\nthe greatness of work in teaching will suffer from too high an ideal, provided that the conception is honest.\nIndeed, precisely here are the\nhighest province and the greatest privilege of the supervisor.\nOne can\neasily set a standard of what must be done; but one can set no limits to\nwhat may be accomplished.\nThe ideal of education is never a fixed\nquantity. The terms “good” and “poor,” as applied to school work, are\nrelative.\nOne degree is good till a better is thought, when, without any\nessential change in itself, it quietly glides into the other class. The teaching act is never itself a fixed fact; it ebbs and flows as life itself recedes\nor abounds.\nBeing a spiritual process, only spiritual forces serve.\nHigh\nideals so re-enforce spiritual powers that they give virility and impressiveness to the teaching act as nothing else can do. A true teacher who does\nnot aspire is inconceivable.\nThe instinct for right mental processes, that\nteaches us to know what questions to ask, what suggestions to make, what\nillustrations to use; which suits the action\n\nto the word, and the word\n\nto\n\n"}
{"page": 231, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nPROVINCE\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nSUPERVISOR\n\n221\n\nthe theme; which directs every movement through the multitudinous subprocesses of the successive steps of a long lesson—is rarely directed by a\nIt is rather the halfclearly conscious rationale of every movement.\nconscious movement of a mind possessed by its ideas and impelled by a\ngreat love and a great hope.\nThe light in which the spirit finds its way\nin guidance of the youthful mind through the maze never shines from the\nrear, but is rather\n\na reflection\n\ncast\n\nback\n\nfrom\n\nan\n\never\n\nforward\n\nmoving\n\nideal, which attracts while it lights the way.\nThe whole philosophy of\neducation should be involved in the act of teaching, because it should be\nwrought into the ideal by careful and prepared study; but the zmmediate\nguidance is something higher than reason, suffusing the glow of the\nrainbow over all, but holding everything as sternly in order as if it were\nheld in the grasp of destiny.\nIndeed, it is destiny, divinely and clearly\nHe who can inspire his\nunderstood, that guides the best teaching.\nteachers to place themselves under this influence of the highest and best,\nand hold themselves there of choice, has solved the problem of securing\ngood teaching.\nThere is no need to grow discouraged if ideals are not\nalways reached in daily practice; they tend to realize themselves, and\neach day’s earnest effort but brings the good time nearer.\nBrowning says:\nThe high that proved too high, the heroic for earth too hard,\nThe passion that left the ground to lose itself in the sky,\nAre music sent up to God, by the lover and the bard;\nEnough that He heard it once;\n\nwe shall hear it by and by.\n\nThe topics that should be studied by a superintendent with his teachers\nare as wide in range as the subject of education itself; and they are as\nnumerous as its subdivisions.\nNot alone the professional subjects of\npsychology, child study, and methodology should be studied; but the\nstudies must be pushed into kindred matters of art, literature, and science.\nAbove all, the relation of school education to that given by business and\nthe various institutions which co-operate with or succeed school life should\nbe studied.\nSchool must be seen to be a legitimate part, but not the whole,\nof child life—especially it must be seen to be life itself. The child should\nnot be led to consider himself so much as preparing to live, as he should\nbe led to live and through living prepare to live better. A part of the\nweariness and drudgery of teaching is removed when the teacher finds that\nlegitimate living with her pupils is a considerable part of her daily task.\nIf the superintendent can come to be the acknowledged leader in such\nbroad consideration of the subject of education, he will have done much\nto enlarge the horizon of his teachers and to assist them to form liberal\nSuch work must be carried on side by\nand hopeful ideals of their work.\nside with practical studies as to how’to realize these ideals in school work.\nThere are at least two forms of this study that are indispensable to a right.\n\n"}
{"page": 232, "printed_page": null, "text": "222\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nsupervision of schools: (1) Joint study by superintendent and teachers of\nthe pupils’ mental processes and results while they are being taught by\nthe teacher ; (2) practical teaching by the superintendent in the presence\nof the teacher, under\n\nthe limitations\n\nof time\n\nunder\n\nwhich the teacher\n\nis\n\n‘These call for but brief treatment.\naccustomed to teach.\nI have no disposition to undervalue the kind of child study carried\nThese studies are an essential part of the progress\non by specialists.\nof\n\nthe\n\nprofession;\n\nand\n\nthe\n\ngeneralizations,\n\nwhen\n\nfinally\n\nformulated\n\nand established, will constitute a valuable body of pedagogical doctrine.\nBut the larger share of it is of such far-away character, of such\ntechnical nature, as to be unprofitable for the average teacher to carry on\nAll experiments which must have a special\nas part of her school work.\npreparation in order to produce the conditions necessary for their study\ntake on a more or less artificial character.\nAt least I am convinced that\nno other child study is half so valuable to a teacher as that sympathetic\nstudy which an intelligent teacher can make of the members of her own\nschool, as she is engaged in the regular teaching processes of the day,\nIt is espeunder the ordinary conditions and forms of the recitation.\ncially proper for the superintendent or supervisor to assist in this work.\nThe teacher frequently does not know how to begin, or how to make the\nprocess most profitable. To obtain the best results there must be unity\nof purpose between supervisor and teacher, vzz., study for improvement,\nThe superwith as much as possible of the personal equation eliminated.\nintendent should remain a quiet, though intensely attentive, spectator of\nHe should then spend a little time in remembering the\nthe recitation.\ndifferent occurrences which constituted the process of the recitation, preparatory to a consultation at the close of the school day. At this conference the philosophy of these occurrences should be carefully expounded\nThe significant occurrences only of the recitation should\nand applied.\nbe dwelt upon; the illustration of characteristic mental actions noted in\nthe work of both teacher and pupils should be noticed and explained.\nThe psychological and pedagogical principles underlying every significant\nmovement of mind in either pupils or teacher should receive attention.©\nWhile the superintendent should hold himself responsible for explaining\nand applying principles to these instances of mental action involved in\nthe correct and incorrect answers of pupils, and the correct and incorrect\nprocesses of the teaching act, the teacher should be held to justify every\nform employed by him in instruction and management.\nThe whole\nshould be a friendly contest, wholly separated from those conferences in\nwhich a superintendent must sometimes find fault whith an incompetent\nor neglectful teacher.\nTo make a very brief illustration, I will recount a\nsingle incident which occurred in my own experience a few days ago.\nI entered a third-grade room as the recitation in number was in progress.\n\n"}
{"page": 233, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nPROVINCE\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nSUPERVISOR\n\n223\n\nThe teacher was one of two years’ experien\n— strongly\nce grounded in her\nfaith in forms, brought about by her rather recent normal-school training.\nShe began with a series*of mental\nShe was teaching a number lesson.\nThe pupil addressed said 24.\nproblems based on the tables: 4 X 6?\nThe teacher said “And 7?”\nThe pupil, using 24 as one term and “and\n7” as the other factor, merely said “31.”\nThe teacher said ‘“ One-half\noltre\nthe pupil, “1532.\nThe teacher, “And 6342 pupil, “22.”\nTeacher, “ Divide by 11,” etc., etc. Three long series identical as to general\nmethod were given in succession. Pupils had grown listless, paying attention to answers only.\nEvery problem given required the answer to be\nused as the basis of the next process.\nThe fourth series began with\nEvery child mentally seized 12\nA pupil answered “12.”\n“4 times 3?”\nWithout any evident intenand held it as the basis of the next problem.\ntion on her part, the teacher gave as the next problem “3 times 4?”\nwithout the slightest indication of contrast through intonation.\nThe boy\nwas dumbfounded ; not because he did not know the product of 3 times 4,\n\nbut because he could not exactly see how to perform the process of\n3 times 4 upon 12, which had been the previous answer, and which, by\nthe form of the exercises which had preceded it, he had been led to expect\nThe teacher told him it\nmust be used.\nHe stood without answering.\nwas easy, asked him to hurry, and did many other things which a nervous\nteacher will do under such circumstances, and finally, in order to help him\nstill more, said to him, “Just turn them around,” referring to the reversed\n\norder of the factors as compared with those of the previous problem.\nthe only thing\n\nthe\n\nboy had\n\nin mind was\n\n12; so he turned\n\nBut\n\nthe figures\n\naround and blandly answered 21. ‘The explanation of how that boy came\nto answer 21 was one of the most valuable lessons in psychology and\nmethodology that this teacher ever had.\nIn this way it is possible to study with teachers the real meaning,\ntogether with the common abuses, of those forms of work commonly .\ncalled methods.\nHaving its foundation in the real work of the recitation,\nwhen the teacher is presumably doing his best, the whole study has a\npractical bearing very helpful to teachers; and it is free from the generality and abstractness of text-book work in psychology and methods on\nthe one hand, and\n\nthe artificiality of experimentation\n\non the other.\n\nIn\n\npreparing for such work I would never seek to lay down conditions favorable to experimentation, but rather to lay down conditions which will\n‘The only experimentation allowable is that which\nsecure good teaching.\nwhile the best possible work is being accomincidentally,\ncan be done\nshould not limit his work to this kind of study.\nsupervisor\nthe\nplished. But\nHe should teach the\nshould be made.\nwork\nown\nhis\nof\nA similar study\nvery best teaching\nthe\ndoing\nteacher,\nthe\nof\npresence\nteacher’s class in the\naffect the regular\nwhich\nlimitations\nthe\nall\nunder\nof which he is capable,\n\n"}
{"page": 234, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n224\n\nteacher\n\nin the same\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nwork.\n\nWhen\n\nthe\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nwork\n\nhas\n\nbeen\n\n[Indianapolis\n\ndone, the\n\nsame\n\ncareful analysis should be made of it as was recommended for that of the\nteacher. .A searching criticism should be made upon the work of the\nsupervisor\n\nhimself, extenuating\n\nno\n\nfault, and\n\nmagnifying\n\nno merit;\n\nbut\n\ncalmly and discriminatingly examining it as a work of art. When the\nsupervisor has done the best he could, let him stand or fall in the esti‘The advantages of this teaching\nmation of the teacher by his own work.\nside by side with the teacher are incalculable, many of them being in the\ninterest of the supervisor himself.\nThe close and constant contact with\nactual children, under\n\nactual\n\nconditions, keeps\n\nthe supervisor’s mind\n\nin\n\na sane condition as respects criticism; while the evident absence of any\nattitude of unfriendliness will operate to make the study a fruitful one to\nWhile the teacher may not reasonably be expected to be\nthe teacher.\nable to supervise, the supervisor may reasonably be expected to be able to\nteach.\nIf he will actually do so in the presence of his teachers, he will\neffectually disarm criticism of his own criticisms.\nI have touched thus inadequately upon but a few of the numerous\nduties which fall within the province of the superintendent or supervisor\nin a system of schools, larger or smaller as the case may be. It is true\nthat, if the system be small, these duties may all fall to the lot of one\nperson.\nIn a larger system there may be many supervisors, among\nwhom a division of work may be made, more or less rigorous in its\nseparations.\nSo far as may be, in my judgment, it is best for each\nsuperintendent to engage in several or all of these functions, to the end\nthat he may retain his freshness of touch and his sympathy with children.\nHe is less likely to become arbitrary in his judgments of work and of\n\nteachers.\n\n.\n\nI shall speak of but one function more.\nThis belongs to the superintendent as supervisor.\nI refer to the selection and discharge of teachers.\nHaving set the standard of work, no one else can be so competent as he\nto find the right people to do this work. A poor teacher sometimes saves\na good school by failing to be reappointed.\nNo one knows these opportunities better than the superintendent who has seen him teach and who\nhas faithfully tried to make him capable of doing the work well. Whatever other complications may grow out of the matter, I believe it essential\nto good schools that the superintendent should, either by law or by consent\nof the school board, have the selection and assignment of teachers.\nThis\ninvolves, of course, the promotion of teachers for improvement and. the\ndischarge of the incompetent.\n‘This procedure may sometimes work to\nthe end of shortening the official life of the superintendent; but even this\nwould not be an unmitigated evil in some systems. At least while he did\nremain in office he would be able to direct the work to some purpose; and\nwhen he was gone the ground would be clear for his successor.\n\n"}
{"page": 235, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSUPERVISION\n\nSUPERVISION\n\nBY\n\nAS\n\nVIEWED\n\nAS\n\nVIEWED\n\nBY\n\nSARAH\n\nL. BROOKS,\n\nST.\n\nBY\n\nTHE\n\nTHE\n\nPAUL,\n\nSUPERVISED\n\n225\n\nSUPERVISED.\n\nMINN.\n\nThe action of the superintendents in giving a place-on their programme for the consideration of a few sentiments from the supervised is\nin line with the custom of successful generals of noting, although in a\nsurreptitious way, the opinions of their soldiers concerning the day’s action\nand the plan of campaign.\nBaron Thiebault, of Napoleonic fame, says it was his custom to pass\nfrom group to group of men about the camp fires at night, to hear their\ncomments, and that he was frequently surprised at the accuracy of their\njudgments, tersely stated.\nWhether these judgments had any effect upon\nthe plan of campaign we have good reason to doubt, because Thiebault\nhimself was ‘‘a man under authority,” appreciated in the hour of necessity for his judgment and devotion, but neglected when honors were\nbestowed because pride forbade the pleading of his own cause.\nIt is, however, the teacher’s province “to reason why.”\nShe is urged\non all occasions to put thought into her work, and attempt to comprehend\nthe end as well as the beginning before undertaking a series of exercises.\nShe is not placed between the superintendent and the child simply to\ntransmit power, but to interpret and apply, in an intelligent manner, the\nplans of the one to the needs of the other.\nHer critical interpretation\nshould tend to modify the former in the degree that the richness of her\nintellectual attainments and her personality influence the latter.\nBy accepting a position in any system of schools, a teacher tacitly\naccepts a certain form of government about which, in the main, she need\nnot trouble herself.\nHer freedom lies, not in changing the existing order\nof things, but in devising ways and means of applying plans of instruction\nand methods of discipline to the development of the individual child, for\nwhom\n\nthe whole system exists.\n\nThis freedom, wisely used, will insensibly\n\nreact upon the whole plan, just as in any other department of life the best\nefforts of the individual react upon his environment for its improvement.\nThe more comprehensive and liberal the conditions under which one\nlabors, the greater the opportunity for individual progress, and the more\nIt is, therefore, important that those who\nrapid the general advancement.\ncontrol these conditions lose no opportunity of acquainting themselves\nwith the workings of the system, and with all due speed to modify the\n\nsame, when necessary, to suit conditions.\nBy viewing the matter of supervision from the standpoint of the intelligent teacher, that which seemed liberal and helpful, or necessary under\n\n"}
{"page": 236, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n226\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nthe circumstances, may be seen to have the contrary effect from the one\nintended, and a readjustment found necessary.\nThe teacher is encouraged to be critical while standing as interpreter\nbetween the child and the plan of instruction ;she is also expected to be\nBy this means she is\nable to pass judgment upon the plan as a whole.\nto the development\nsame\nthe\nable to put life into dead form, and to apply\nof the\n\nchild.\n\nTo\n\nheed\n\nthe\n\ncriticisms\n\nmade, thoughtful, shrewd,\n\nwitty,\n\nwith a mind open to conviction, is to be still “(plucking the grass to see\nwhere sits the wind.”\nFrom the mass of material at hand I have endeavored to select a few\nof these criticisms, which may be considered legitimate and worthy of the\nconsideration of the supervising force, because they have a direct bearing\nupon the efficiency of the schools.\nThe points touched, briefly stated, are dates of entrance into the\n\nkin-\n\ndergarten and first primary room, the course of study, meetings, the supervising force, and the teachers’ tenure of office.\nI. The first of these may be local, but the criticisms are of so fundamental a nature that they seemed to me to deserve mention.\nWhere admissions are made to the high school twice a year it is necessary\nto rearrange classes in the district schools at the close of the first semester.\nThis rearrangement leaves some one or more rooms without its quota of\npupils.\n\nTo fill these rooms, children are removed from the kindergartens\n\nto the primary rooms, and new pupils admitted to both places, according\nto age and conditions.\nThe weather being inclement at this season, comparatively few new pupils enter.\nA most important sequence of work is\nbroken\n\nin the kindergarten.\n\nThe kindergarten\n\nchildren\n\nenter\n\nthe new\n\nfield under circumstances detrimental to a successful beginning, because\nthey must cope with pupils who undertook the grade work five months\npreviously.\n\nNature\n\nand\n\nthe child are not in accord, so far as topics for\n\nobservation are concerned, and both pupil and teacher are placed at a\ndisadvantage.\nIn April, when the world is again new, when weather is propitious,\nand all things are in harmony, another class enters, necessitating another\nchange of classes, and a loss of much precious time to the children in the\n\nefforts at readjustment.\nBy this clumsy and illogical method certain\nclasses pass through the hands of three teachers in one year, at an age\nwhen, timid and shrinking, they need the most careful nurture.\n\nII. Comments made upon the course of study are of a more general\nnature, and have a wider, significance.\nSelection and arrangement of topics frequently prove impracticable\nbecause they lack the verification of test before adoption.\nA study of the\nwhole plan reveals a lack of unity, which should result from a continuous\nand critical consideration of the whole field of instruction by the entire\n\n"}
{"page": 237, "printed_page": null, "text": "AT\nwe\n\nSuperintendence]\n\nSUPERVISION\n\nAS\n\nVIEWED\n\nBY\n\nTHE\n\nSUPERVISED\n\n227,\n\nsupervising force.\nInstead of the one mind evident through all subjects,\nevidence too frequently points to a compilation.\nAside from this, plans\nare too vague and indefinite, and are subjéct to a variety of interpretations and applications in the various schools, individual teachers being\nfrequently a law unto themselves in the matter.\nIII. Criticisms of meetings come from great numbers of teachers,\ntouching\n\nnumber\n\nof meetings, time\n\nof meetings,\n\nand\n\nmatter\n\npresented.\n\nThe greater the number of supervisors and special teachers, the heavier\nfalls the burden of meetings, making grievous inroads upon time, strength,\nand money.\nIf the justice of this comment is doubted by anyone present,\nperhaps a term’s trial of teaching fifty children at forty-five dollars a\nmonth might convince the doubter, especially if he should reside a few\nmiles away from the school, and from the point at which meetings are\nheld.\nAsa final touch, let the meetings be held between the hours of\nfour and five, when body and soul are at the lowest ebb.\n“Still,” the faithful says, “I would not care so much for the cost in\ntime, strength, and money, if the assistance and the inspiration given were\nequal to the outlay.’’ In vain we urge that the city offers this assistance\ngratis, providing skilled instructors to furnish the same.\n‘There is something materially wrong, in spite of all this, when our best teachers give\nexpression to these sentiments.\nIV. Springing from the same root are two comments made upon the\nsupervisor or special teacher in the regular visits from school to school,\nand their remedy is the same.\n‘They say criticism is destructive and discouraging, leaving the teacher without clearer views of what should be\ndone, and too frequently without inspiration to seek a better way.\nIt is also frequently claimed that special teachers give no help outside\ntheir immediate work, and make such exactions upon time in preparation\nand upon the programme as are impossible to be granted.\n‘The last note\nof “disharmony”’ is reached when the teacher asks, “In case the principal\nobjects to this plan, whom shall we obey ?”\nV. My last topic is that of appointment and advancement of teachers,\nand the dismissal of the incompetent from service.\nPrincipals and supervisors have cause to regret the appointment of teachers to a grade without\nsufficient inquiry as to their fitness for the place, and sometimes without\nfitness for any grade. This makes special trouble in the first year’s work.\nThere is also a feeling that the probationary period should be extended\nMany faithful teachers feel\nto a greater limit than is usually assigned.\nand excellence as it should\nefforts\nupon\ndependent\nso\nthat promotion is not\nis the greatest thing in\ninfluence\nthat\nuniversal\nbe, and the inference is\nof the Unjust Judge,\nremark\nthe\nperhaps,\nthe world, recalling to mind,\ngrant the woman’s\nhe\nwould\nbelow\nthat not for fear of powers above nor\npetition, but lest she weary him.\n\n"}
{"page": 238, "printed_page": null, "text": "EDUCATIONAL\n\nNATIONAL\n\n228\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nThe perennial complaints of the inefficient are that no one tells them\nFurther comment is\nthey are failing, and no one criticises them.\n:\nunnecessary.\nA case diagnosed calls for treatment, but the physician whose diagnosis\nIt\nis excellent is not always the one whose practice is to be commended.\nof\ncauses\nexisting\nout\npoint\nto\ninstance\npresent\nthe\nin\nenough\nis easy\nSuggestions by which the same are to be remedied\nfriction and discontent.\nmay seem impracticable in many cases.\nDATES\n\nOF\n\nADMISSION.\n\nBearing in mind that the first subject of criticism was the dates of\nadmission to kindergartens and first primary rooms, there seems but one\nAdmit in September and April, when conditions are right,\nsuggestion.\nIf possible, arrange to have\nbecause nature and the child are in unison.\nthe teacher who receives in September keep her pupils through the following June, giving the April classes to-another teacher, who will give them\nThis arrangement\nover to the care of someone else the following April.\nwill save from two to three months to the child in uninterrupted progress,\nand give him time to have many habits fixed under the guidance of skilled\nteachers, before he is compelled to form the acquaintance and learn the\nways of another.\nIn the kindergarten, pupils entering in September would remain for\nthe year, as, also, those in April, provision being made for both divisions, in double sessions, as is necessary in the crowded portions of the city.\nTHE\n\nCOURSE\n\nOF\n\nSTUDY\n\nshould have three points considered in its construction, in order to reduce\nfriction to the minimum.\nIt should represent the united efforts of the\nsupervising force in council.\nThe theory of the supervisor should, in all\ngrades, be tempered by the practical suggestions of the best teachers in\nthose grades. It should embody no plan which has not been previously\ntested in the schoolroom, and for which ample arrangements have not\nbeen made to help teachers to a clear understanding of the same.\nIt\nshould be a growth from within outward, susceptible to change from year\nto year from its very vitality.\nOnce presented to the schools, it should form the basis of many meet-\n\nings, in which principles and plans are first discussed by superintendent,\nsupervisors, and principals, and then by principals and teachers.\nNew\nplans of work presented in this way would remove a source of misunderstanding between supervisors and principals, and do away with a whole\nseries of meetings at a central building. Formulated and duly discussed,\nit should be enforced equally in all schools. Without this last we leave\nanarchy,\n\nand\n\nnot\n\nsystem,\n\nand\n\nmust\n\ncontend\n\nwith\n\nthe discontents\n\nand\n\n"}
{"page": 239, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSUPERVISION\n\nAS\n\nVIEWED\n\nBY\n\nTHE\n\nSUPERVISED\n\n2209\n\njealousies aroused by unequal distribution of burdens.\n“In this case,\nwhat,” say you, “will become of the progressive and ambitious teachers\nIs there not danger of suppression and\nwith genius and originality?\nconsequent discouragement?” ‘The private citizen is restricted in nothing,\nso long as he lives within the requirements of the law; and if the law\nneeds modifying, he even has power by his force of character, by his\nSo with the teacher.\nThere is abundant\ninfluence, to change the same.\nroom for the exercise of every splendid quality in adapting the plan to\nher school; and if her experience proves something radically wrong in\nthe plan, no one will be more gratified than the superintendent to modify\nThe province of the superintendent, with his assistants, is\nconditions.\nThe general plan belongs to him.\nhere clearly indicated.\nMEETINGS.\n\nOne relief in numbers of meetings was suggested above, when it was\nrecommended that the course of study, and all new plans of work, be presented to principals first for discussion and explanation, and, later, by\nprincipals to the teachers under their charge.\nThe greatest harmony should exist between the supervising force and\ntraining school as to matter and method, and many conferences be held\nby them,\n\nin which\n\ncritic,\n\nteachers,\n\nor\n\ndirectors\n\nof practice\n\nparticipate.\n\nThus only will new teachers entering the schools be prepared to receive\nin the right spirit, and with intelligence, the criticisms and suggestions of\nsupervisors.\nThis trouble obviated, it only remains to deal with a limited\nnumber who need the help of meetings for criticisms, and the number will\ndecrease from year to year.\nThe city which entertains us is a beautiful\nexample of this harmonious arrangement, and the spirit of its schools\nreflects the wisdom of the practice.\nEach special teacher should be granted a specified time for meetings,\nvaried according to the degree of technical skill required by the teachers\nin his department, after which time meetings are to be confined to teachers needing special help, and to presenting new plans of work.\nThus,\nwith a specified portion of time devoted to the training school, sufficient\ninstruction can be imparted without regular meetings from week to week.\nBy this arrangement leisure may be afforded for meetings, general and\nclassified, in which\n\nthe mind of the teacher is lifted above\n\nthe wearisome\n\ndetails of work to the contemplation of higher things, and her desire for\nculture satisfied by the consideration of subjects in an orderly manner,\nimpossible under existing circumstances.\nTHE\n\nSUPERVISING\n\nFORCE.\n\nIt is essential to all entering upon the work of supervision to have a\nTo most people it is synonyclear notion of the province of criticism.\n\n"}
{"page": 240, "printed_page": null, "text": ",\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n230\n\nIt is a hard thing for a\nmous with fault-finding, in the disagreeable sense.\nhuman being to stand face to face with his shortcomings, and there is small\nwonder that a teacher so situated immediately begins to defend herself by\nCriticism has a nobler side, that of helpfulness and\nmaking excuses.\nus to hesitate to say to a struggling soul, “That is\nleads\nwhich\ninspiration,\nwrong,” unless we are sure we are able to suggest, “Try this better way.”\nWith this view of the work of a critic, one begins to cultivate the virtues\nof kindliness and consideration, and\n\nto cast about for means to construct\n\nnew scaffolding by which a new edifice may be constructed, before laying\nviolent hands upon the old, imperfect structure.\nTo the bitter quarter of fault-finding add one part encouragement, one\npart suggestion, and one part practical instruction. Encouragement keeps\nhope alive; suggestion stimulates the mind to new investigation; and\ninstruction supplies deficiencies in previous preparation.\nThe most sensitive must respond to this form of treatment, and complaints of criticisms\nbecome a thing of the past.\n:\nThe complaints arising from exactions of special teachers, from multiplicity of directions, and from conflicting orders, all come from one source>\nwhich is a lack of that unity of purpose through which, for the sake of\nharmonious action in the consummation\n\nof a desired end, one is willing to\n\nsubordinate self and individual plans, and to consider his work as but a\nfraction of a great whole.\n“The chief business of the superintendent is the organization and\nmanagement of the system of schools upon certain general principles.\nWhat shall be the end and aim of the system?\nWhat subjects shall be\nstudied?\nAt what stage shall they be introduced?\nIn what sequence\nshall they follow each other?\nWhat shall be the correlation of studies\n\nand methods at every period ?”\nTo\n\nsee\n\nthat these matters are carried out\n\nin detail, and\n\nhave sufficient technical\n\ninstruction to introduce\n\nto the course, his hands\n\nand his brain\n\nmust\n\nthat teachers\n\nany new subjects added\n\nreceive aid.\n\nHence\n\nthere\n\nhas been created, in recent years, a corps of men and women who are\nsupposed to labor in unison to carry out the general plan.\nBriareus\nof old had only the problem of a hundred hands to be directed by\none brain. The modern Briareus finds each new hand endowed with\nintellect and its attendant ambitions, passions, weaknesses.\n\nThe head and\n\nheart and soul of Briareus must be great enough to check, to encourage,\nto stimulate, to direct, and\n\nin all things\n\nto prove himself\n\nbut one end in view, and that the advancement\npublic schools, which\n\nare\n\na leader, with\n\nof the interests of the\n\nthe interests of the children.\n\nThus\n\nonly will\n\ndissensions cease and the source of authority be established.\nMen and\nwomen seek advancement naturally, and are eager to accept office, too\nfrequently without pausingzto consider the responsibilities of the position,\n\n"}
{"page": 241, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSUPERVISION\n\nAS\n\nVIEWED\n\nBY\n\nTHE\n\nSUPERVISED\n\nand their own powers to fulfill the obligations imposed by rank.\nwisdom, insight, justice, moderation, discretion?\n\n231\n\nHave we\n\nIf not, a burden\n\nawaits\n\nus more grievous than that which chafed the shoulders of Pilgrim, and a\nveritable Slough of Despond obstructs the way.\nAPPOINTMENT,\n\nThe\n\nlast matter, while\n\nPROMOTION,\n\nTENURE\n\nOF\n\nOFFICE.\n\nseemingly simple, is, in fact, the most complex\n\nof all. Fitness for the position should be the only test of appointment\nand promotion, and unfitness attended by dismissal.\nThe superintendent, in conference with his assistants, should\n\nbe the sole judge of fitness\n\nor unfitness.\nHow simple a case it seems!\nAnd yet the superintendent\nand the board of education, while probably desiring to be just and faithful in the discharge of these duties, are besieged, menaced, flattered, and\n\ncajoled by an army of people, who for personal, political, business, social,\nor unclassified reasons desire the appointment, promotion, or retention of\nsome\n\none\n\nor more\n\npersons, without\n\nconsideration\n\nof age, fitness, or pre-\n\nvious experience.\nIf these conditions are not complied with, off comes\nthe head and probably many of the hands of Briareus.\nTo what is the\ncountry coming when one’s plain duty is so hedged about by circumstances\nthat its discharge means official execution or nervous prostration?\nAppointments from without the city are largely ruled by examinations,\nand followed by probation, which should be clearly understood by the\nteacher and principal under whom she works, and the supervisor and\nspecial teachers immediately interested.\n\nIn confirmation, promotion, or\n\ndismissal all parties officially interested should be consulted, so that no\nroom for prejudice be given.\nCandidates from the training school should come in the order of\nexcellence presented by the principal and critic teachers, and not in the\norder of personal interests or the degree of sympathy one may have\nbeen able to arouse in some member\nother prominent person.\n\nof the board, the mayor, minister, or\n:\n\nA more trying class still remains to be considered.\n‘The applicants\nmay or may not have taught, may or may not have had previous preparation. Through financial or domestic misfortunes, influential friends make\nout a strong case in their favor, pleading their need, their qualifications;\nDuty\nbut the candidates themselves are unable to pass the examinations.\nperspective.\nthe\ndistort\nit\nseems plain, but the various lights turned upon\nWho is able to grapple with these cases in all their complexities, and who\nis willing to shoulder the responsibilities of acceptance or rejection ?\nCourage to do the right can only come from a clear understanding of the\n\nprovince of the public schools.\nEvils surrounding the dismissal of incompetent teachers can be lessened by extending the time of probation, and by preparing a list of\n\n"}
{"page": 242, "printed_page": null, "text": "232\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nunsatisfactory teachers early, each year, to be placed in the hands of superinThese teachers\ntendent, supervisors, special teachers, and principals.\nshould receive special care from the supervising staff, and clearly underIf improvement has not been made at the close of\nstand their position.\nthe year, they are to be recommended for dismissal.\nIt will be urged that\nin the event of informing the teacher of her standing the case is often\ncomplicated by the army of sympathizers she is able to enlist in her behalf.\nI grant the danger, but see no other honorable position to take in relation\nto the teacher; and a position once assumed must be consistently maintained, even in the tempest following announcements.\nHonest and fair\nmeans have been used throughout.\nHonor compels a stand to be made.\nIf these are restored to position, it must be done over the veto of the chief,\n\nand the consequences be upon the heads of those who pass the measure.\nThe above may seem heroic measures, and more in accord with\ndreams than reality ; but after years of scorching experience I am still\nconvinced that what the city needs is men and women with moral\nstamina, who are willing to abide by opinions based upon personal\nknowledge of the situation, re-enforced by the opinions of colaborers,\nliberal-minded and competent to judge.\nHere is an opportunity to educate public opinion by assuming the\nobligations imposed by rank, and holding a public trust as beyond all\nprivate fears or ends.\nWe have the example of the Great Teacher ‘ who\nfor the joy that was set before him endured the cross, despising the\nshame.”\nPerhaps you recall the passage from St. John, which is often in\nthe thoughts of the writer.\nFacing physical anguish and certain of\ndeath, he, the strong man, in the prime of life, shrinks from the ordeal.\n‘Now what shall I say?\nFather save me from this hour; nevertheless,\n\nfor this cause came I. unto this hour!”\n;\nIn conclusion, there needs to be established throughout the system of\nschools a feeling that, whatever the circumstances, those at the head are\nactuated by professional motives as opposed to personal ambition, that\nthose in authority are not unmindful of the difficulties which surround\nthe individual teacher in her efforts to carry out the general plan and\nregulations of the system.\n.\nA spirit of fairness must encourage the best efforts of supervised and\nsupervisor, and a feeling of confidence in the head of the system as\ncourageous “to do the right as it is given him to see the right;” that he\nhas not only a mind to direct, but a heart to respond to, the labors of the\nindividual, in whatever capacity he may serve.\nA spirit of harmony must direct the efforts of the whole supervising\nforce, if we expect unity of action on the part of the schools.\nOtherwise\ntrue development is impossible, and the very end for which supervision\nwas created will be defeated.\n\n"}
{"page": 243, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nDISCUSSTON\n\n23os)Ww\n\nDISCUSSION.\nC. F. CARROLL, Worcester, Mass.—In\n\ngeneral, we can probably agree to what was\n\nsaid by Superintendent Jones, in regard to tests of school work.\ntest must,\n\nhowever,\n\nbe confined\n\nto determining\n\nneatness,\n\nThe principal use of the\n\naccuracy, and\n\nform.\n\nIt can\n\nscarcely show the best that a teacher is doing, much less can it show the best of which\npupil is capable.\n:\n\na\n\nThis last statement is true, because a written test must be confined chiefly to work in\n\npenmanship, spelling, technical language, and simple sentence-making or reproduction.\nAll culture subjects, in which we may include reading, geography, history, nature work,\nliterature, music, manual training, cannot be satisfactorily worked out upon paper.\n\nThe list, therefore, is very small, and is confined\nmechanical.\nrelations, soul.\n\nCulture subjects depend\n\nupon\n\nchiefly to subjects that are purely\n\nthe instincts, upon feeling ; imply a horizon,\n\nAny focusing, such as is called for in written examinations, tends to sac-\n\nrifice the larger side. In fact, testing at this point is almost fatal, as we learned by sad\nexperience under the old régime.\nWritten examinations by the superintendent will show the principals and teachers\nwhat subjects and what points he may desire to emphasize; but they may be dangerous\nfor that very reason.\n‘The teachers, themselves, should be expected and required to give\ntests frequently, and principals should be asked to watch and direct both written and oral\ntests in all subjects.\nHigh-school teachers throughout the country generally review and\ntest their work in mathematics and the languages at regular intervals.\nThe next three points in Mr. Jones’ paper I! can class as one.\nI refer to the oral\ntest, to the observation by the superintendent of actual teaching which the teacher does,\nand to the teaching by the superintendent.\nIt is something of an art for a superintendent to know how to entera schoolroom.\nA\npleasant greeting is most important; anything more is likely to be a nuisance.\nNeither\nthe class nor the teacher should be turned aside from the business in hand. The current\nshould not be interrupted while he is present.\nBluster, and much conversation, beyond a\npleasant word, tend to remove all responsibility from the teacher, and change what ought\nto be a real business transaction to a hollow formality and a mockery.\nMany superintendents never seriously listen to a recitation.\nMany more never take a\nprimary class in hand, giving their suggestions in concrete form. Some do not do this\nbecause they have never learned how, others because they are prevented by dignity or by\ntradition.\nIt is absolutely necessary that a supervisor should teach constantly, if he would be a\nliving part of any school system. A conference later with the teacher has its advantage,\nbut can never do the same thing that can be accomplished by his questioning the children\nMoreover, these questions should always be in line with\nin the presence of the teacher.\nThey should be\nwhat the teacher is doing, if they are to be of assistance to the teacher.\ncarry it farther.\nto\nhow\nor\nbetter,\nwork\nown\nher\ndo\nto\nhow\ngiven to show the teacher\nSupervisors who do not thus identify themselves with the work of the schoolroom should\n\nhave a name of their own and be classed by themselves.\nTeachers’ meetings afford altogether thé best means of directing school work as a\nIf we have\nAt the teachers’ grade meeting we stand directly at the center.\nwhole.\n\nvisited intelligently and have before us at the moment the strong and weak points that\nwe have discovered in very recent visits, we can mold instruction to the full extent that\nour skill will permit.\nThe superintendent must get down to a few essentials in drill and emphasize these\n\naad\n.\n\n"}
{"page": 244, "printed_page": null, "text": "234\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\npoints, not only by what he says, but by the best class exercises that he can produce. The\nuse of the blackboard and of nature in teaching reading; the objective work in connection with teaching the multiplication table and fractions, tables of weights and measures ;\nthe preliminary interpretation of problems, writing of decimals, making of sentences; the\n—all these technical details should be gone over.\ngiving of a lesson in penmanship\n\nEither the superintendent or some person fitted to comprehend and carry out some\nconsistent plan should give directions and full illustrations at the teachers’ meeting.\nThe\nmost inexcusable and most criminal waste of time is made\n\nat this point, and Dr. Rice has\n\nnot said too much in his recent articles on the necessity of teaching economically and\neffectively a limited number of essential points in the “three R’s.”\nMoreover, a superintendent should conduct many of his own grade meetings.\n\nIt has\n\nbecome the fashion for the superintendent to invite people to make addresses on education at his grade meetings.\nSuch speeches are a farce, and are sure to be disconnected\nand as out of place as a magic lantern show.\n\nI can subscribe most cheerfully to all that Mr. Jones has said relating to the effort\ncalled for by both superintendent and teacher. On this basis of hard work teaching may\nbecome a profession.\nThe physician, the lawyer, and the clergyman, the architect, and the artist, regard\ntheir work as a business and seek constantly to keep up to date; and they do this\nvoluntarily.\nThe teacher who is thus enterprising can always be recognized, because she will\n\nanticipate the superintendent in most of his suggestions.\n\nShe ranges the whole field of\n\ninquiry, and brings to her work things both new and old. Moreover, she prepares with\ncare every lesson which she is to teach.\nShe estimates in advance the work of the week.\nEvery lesson is a review or has in it an element of review, carefully provided for in this\npreparation.\nSuch a working-over and working-up of old material as a matter of prin-\n\nciple is in itself the best form of correlation, is in itself a substitute for the old-fashioned\nexamination, and makes the test only an everyday affair.\nThe papers read have treated chiefly of the superintendent and teacher.\nThe pupil\nhimself has been referred to only incidentally.\nI should insist that he demands the first\nplace in this discussion.\nAn improved knowledge of the child is changing theories of\ntraining teachers, and methods are sure to change with theories.\nFirst, school hygiene is at present given a large place in pedagogy, and has a place\nupon the program of this convention.\nThis is a good beginning, but we need to get\nmuch closer to the pupil.\n\nWe\n\nneed\n\nto discuss, not only heat, light, and ventilation ; but\n\nalso to discuss the growing body, its stored energy, the dynamic force that works upon\nthe organism of every child, the impulse to movements that compel ecu and drive on\nthe child and the man in their ceaseless activities.\nBiology has come to be the best part of physiology and physiology the best part of\n\npsychology, and physical and chemical forces are back of all. Nutrition has come to be\nregarded as the greatest fact in education, and a well-nourished child, living with cultivated people, will attain to their estate with a minimum of formal teaching. If he lacks\nproper food or fails to appropriate it, he will be deficient both morally and intellectually.\nStudies of defective and criminal children show that they are usually improperly\nnourished, and that physical development has been arrested in a greater or less degree.\nThe most interesting spectacle, because the highest product of civilization, is the\nwell-nourished child, abundantly active, free from unnecessary irritation or restraint, with\n\ninterests that call into activity the many sides of his nature, moving on from one phase of\nhis life to another, absorbing the best things—in other words, normal in estate and\nreceiving the normal treatment sensed and dimly suggested in the immortal classic of\nRousseau,\n\n=\n\n"}
{"page": 245, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nDISCUSSION\n\nAnother of the inner forces of education\n\n235\n\nthat has been brought to light recently is\n\nfound in the emotions and instincts, supplemented\n\nby interest and attention; and, while\n\nall these are classified and treated separately, they are inseparable, have a common origin,\nand are a unit in character.\nThey are often more important than intellect.\nThey condition even perception and\nrule reason.\nThey must have free play at every stage, or a man defective at some point\nis the result.\n\nRestraint\n\nof instinct, restraint\n\nof affection, lack of normal interest, have\n\nbeen the marks of the modern school system, and the partial restoration of these to their\nproper places is the first problem of the modern school superintendent.\nAnother hopeful indication is the presence in this program of the subjects relating\nto the social forces that are co-ordinated with the school. We often lose our perspective and forget the part that the home, the church, literature, art, and society play in education.\nThe “three R’s” contribute but a meager amount of our intelligence, while our\nsurroundings are all-powerful in their influence upon both character and judgment.\nThe intelligent supervisor must take these conditions into account.\nHe must base\n\nhis treatment of courses of study upon them, and his methods must be in general harmony\nwith them.\nIt is a good thing for teachers to look about for methods, to be thrown upon\ntheirown resources. Standards and general principles are, indeed, authoritative ;methods,\n- art, ways and means are incidental.\nNo man is more contemptible than he who plods along, following in the rear of his\nbest teachers, following in the rear of the best public sentiment.\nOur best teachers, our best citizens, are alive to all the questions that I have raised.\n\nOur best teachers\n\nare both broad\n\nand skillful.\n\nWoe\n\nto us if they outstrip us in their\n\ngrasp of great questions; woe to us if we fail to do so much\n\nas to be able to interpret their\n\nart-and intuitions, and to be able to both learn and impart the wisdom\nteach !\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nJ. W.\n\nCARR,\n\nAnderson,\n\nInd.—I\n\nagree\n\nwith\n\nthat they can\n\nMr.\n\nJones\n\nmost\n\nheartily that the supervisor should be a man of liberal education, broad-minded, professionally trained, one who is able to point the way upward and then lead the way; that he\nshould set the standard of efficiency of work in his schools, and then devise ways and\nmeans whereby this standard may be attained by all capable teachers.\nI also approve\nof the methods suggested whereby this standard of work may be attained, but I wish to\n\nemphasize one point especially, vzz., the personal observation, on the part of the supervisor, of the actual schoolroom work.\n\nOur schools will never reach a creditable standard\n\nof efficiency so long as superintendents are content to remain in their offices, sending out\nexamination questions, receiving and examining reports, tabulating and comparing statistics. These things have their value, but they are of secondary importance to schoolroom\nvisitation and the friendly criticisms and suggestions that result from such visits. By the\nsystematic visitation of his schools the superintendent learns the real difficulties of the\nteachers, becomes acquainted with the strength and weakness of the teaching force, ascertains the merit and weaknesses of his own plans when put to the test, thereby learning\nwhether it is best to insist on their enforcement or have them returned to his office for\nrepairs. It has been my experience that some of my most cherished plans have failed\nwhen subjected to the actual test. In many instances I would have thought the failure was\ndue to the teacher, if I had not been present to see for myself that the plans were vitally\n\ndefective.\nAgain, the supervisor gets quite as much from his teachers\nreturn.\n\nas he gives them in\nHe cannot hope to keep abreast the times unless he is acquainted with the best\n\nthings in his profession, as exemplified by the best thought and practice of his teaching\na5\nforce.\n—\ncritic\na\nas\nsupervisor\nthe\nto\nreference\nin\nspeakers\nboth\nby\ntaken\nposition\nthe\nI like\n\nee\nAR\n\n"}
{"page": 246, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n236\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nthat he should be a friendly critic, that his criticisms should be suggestive and, so far as\nBut few things are more embarrassing and discouraging, yes,\npossible, constructive.\nhurtful, to teachers than harsh, unsympathetic, destructive criticism; while, on the other\nhand, nothing is more encouraging and helpful than friendly, sympathetic, constructive\nTeachers, as a rule, are criticised quite enough; what is needed is a better\ncriticism.\n\nand higher form of criticism.\n\nOne point that, perhaps, has not received sufficient consideration in this discussion is\nthe relation of the supervisor to the public. He should understand, not only the theoretical and practical workings of the schools under his care, and be able to criticise, advise,\n\nand instruct teachers; but he should be a man of affairs, thoroughly in touch with the\nprofessional and business men of the community, understanding the tastes, prejudices,\nand needs of the people, so that the schools may be the better suited to the environment,\nBut, in order that\nmay the most nearly meet the needs of the people who support them.\nthe schools may not become warped and stunted by local influences, the supervisor should\nhave a clear and comprehensive view of the age and civilization in which he lives. He\nshould have an understanding of and a sympathy with American life and institutions.\nAnd, while he should welcome truth and light from whatever source they may come,\n\nyet\n\nhe should not disparage and despise the educational achievements of his own countrymen, nor think that there are no true pedagogical principles except those which have\nbeen formulated around a lager-beer table in Germany.\nLastly, Mr. President, I cannot conclude this discussion without calling special atten-\n\ntion to Mr. Jones’ classic sentences in reference to the supervisor as the inspirer of higher\nideals. ‘It is,’ says he, “in the sphere of ideals that the influence of the supervisor, if\nhe be capable, is of supremest worth.\nIdeals of education must be developed in the\nminds of teachers, so as to inspire to highest and noblest effort.\n\nThe ideals must express\n\nthe hope of the future and cast such radiance over the plain path of common teaching as\nshall make it seem the very way of salvation to pupils and teachers alike.” Such, in my\nopinion, is the highest service that a mortal can render his fellows. By a change of\nideals, Saul of Tarsus became the apostle of the Gentiles. By a change of ideals, Sir\nLaunfal saw the leper transformed into the Savior, and stand before him\nShining and tall and fair and straight\nAs the pillar that stood by the Beautiful Gate,\n\nBy climbing from the low plains of common life up to the mountain top, the three disciples\nsaw the Son of Man transfigured into the very God.\nBut we cannot inspire higher ideals in others unless we first possess them ourselves.\nThe electric globe does not send its radiance abroad unless there is heat and light within.\nWe grow into what we would like to be. By contemplating the Great Stone Face, Ernest\ncame to resemble it in the benignity of features and goodness of heart. So, if we would\ninspire higher ideals in our teachers, we must not worship the golden calf of our own\nmaking, but pay our devotions to the perfect ideal.\nIt has been wisely said that every noble art has its divine counterpart, and I wish\nyou to note that teaching is no exception.\n‘God formed and modeled the world out of\nchaos, and that is sculpture.\nHe builded the mountains, with their domes and spires and\nminarets, and that is architecture.\nHe carpeted the earth and tinted the seas and hung\nthe ‘bow of promise’ in the heavens, and that is painting.\nHe made the birds and the\nwinds and the waterfalls, and that is music.\nHe peopled the earth with human beings,\nand that is the everlasting drama.\nBut when He wanted the perfect teachers, He sent\nHis Son from heaven.”\nMiss SARAH L. ARNOLD, Boston, Mass. —It seems to me that it is not only our duty,\nbut our privilege, and, furthermore, our necessity, to make these conferences as frequent\n\nas practical.\n\nThe danger line lies in the necessity which takes us out of our own school-\n\n"}
{"page": 247, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nDISCUSSTON\n\n2247\n\nroom, and our danger line is this that we are apt to get away from each other, and that,\ntherefore, these conferences are necessary.\nBut unhappily in the city,schools, where the\nsupervision must be divided, it becomes absolutely necessary for us to substitute another\n\nkind of conference, but which does not by any means take the place of the present conference.\nI cannot speak with assurance upon this subject, because I have come to learn\nIt is\nthat the conditions must be modified according to the surrounding circumstances.\n\na duty to study the individual teacher as well as to study the individual pupil.~ A flash\nlight has very often been cast upon my work by some child in which I was interested;\nonce by a small boy, aged six. He was very fond of a little girl named Dorothy, and\nOne day he was taken sick with chicken-pox, and during his\nguarded her very carefully.\nillness a little neighbor, Mark, stepped in and took Dorothy from him. When the child\nrecovered he threatened to thrash Mark, as he expressed it.\n\nWhen\n\nChristmas\n\ncame, his\n\nmother insisted that he should invite this little boy, Mark, to his Christmas tree. He\nreluctantly did so. He put on his muffler and overcoat, and thus bundled he waded\nthrough the snow slowly, and, when he arrived at the child’s house, he said:\n\n“ My mother\n\ntold me to tell you to come over and visit my Christmas tree, but if you come I’ll punch\nyour head.”\nOutward compliance ; inward defiance.\nI believe that when we command\nthe presence of our teachers at numerous meetings we are in the condition of the mother\nwho commanded her small boy. It should not be a habeus corpus act. The beginning\nof our circulars should be “‘ Whosoever will, let him come.”\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nFRANK\n\nB. CoopER, Des Moines, Ia.— I do not believe complaint\n\nfrom the teacher in service is so general as we might be led to believe from the papers\npresented.\nI am quite sure that it was not so intended by the reader of the paper.\nI\naddress myself to but one or two points in the paper.\nIn considering the papers I was\nled to notice the parallelism that runs between the relation of the teacher to the school\nand the relation of the superintendent to his teachers.\nThe good teacher or the good\nschool represents a democracy.\nThe school is not the teacher’s.\nIt belongs to all. It is\nthe children’s as well as the teacher’s, and I believe that these papers that have been presented show that the dictatorship has passed away. The school is a thing of joint ownership, and so is the school system,\nBoth Superintendent Jones and Miss Brooks brought\nout the idea of joint work, joint study of children, joint examination of papers, joint\nteaching.\nIn the schoolroom the teacher proposes something to do. She secures the\nco-operation of the children in doing that. By her art there prevails an atmosphere of\ngood will. A wise plan properly presented is necessary, for the perfect fulfillment of\nwhich sympathy must enter in, and that rests upon knowledge.\nUnification must come\n\nthrough two channels, the course and the teacher. The most serious mistake is that we\nexpect too much of the teacher, leaving her to work out the development alone, without\nchart or compass.\nI once heard Thomas B. Reed say that the opinion of all is greater\nthan the opinion of any. The best thought of all who are thinkers is better and larger\nthan the thought of any one. The proportion of the work to be done in the school\nsystem should\n\nnot be and, to be good, cannot\n\nbe the work of one mind.\n\nBack of the\n\nunity of effort lies sympathy of spirit. The course of study, the plan of work, in some\n— by\nsense, should be a joint product. Working together comes by getting together\nconferences.\nSUPERINTENDENT F. Louis SoLpAN, St. Louis, Mo.— The one quality which I\nI mean by\nshould say a superintendent should possess above all others is appreciation.\nit that a superintendent will find, in the first place, that he can learn much more from his\nteachers than he can teach them; that the quality of appreciation developed in a superIt will make him admire much that he finds in a\nintendent will lead in two directions.\nhis judgment with careful criticism. I substitute\npass\nwill\nhe\nand\nschools,\nof\nlarge system\nfor child study, teacher study. The application of the critical faculty on the part of the\n\n"}
{"page": 248, "printed_page": null, "text": "baal\nhie\nCt\n\n238\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nsuperintendent is necessary again and again, but it is fraught with danger, and the superintendent who does not know the individuality of a teacher may do harm because he does\nnot know her personally.\nI should recommend teacher study.\nA. E. WinsutP, Boston, Mass.— One thought has been left unsaid\n\nwith all that has\n\nbeen so well said this morning.\nNo superintendent’s work is a success which makes the\nteacher self-conscious.\nI have had some opportunities for watching the work in schools\nall over this land, and I think the one test of all tests of the superintendent is the spirit\nof the teacher when the superintendent is present and when he is absent.\nI wish to\nbring this one thought from the business side. I notice that successful men see to it that\nthey interfere as little as possible with the people through whom they are working.\nThey give them instruction as far as they can, and if it fails, then they must go.\nIn one\nof the largest book houses in America a man was employed to introduce a change of\nbooks\n\nin\n\nfive prominent\n\nto acknowledge\n\ncities.\n\nFailing\n\nhis vain efforts and\n\nretire;\n\nin two, he returned\n\nto the house, determined\n\nbut, as he entered, the chief\n\nofficer\n\nrose\n\nand\n\nsaid, ‘ You have made a glorious fight. I have ordered your salary raised.” And the man\nwent back and captured the other three cities. It should be the same in spirit with a\nsuperintendent when a teacher is fighting her battle.\nHelp her.\n\nTHE\n\nCORKELATION\n\nBY\n\nS. T. DUTTON,\n\nOF EDUCATIONAL\nCOMMUNITY.\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nFORCES\n\nJV\n\nsisi\n\nBROOKLINE,\n\nMASS.\n\nThe energies of school supervision have hitherto been largely employed\nin perfecting the organization of teaching and in bringing it into the true\npedagogic form. We have treated the school as though it were sufficient\nunto itself and somewhat independent of all other factors.\nI believe the\ntime has come when we may wisely give more attention to the utilization\nof forces outside of the school,-to the end that community life and effort\nmay\n\nbe richer,\n\nbetter\n\ndirected, more\n\neconomically\n\nemployed, and\n\nthat\n\nthe schools may gain the commanding position that rightfully belongs to\nthem.\nHenry Ward Beecher uttered a great truth when he said that, in\nAmerica, there is not one single element of civilization that is not made\nto depend in the end upon public opinion.\nI care not how skillfully and\nthoroughly school supervision does its work—unless the interest and\nconfidence of the people are enlisted, so that they believe in the value of\nwhat is done, much of the labor goes for nothing. There may be much\nof indifference and apathy, but there is never strict neutrality in public\nsentiment.\nA community that is not thoroughly committed to a broad\neducational policy and active in sustaining it is likely to assume an\nunfriendly attitude, if the slightest provocation arises.\nMuch energy has\nbeen wasted in trying to perfect a school system while the people were\nignorant of the motives and aims that animated its directors, and were\nincapable of understanding and approving the methods employed. There\n\nA\n\noe\n\n"}
{"page": 249, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nCORRELATION\n\nOF EDUCATIONAL\n\nFORCES\n\n239\n\nare plenty of communities that have never yet been reached by the spirit of\nmodern education.\n‘They are like those broad stretches of thickly populated country in India or China where, here and there, a single missionary is trying to break the ice of paganism, with scarcely any perceptible\nsuccess.\nIn such cases the schools are as good as they can be under the\ncircumstances, but there is no enthusiasm\n\nconcerning them, and the well-\n\nto-do people, knowing nothing of their excellences, send. their children\nto private schools, often of an inferior character.\nThere are many\ninstances where the conditions are right for the development of an\neducational spirit in the community, but those in charge make no effort\nwhatever to bring about this most-desired end.\nSome years ago a young\nman was called to take charge of a group of schools in one of our pleasant New England boroughs.\nHe had his own ideas and carried them out.\nHe made no study of the community to see what synthesis could be made\nof existing forces.\nHe enjoyed the privacy of his own room better than\nthe exactions of social life, He made few acquaintances, and few people\nknew him or cared for him.\nAt length a single indiscretion on his part\nin connection with a case of discipline aroused the hostility of the local\nnewspaper.\nHaving no public opinion in his favor, he lost ground\nrapidly, was soon compelled to resign, and the good work he had done\nin the school went for nothing.\nI venture to assert that this is a type of\nmany cases, occurring all over the country, which give to educational\nsupervision the character of instability and Bohemianism.\nMorever, the failure to work constructively for healthy public opinion\nis not the only shortcoming of our craft.\nThe apparent inability of\nsome men and women to recognize the unity of all moral and social aims,\nand to justly value the work of forces other than the one to the service of\nwhich they are especially committed, is a difficulty no less serious than\nthe one already indicated.\nHerbert Spencer, in one of the closing\nchapters of his work on “Illustrations of Universal Progress,” calls\nattention to the fact that “‘The different parts of the social organism, like\nthe different parts of an individual organism, compete for nutriment, and\nseverally obtain more or less of it according as they are discharging more\nor less of duty.”” Unless the several agencies which operate in community\nlife for the improvement of the conditions of living and the elevation of\nsociety are made conscious of each other’s claims, this sort of competition,\nto which reference has been made, is likely to work harm in preventing\nsome forces from achieving all of which they are capable.\nLet us consider briefly the principal factors that, speaking broadly,\ncontribute to education in the community.\nThey are the church, the\nhome, the school, the public library, the newspaper, the art museum—\nwhere there is one —and the civil state, with its laws protecting life and\nproperty, its provision for public health and convenience, and its orderly\n\n"}
{"page": 250, "printed_page": null, "text": "240\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nconduct of all civic affairs. We should mention, also, the opportunity of\nhearing good music, the operations of commerce, the daily miracles of\nscience, as applied in mechanics and electricity, securing rapid travel,\ncommunication,\n\netc.\n\nNow, in the general work of education each of these\n\nforces has its own peculiar task. It does what none of the other forces\nThe church, by its constant appeals to the higher spiritual\ncan do.\nnature, by consecrated self-denial, lofty example, and helpful ministrations, must be regarded as an important educational factor. The presence\nall over the Christian world of imposing church edifices conceived in the\nhighest types of architectural art, with their towers pointing upwards, are\nsimply the visible expression of those deeper sentiments that are inspired\nand developed through the ministry of the church.\nThe home, with its tender parental nurture, its solicitous care and\nwise guidance, contributes a fundamental element to education.\nEspecially is it true, when an air of culture pervades the home, that it often\nbecomes, as Holland describes it, “the sweetest type of heaven.”\nWhat\nit does, no other power can do. Deprive a child of a good home, and\nyou blast the very flower of his opportunities.\nIt was observed in connection with a series of articles by eminent persons published a few years\nsince on “How I Was Educated”’ that each and every writer paid a high\ntribute to the potency of the home as a factor in his own education.\nThe school holds a central place. More than the church, or even the\nhome, it moralizes the child and establishes his character upon the foundations of good habits. Its regular routine, continued day after day, and the\nconstant appeals made to the best efforts of the child, make the school\npre-eminent among educational forces.\nThe public library\n— or people’s university, as it has been called—isa\nreservoir of knowledge and inspiration for the entire community.\nRightly supported by the church, the home, and the school, it supplements them all in their efforts to elevate and refine society.\nWithout\nspeaking in detail of other educational forces, it seems strange that\ndevotees of any of these agencies are blind to the relative importance of\nthe others, as well as to the fact that the highest success of any one of\nthem depends upon the support it gets from the others.\nI shall venture to refer again to the church in this connection, in the\nway of mild criticism.\nMr. Brooks Adams, in a recent monograph on\n“The Law of Civilization and Decay,” finds that the fundamental idea in\nreligion is fear, “which, by stimulating the imagination, creates the\nbelief in an invisible world and ultimately develops a priesthood.”\nTo\nsuch an extent have the world religions taken advantage of this principle\nthat their history has been a record of tyranny and darkness.\nUnder\nthe same influence the light of Christianity became so obscured that the\nwork of freeing the human mind from its slavery has been only partially\n\n"}
{"page": 251, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nCORRELATION\n\nOF EDUCATIONAL\n\nFORCES\n\n241\n\nbegun ; and, even in this most democratic of countries, whose foundations\n\nwere laid by those seeking religious freedom, we often find the church\narrogating to itself rights and powers which it does not possess, and\npretending to accomplish results which it never has nor ever will accomplish. The minister too often forgets that the pulpit is a means to an end,\nand that its highest function is to dignify and sweeten human service of\nevery sort, and establish the brotherhood of man and the unity of all\nwork for the cause of truth, to the end that there may be mutual co-oper-\n\nation.\nOnly recently one of our most liberal-minded clergymen, in\nnaming to a body of young people the benefits that have come through\nthe Christian dispensation, made no mention of the Christian school.\nToo often schools are entirely omitted in prayers, from the pulpit or in\nIt is because of the influential position of the\npastoral ministrations.\nIt seems to me\nchurch that I feel compelled to emphasize this omission.\nto be entirely opposed to the spirit of Him who came upon earth and\n‘The love of the Master for children is unqueswent about doing good.\nI have often thought that were He to be among us again, He\ntioned.\nwould be seen quite as often in our schools as in our churches.\nNo less, lack of co-operation has often existed between the home and\n\nthe school.\nHere are two forces operating to the same end, yet often so\nantagonistic that the impressible child is trained in ways of discourtesy\nand disloyalty, his school life is made wretched, and his childhood is\nclouded.\nDissension in the home is bad enough, but strife between\nteacher and parent is fatal to those finer results for which the home and\nschool shouldaim.\nIs itnot about time that the traditional schism between\nparent and teacher be bridged over?\nShould we be contented with the\nrelation of armed neutrality which so often exists? The importance of\nthe issue at stake demands mutual sympathy and co-operation.\nThe\nteacher greatly needs the respect, the confidence, and the esteem of the\nparent.\nHe needs information concerning the child’s home life, his tastes,\nhabits, etc.\nThe parent, on the other hand, should have the frankest\n\nstatements from the teacher concerning the child’s interests, as displayed\nin the schoolroom.\nThrough such conference teacher and parent are\nable to supplement the efforts of each other.\nThere is something to be said about the place the schools should hold\nAs the most influential\nin the opinions and good wishes of the people.\nthe civic inteldetermining\nin\nfactor\nof the forces in education, as the prime\nand esteem.\nhonor\nhigh\nin\nheld\nligence of the community, they should be\nand every\ninterest,\nand\nThey should be regarded with generous feeling\nefficiency.\ntheir\nto\ncitizen should feel a personal obligation to contribute\nThe late President Garfield once said that “the best system of education\nis that which draws its chief support from the voluntary effort of the comIt is worth a good deal to have the school taxes paid cheerfully,\nmunity.”\n\n"}
{"page": 252, "printed_page": null, "text": "242\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nThis brings me to\nbut we want something more than a passive interest.\nthe point of announcing two principles that deserve to be recognized\nFirst, the social and educational forces of the community\neverywhere.\nThere should be the fullest mutual\nshould be brought into correlation.\nSecond, the school, better than any other factor,\nreadiness to co-operate.\nmay become\n\na center for this correlation.\n\nIt exists for all the people, is\n\nunhampered by creed or sect, and at the same time stands for the very\nIn an article writhighest aims to which human efforts can be directed.\nten for the Atlantic Monthly of January, 1896, Horace E. Scudder urges\nthe propriety of making the schoolhouse the center of community life,\nand concludes by declaring that the school system holds the key to the\nsituation in any problem we may encounter when considering the momenThere is little that is new in these\ntous subject of American civilization.\npropositions.\nIndeed, there has been a growing recognition of their\nimportance during the last few years. The so-called institutional church\nis an attempt to utilize various educational forces, to supplement preaching, so that now we often find organized under the roof of one church\nvarious means for physical, intellectual, and moral cultivation.\n\nThe same\n\nidea expresses itself in missionary endeavor, but the most significant illustrations are those local societies that have been formed in various cities\nwith the avowed purpose of helping on the cause of education.\nSome\nyears ago the Public Education Society of Philadelphia began a career\n- which has resulted in many educational reforms.\nIn fact, it is said that\nthe establishment of the kindergarten, the reorganization of the school\nsystem with the employment of a superintendent of schools, the introduction of manual training, and the broadening of all courses of study, have\nbeen the indirect results of the labors of this society. A similar organization in New York has enlisted the active assistance of the influential citizens\nWhat appeared to many to\nof the city, some of whom are social leaders.\nbe almost a hopeless undertaking has already borne excellent fruit in the\nwell-known reform measures which it is to be hoped are the beginning of\na thorough reformation of the school system of that city. A striking\ninstance of what a local society may do is seen in the work accomplished\nfor the Boston schools in a single year by the Association of Collegiate\nAlumne, acting in co-operation with the officers of the Institute of Technology and certain school officials. There was undertaken a thorough\ninvestigation of the schoolhouses of Boston, to determine their condition\nwith respect to health and sanitation.\nA vigorous report made at the\nconclusion of this task has resulted in a thorough awakening of public\ninterest on this subject, and will ultimately result in larger appropriations\nfor the correction of defects pointed out.\nOne of the best illustrations of social co-ordination is seen in the\nTwentieth Century Club of Boston, which has been in existence a little\n\n"}
{"page": 253, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nCORRELATION\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nFORCES\n\n243\n\nmore than three years.\nThe avowed purpose of the club is “to promote\na finer public spirit and a better social order.”\nAmong its founders were\nsuch men as Philips Brooks, Edward Everett Hale, and George A. Gordon.\nIts membership of 300 includes about an equal representation of lawyers,\nministers, journalists, artists, teachers, and business men.\nAmong these\n\nare\n\nmany\n\nnames\n\nwell known\n\nas philanthropists\n\nand\n\nUnder the skillful management of its president, Edwin\n\nsocial\n\nreformers.\n\nD. Mead, its meet-\n\nings, which are held on alternate Wednesday evenings, have presented a\nremarkable instance of a perfectly free platform, where any subject, social,\nreligious, or political, could be discussed with the utmost candor and in\nthe best spirit. A lunch ‘is served to the members of the club at its rooms\non Saturday, after which some topic of living interest is brought forward,\nIt is generally\nand a most interesting comparison of views follows.\nrecognized by the members of the club that its purposes are distinctly\neducational, and the interests of schools and colleges have been given a\n- prominent place in its deliberations.\nIt is impossible to estimate the\ngood that such an organization may accomplish.\nThe fact that woman’s\nclubs throughout the country are making public schools a special object\nof study, and that at Louisville last May the federation passed resolutions\nrecommending such study, is full of significance and promise.\n_ In response to request, I will now speak particularly of the purposes\nand work of the Brookline Education Society.\nThe inhabitants of\nBrookline are widely scattered, and are not especially homogeneous.\nThe town, territorially, is a part of Boston, and is nearly surrounded by\nthat city. As in the case of ancient Rome, all the tram lines lead toward\nthe city, and the several parts of the town are not connected by public\nconveyance.\nIt is a community where, previous to a few years ago, the\nwell-to-do people patronized private schools, of which there were excellent examples both in the town and just across the city line. Hence,\nBrookline cannot be regarded as a place to be easily organized with public\neducation as a center aim.\nThe high intelligence of the people and their\nThe public\ngenerous public spirit of course favored such an attempt.\nschools for several years have been conducted with special reference to\nParents have been taken into consulthe union of the home and school.\ntation upon every possible occasion, have been invited to co-operate, and\nthe course of study and the school life have been made both acceptable\nThere was plenty of conservatism to overcome, and the\nand attractive.\nAll\nafter the leeks and onions of the old régime.\nhankering\ncustomary\nwas\nit\nuntil\nrepeated,\noft\ndictum\nthe\nby\novercome\nbeen\nthis has largely\nat the tongue’s end of every teacher, that the aim of the school was moral\ncharacter building, and that nothing could serve this end but a broad,\nIt was the\nelastic curriculum, entirely free from quantitative standards.\nthat\nresults,\nactual\nin\nseen\nas\naims,\nrecognition of the validity of these\n\n_\n\n"}
{"page": 254, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n244\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n{Indianapolis\n\ndid more than anything else to help on the Education Society. It was\nfortunate from the start in having social leaders among its officers and\n‘The society has been in existence less than two years,\nactive members.\nand has a membership of more than 500. Its purpose, as announced in\nthe constitution, is “to promote a better knowledge of the science of\neducation, a better understanding of methods now employed, and a closer\nIt holds\nsympathy and co-operation between the home and the school.”\nregular meetings once in six weeks, with such special meetings as the\nofficers may think desirable.\nAll arrangements of programs, etc., are\nmade by the Executive Committee of seven persons, including the president and the secretary.\nPains has been taken to offer for discussion at\nthe regular meetings those vital questions that lie between\nand\n\nthe school\n\nlife, such\n\nHome\n\nas “‘The\n\nCare\n\nthe home\n\nof Children,”\n\nlife\n\n“‘Home\n\nStudy,” “The Reading of Our Boys and Girls,” “Works of Art in\nSchools,” ‘The Study of Nature in the Home and in the School,”\n‘“‘Manual Training,” ‘‘Domestic Arts,” etc. In almost every discussion\nthe conclusion has been reached that the home and the school must\nbe in accord, and that the child, in passing from one to the other, should\n\nbe in the same atmosphere of kindly sympathy and wise guidance, and\nthat there should be agreement between parents and teachers in regard\nto sports, companions, books, and\n\nlife.\n\nThere\n\nall other elements that enter\n\nare special committees\n\non child\n\nhistory, science, music, art, school libraries, and\n\nstudy,\n\ninto\n\nhis\n\nphysical\n\ntraining,\n\nAny\n\nmember\n\nlectures.\n\nof the society may become an associate member of one or more of the\nThe\ncommittees and find an opportunity of rendering service therein.\nChild Study Committee has encouraged the holding of mothers’ meetings\nin all sections of the town in connection with the kindergarten and\nprimary schools.\n<A general meeting of this sort was held in the autumn,\nwhich was attended by no less than 400 persons.\nSeveral syllabi, less\nabstruse and searching, perhaps, than some prepared by professional\nstudents\n\nof childhood,\n\nhave been sent out.\n\nThe Committee on Physical Training has given much attention to\nthe best methods of promoting health in the home and the school, and\nhas still a long list of problems for future consideration.\nThe erection\nby the town during the past year of a fine municipal bathhouse, with\nsuperb facilities for swimming, adjacent to the high school, has given\noccasion to this committee to consider swimming a proper school\nexercise.\nAn instructor has already been secured, and a programme\narranged for giving systematic lessons in swimming to pupils in the high\nand grammar schools.\nThe Committee on History has undertaken several lines of work that\nare likely to make this study of much greater value than has been the\ncase hitherto.\nActing in connection with the public library, a collection\n\n"}
{"page": 255, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nCORRELATION\n\nOF EDUCATIONAL\n\nFORCES\n\n245\n\nof old letters and documents of value has been begun.\nSeveral tracts of\ninformation concerning old houses, historic roads, and Indian trails have\nbeen issued.\nMonographs upon Brookline’s share in the Civil War and\nother important events have been written by pupils in the high school.\nBulletins giving directions for excursions to historical localities in and\nabout Boston have\n\nbeen issued.\n\nAn\n\nafternoon\n\ncourse\n\nof lectures\n\nupon\n\nlocal history in the Civil War was given last winter, to which all children\n\nin the town twelve years old and upwards, their teachers and parents,\nAmong the speakers were William Lloyd Garrison,\nwere invited.\nEdward Everett Hale, Edwin\n\nD. Mead, and Charles Carleton Coffin.\n\nThe\n\nlecture given by the last-named gentleman was his last public address.\nThe committee has placed letter-file envelopes and boxes in the high and\ngrammar schools for the collection of newspaper items. Several things\nare being planned for the current year, among them a course of illustrated\nlectures on general history.\nThe Committee on Music has taken an advanced step in the direction\nof enabling young children, especially in the less favored sections, to\nhear fine music.\nSeveral excellent amateur. musicians have, upon invitation of the School Committee and with the approval of the school board,\ngone into the schools and given a half hour, of vocal or instrumental\nmusic.\nIt is hoped that this plan may be so well developed that once\neach week the younger pupils will be able to hear music of a high order.\nThe committee has taken the ground that this is not done to entertain the\nchildren, but in order that the higher esthetic nature may receive proper\nnutrition during that period of life when the child is impressible and\nreceptive.\nThey believe with Bulwer Lytton that music once admitted to\nthe soul becomes a sort of spirit and never dies. ‘Those persons who have\nhad the pleasure of witnessing the effect of this experiment have become\nstrongly convinced of its wisdom.\n'\nThe work of introducing masterpieces of art into the schools was\nbegun some years since by Mr. William H. Lincoln, Chairman of the School\nCommittee, who placed in the assembly hall of one of the grammar schools,\nwhich had been suitably frescoed in dark, rich tints, a large portion of\nthe frieze from the Parthenon and copies of several of the most famous\nheroic statues and casts. Local committees and the patrons of the schools\nin the favored sections of the town have continued this work successfully.\nArt works to the value of about $5,000 have already been donated to the\n\nThe Art Committee of the Education Society is about\nBrookline schools.\nto undertake the introduction of pictures and objects of art into those\nschool buildings whose patrons are unable to contribute to this purpose.\nIt should be stated that considerable progress has been made in correlat-\n\ning pictures with the grade work of the several classes. Steps have been taken\nto organize a loan collection of pictures and objects of art, both for the\n\n"}
{"page": 256, "printed_page": null, "text": "246\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n- [Indianapolis\n\nsake of the people at large and in order that funds may be raised for the\nprosecution of the work mentioned above.\nThe report of the Science Committee, as published in the first yearbook, is rich in suggestions looking to the home as the partner of the\nschool in making children intelligently familiar, not only with superficial\nnature, but with the scientific aspects of our civilization which touch us on\nevery side. Many parents have already become students of science with\ntheir children, and have helped them -to fit up small laboratories at home\nfor simple experimentation.\nIt is proposed by the same committee that\na ‘science museum be established for the reception and preservation of\ncurios, mementoes of foreign countries, lantern slides of people, cities,\nand objects of interest in far-away lands, as well as of noble mountains,\nmajestic rivers, and yawning cafions of our own country.”\nThe School Library Committee has prepared a valuable annotated list\nof books on each subject taught in the primary and grammar grades.\nThese books are all in the public library, and the shelf numbers are given\nto enable the children to call for the books that interest them.\nTwo courses of lectures have been given on the broader educational\nthemes.\nHowever valuable these lectures may have been during the early\ndays of the society, it is doubtful if they will be regarded as an important\npart of its future work.\nIt may confidently be stated that the Education Society has already\nborne fruit. The attention of many people hitherto quite ignorant of educational problems has been turned in this direction.\nParents have come\nto see, perhaps for the first time, that the education of their children is a\ndeeper concern than houses and lands or the stock market.\n‘That type of\nman who journeyed ten miles every week to see a favorite colt in the\npasture and who never visited his children’s school is likely to become\nextinct.\nA powerful public sentiment is being developed in favor of the\nnewer phases of education, especially art, manual training, and physical\nculture.\nDuring the past year the school yards and grounds have been\nplaced in charge of the Park Commission, which has already planted\nshrubs and flowers in nearly all of them.\nI suspect that this move was\nbut an indirect result of the Education Society. The suggestion for an\nart commission made to the town authorities, and which has already\nreceived favorable attention, is traceable to the same source.\nVarious\nobjects, useful and ornamental, have recently found their way from the\nhomes into the schoolrooms, such as plants, collections of shells and min-\n\nerals, photographs, etchings, casts, magazines, books, and best of all is\nthe unqualified sympathy that is now apparent between the parents and\nthe teachers.\nSome teachers receive so many grateful and complimentary\nletters that their faces are constantly wreathed with smiles, and they seem\n\n"}
{"page": 257, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nCORRELATION\n\nOF EDUCATIONAL\n\nFORCES\n\n247\n\nto be walking on air instead of performing a wearisome duty. When\ncriticisms are made, they are offered with such courtesy and consideration\nthat one cannot help feeling thankful for them.\nSo, when streams of\nappreciation\n\nand\n\nkindness\n\nflow in continually\n\nupon\n\nthe superintendent\n\nand his associates, what under some circumstances would be dreary routine\nbecomes delightful service.\nDid time permit me I would like to speak in detail of the work in the\ndirection of high-school extension which has been successfully carried on\nby the head master of the high school.\nCourses of lectures and lessons\nin literature, astronomy, French history, history of art, and popular science\nhave been provided during the past four years, and have met with the\nheartiest approval from all classes. Just now a course of lectures on economics is being given, the expenses of which are provided for by a distinguished citizen.\nLet it be understood that no stress is laid upon the\nname of the society or of the particular methods just described.\nIt is\nthe idea that must be emphasized.\nEvery community has its own peculiar\nconditions, requiring special adaptations of means to end.\nAlthough\n\nthis\n\npaper is somewhat\n\ndisconnected,\n\nit requires\n\nbut\n\nlittle\n\nsumming up. I am pleading for co-operation in community life, and this\nword expresses the one thought I desire to impress.\nPresident Eliot, at\nthe close of twenty-five years as president of Harvard University, when\nasked what had been his leading aim, replied, ‘To secure co-operation.”\nThere is no word in our language more highly charged with what is vital\nto human destiny.\nSt. Paul the apostle pleaded for it. The warp and\nwoof of what we call modern civilization are made up of co-operation.\nWe want far more of industrial co-operation, of religious co-operation,\nand of educational co-operation.\nThe mission of the public school is\nclosely related to all forms of social work.\nThe methods found most\nsuccessful in dealing with the defective, the vicious, and the neglected\nclasses are such as have been tried advantageously in the school.\nOn the\nother\n\nhand,\n\nthe methods,\n\naims,\n\nand\n\nhumanitarian\n\nspirit of the\n\nsocial\n\nreformer are essential to the life of every good school.\nHence it is readily\nseen that school supervision has something more to do than to grade\nclasses, prepare courses of study, and to see that principles of teaching\nare carried out. Teachers must become conscious of the commanding\nimportance of the school as a social factor, influencing every form of\nhuman endeavor, reflecting its spirit and aims in the life and conduct of\nthe people, and, in turn, drawing inspiration and help from every department of the world’s activity.\n\n"}
{"page": 258, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n248\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nee\nOe\n\nRELATIONS\n\nBY\n\nMISS\n\nIDA\n\nC. BENDER,\n\nOF\n\nCITIZENS\n\nSUPERVISOR\n\nOF\n\nAND\n\nPRIMARY\n\nTEACHERS.\n\nWORK,\n\nBUFFALO,\n\nN. Y.\n\nThe temptation is strong to add to the record given by Mr. Dutton a\nsomewhat extended account of similar work which is going on today in a\nconservative city at the eastern end of Lake Erie, a city which I trust has not\n\nentirely passed from the recollection of many here present.\n\nThe hour is\n\nso late, however, that I will merely mention the work of the Buffalo School\n\nAssociation, of the Liberal and Independent Clubs—sources from which\nthe thoughts presented this morning have chiefly been drawn.\nThe review of social agencies presented by Mr. Dutton this morning\nhas a profound meaning for every thoughtful teacher.\nIt brings to mind\nthe wonderful discoveries of science and their application in practical\nlife, which have caused a revolution in industry and a development of\ncommerce difficult to describe in moderate language.\nSplendid as these\ntriumphs have been, there is ample ground for the belief that in the dawning century achievements far transcending them in grandeur and utility\nwill be the common lot of men.\nBut we turn from the spectacle of these material triumphs to survey,\nsomewhat minutely, their effect upon our social and political life. What\nold conditions have been modified or transformed ? What new influences\ncalled into being?\nWhat strange and hitherto unsuspected dangers\ndeveloped?\nWhat new hopes and new fears born ?\nNo one is able with absolute justice to estimate the character of the\nsociety of which he forms an active part; yet it is also true that no adequate understanding of his work can be the possession of the American\nteacher who fails to review the social and political development of his\ncountry, in order that by so doing he may gain at least some glimmer of\ntruth and law by which to interpret the present and prepare for the\nfuture; who does not pause to ask himself what it means to be a citizen\nof these United States, A. D. 1897.\nFor in no country have social and\nindustrial changes occurred to a greater extent than in our own land.\n“It is probable,” says Lecky, “that no nation ever started on its\ncareer with a larger proportion of strong characters or a higher level of\nmoral conviction than the English colonies of North America.\nIn that\nearly society, of which we may take the New England colonies as the\ndominant type, the social elements were comparatively few and simple.\nWe call to mind a homogeneous population, narrow, austere, democratic,\ndisplaying a deep consciousness of individual and civic responsibility,\ndeveloping strength and unity through the common struggle against\n\n"}
{"page": 259, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nRELATIONS\n\nOF\n\nCITIZENS\n\nAND\n\nTEACHERS\n\n249\n\ndangers from without and the battle to overcome the unfriendly forces of\nnature near at hand.”\n‘The conviction that the “preservation of liberty\ndepends upon the intelligence of the whole people” early prevailed, and\nthe American common school had its birth.\nThis school, supported entirely by the people of the district, stood,\nalmost to the same degree as the church, as the center of public interest.\nThe common people had a profound belief in their ability.to manage its\nCertain evils, local jealousies, without doubt resulted from this\naffairs.\nfaith, but there also grew out of it a keen sense of civic duty and a remarkabie capacity for dealing successfully with public questions of the most\nWhat a training school for citizenship\nvital importance to the nation.\nthis district school was before the tide of population set so strongly\ntoward the cities, carrying with it the more vigorous and progressive\nIn its palmy days, how it touched the life of the whole\nof the people!\nAmbitious, of\ncommunity!\nThink of the teachers in these schools!\nthe best blood, closely bound up with the common welfare, they carried from household to household the influences of their brave, young\nmanhood and womanhood, the moral stimulation of their hopes and ideals,\nand aided immensely in establishing a true democracy of intellect and\nOpen to grave criticism as to methods, sadly deficient in\ncharacter.\nequipment, ludicrously wanting in those refinements of administration\nwhich are now our special boast and pride, this early school nevertheless\ncame far nearer a realization of that ideal so graphically sketched by Mr.\nDutton than do many of our schools of today.\nNot only could it\ntruly be said “ As the teacher, so the school,” but even more, “ As the school,\n\nso the community.”\nBut the passing years have wrought great changes.\n\nFrom a people\n\nof less than 4,000,000 we have grown into a nation of 70,000,000.\nour\n\nscattered settlements\n\noccupied\n\na narrow\n\nstrip of\n\nseacoast;\n\nThen\nnow\n\nwe\n\nhave planted our cities and extended our homes over an empire of\n3,000,000 square miles.\nEvery country of the civilized world and many\nof the uncivilized have contributed of their blood to swell the current of\nlife within our body politic. Wealth has greatly accumulated, power has\nenormously increased.\nHardship and privation have given place to luxury\namong a large proportion of the population.\nFor simple modes of life,\nthe conventionalities and refinements of an aristocratic and artificial society\nhave been substituted.\nIn flash-light picture we see the tea party and\n“social” replaced by a Bradley-Martin ball; the lyceum, by the evening\nbanquet of three\n\nhours’\n\nduration, with\n\nthe after-dinner consideration of\n\nthe gravest questions of public policy.\n- Coincident with these great changes new dangers have arisen, for the\naccumulation\n\nof wealth has been in the hands of the few, not distributed\n\namong the many; the industrial conquests which we are wont to count\n\n"}
{"page": 260, "printed_page": null, "text": "250\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\n—~,\n\namong the crowning glories of our civilization may have been gained at\nthe expense of the efficiency of the individual now condemned to the\n“dreary monotony of some small detail in the vast machinery of industry.”\nUniversal suffrage has been won through the sacrifices of blood and\nbrawn. Universal education has been established. But have these precious\npossessions made all men “free in thought, pure in motive, patriotic in\nact’”’? Must we look far afield to find instances of the surrender of individual conscience at the behest of the political ‘boss’?\nDoes the conduct of public affairs in our great cities always illustrate the principle that\n“municipal government is business, not politics,” using that term in its\nnarrow and ignoble sense?\nDo all men who in their private dealings are\nabove reproach hesitate to enrich themselves at the public expense ?\nIs the teacher under any moral obligation to find an answer to questions of this nature?\nIs he in any sense responsible for the character of\nthat answer?\nWhat aid is he giving in combating evils, if they exist ?\nIn reviewing and strengthening old virtues?\nHas the pupil, who tomorrow takes his place in the world, a citizen, learned that conditions which\nfavor the development of grave dangers, vzz., the concentration of a vast\npopulation within a limited area, the combinations of social and industrial\n\nagencies, a press, powerful to mold and to reflect public opinion, that all\nthese are forces to be marshaled on the side of right and the public good ?\nIn fine, has the teacher maintained the position he once held in influencing the social and political well-being of the community?\nFrom year to year he has allowed himself to be removed further from\nthe life of the common people, until he has become a part of a great\nmachine.\nIn the world the warring social elements have engaged in constantly increasing strife, but his isolation has even become more complete.\nThe great world has known little about his work and has seemed to care\nless. ‘The little it has known is gained through the children, always a\nmost powerful influence, but not always an equally reliable source of\ninformation.\nEven this connecting link has been wanting in drawing\nhim into relations with that rapidly growing class in American life which\nhas no children to identify its interests with those of the common\nschool.\n;\nThoughtful people, however, are beginning to realize that this separation between life and school can no longer be safely endured. Whether\nthey will or not, the citizen, representing the world, and the teacher, the\nschool, must again be brought into that close relation.of sympathy and\nco-operation referred to by the previous speaker.\nPoor citizen!\nIn all the varying aspects of the case he has bravely\nand patiently performed at least one function.\nDirectly or indirectly, he\nhas paid the bills! Satisfied that when this duty was done his responsibility ended, he has grown careless and indifferent about\n\na\ne\nS\n\nthe welfare of\n\nA\n\n"}
{"page": 261, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence |\n\nRELATIONS\n\nOF\n\nCITIZENS\n\nAND\n\nTEACHERS\n\n251\n\nthe school. At last he is being brought into an attitude of attention and\ninterest—what wonder that he betrays ignorance regarding modern\nadvances in education and manifests a strong prejudice in favor of the\nideals and methods in vogue in his youth!\nLife has crowned him with\nsome\n\nsuccess,\n\nso we\n\nfind\n\nhim\n\nconservative.\n\nHe\n\nis honest,\n\nbut rather\n\nobstinate;\n\nan individual of importance in his community, he feels that\nSo he expresses these opinions, the\nhis opinions should carry weight.\nessence of conservatism, with greater or less vehemence, through the\npress, the pulpit, during the daily round of his practice, or among his\nassociates of the office or the shop.\nThis is the man who must be won over to the view that the school has a\n\nhigher, nobler, more\n\nvitally important work to do than the bare teaching\n\nof the three R’s—a work not inconsistent with successful instruction in\nthe three R’s, on the contrary, making that immensely more thorough\nand effective.\nUntiring patience, infinite tact, calm judgment, a serene temper, are\nneeded to change this man’s feeling towards education and to convince\nhim that the school has another, and perhaps greater, claim upon him than\nthe payment of a tax.\nBut he is well worth the effort, this typical, conservative citizen, who forms the largest and best part of every American community.\nWhat folly it is to try to force upon such a man the immediate\nacceptance of all the commendable\n\nfeatures of the new education, which\n\nis not so new after all! Then think of requiring him to sanction some\nof the vagaries that masquerade under that title!\nConsider the harm\n~ that will surely be done to the cause which\n\nseeks to bind\n\nhome, school,\n\nand the world into one blessed union, for the upbuilding of individual\ncharacter and worth and the service of the state, by an inundation of the\ntown with circulars calling for some of the bizarre information collected\nunder the head of child study, or letting loose a local boom in optical\ngoods as the first fruits of a wholesale examination of eyes and ears by\nexperts(?) who last week heard of the Snellen’s types for the first time !\nNot that any careful student of education can be blind to the merits of real\n\nchild study, or in doubt as to the great réle it is destined to play in the\nbetterment of education.\nThe pity is that so excellent and profitable a\nfield of inquiry should be so grievously misunderstood.\nAnd now there\nremains for further brief consideration the party of the second part, the\nteacher.\nA day or two ago I ran across a comparison which attracted my attenIt was as follows: In 1870 the number of women teachers in\ntion.\nAmerica was 84,047;\n\nin 1890 it had increased to 246,166, nearly 200 per\n\nDuring the same period the population grew from 38% millions\ncent.\nMaking liberal allowance for the\nto 63 millions, about 79 per cent.\nextension of education in the West and the South, and the consequent\n\n"}
{"page": 262, "printed_page": null, "text": "252\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\ndemand for a greater number of teachers over and above that resulting\nfrom the increase in population, we may gain from these figures some\nidea, imperfect to be sure, as to the rate at which women are taking the\nplace of men as teachers, especially in the rural schools and the higher\npositions of city schools.\nSuch a fact should not be overlooked\nIt means\nin a discussion of the relations of citizens and teachers.\nthat an increasingly large number of teachers is drawn from that\nclass of the population which, in many states, is denied the right of\nan active participation in public affairs.\nIt means, further, that more\n‘and more the training of the future citizen is passing into the hands\nof persons, the ordinary course and\n\ntendency of whose life are away from,\n\n‘rather than toward, an intimate knowledge of and\n\nsymyathy with public\n\nlife and civic duty; who, too often for the safety of the state, fail to catch\n\nthe spirit of the time or to appreciate the magnitude of their task; who,\ninstead of fostering and encouraging quite a show of interest on the part\nof citizens—which Mr. Dutton has described as existing in Brookline—\ndeem any criticism of their work or expression of desire to share in it an\nIt is the duty of the hour to recognize these\nunwarrantable intrusion.\nconditions and to seek their remedy. Influences outside of the school are\ntending toward a better state of things, ¢. g., the rapid extension of club\nlife for women, the spread of woman suffrage, a more rational treatment of\nThese influences would without doubt, even if\nphilanthropic questions.\nunaided, bring in the needed reforms;\n\nbut why wait for the slow process\n\nof such asocial evolution ? Nowis the ‘accepted time” to make teachers\nfeel how closely the personal and individual interests of daily life are intertwined with our governmental relations; to know that in some form\ngovernment\n\n— municipal, state, or national— touches\n\nus\n\neverywhere\n\nand\n\nat all times. ‘The penny dropped into the beggar’s hat, the purity of the\nwater we drink, the protection of our homes, the support of our schools,\nthe maintenance of the highways leading to them, the letter upon the\ndesk —— these, and a hundred other considerations so necessary to our well-\n\nbeing, bring us into_social and governmental relations of far-reaching\ne which impose upon all responsibilities that even a\ninfluenc\n— relations\n‘The study of these relations, the free discussion of\nchild can understand.\n\ni\nai\ni\nn\naii\na\n\nsocial questions, will, I believe, lead to a truer patriotism than an insistence\n\non forms and ceremonies and empty clap-trap.\nIn this study and these\ndiscussions both citizens and teachers can and should take part. To my\nmind the pathway by which to restore the old intimate relation between\nlife and school, and to give it a greater power than ever before, lies here.\nOne thing, however, needs to be kept in mind: the teacher’s work\nmust not be so exhausting and continuous that all desire to mingle in\nthe life of the community, to be identified with its charities, its social and\npolitical reforms, dies because there is neither time nor energy to sustain it.\n\n—\n\n"}
{"page": 263, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nPROPER\n\nUSE\n\nOF SCHOOLHOUSES\n\n~\n\n253\n=\n\n——\n\nThus the teacher, through incredsed contact with life, co-operating\nwith the citizen in the study and control of social forces, in strong faith\nin reforms which rest on the force of individual character and a devotion\nto high ideals of public duty, will speed the day when all men will accept\nas the standard by which to judge their country nothing lower than this\n‘Its foundation is laid in pure\n(I quote again from Mr. Lecky):\ndomestic life, in commercial integrity, in a high standard-of moral worth\nand of public spirit, in simple habits, in courage, in uprightness, and a\ncertain soundness and moderation of judgment which spring quite as\nmuch from character as from intellect.\n“If you would form a wise judgment of the future of a nation, observe\ncarefully whether these qualities are increasing or decaying.\nObserve\nespecially what qualities count for most in public life.\nIs character\nbecoming of greater or less importance?\nAre the men who obtain the\nhighest posts in the community and the nation men of whom, in private\nlife and irrespective of party, competent judges speak with genuine\nrespect?\nAre they of sincere convictions, consistent lives, indisputable\nintegrity, or are they men who have won their positions by the arts of a\ndemagogue or an intriguer?\nIt is by observing this moral current that\nyou can best cast the horoscope of a nation.”\n\nTHE\nBY AARON\n\nPROPER\n\nGOVE,\n\nUSE\n\nOF SCHOOLHOUSES.\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nDENVER,\n\nCOLO.\n\nFrom the beginning the public schoolhouses of the country have been\ndesigned and erected for the one purpose of the schooling of the children\nof the community.\nSo ardent is the faith in common schools that the\nlaws of the land have been framed in such a manner that provision for\nthe education of the children by the erection of houses is mandatory.\nThe people’s belief in common schools is emphatically set before the\nworld by their willingness, earnestness, and munificence in the expenditure of money for the erection of buildings.\nThese schoolhouses, often\nplanned and erected with consummate skill—occasionally also with\nare part of the permanent investments of every\nextravagant expenditure—\nThe total amount invested, $450,000,000,\ncountry.\ninthe\ncity\nvillage and\nthe attention of the superintendents to\ncall\nI\nis beyond apprehension.\nand suggest that, without materially\ninvestment;\nthe returns from this\npeople may have greater returns.\ncommon\nthe\nincreasing the expenditure,\nthat the public purse\ncommunity\nIt is the sentiment of the American\n\nmay be used for the instruction of adults as well as of children.\n\nSome\n\n"}
{"page": 264, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n254\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\ncities already provide free courses of lectures from the funds of the boards\nof education; and notably the great state of New York has made material\nadditions in the way of appropriations for apparatus fot the illustration\nof free lectures.\nIt has been well said that the Protestant churches of the country are\nof too little service to the builders, because they are closed to the people\nsix-sevenths of the time.\n\nWhile this is not, to so great an extent, true of\n\nschool buildings, yet they are open for not to exceed six hours a day, five\nIf it be profitable to provide\ndays in the week, for 180 days in the year.\ninstruction for the people by lectures, lyceums, scientific expositions, and\ndiscussion, then is it not possible so to plan the school building that this end\nmay be reached without materially increasing the expense to the people ?\nAlso, the democratic character of our government demands frequent and\nintelligent conversation upon, and public discussion of, the issues that\nrelate to the perpetuity of the nation.\nEvery community requires a\nmeeting place.\n\nChurches,\n\nfor reasons\n\nwell\n\nunderstood, are\n\nlimited\n\nto\n\nreligious meetings and allied social gatherings by theological bias and\ndenominational proprietorship.\nAt county seats the courthouse is provided with a public hall, which belongs, as do the schoolhouses, to the\nBut the towns wherein are courthouses are so few in number as\npeople.\nto be not worthy of consideration at present.\nIt is usual to construct an assembly room in schoolhouses, commonly\nat the top of the house, to which access is gained only by climbing flights\nof stairs, always with embarrassment, and often with risk of accident from\nfire or other causes.\nThe audience is compelled to pass through some\npart of the house.\nThis assembly room has for its primary purpose the\nmassing of the pupils of the school in one body for such purposes as\nbelong to school work, including occasional entertainments and exhibitions for the public.\nWhen, as is sometimes the case, a social or scientific subject is interesting the people, and the community is hungry for\ninformation\n\nupon\n\nit, and\n\ninstructors\n\nand\n\nlecturers\n\nare\n\nobtainable, the\n\nassembly room of a schoolhouse is the most convenient place for public\nmeetings for its discussion or exposition.\nBut it has been found that but\nfew subjects admit of discussion in the schoolhouse.\nAnd even in such\ncases the abuses by the audience, as well as their irresponsibility, are\noften so great that the school authorities are compelled, after a few\nexperiments, to refuse the opening of the house for other than legitimate\nschool purposes.\nThus it has come about that we have treated our schoolhouse— often\nthe only public building in the community\n—as quite too sacred for use\nfor popular adult instruction.\nAnd in general we have been right in so\ndoing, for a modern schoolroom, so arranged and furnished and decorated as to be a proper and interesting home for pupils, is irrevocably\n\n"}
{"page": 265, "printed_page": null, "text": "‘\nway\n\nSuperintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nPROPER\n\nUSE\n\nOF SCHOOLHOUSES\n\n255\n\nharmed by allowing a promiscuous audience to occupy it.\n\nThe furniture\n\nis wrenched and twisted and broken; the floor is daubed and littered;\nthe walls are marked and soiled; the ink is spattered ; the pictures and\n\ndecorations, books and apparatus, soon fall into a degraded, dilapidated\ncondition; and pupils’ property is appropriated or mutilated.\nIt is\nimprudent to urge the opening of schoolrooms, save in exceptional cases\nor with careful preparations therefor, to other than teachers and pupils,\nfor whom they are constructed and maintained.\nBut is it not reasonable and proper so to construct a schoolhouse, and with very little\nincreased cost, as to afford to the people, who pay for it, a literary home,\n\nan educational center for adults, including library where possible?\nAllow me to illustrate by a community, be it city or village or part of\na city, of five thousand people.\nFive thousand people in the East are\ncompelled to make provision for the seating of a thousand pupils, and in\nthe West and interior, of at least eight hundred pupils. This means a\nI am thinking of a\nschoolhouse of sixteen rooms, or its equivalent.\nschoolhouse in a given village or community, which the people have\nerected at a cost, by taxation, of, say, $30,000, which is closed much more\n\nIt contains\nthan four-fifths of the total hours of active life of any year.\nschoolrooms furnished for the pupils, and sometimes— more often not—\nan assembly room or hall, generally up one or two flights of stairs. Now,\nsuch a schoolhouse can be so constructed that on the ground floor, with\nentrance from the street, and without passing through any part of the\nbuilding, shall be an assembly room capable of seating not less than 200\nLet us see what the cost of maintaining such\nor more than 300 people.\nan improvement would be. In winter the house is warmed during the\nday, therefore little extra fuel is required for evening comfort.\nThe lighting is the bare expense of consumption, whether it be oil, gas, or electricity ;the care of the room itself; a few dollars added to the pay of the\njanitor. The construction of the room is of such a character that no\nrespectable audience can harm it or its contents.\nInstead of school desks\nare chairs or settees; school apparatus is absent; the wainscoting and\nflooring are for a public hall.\nThe extra expense to the people for\nmaintaining a room of this kind is very slight. This room belongs to\nthe community; any respectable, peaceable group of people wishing,\nin the evenings or even during the day, to assemble for the purpose of\nIf a little library has\ninstruction or rational entertainment is welcome.\nbeen gathered, it is in or near this room, and open at regular periods for\nuse. The embarrassments in the management of such a room are limited\nto the decision of the authorities as to what sort of meetings shall be permitted in it. The line would naturally be drawn between instruction and\nrational entertainment on the one side, and disreputable\n\nshows, sectarian\n\nreligious meetings, and partisan political caucuses on the other.\n\nThe list\n\n"}
{"page": 266, "printed_page": null, "text": "256\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nof legitimate uses, about which no question could arise, to which it could\n\nbe put is a very long one.\nMy proposition, then, is that the public schoolhouse at present, in the\naverage American community, is not placed sufficiently at the service of\nthe people, and this has come about largely because of our almost fetichA schoolhouse belongs to the people,\nworship of our school buildings.\nis built by the people’s money, and ought to be constantly at the people’s\n. service for educational purposes.\nSo far I have spoken only of communities of sufficient size to cause\nthe erection of a large schoolhouse.\nBut the rural schoolhouse algo ought\nto be a meeting place for the people quite as much as the city schoolhouses.\nIndeed, it usually is the public’s social and educational center.\n\nBut abuses\n\naccompany the use akin to the abuses mentioned above.\nThe school\nbuilding at the crossroads that is used for church services, for town meetings, for political caucuses, being, in fact, the only building in the whole\nregion in which all the neighborhood can assemble, has been so abused as\n\nto destroy one of its greatest values in educating children.\nSome attention to the construction of these buildings, together with added conveniences in the way of movable or adjustable furniture, would make a proper\nuse of the country schoolhouse easy and inexpensive.\nIt would better\nmeet the needs of all the people.\n:\nIt will not be forgotten that our schoolhouses are closed from two to\nthree months in the year, during the summer vacation.\nWhat the present\nmovement toward summer schools will bring forth cannot now be known.\nBut the knowledge of these vacant buildings all over the country, useless\nfor so long a time in summer, must tend to encourage the plan whereby\nidle boys and girls may have profitable employment for a time during the\nlong vacation, without the expense of preparing quarters for the purpose.\nAfter extended conversations with an architect friend, and certain cal-\n\nculations and planning, I am convinced that the ordinary schoolhouse can\nbe erected with a hall of sufficient seating capacity to accommodate the\npurpose I have indicated at the expense of not less than 5 per cent. and\nnot over 12 per cent. increase on the total cost.\nThe construction of a\nlarge room on the first floor of a building is expensive on account of the\nincreased necessary weight of the walls and foundation for the upper\nstructure.\n\nThe objections are to me, however, not sufficient to offset the\n\nadvantages.\n‘True, pupils will climb higher to reach a schoolroom, but\nonly a trifle higher.\nIn large portions of the country a part of this meeting room can be lower than the sidewalk, the entrance being even with it.\nIt would be possible even, by using wooden partitions above, so to arrange\nthe building that the expense be not increased at all. An iron beam or\na few small iron columns would furnish the necessary support.\nAn estimate of the use to which such a room would be put (over and above the’\n\n"}
{"page": 267, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nDISCUSSTON\n\n257\n\nuse of the attic hall), in view of its convenience to the people and the\npossibility of extended instruction, are measures that deserve consideration.\nI know of one large high-school building, planned along this line,\nwhere a large assembly hall on the ground floor, on the corner of two\nstreets, with convenient and ample entrances from the sidewalk, furnishes\n\naccommodation fora veritable people’s university extension.\nhave a room of their own, always ready for their use.\n\nThe people\n\nDISCOSSION.\nSUPERINTENDENT R, H. HALseEy, Binghampton, N. Y.—I desire to call your attention\nto various forms of co-operation between the school and the community which, in my judgment, have been material helps in bringing about a very much more intimate relationship\nbetween the two.\nWhat I have to say applies more especially to small cities\n— those that\n\nin New York state we call cities of the third class.\nA public school aid society, consisting primarily of teachers, but not necessarily limited to teachers in its membership, has been organized in some cities, The principal purpose for which this society is organized is the assistance of indigent pupils. The rigid\nenforcement of the compulsory-attendance law in the state of New York has brought more\nclearly to the teachers’ attention many instances of pupils who are unable to attend schools\nregularly because of a lack of proper clothing. The aid society has undertaken to get\nfunds and clothing from the more fortunate pupils and supply the needs of the indigent.\nMedical assistance has been furnished through the same agency to pupils whose parents\nwere unable to secure the services of competent physicians.\nSuffering onthe part of those\nwho have defective vision has been relieved by consultation with an oculist. Thus not\nonly is charity bestowed upon those deserving it, but the children experience the pleasure\nthat comes from trying to help the unfortunate, and the school is getting into closer touch\nwith the community because it is the agency through which comes the means from the\ncommunity for this work.\nEducational associations have been formed in various cities, whose membership consists\nof both teachers and the more thoughtful members of the community not engaged in the\nwork of teaching. Under the direction of these associations systematic attempts have\nbeen made to awaken an intelligent interest in the community in the ends and aims of\neducation, as we view them today, and a sympathetic appreciation of improved methods\nof teaching that are gradually finding their way into the schools. Men prominent in educational circles are invited by these associations to address meetings, to which the citizens\n\nare cordially invited.\n\nThose who do not attend are likely to hear something of an echo\n\nfrom the meeting through the press. The superintendent findsin these associations a most\neffectual means of training the general public to an understanding of the ends he is trying\nto reachin the schools and of the means he is taking to accomplish his purpose.\nYet it\nmust be confessed that these associations and the meetings conducted under their auspices\naffect but a small portion of the community at first, and the progress they make in interesting the general public is so slow that the school authorities have need of a marble\n\npatience to await the growth of public sentiment in support of modern methods and progressive schools, Other means must be sought that will more readily appeal to parents\nwho cannot be classed under the head of the more thoughtful members of the community.\n\n"}
{"page": 268, "printed_page": null, "text": "soe\n\n258\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nSuch an agency the state of New York has provided for its schools in the geographical lectures, illustrated by stereopticon views, which “it furnishes, with the necessary apparatus,\nto the schools of all its cities and towns.\nIf, in addition to the presentation of these views to the pupils, the parents are invited\n\nin, they will not fully appreciate the psychological value of the visual training that their\nchildren are thus gaining, but they will have a dawning consciousness of the improvement\nin the methods of studying geography that have been made since their school days, and\nwill thus the more readily sympathize with improvements made in the methods pursued in\nother branches of the common-school course.\nFor the accomplishment of this most desirable object — the hearty co-operation of parent and teacher — we may perhaps excuse, if not\ndefend, the old-fashioned Friday afternoon rhetorical exercises, in that they certainly lead\nto the visitation of the school by the parent. Much more satisfactory, however, is the more\nmodern patrons’ day observed in many of our schools, where cards of invitation are issued\nto parents from the teachers, urging their attendance at the school on a certain day, to\nobserve the regular work of the school.\nAnd although it would, perhaps, be expecting too\nmuch from any teachers living so near the twentieth century as we do to arrange that the\nwork presented on that day should actually be the regular work of the day, and not rather\nsome exercises upon which the pupils had been especially drilled for the occasion, nevertheless the opportunity which is thus afforded for the inspection of school work by the parent,\nand the subsequent discussion of subjects of interest to both parent and teacher, the free\ninterchange of opinions between them, are of the very highest importance to both.\nHigh-school extension may become a useful factor in a small community for securing\nthe harmonious co-operation of the school and the public. In a western city of less than\nthree thousand inhabitants, where\n\nthere had been\n\nalmost no\n\nincentives toward a college\n\ncourse, a tide of high-school graduates was at last set flowing toward the university. Many\ngraduates desired to go whose circumstances would not allow them to go. It seemed hard\nthat those who were anxious to secure the advantages of advanced study could secure no\nassistance toward the accomplishment of their desire. The alumni association of the school\ntook up the matter, and classes were organized in a dozen or more different branches,\ninstructed, so far as possible, by graduates of the school who had had the benefit of a college\ntraining. The movement was at first intended for high-school pupils only, but later others\nwere admitted to the classes, so that many operatives in the factories’ were instructed without cost by these university graduates. The movement was most helpful in making the\ncommunity feel that its high school was turning out boys and girls who recognized the\nresponsibility that unusual privileges had placed upon them.\nIt seems to me that a most important factor in the co-ordination of the educational\nforces of the community must be the superintendent.\nWe were told in the discussion yesterday that the chief duty of the superintendent is to be the professional leader of the\nteachers. This is true; but it is equally true that the superintendent who conceives that\nhis duties are not much broader than that is one who will not prove the most efficient for\nthe schools under his charge. He must be a man keenly alive to every movement in his\ncommunity for the advancement of its higher interests;\n\na man who\n\nshall seek to enforce\n\nupon the people on every suitable occasion the absolute necessity for intelligent co-operation with the school\n\noe\n\nauthorities;\n\na man\n\nwho\n\nrealizes\n\nthat\n\nthe community is educated\n\nery many other avenues than the schools under his charge;\n\na man who, by his\n\njudicious attitude, when other interests of the city seemingly conflict with its school inter-\n\nep has won and has kept the confidence of the people; a man who realizes in fact that\n\neach upward step man’s toil-worn foot doth climb is but another birth of God sublime,”\nwhether that Epa step is within the narrow path of his profession in the discovery of\nnew pedagogical Hans, or outside in the broader field of life. Unless the superintendent\nbe such a man as this, we cannot hope to secure an earnest and sympathetic co-operation\nof the school and community.\n\n“~\n\n"}
{"page": 269, "printed_page": null, "text": "vy}\n\nSuperintendence]\n\nDISCUSSTON\n\n259\n\nWe must manage to offer such inducements to the ablest men and women to enter the\nprofession of teaching as will tend to elevate the whole profession.\nThe compensation of\nthe average teacher, whether reckoned in public esteem or in dollars, is entirely inadequate\nwhen we consider the preparation required and the importance of the work attempted.\nThere are many of the smaller cities in the country where many a cook receives higher\nThe public will not hold in high esteem\nwages than are paid to the average grade teacher.\n\nthat which costs them so little, even if the compensation received were sufficient to warrant\nthe expenditure necessary for an adequate preparation for the work.\nE. B. PRETTYMAN, State Superintendent of Maryland.—We may consider the relation of teachers to citizens under the two heads of (1) their relation to the citizens of the\npresent, and (2) their relation to the citizens of the next generation.\nToward\n\nthe former it is to be feared that the relation\n\nis not what it should be, and\n\nthere are obvious reasons therefor.\nThe teacher who succeeds is necessarily a student;\nhis ofice demands, more and more, not only a careful preparation for entrance upon its\nduties, but continual growth in his profession; his time is occupied in keeping pace with\neducational progress, and the tendency is to employ all his time out of school in his\nstudy, learning, and endeavoring\n\nto digest, what comes to him, according\n\ntunities in connection with his daily work in school.\n\nto his oppor-\n\nPerhaps this course is excusable, if\n\nnot commendable, in the young teacher.\nBut the danger is, lest he become a mere bookworm, that he lose touch with affairs, and thus become more and more narrow and unfit\n\nto establish and maintain the relation that should exist between himself and the parents\nof his pupils, and hetween himself and his fellow-citizens in general.\nThe teacher should\n\nremember that he is a citizen as well as a teacher; and he can-\n\nnot expect to interest and influence those about him unless he is an intelligent citizen,\n_ keeping pace with the progress of the world, and with public affairs. He should be an\nall-around man, with knowledge of, and interest in, whatever occupies the thought and\nattention of other good people. He should be influential in every matter looking to the\npublic welfare, and he cannot be unless he is in intelligent sympathy with the publicspirited, benevolent, and thoughtful public about him.\nWhenever the great multitude of those who are engaged in the various divisions of\npublic education are thus equipped and acting together, under the inspiration and guid-\n\nance of our great leaders, whose best thoughts and sentiments are accessible to us all\nthrough the press, their influence will become powerful, not only in the world of thought,\nbut in the world of affairs.\nAs to the attitude of citizens towards teachers, it seems clear that that is also within\n\nthe power of teachers to determine.\nI have no sympathy with the whine that is sometimes heard from a certain class of teachers, that society looks down upon them.\nIf by “society” they mean the ultra-fashionables of the 400 variety, the answer is that\nthe estimation of such society is beneath the contempt of any properly equipped teacher.\nIf the general public is referred to, the assertionis not true. Teachers are esteemed, by\nall whose opinion is worth considering, according to their real merit, in intelligence, disposition, manners, and character; and those who are worthy, and who act well their part,\n\neverywhere earn and receive the esteem and affection which they deserve.\nThe relation of teachers to the citizens of the next generation is of the utmost importance, and it is the plain duty of every teacher to realize that his pupils must be continually\nregarded as the coming citizens.\n\nThe “reason for being” of a public-school system, supported at the public expense,\nis that the citizens may be intelligent and of good character. A despotic government\nmay not require for its existence an intelligent citizenship, but in a republic this is a\nnecessity.\nThe American minister in France during the Revolution, Gouverneur Morris, as he\n\n"}
{"page": 270, "printed_page": null, "text": "260\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nwitnessed the saturnalia of blood and crime, under the sway of the maddened populace,\nexclaimed, ‘‘ Thank God that we have no such citizens in America !”\n\nThat, notwithstanding the enormous immigration to this country, we have not had\nto this day any considerable number of such citizens is due very largely to the public-school\nsystem, whose chief function is the training of the whole population to intelligent and\nmoral citizenship. The home and the church have like duties ;but to all the children of\nour country the school training is indispensable, and to many the school gives all the\ntraining they receive.\nGenuine and intelligent patriotism, and the duties of citizens of the Republic, must\nbe systematically taught. The teachers, under the supervision of the members of this\ndepartment, are the only possible agents that can instruct the future citizens.\nIt is a hopeful sign that this is recognized, and that at every meeting of educators\nprominence is given to the discussion of citizenship, and that in the curriculum of every\nsystem of public schools are embraced the teaching of civics and the inculcation of\npatriotism.\nNo better opportunity could be given to teachers for such instruction than the teaching of the history of our country and the constitution of the United States, including its\nhistory, as the result of the experience of the past in government, and including the\nbiography of the immortal framers of the constitution.\nThe youth must be taught the great aims of government, the great principles which\nunderlie our schemes of government, the development of those principles historically, the\nsacrifices that have made our present government possible, and the heroic devotion and\nprofound wisdom of its framers.\n:\n\nThe constitution of the United States, which is the admiration of all real statesmen in\n\nall lands, and the model toward which all peoples are struggling, should be reverenced by\nour youth, with knowledge of how it was evolved in the light of the teaching of history.\nThe history of our own time, as given to us by the newspapers, should be taught in\nevery school.\n;\nEvery school should be furnished at the public expense, not only with educational\njournals, but with, at least, one good daily or weekly newspaper.\nThe children should\nlearn daily what is occurring throughout the world—leading events, discoveries, and\nimprovements— and the teachers should not be expected out of their meager salaries to\nprovide the means of information, any more than to furnish the text-books.\nAs to whether the teachers under their supervisors may be trusted thus to train the\ncitizens of the next generation we should not doubt, notwithstanding temporary disturbances, and notwithstanding occasional intemperate partisanship, and notwithstanding\nperplexing problems of the present, or any impending dangers.\nAt the meeting of the National Educational Association in Denver it seems to me\nthat no part of that exceedingly interesting and successful session was so impressive, and\neven thrilling, as the one devoted to the discussion of “ Teaching Patriotism in the Public\nSchools.” After able, eloquent, and patriotic addresses by gentlemen from each section\nof our great country, the then President, Dr. Nicholas Murray Butler, with his usual discriminating taste, suggested as the proper closing exercise that the congregation should\njoin in singing the immortal hymn “ America,” and as the vast concourse, representing the\nteachers and officers of every state of the Union, united in that grand and devout expression of genuine American love of our native land, no one could resist the belief that\nunder the intelligent and enthusiastic guidance of that great company and of those whom\nthey represented, and by the continued blessing of our fathers’ God, the Republic is safe.\nJ. A. SHAWAN, Superintendent of Schools, Columbus, O.\n\nwe sit today in the very heart of the old Northwest Territory.\n\n— We should not forget that\n\nOne of the provisions of\n\nthe “Ordinance of 1787” was that the means of education should be forever maintained,\n\n4\n\n"}
{"page": 271, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nWHY ART\n\nAND\n\nLITERATURE\n\nOUGHT\n\nTO BE\n\nSTUDIED\n\n261\n\nThis ordinance is older than the national constitution, and was but prophetic of the educa-\n\ntional spirit of the people of this section.\nFrom the time that Eggleston’s “ Hoosier Schoolmaster” held his famous spelling\nschool in Hooppole township, Posey county, state of Indiana, to the present, the closest\nrelationship has been maintained between the teacher and the citizen. All public entertainments of whatever kind, whether they were the spelling school, the exhibition, the lit.\nerary society, or the city commencement, have recognized the close relationship between\nthe schools and the people.\nPublic days, properly observed, may not only benefit the children, but may benefit all\nwho attend them.\nThus the schools become what they should be—centers of influence\nand inspiration for the entire community.\nA part of most programmes should be devoted\nto regular class work, so that the citizens may know what the schools are doing.\nMany sensitive superintendents and teachers would like to free themselves from the\ngalling influences of public criticism.\nItis true that criticisms are often ill-humored and\nunjust, but as long as the schools belong to the public, such things must be expected and\nborne with as much patience as possible.\n‘They usually arise from failure to know what\nthe schools are actually doing.\nWe must take the people into our confidence as fully as\npossible, and nothing helps more in this direction than to get them to visit the schools\nand see for themselves what is being attempted and done.\nAt our meeting one year ago,\nSuperintendent Blodgett, of Syracuse, spoke of the wholesome effect of grammar-school\ncommencements.\nWe can testify to similar results in our city. When first introduced in\nJune, 1893, many feared that children would feel their education had been completed, and\ndrop out.\n\nSuch, however, has not been the result of this arrangement.\n\nOn the contrary,\n\nthe opportunity afforded to speak to parents concerning the education of their children was\nimproved, and more have entered the high schools than ever before.\n\nLast year 794 were\n\npromoted to the high school. Of this number 679 are now in the high schools, z. ¢., 86 per\ncent. of the number promoted have entered and are still in the high schools of Columbus.\nThere is such a thing as removing the schools too far away from the people. We\nmay imitate the German school methods with great profit to our pupils, but the German\nsystem can never become the American system.\nHere the teacher must stand, not as the\nrepresentative of an arbitrary government, but as the representative of free institutions, to\nwhich he and his patrons alike belong.\nI believe, however, that the hand of the law should be strong enough to protect the rights\nof every child who is tobecome an American citizen. If our institutions are to be preserved\nby the intelligence and moral training of the rising generation, then each child should be\nbrought under the influence of the American teacher, whether his parents will it or not.\n\nThese schools are the standing army of the Republic.\nHere many of the social\nbattles are to be fought, and the coming citizen should be prepared for his responsibilities\nas such. Nothing but the most thoughtful and thorough co-operation and sympathy\nbetween citizens and teachers can produce the desired results.\n\nWHY\n\nBY\n\nART AND\n\nLITERATURE\nOUGHT\nIN OUR SCHOOLS.\n\nW.\n\nUNITED\n\nT.. HARRIS,\n\nSTATES\n\nTO\n\nCOMMISSIONER\n\nBE\n\nOF\n\nSTUDIED\n\nEDUCATION.\n\nAll questions relating to the course of study in the schools must be’\ntaken, first, into the court that decides on educational values, and, next, into\n\n"}
{"page": 272, "printed_page": null, "text": "era\n2\n\n262\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nThe former investigates the\nthe court that settles the order of sequence.\ncivilization, and the latter\nof\nlight\nthe\nin\nstudy\nmeaning of the proposed\nthe place of its introduction into the school programme.\nThe first proceeding is to place the question in the light of all human learning, and\nthe second is to place it in the light of educational psychology.\nOur present question, therefore, must be examined with a view to see\n\nwhat art and literature mean in our civilization, what they have meant in\nthe past, and what they must necessarily mean in the future that shall be.\nThen, having settled its degree of importance, we may turn to educational\npsychology and ask where in the education of:man this can profitably be\nintroduced, what stages of growth it presupposes as already attained, and\nwhat methods are best for the results we wish to accomplish.\nBy the term art I designate sculpture, painting, architecture, and\nmusic.\nBy literature I mean chiefly poetry—epic, dramatic, and lyric\npoetry.\nI include also such prose writings as critical miscellanies, which\nfurnish reflections on the same general themes that poetry treats.\nAbove\nall I include the novel, the romance or the story. While the epic poem\nhas for its theme the conflict of nations, the novel\n\ncivil society and in the family, and\ngeois.\n\ntreats of conflicts in\n\nhas been called the epic of the bour:\n\nIn order to see what we have to do with in art and literature, let us look\n\nfor a moment at its place among the fundamental activities of the soul.\n(Parenthetically I explain that I group together art and literature, under\none definition, as the province of zsthetics, and hence I use the pronoun 7¢\n\nor z¢s to refer to them.)\nThe highest idea man reaches is his thought of the divine as the first\nprinciple of the universe.\nThere are three forms in which he attempts\nto express this idea: First, in religion ; second, in art ;third, in philosophy.\nThis highest idea appears successively as the good, the beautiful, and the\ntrue.\nWe call the effort to celebrate the divine and realize it in good\ndeeds religion; the effort to give visible forms or audible forms to it\ngives us the various branches of the fine arts and literature; the attempt\nto explain the world by the divine idea and tocomprehend ultimate truth\nis philosophy.\nThus we are to regard art and literature as having the\nsame theme as religion and philosophy.\nThe idea that sculpture and\npainting, music and poetry, have no other use than amusement must give\nway to the view which regards them as among the most serious and\nworthy occupations of the human soul.\nAll that man does contributes to a revelation of human nature in its\nentirety, but art and literature lead all other branches of human learning\nin their capacity to manifest and illustrate the desires and aspirations,\nthe thoughts and deeds, of mankind.\nHence the educative value of these\nthings. In the presence of the conflict of moral ideals, the struggle of\n\n"}
{"page": 273, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence] WHY ART AND LITERATURE OUGHT TO BE STUDIED\n\n263\n\npassion against what is rational, the attacks of sin and crime on the divine\norder of the world, all that is deepest in human character is manifested.\nArt and literature portray these serious collisions; and, like the mountain\nupheavals that break and tilt up the strata of the crust of the earth and\nreveal to the geologist the sequence of the formations, from the most\nprimitive to the recent, these artistic situations reveal to all men the\nsuccessive strata in the evolution of human\n\nemotions, ideas, and\n\nactions.\n\nThereby the single individual comes to know the springs of action of his\nfellow-men.\nI have already named the four provinces of art—architecture, sculpture, painting, and music; and the three general divisions of poetry—\nepic,\n\nlyric, and\n\ndramatic.\n\nThere\n\nare,\n\nmoreover,\n\nthree\n\ngreat\n\nhistorical\n\nepochs of art and poetry, corresponding to the three great stages of\nadvancement of the nations of the world into conscious freedom.\nFor\nthe art and literature of a people reflect its degree of enlightenment,\n- and are, in fact, next to religion, the chief means by which its civilization\n\nis preserved.\nWe, accordingly, have as the lowest stage the art of nations\nthat have reached only the freedom of the social whole, without reflecting\nit in the individual.\nThecitizen is buried beneath a mass of customs and\nusages, laws and prescriptions, which he has had no hand in making and\nyet cannot refuse to obey. This form of civilization is only a little above\na condition of slavery for its citizens.\nIts art, accordingly, does not\ncreate forms of free movement, but represents by appropriate symbols the\ncrushing out of individuality.\nSuch is the art of the great nations of\nEgypt, eastern\n\ndescribed\n\nAsia, East India, Persia, and western\n\nby Hegel, whose\n\n“Aesthetik”\n\nAsia.\n\nIt has been\n\nis by far the most satisfactory\n\nphilosophy of art, as symbolic art.\nIts works of art adumbrate or hint at\nwhat they do not adequately express.\nThe highest form of art is reached by the so-called classic nations,\nGreece and Rome.\nThey arrived at the expression of freedom in the\nbody— freedom in its pose and freedom in its action.\n‘This is properly\ncalled gracefulness.\nThe limbs of the body are obedient to the will of\nthe soul. When the limbs are in the way, when the soul does not know\nwhat to do with them, we have awkwardness as a result, and not graceful-\n\nness.\nThe Greek artist would not paint a family group with their arms\nfolded, or their hands folded.\nTheir hands and arms would be in action,\nobedient to some purpose of the soul. But some Dutch painters would\n\nshow us peasants embarrassed by their limbs, peasants who would evidently feel greatly relieved if their arms could in some way be detached\nfrom their bodies— perhaps unscrewed or unhinged in some way and\nhung up on the hat-rack outside the room, with their overcoats and head\nGreek art seizes for its theme some moment of life when all\ncovering.\nthe limbs are required to express the purpose of the soul —as, for instance,\n\n"}
{"page": 274, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n264\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n{Indianapolis\n\nentia\naries,\n4\n\nSo it takes for its theme a sitting figure —the\nin the Apollo Belvedere.\nOlympian Zeus ; it poses the body in such a way that we see the full control\nof the will over the limbs. The sitting Zeus could rise instantly and hurl\nThe “classic repose” of which we hear is ever a gracehis thunderbolts.\nful repose— graceful because the whole body is pervaded and controlled\nby the soul.\nThe third stage of art is Christian art, or, as Hegel calls it, romantic\nart, which at first is occupied in showing the superiority of the soul to the\nbody, and for this purpose selects for its subjects examples of steadfastness\n\nunder\n\nsevere\n\ntrial or martyrdom,\n\nand, especially,\n\nthe sufferings\n\nof\n\nChrist.\nIt goes so far in this as to set itself in opposition to classic art,\nand sometimes indicates its contempt for gracefulness in order to accentuate its preference for inward freedom and spiritual elevation.\nIt portrays freedom from the body, while Greek art shows freedom zz the body.\nIn the latter development of Christian art we see the attempt to represent\ngracefulness without losing the expression of the predominance of the _\ninner life of the soul over its corporeal life.\nIn Fra Angelico’s paintings we see Christian martyrs with tortured\n\nbodies, but meekness and peace in their faces—-a peace that passeth\nunderstanding ; for they are at one with the divine.\n‘There is no longer\nthe expression of the desires of the body, but only the religious longing\nfor spiritual perfection.\nClassic art showed us the soul in the body, and\nwith bodily desires and passions, but purified by subordination to social\nrestraints.\nChristian art shows in this first stage the opposite of Greek\nart—not freedom in the body, but renunciation of the body.\nThen there is a second and later phase of romantic art, represented\nby such as Raphael, Murillo, da Vinci, Michael Angelo, Correggio, Holbein,\nand Rubens.\nGracefulness has been more or less restored by these, but\nnot the classic repose of the Greeks.\nFor there remains even in the latest\nforms of Christian or romantic art the portrayal of a longing or aspiration\nof the soul for something beyond what it has achieved.\nHere we can pause for a moment and consider the reason for giving\nthe rank of highest phase of art to the Greeks.\nWe have seen that religion realizes the divine in the good, while\nphilosophy defines it in a highest principle and attempts to explain all\nthings by it; but that art manifests the divine in material forms or, at\nleast, by images of material beings. So that we may say that art is the union\nof the spiritual and the material, while religion is the emancipation from\nwhat is material.\nNow classic, or Greek and Roman, art is the perfect realization of this\n\nunion of the material and spiritual, hence the highest type of art as art.\nChristian art, representing, as it does, the struggle of the soul against its\nphysical environment, is a form of art that looks towards religion.\n\nIt is,\n\n"}
{"page": 275, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nWHY ART\n\nAND\n\ntherefore, a transition from\n\nLITERATURE\n\nOUGHT\n\nTO BE\n\nSTUDIED\n\n265\n\nart toa higher form of the realization of rea-\n\nson, namely, religion.\nBut art is not a mere transitory phase of human\nculture ; it belongs to all subsequent ages of human history, after it has\nMoreover, the classic form of art will more and\nonce come into being.\nmore come to be admired in all the future Christian ages, because it porThe earliest Christian ages\ntrays freedom in the form of gracefulness.\ncould not admire Greek art without falling back into sensuality.\nIt had\nBut when the Chrisnot yet attained a persistent hold of the spiritual.\ntian idea had been evolved in history to a point where natural science\ncould be pursued in a free and untrammeled manner, then came the age\nthat\n— inventions\nof inventions, labor saving and knowledge extendin\ng\nenable us to conquer nature and emancipate ourselves from that drudgery\nwhich\n\nhad\n\nbeen\n\nnecessary\n\nfor the\n\nsake\n\nof food, clothing,\n\nand\n\nshelter.\n\nWe are now in this age of productive industry which is the sequel of\ninductive natural science.\nWe see all about us the triumph of wealth;\nwealth in the form of capital enables not only its possessors to obtain\nlarge shares of food, clothing, and shelter, and means\n\nof access to knowl-\n\nedge, but it enables the unthrifty of the community, to the last man of\nthem, to obtain a proportionately greater share in creature comforts and\nspiritual privileges.\nAt the beginning of this century the average total\nproduction per inhabitant in the United States was only ten cents a day,\nand, of course, the share of this must have been very small\n\nfor the poor.\n\nBut in r890 the average production had risen to nearly, or quite, fifty\ncents per day, and the share of all had proportionately increased.\nIn the presence of this development of power over nature we desire to\nsee a reflection of our material freedom, and we accordingly gratify ourselves by reproducing Greek art, with its graceful forms.\nThe perennial\nimage of free control of bodily forms pleases us, as it did the Greeks, but\nit does not excite in us a feeling of worship, as it did in the Greeks.\nFor\nwe worship a transcendent God, one who cannot be fully revealed in\ngraceful forms, like Zeus and Apollo, but who needs religion and philosophy for his revelation.\nFor the Christian civilization needs not merely\npiety of sense-perception, which is art, but piety of the heart and piety\nof the intellect.\nWe have varied our spiritual wants, and we have a\nplace for art in our lives as a reflection of our freedom.\nLiterature and art, in passing over from the classic type to the romantic, become more fully pervaded with the expression of motives and delicate shades of feeling. They show us in a more complete manner the\nsubjective, or inner, life of the individual.\nIn modern art we can see all\nof the successive stages by which a blind desire in the mind of a hero or\na subordinate character becomes at length an emotion, and then a wellreasoned thought, and later on a conviction, and finally an action.\nThe greatest works of art ought to become the most familiar ones to\n\n"}
{"page": 276, "printed_page": null, "text": "266\n\nthe people.\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nCare should be taken, therefore, in the school to select these\n\ngreat works and lead the pupil into an understanding of the motives of\ntheir composition, and next to point out the artistic means and devices\nfor the expression of the thought or idea portrayed.\nFor we have said\nthat a work of art is the union of thought and matter.\nThe senses perceive the material object, but a higher faculty of the soul perceives the\nwork of art and enjoys the spiritual suggestion in it.\nBy successive stages the teacher will carry forward his pupils into an\nappreciation of the great works of art, and thereby cultivate their taste\nand make them wise with a knowledge of human nature.\nThe literary characters painted for us by Homer, Sophocles, Dante,\nMoliére, Shakespeare, and Goethe are better known by the people than\nany historical characters, and they are thoroughly understood.\nPeople\nlearn to do their thinking with them.\nThey furnish keys to our everyday\n- experience.\nFor the great poets have given us characters that are types\nrepresenting the chief classes of men and women in our civilization.\nMoreover, the situations in which these typical characters are placed\ninvolve the difficult problems of life and furnish their solution.\nThe\nambition of Macbeth, the jealousy of Othello, the indulgence in sudden\ngusts of wrath by Lear, furnish us vicarious experiences of life and widen\nour knowledge of self. The retribution that overtakes sin and error is\nseen by us with purifying effect.\nAristotle has remarked that this\npurification through sympathy and terror is one of the chief uses of the\ndrama.\nThe wrath of Achilles and the selfish pride of Agamemnon; the longdelayed return of Ulysses and the steadfastness of Penelope — the cycles\nof heroes and heroines of the“ Iliad” and “‘ Odyssey ”’ have furnished literary\ncategories for European thought for nigh three thousand years.\nThey\nhave grown into great ganglia of apperceptive ideas, and everyone has\nbecome acquainted with Homer simply to understand the contents of his\nown literature.\nDante’s “ Divine Comedy” gives five hundred biographies, foreshortened in the perspective so as to show the life of each sinner or saint as\ndetermined for weal or woe by his own deed.\nGoethe’s “ Faust” depicts for us the life of the modern agnostic, who\ntries to live up to his theory, but finds in the end that the world of\nhuman history presupposes the Christian theory of the absolute.\nGod\nmust be a divine reason rather than a blind, persistent force.\nWhat a large family of men and women, heroes and cowards, learned\nand simple, moral and immoral, Walter Scott has motived in his poems\nIt is a liberal education to be familiar with his works.\nand novels!\nThe school readers do not contain these works that I have here\nnamed, but they offer fragments of some\n\nof them.\n\nMoreover, they pre-\n\nee\ne\ne\n\n"}
{"page": 277, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence] WHY ART AND LITERATURE OUGHT TO BE STUDIED\n\n267\n\npare the way for an understanding of the greatest works by widening the\npupil’s vocabulary from the merely colloquial one that he brings with him\nto school, by enriching it with choice selections from Tennyson, Wordsworth, Longfellow, Whittier, Bryant, Carlyle, Emerson,\n\nHawthorne,\n\nSwift,\n\nWebster, Gray, Campbell, Wolfe, Byron, Shelley, and more than a hundred others.\nThe pupils of our schools become familiar with at least two hundred\nfelicitous literary works of art, containing expressions of thoughts and\nfeelings that would otherwise remain dumb and unutterable in the pupil’s\nmind.\nThe school must above all see to it that the pupil makes incursions into great works of art in his home reading.\nHe may be led to\nread\n\n“The\n\nMerchant\n\nof Venice,”\n\nor “A Midsummer\n\nNight’s\n\nDream,”\n\nor some part of the “Iliad,” or the ‘ Odyssey,” or the “ Aneid,” or,\nespecially, Walter Scott’s “‘ Ivanhoe,” or “ Rob Roy,” and certainly “ The\nLady of the Lake.”\nOnce a taste is formed for a work of the great\nauthor, a culture is begun that will go on throughout life.\nThe photographic art has made possible schoolroom instruction in the\ngreat works of architecture, sculpture, and painting.\nThe greatest works\nshould be selected rather than third- and fourth-rate ones. In the Metropolitan Museum of New York city there is a model of the Parthenon,\ntwelve feet long.\nMr. Prang, of Boston, has reproduced for us in colors\nfor schools the eastern facade, on which is the pediment group of\nPhidias, restored by archeologists from the fragments that have been\npreserved.\nIt shows the scene on Olympus after the birth of the goddess Athena from the brain of Zeus.\nOn the left the god of the Sun is\nurging his steeds up from the waves ; in the east and on the right Selene,\n\nthe moon, is driving her terror-stricken steeds into the western waves—\nfor day is to ascend into the sky for Athens and night depart. The\npatron goddess has been born. The three fates spin the thread of life for\nher ; the gods and goddesses of the Attic land turn their heads joyously\nto the newly born Athena, as Iris hastens towards them with glad tidings.\nFor dignity and repose in action these figures of the Parthenon surpass\nall art known to us. Taking the Parthenon for one specimen of architecture, add a large photograph of the Cologne cathedral for Christian\n— all of its lines aspiring towards the heavens and seeming\narchitecture\nto be supported from above rather than from the earth below.\nFor painting, let the school get good photographic reproductions of\nRaphael's Transfiguration, Sistine Madonna, and St. Cecilia; of Holbein’s Dresden Madonna; of Correggio’s Holy Night, and da Vinci’s Last\nOn stated occasions, say twice a month, explain to the pupils\nSupper.\nthe motives that the artist has depicted in the composition of his pictures\n— for the composition is the first thing to study in a work of art. The\n\n"}
{"page": 278, "printed_page": null, "text": "268\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\npupils will become skillful in interpreting pictures after the analysis of a\nfew famous ones from the great masters.\nFor sculpture, besides the figures on the Parthenon, get photographs\nof the Apollo\n\nBelvedere,\n\nthe Laocoon,\n\nMichael\n\nAngelo’s\n\nMoses,\n\nand\n\nthe Medici marbles, and also of the antique busts of Zeus Otricoli and\nHera Ludovisi.\nIf these photographs of architecture, sculpture, and painting are made\nto adorn the walls of the schoolroom, they will produce a permanent\neffect on the pupil’s mind in the way of refining his taste, even if no\nstudies are made of the motives that the artist has brought into their composition.\nBut, of course, the composition lessons should be provided\nfor in the programme of every school.\nAs to music, our high-school pupils learn to perform selections from\nMendelssohn,\n\nRossini,\n\nSchubert, Mozart, Beethoven, Wagner,\n\nand\n\nSchu-\n\nmann.\nThere ought to be studies made of the motives of a piece of\nBeethoven or Wagner, corresponding to those made on Raphael or\nda Vinci.\nIt is through this study of the motives of the artist and his use of them\nin creating what is called the organic unity of his work of art that the\npupil can be made to see that art is as serious as history, and even more\ntruthful, as containing a logical consistency in the return of the deed\nupon the doer.\nArt and literature preserve for us the precious moments of elevated\ninsight of those seers who are, next to the religious seers, the greatest\nteachers of the human race.\n\nART\nBY\n\nWILLIAM\n\nH. MAXWELL,\n\nTEACHING\n\nIN SCHOOLS.\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nBROOKLYN,\n\nN.Y.\n\nFor fear of saying the inappropriate thing, I will not do more, and I\ncannot do less, than to thank Dr. Harris for his address, and more specifically to thank him in that he has brought home to us, and I trust to\nthe whole tribe of drawing teachers, that pictorial representation is not\nthe only fine art that has a right to a place, and that now actually has a\nplace, in the schoolroom.\nThe fine arts have always been represented in\nthe school curriculum.\nMusic, for instance, is a fine art.\nMusic which\ncan, with thrilling truth, reproduce the very essence of the human soul,\nwhich can express the tenderest feeling and the most turbulent. passion,\n\nis the most spiritualistic of the arts, and yet it has conquered its place in\nthe public school.\nPoetry, the art of arts —the art which is more than\n\nyo\nfn\n\n"}
{"page": 279, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nART\n\nTEACHING\n\nIN SCHOOLS\n\n269\n\nsculpture, more than painting, more than music— has always had a place,\nand, as we advance in civilization, will have astill larger place, in the public schools.\nLet not the art enthusiast, who urges us to teach in the public schools what he calls art, forget that the public schools have always\ntaught art. The teacher, every time she teaches her pupils to sing the\nsimplest melody, every time she leads them to appreciate a true poem,\nis herself a priestess in the temple of art.\nEver since the intellectual triumphs of Athens, painting and sculpture\nhave been classified\n\nside by side with architecture, poetry, and\n\nmusic\n\nas\n\nthe fine arts.\nBut, though poetry and music have always been, more or\nless, in the schools, graphic representation has barely been able to obtain\na precarious foothold.\nIndeed, it is only the thin edge of the wedge that\nhas yet been introduced, for though treasure has been lavished on drawing books and type solids, he would be rash indeed who would call it art\nto draw geometrical or conventional designs from flat copies, or to make\noutline\n\ndrawings\n\nof machine-cut\n\nblocks\n\nof wood.\n\nIt seems, therefore,\n\nthat our inquiries must be directed to the determination of three matters :\nFirst— Why should we teach art at all?\nSecond —What are the precise purposes we should have in view in\nteaching art in the schoolroom?\nThird — What are the means by which we may teach art?\nYou will please understand, when I speak of art, that I refer to the\nfine arts as distinguished from the useful arts.\nPrinting is an art,\npenmanship is an art, mechanical drawing is an art; but these, and all\nthe other arts, lack something which belongs exclusively to the fine arts.\nWhat that something is every soul that is moved with concord of sweet\nsounds, or is thrilled with the divine harmonies of poetry, will feel, though\n\nthe definition be difficult, if not impossible.\n\nMr. Ruskin tells us that in\n\nan art —any one of the useful arts— the hand and the intelligence must\ncombine to produce the result ; but that in the fine arts there must be a\nunion, not merely of the hand and the intelligence, but a union of the\nhand, the intelligence, and the heart. As Hegel tells us, art is the idea\npenetrating matter and transforming it after its own image.\nPerhaps we\nmay express the matter thus: There are certain divine ideas that underlie\n\nnature and underlie life ; the man who grasps these divine ideas with his\nmind and feels them in his heart and gives them objective representation,\neither visible or audible, with\n\na view to making\n\nothers feel them, is the\n\nartist ; and the product of his work is art. I use the word art, therefore,\nas synonymous with fine arts and as distinguished from the useful arts,\neven though, as in architecture, it is often, difficult to distinguish the one\nfrom the other.\nFirst, then, arises the question, Why should we teach art in the public\nschools ? The answer to this question must be found in the answers to two\n\n"}
{"page": 280, "printed_page": null, "text": "270\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nother questions: What is life, for which education isa preparation? and,\nWhat is education ? Life, as we seeit, says Herbert Spencer, is “ the continuIn other words,\nous adjustment of internal relations to external relations.””\n\nlife is the continuous establishment of harmonious relations between man\nEducation is the training that brings man into harand hisenvironment.\nhis environment, partly through knowledge of the\nwith\nrelations\nmonious\nknowledge of the possessions of the race.\nthrough\npartly\nworld,\nexterior\nis one of the most priceless gifts of the\nworld\nexternal\nthe\nin\nNow, beauty\nCreator to humanity ; and the interpretation of this beauty by great artists\nis one of the most priceless legacies each generation leaves to its successors.\n\nThe great\n\nartists—the\n\narchitects, sculptors, painters, poets\n— have\n\ninterpreted for us the beauties of the external world and the beauties of\nthe human soul in moments of repose and moments of passion, in seasons\nof noble exertion and seasons of heroic self-sacrifice.\nThrough the work:\nof the artist, through the study of art, it is that we learn to appreciate the\nbeauties of life and the beauties of nature.\nThe world waited long for a\nScott to unfold the beauties of the Highland, and an Irving to discover\nthe scenery of the Hudson.\n‘True it is that every human soul is born with\nsome inherited power of appreciating the beautiful ; but we have only to\nlook around us to see how soon and how easily this inherited tendency\nmay be atrophied.\nSwitzerland, with its sublime mountain scenery, has\nnever produced a great poet or a great painter.\nThe great majority of\nour own people have little real appreciation of beauty, and why?\nBecause they have not studied it through the interpretations of art. Ifyou\ndoubt this statement, you have only to gaze on the hideous rows of brownstone houses that desecrate the streets of many of the wealthiest portions of\nNew York, and the very ugly barns, covered with patent-medicine advertisements, that disfigure our most beautiful pastoral landscapes.\nNo, the\nart instinct must be trained, if it is to be kept alive. As Thomas Davison\nhas said: “‘The sense for the deeper, the spiritual, beauty can be drawn\nout only by a correspondence with spiritual things, with men in whose\nlives and persons and works of art, in whose forms and import, this spiritual beauty is embodied.” The answer to my first question — Why should\nwe teach art P—is then very simple: We teach art in order that men may\nbe able to appreciate and to produce the beautiful.\nMy second question is: What are the specific objects or purposes we\nshould have in view in teaching art in the schoolroom? Here I am obliged\nto confine myself, through lack of time,to considering the objects or purposes of teaching the art of pictorial representation.\nAnd the import of\nthis term I shall narrow still further by putting aside the subject of\nmechanical drawing.\n\nThat is one of the useful, not one\n\nof the fine, arts.\n\nTo speak generally, it may be said that the object of art education in\nthe school is to develop in the pupil a love for beauty and the power to pro-\n\nsewn\nbana\n\n"}
{"page": 281, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nART\n\nTEACHING\n\nIN\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n271\n\nduce beautiful things. Without this love and this power, man is dead to\nthe beauty of his environment.\nTo speak more specifically, we should\nteach pictorial representation for three distinct purposes: First, that we\nmay be able to portray clearly and intelligently on paper things which\ncan be better presented to the mind through the eye than through the\nmedium of words, either for the purpose of aiding our own memories or\nof conveying distinct ideas to other people.\nSecond, we teach drawing\nthat we may obtain keener perceptions of the beauties of nature, and that\nwe may preserve what Mr. Ruskin calls true images of beautiful things\nThird, we teach picthat pass away, or which we must ourselves leave.\ntorial representation in order—and here I am expressing Mr. Ruskin’s\nideas as nearly as I can recall his words—that we may understand the\nminds of great painters and be able to appreciate their work sincerely,\nseeing it for ourselves, and loving it, not merely taking up the thoughts of\nother people about it. ‘The man who has never ridden a bicycle can have\nno idea of the exhilaration to be obtained from riding a wheel in the\nbright, clear atmosphere of the past two days over the magnificent street\npavements of Indianapolis.\nThe man who has never tried his hand at\nverse will always fail to appreciate to the full the glorious art of TennyAnd so, the man who has never made the attempt\nson or of Longfellow.\n‘and tried with utmost patience to express with his pencil the beauties of\nleaf and flower, of stream and mountain, can never appreciate thoroughly\nthe\n\nart\n\nof the great artist, he can\n\nnever\n\ncompass\n\nthose\n\ndivine ideas of\n\nbeauty and harmony which are his as the heir of all the ages in the foremost files of time.\nAnd now I come to my third and last question: What are the means\nat our disposal for teaching pictorial representation in the school?\nMany\nhave been the systems of drawing presented to the teachers of this country.\nWe have had copying from the flat of geometrical design and conventional\nornament, and have found it utterly wanting.\nI have seen thousands of\nchildren struggle painfully for eight years through a long series of drawing books, only to find, at the close of their\n\nlabors, that they could\n\nnot\n\nrepresent on papera hat or an ink-bottle.\nAt present there is a great battle in progress between two opposing schools of the educational host. One\nschool\n\ncontends, as I understand\n\nit, that art may\n\nbe adequately, or, at\n\nleast, sufficiently, taught by requiring children to draw the objects studied\nin their nature lessons, and tomake imaginary drawings of the characters and\nscenes described in the literature they read. The other school would begin\nwith studying the geometrical solids, then drawing them and making\nthem, and gradually passing on to objects that resemble them in form. The\nfirst school I shall call the science-art school ; the second school I shall call\n\nBoth schools have, unquestionably, elements\nthe geometrical-art school.\nThe science-art school brings the\nprocedure.\nof truth and value intheir\n\n"}
{"page": 282, "printed_page": null, "text": "«\n\nNATIONAL\n\n272\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nSo far, so good, But it forgets that the\nchild face to face with nature.\nobjects of science and the objects of art are different— that the object of\nscience teaching is the discovery and formulation of natural law, and that\nthe object of art teaching is the discovery and interpretation of beauty.\nWe should not teach the looking at nature,as Mr. Ruskin somewhere says,\nthat our pupils may learn to draw; but we should teach drawing that our\nNor is that so-called cultivation of the\npupils may learn to love nature.\nimagination through drawing imaginary pictures of scenes and figures\ndescribed in literature altogether to be commended.\n‘The practice of\ndrawing purely imaginary scenes and figures—scenes and figures that\nhave not been appreciated by’the mind through the senses— may be, I\nthink almost necessarily is, injurious.\nMr. Jones, in his eloquent description yesterday of how Leonardo da Vinci painted the Last Supper, by\nfinding suggestions and models for the faces of the picture in the faces of\nthe men he observed around him, showed us the only right way of illustrating historical or imaginary scenes.\n‘Therefore, until the pupils are\nmature\n\nenough, and\n\nmethod\n\nof the artist, the drawing\n\nomitted.\n\nobservant enough, to use, however\n\nimperfectly, the\n\nof purely imaginary ;scenes\n\nis better\n\nWhen the time does come for this work, it should be done alto-\n\ngether from models arranged to represent a scene.\nFurthermore, the science-art school errs in supposing that the technique of art may be learned through the drawing that is a part of all\nnature study that is worth the name.\nThe veriest tyro in art will tell you\nno. ‘To the science-art school I would say, in the words of John Ruskin:\n“Do not think that you can learn drawing, any more than a new language,\nwithout some hard and disagreeable labor.”’ Art has its own language,\nwhich must be learned with much patient endeavor and under judicious\ninstruction.\nThe geometrical-art school is open to criticisms of another kind.\nThis school pays sufficient attention to technique, but its work, when\ncarried too far and protracted too long, as it generally is, becomes profoundly uninteresting.\nIt substitutes geometrical, machine-made forms\nfor nature forms.\nIt does not lead to the appreciation of nature or of the\ninterpretations of nature by great artists.\nIt is a great advance over all\npreceding systems of formal drawing, but I cannot conceive it possible that\nit is the ideal system of teaching art.\nIf, then, both of these schools are lacking in some important particular,\nwhat system, what method, shall we employ? The ideal system or method,\nif it ever comes, will be given to us when a great teacher arises who is also\na great artist.\n\nIn the meantime, however, it may not be impossible\n\nto\n\ndiscern the lines along which art education must proceed, if it is to be\nserviceable to the individual pupil, and if it is to assist the progress of\ncivilization in this land.\n\nLic\n\n"}
{"page": 283, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendenee]\n\nART\n\nTEACHING\n\nIN SCHOOLS\n\n273\n\nSuffer me to recall the three great objects of teaching drawing—to\nmake record of things that may be better conveyed to the mind through\nthe eye than through words, to obtain keen perceptions of the beauty of\nthe natural world, and to enable us to understand the interpretations of\nnature and of life bequeathed to us by the great artists. If these be the\npurposes of teaching drawing ; if we are to learn through drawing to\nappreciate the beauty of nature and of life; if we are to learn through\ndrawing to understand an artist’s interpretation of nature and life—it\nfollows that in all exercises we must draw either directly from nature or\nAbsolute\nfrom pictures or casts that are true interpretations of nature.\nfidelity to facts, absolute fidelity to truth, will be the first requisite of the\n\nideal scheme of art instruction.\nIt may not be denied that. skillful\ndraughtsmen may be made by methods that take no account of nature.\nIt may not be denied that whole nations have been permeated by art—\nart, too, delicate and refined —-that is founded, not on nature, but on man’s\n\nBut the significant fact is that every people whose art\nvain imaginings.\nceased to interpret the facts of the universe, and became built up out of\nfigments of the imagination, has decayed morally, physically, and intelIf ever art becomes geometric instead of naturalistic ; if it draws\nlectually.\nspirals and zigzags instead of flowers and foliage; if it draws monsters\ninstead of men —it means that the people who practice it will be cut off\nfrom the chief sources of healthy knowledge and natural delight. This,\nI take it, is the great message that John Ruskin brought to humanity—\nthe message to which we in America must needs listen ; that art followed\nmerely for its own sake, irrespective of the interpretation of nature by it,\nis destruction of whatever is best and noblest in humanity ; and that as\nnature,\n\nin proportion\n\nas she is loved and studied, is ennobling, so is art\n\nfounded upon nature ennobling also.\nBut, secondly, as mere imitation, exact reproduction of natural forms, is\neither not art at all or one of the lowest forms of art, our ideal system of\nteaching art must contain something more than mere imitation or repro-\n\nduction.\nA good picture shows not only absolute fidelity to fact, but\ngives evidence of design or plan. ‘The artist must choose some things,\ncast others aside as of no consequence to his plan, and arrange all that he\nselects.\nWithout the first requisite, fidelity to fact, a painting is either\nnon-moral or immoral in its tendency ; without the second, selection and\n\ndesign, a painting is seldom beautiful, seldom serviceable to those who\nlook upon it.\nFor the artist’s mission is not only to represent with\nfidelity, but to represent in such a way as to direct the spectator’s mind\nto those things which it is vital that he should see; and, more important\nstill, to guide him to those thoughts and feelings with which the artist\nregarded the facts.\nBut, some one will object, the public schools are not intended to make\n\n"}
{"page": 284, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n274\n\nartists.\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nVery true, I answer; but it is a part of their mission to introduce\n\nthe child to his heritage of art ; and this will best be done, no matter how\n\nshort the distance we go, by following the lines of true art and not of\n;\nfalse art.\nan\nwhich\nunder\ncondition\nlast\nAnd this brings me to my third and\nideal system of teaching art will be developed: that system will make\nlarge use of the imitation and study of true works of art. A healthy,\ngifted child can no more refrain from imitating than a mountain lake can\nrefrain from imaging the trees that adorn its shores.\nWe should give the\nchild fine art to imitate and, through his imitation, to study.\n\nGood, true\n\nart that holds the mirror up to nature should adorn every schoolroom\nwall. But not a vestige of Egyptian, or Assyrian, or Indian, or Chinese\nart that was instrumental in bringing about the moral and intellectual\nArt that could come only\ndecay of these peoples should be permitted.\nfrom peoples buried beneath a mass of customs and usages has no place\nin an American schoolroom.\nMr. Ruskin has shown that as yet but three schools of perfect art have\nappeared in the world —the Athenian, the Florentine, and the Venetian :\nthe Athenian, which makes the most perfect representation of the form of\nthe human body ; the Florentine, which givesus the most perfect expression\nof human emotion; and the Venetian, which represents the effect of color\nand shade on all things, chiefly the human form.\nEvery teacher should\nmake himself perfectly familiar with several good examples of each of\nthese three schools, which-he should use as touchstones wherewith\n\nto try\n\nthe value of pictures proposed for class-room decoration.\nIf he brings\n-them to this test, there will not be great difficulty in determining what\nshall be admitted and what shall be excluded.\nThe real difficulty comes\nin selecting pictures suitable for the first four or five years of school life.\nI should say that, at least in large cities, where the majority of children\nknow little or nothing of country life, the requisites for these pictures are,\nfirst, that they should\n\nhave\n\ncolor;\n\nsecond,\n\nthat\n\nthey\n\nshould\n\ntake\n\nthe\n\nchildren out of doors; and third, that they should serve to increase\nchildren’s appreciationof classic literature:\nHow, without pictures, can\nchildren who see nothing of nature but strips of the sky through street\ncanons understand, without pictures, such expressions as “‘ the meadow sweet\nwith hay,” “the spring that flowed through the meadow across the road” ?\nPictures that will interpret nature and interpret literature are the\npictures we need.\n“Leave,\n\ntherefore, boldly,\n\nthough\n\nnot\n\nirreverently,”\n\nas Mr. Ruskin\n\ntells us, “ mysticism and symbolism on the one side ; cast away with utter\nscorn geometry and legalism on the other ; seize hold of God’s hand and\nlook full in the face of His creation, and there is nothing He will not\nenable you to achieve.”\n\n"}
{"page": 285, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nART\n\nAND\n\nEDUCATION\n\n275\n\nDISCUSSION.\nART AND EDUCATION AS RELATED\nC.\n\nJ. BAXTER,\n\nSTATE\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nTO THE PUBLIC SCHOOL.\n\nPUBLIC\n\nINSTRUCTION,\n\nNEW\n\nJERSEY.\n\nNot knowing the line of thought to be followed by the speakers who are to precede\nme, and not wishing to have my reservation invaded, I have taken the liberty to select\n“Art and Education as Related to the Public School.”\n:\nEducation and art appear, on close examination, to be essentially related.\nAttempts\nto dissociate them lead the thinker back to the essence of terms, to the ideas with which,\nas root-words, each is most closely connected.\nArt, in a broad sense, may be defined as\n\ncovering everything that is learned by the child born amid civilized environments.\nThe infant of the jungle learns little, for its people have few wants, which are easily\nsatished by a few things easily acquired. The jungle art is the rudimentary art. The\ninfant in the highly civilized community finds itself compelled to learn a greater variety\n’ of things, for here its opportunities for development make it conscious of many wants,\nthat demand many things, and which are acquired, in the main, with difficulty.\nDeveloped art is an essential accompaniment of this higher scale of existence, and it differs\nfrom that which is more rudimentary, not in essence, but in diversity and degree.\nIn another sense art may he regarded as meaning anything and everything that does\nnot come\n\nunaided, unthought, and\n\nundrawn from nature to humankind.\n\nIn this sense it\n\nis art for a savage to clothe himself for the protection and comfort of his body, and to\nhouse himself so as to be independent of the weather.\nThough the primitive hut is very\ninferior to our own well-appointed homes, and vastly different from the Pantheon or the\nTaj Mahal, so far as construction is concerned, in its essence it is at one with those\nsupreme expressions of architectural art. In each case there were the first steps and the\nultimately developed conception of something to provide against some need, to secure\nsome pleasure, or to answer to some sense of beauty. And in each case the result is\nsomething thought out, and something wrought.\nIn its generally accepted meaning “‘art” is regarded as a system of rules or traditional and conventional ways of doing certain things that require special aptitude and\nability; the application of skill to the production of the beautiful by imitation or design;\nand in this sense it is applied to what, for want of a better term, is called the “fine\narts.” In reality all arts are fine. It is a singular misuse of the term to limit it to the\nproduction of a picture, a statue,\n\nor a musical\n\ncomposition.\n\nThe\n\nline that sets off the\n\nso-called fine arts from the useful or industrial arts is very plain only to the superficial\nthinker.\nWhen sought by one capable of broad conceptions and possessing acute perceptions, it continues to recede until lost in the unknown realm beyond his mental\n\nhorizon.\nFrom these presentations, in which it would seem there is nothing wrongly assumed,\nmay be deduced the very brief, yet comprehensive and generally applicable, definition:\nArt is all there is to be learned —all there is to be learned, from the lowest to the highest\n\nand most complex form of civilization, from the beginning to the bound of life.\nClosely associated with this general conception of art is the idea of education.\nIt\nis generally, but erroneously, asserted that “education means the drawing-out and unfolding of the powers of the mind.”\nIt would be interesting to know the origin of this\nfundamental error in the definition of this word.\nThis much we grant it does mean.\nBut how much more? Surely, the infant begins to learn the art of eating, not by any\n\n"}
{"page": 286, "printed_page": null, "text": "|salina\nvate\n\n276\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\ndrawing-out or unfolding of his rudimentary mind, but from the animal sensation of\nHe continues to learn, that is, to become familiar with his surroundings through\nhunger.\nThat fire will burn his flesh and cause pain he learns from\nimpressions from without.\nIf the temperature be tropical, the sun’s rays\npersonal contact with this element.\nscorching,\n\nhe seeks\n\nthe\n\nshade;\n\nif it be\n\nfrigid,\n\nhe\n\nshivers\n\n‘To the\n\nand seeks warmth.\n\nHeat asa\natomic pulsations which are believed to constitute heat he gives no thought.\n“mode of motion” is a sealed book to him.\nAs art is all there is to be learned, and the act of learning comprises all there is of\n\neducation, it follows that art and education are inseparably connected.\n\nIn the applica-\n\ntion of the term education it is easy to err in one or two ways.\nOne pedagogicai idea is\nthat the juvenile mind is, up to a certain age, varying in different cases, incapable of\nanything more than receiving and retaining various fragments of information.\nThis\ntheory, ably reduced to practice, would tend to convert the brightest child into a parrot or\nhuman phonograph.\n\nAnother\n\nidea\n\nis that, with\n\nshould be required, not only to receive and retain\n\njudge.\n\nThis\n\nis also a cardinal\n\nerror\n\nand\n\nthe earliest mental training, the mind\nideas, but\n\nto weigh, to reason, and\n\nto\n\nsure, in many cases, to lead to unfortunate\n\nIts tendency is to convert the child into a prig or mental paretic.\nresults.\nBetween these\ntwo extremes lies the safe, the sane, the natural course of adapting the education to the\n\npupil and to the art that is to be acquired.\n\nIn accomplishing this the teacher is afforded\n\nan opportunity for the display of art of the highest order, the finest of the\n\nfine\n\narts.\n\nIf\n\nany part of the general store of art, whether of numbers, of language, of drawing, or of\nanatomy, which falls to a particular youth at any time, is found to be unsuited to his\npowers and natural trend, it is the baldest travesty of the work of education to press\nthat particular part upon him. Whatever does not, or cannot, afford the mind pleasant\nand agreeable exercise cannot be appropriated.\nTo determine the nature of a pupil's\nnatural gifts, and then to develop him in that line, is another opportunity for the exercise\nof art of a very high order.\nIt is the misfortune of both art and education in these modern times that the teacher\nis required to do such a quantity of educating that he is unable to give due attention to\nits quality. In the golden days of antiquity one of the great philosophers would spend\nhis life in teaching one, two, or three disciples. This was going as much too far toward\n\none extreme as we incline to its opposite. At the close of this nineteenth century the\nteacher is required to confront from thirty to sixty pupils daily. Each one is attempting\nto learn one or more of several arts, and each requires what\n\nhe\n\ncannot, from\n\ntion of the situation, receive, v7z., direct, personal, exclusive mental\nteacher, and, as a result of such contact, an accurate sizing-up by him.\n\nHaving thus hastily and imperfectly\nand education, it remains to inquire:\n\nthe\n\ncontact\n\noutlined these general associated\n\ncondi-\n\nwith his\n\nideas of art\n\nWhat should be done, so far as the common\n\nschools\n\nof this republic are concerned in the extension of the educational effort already stretched\nto exceeding thinness, because already embracing so much, in the way of adding anything\nof instruction in the “fine arts” to that now given in the useful rudimentary arts?\nAnyone who has taught the young of all ages up to maturity knows that among the\npupils of our public schools you will not find, on the average, one in a hundred who has\nthe fine-art instinct. Shall the ninety and nine be drilled in these, to them, impossible\narts in order to afford the 1ooth gifted youth the instruction that is in line with his genius\nand his needs? Shall the youth born without the phrenological organ of time be drilled\nin music?\nShall those with defects of the eye, who have not the color sense (and their\nnumber is legion), be forced to contemplate hues and tints, lights and shades, complementary and non-complementary colors, and mystifying foregrounds and backgrounds? School\nlife is too short and time too precious for such misdirected effort.\nThen, shall not art be taught in our common schools?\nNothing of real merit and\n\nt\nDati\n\n"}
{"page": 287, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nART\n\nAND\n\nEDUCATION\n\n277\n\nabiding value can be taught there that is not art. All teaching should be along art lines,\non art methods, in the art spirit. There is no art so important to us as educators, nor in\nwhich we should be so intensely interested, as that of teaching.\nThe youth who can never\nbe made to draw a Phidian outline or comprehend a Rembrandt shade, may yet be trained\nto write artistically, to read artistically, to perform all his school work artistically; or, in\nother words, to do it well.\nHabits of care are artistic.\nCorrect language is artistic.\nAccurate information is artistic.\nPrecision of thought and its tasteful, terse, and exact\n\nexpression are highly artistic.\nNo other form of art has equal opportunities for its exercise, is so valuable in daily intercourse, is so generally regarded as evidence of culture,\npresents so great possibilities for development, and comes so far short of receiving attention in keeping with its importance.\nIt is not so important that our pupils be taught artistic things as they be taught the\nessentials\n\nof a common-school\n\neducation\n\nartistically;\n\nbe so\n\ntaught\n\nthat such a love of\n\nknowledge is acquired that the mind never wearies of its pursuit; so taught that the\ntermination of the so-called school days marks an epoch in the acquirement of knowledge,\nand not its end,\nEducation that accomplishes such results is well worthy of the name, and must needs\n\nbe excellent to a degree that renders it truly artistic.\nInstruction that is a certain means\n“to such ends is the greatest need of our American schools.\nMeet this need, and we will\nmore than double their effectiveness.\n.\nReference is often made to art training in the schools of Japan and China.\nWhat\nhas it accomplished ? For thousands of years this art training has been in progress, but\nis there today in all China\n\nand Japan,\n\nwith a total population\n\nof 450,000,000, one\n\nwho\n\nhas a mastery of perspective ? Was there ever such an artist in either of those countries ?\nTrue it is that free-hand drawing is there the general practice, and that some very\npleasing results may be credited to it. But, aside from their bronze work, what do those\nhundreds of millions of art-trained people have to show in art in comparison with little\nHolland,\n\nwhose\n\npopulation\n\nwas\n\nnever\n\n5,000,000,\n\nand\n\nyet monopolizes\n\nabout\n\nhalf the\n\nspace of the dictionaries of painters and their paintings?\nHolland never made training\nin art a part of the educational work in her common schools; nor did Greece, nor Italy;\nand yet either of these countries dwarfs China and Japan artistically as greatly as China\nand Japan together do either of them numerically.\nThe visitors to the Columbian\n\nExposition in 1893 do not need\n\nto be told that the\n\nrevelation there made of American achievement in the fine arts was such as to astonish\nall those who had accepted the generally undisputed statement that we, as a commercial\nnation, could not be expected to make a creditable display in art.\nThe most astute and\nexperienced critics from Europe freely expressed their astonishment at the beauty and\nfecundity of our art, not only in the so-called industrial arts, but in painting and sculpture, and in the daring and unprecedented architecture.\nHow much of that magnificent\ndisplay had its origin in art training in our common schools ?\nIt is certainly necessary that drawing be utilized in our public schools from the day\nof entrance unti] that of graduation; yet it should not be taught as an end, but as a\nmeans to anend.\nNot that a high degree of proficiency in this branch is not desirable,\nbut we cannot ignore the limitations and the requirements of the public school.\nThe\nequipment it is capable of giving for the duties of life and the responsibilities of citizen-\n\nship is, at the best, but meager.\nDrawing is most forceful as a means of expression, is\nmost helpful in forming the habit of accurate observation and in developing perceptive\npower.\nIt is not only a valuable feature of nature study and science study, but a necessary part of all forms of manual training. Though ever an important feature of all school\nactivities and indispensable to effective teaching, the requirements of the brief school\nperiod to which seven-eighths of our children are limited relegate it to a subordinate\n\nplace in the common-school curriculum,\n\n"}
{"page": 288, "printed_page": null, "text": "278\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nFor an extended education in purely artistic lines there will always be adequate proTo minister to the higher zesthetic\nvision for the gifted few in well-equipped art schools.\ntastes of the many, to give them, so far as practicable, correct ideals and cultivate their\nsense of the beautiful, I fain would see our school buildings artistically environed and\nconstructed, and our class-rooms built, not only on hygienic principles, but also on\n\nartistic lines, and ornamented with classic casts and pictures of beauty and of story.\nThe necessity of making the public school the fountain of general information will\nIt will always be the instrument of preparation for the ordinary occupaalways exist.\ntions, for instilling a love of freedom, a proper pride in our history, and a due appreciaAll these are the golden fruit of our educational\ntion of the glory of our opportunities.\ntree, that has borne so well in the past, that is bearing so abundantly in the present; and\nart, in its broad and true sense, is its beautiful, life-sustaining\n\nfoliage.\n\nIt offers\n\nus still\n\ngreater promise for the future, if we shall be mindful not to depart too far from the\ntraditional lines; if we shall not weaken and confuse our educational system by attempting more than can be accomplished.\nArt and education are twin sisters, and hand in hand they are marching to a common\ngoal in this republic—each a stimulus to the other, each indispensable to the other, and\neach beckoning the American youth to greater heights of fame and usefulness.\n\nROUN\nROUND\n\nDGEABILES:\n\nTABLE“ON\n\nCHALDSLODY;\n\nThe round table on Child Study was called to order at 2: 40 o’clock, with Professor\nM. V. O’Shea, of the Buffalo School of Pedagogy, as conductor.\nThe general subject for\nthe afternoon was “The Contributions of Child Study to Practical Teaching,” and the\nprogramme was as follows:\nI. What has inductive, statistical, or scientific child study accomplished thus far\nthat would suggest modifications in the recent curricula or methods of teaching in our\nschools ?\n1. The Development of Voluntary Motor Ability, Professor W. L. Bryan, University of Indiana.\n2, Fatigue and Defects, Superintendent H. E. Kratz, Sioux City, Ta.\n3. Children’s Interests, Professor G, W. A, Luckey, University of Nebraska.\n4. The Relation of Motor Activities to Intellectual Development (an abstract), Dean Edward R, Shaw,\nSchool of Pedagogy, New York,\n\nII. How may the results of child study be best embodied in the curricula and\nmethods of teaching in our schools as rapidly as they become reasonably well established ?\n1. In the Elementary School, James L. Hughes, Inspector of Schools, Toronto.\nDiscussion ; Superintendent Samuel T. Dutton, Brookline, Mass.; A, W. Edson, Agent, State Board\nof Education, Massachusetts; Superintendent George Griffith, Utica, N. Y.; Superintendent Clinton S.\nMarsh, N. Tonawanda, N. Y.; Superintendent F, Treudley, Youngstown, O.\n2. Inthe High School (an abstract), C. H. Thurber, Associate Professor of Pedagogy, The University\nof Chicago.\n\nIII. How may teachers in service study their children\ngreatest advantage and profit ?\n\nin the class-room with the\n\n1, The “ Still Hunt,’? Miss Sarah C. Brooks, Supervisor Primary Schools and Kindergartens, St, Paul.\n\n2. Special Studies, as upon Children’s Reading, etc., Professor L, H. Galbreath, Illinois State\nNormal\nUniversity.\n\n"}
{"page": 289, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nHYGIENE\n\nOF MOTOR\n\nDEVELOPMENT\n\n279\n\n3- Physical Measurements and Tests (not furnished for publication) , Professor W. O. Krohn, University\nof Illinois,\n4. With the Co-operation of Parents, Professor C, C. Van Liew, Illinois State Normal University.\n\nIV. Should\n\nTeachers in Preparation\n\nChild Study ? Miss\n\nHYGIENE\n\nBY\n\nhave Instruction in Theoretical and\n\nMary E. Laing, Oswego Normal\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nOF MOTOR\n\nWM.\n\nL. BRYAN,\n\nPractical\n\nSchool.\n\nDEVELOPMENT.\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF\n\nINDIANA.\n\nI deprecate the view that art can receive from science or philosophy exact rules. The\nartist stands between so much of science, philosophy, or general culture as he has assimilated, and his task. In the few minutes allotted to me I shall only hope to make a suggestion which teachers can take into account along with all the other conditions surrounding\ntheir work.\nThe nervous system may be regarded as a bank, where the blood is constantly making deposits of energy, and upon which every motion and every thought are making\ndraughts.\nThe most important thing for any man on this earth is to have his account\nin that bank on the right side of the ledger. The worst disaster is to have nervous habits,\n\nthrough which the priceless capital of life is constantly wasting.\nwaste is always remediless bankruptcy.\n\nFor the end of such\n\nRational school hygiene—that is to say, common sense —requires that everything\nabout the school\n— heating, lighting, ventilation, every school requirement, and, so far as\npossible, every school practice, whether required or not—shall be proved for its effects\nupon nervous habits. Whatever seems good from every other point of view, but bad from\n\nthis point of view, should be banished.\nThe way in which wasteful, nervous habits are usually established is through frequent\nnervous overflow.\nLet me illustrate: If I clinch my hand with all my might, a great\namount of energy is released which does not go into the clinch. Many other muscles are\nalso clinched and trembling. My breathing is affected. My heart beats violently. Without doubt all organic functions are affected.\nIn this case evidently I spend an enormous\namount of nervous capital to no purpose.\nIf Iam rich, I can stand it a few times. But\nif for any reason whatever an overstrain of this sort, followed by explosion and overflow,\noccurs frequently, there is established in many nerve centers a fatal facility for explosion\nand overflow.. When this result arrives, each of these centers is a gate through which the\nstrength of my life seeps away useless.\nNow, there is an array of scientific evidence to show that there is special danger of\ninducing wasteful nervous habits in school by requiring too precise voluntary muscular\ncontrol, for too long periods at a time. To keep still, to handle slates so that they shall\nnot strike the desk, to march to music, to write, to draw, to keep the eyes sharply focused\nupon\n\nany sort of work, to pay close attention—all these require fatiguing muscular con-\n\ntrol.\n\nMost of them require voluntary control of the small muscles.\n\nare liable to induce\n\nAny or all of them\n\noverstrain, overflow, and, if persisted in, habits which\n\nlead to some\n\nform of neurasthenia. All these results are, of course, more likely to occur in the younger\nchildren, in children with neuropatic predispositions, and in all children in special periods\nof their development.\nTaken generally, this warning from science is undoubtedly valid. The specific questions remain: How far are existing methods actually affecting the health of children, and,\nWhat course should we pursue in practice? I believe that both these questions are open,\n\n"}
{"page": 290, "printed_page": null, "text": "280\nIt seems\n\nNATIONAL\ncertain, however, that\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nout of every hundred\n\nrequirements now usually made.\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nsome\n\nchildren\n\nare\n\ninjured\n\nby the\n\nI base this opinion upon reliable scientific publications,\n\nupon reports made to me by primary and kindergarten teachers, und upon personal obserWhat we need just now, above all things, is this question in the eyes of all the\nvation.\nteachers: Are we doing anything that is inducing in any of the children the habit of easy\nfatigue ?\nWith regard to the second question, I believe that no one can answer it but school\n\nmen.\nWe have not to do with an abstract experiment. We have to do with living children and the whole problem of their preparation for life. I will say, however, from the\noutside that Ido not believe that the practical outcome will be the eschewing of precision\nin the school.\n:\nThere are three standpoints for viewing\nGet results.\n\nevery educational\n\nquestion.\n\n‘The second says, Consider the nature of the child.\n\n‘The first says,\n\nThe third says, Do both,\n\nor fail. On this point the first says, Make the boy write a good hand.\nThe second says,\nLet the boy’s hand play. The third says, By short, non-fatiguing, but substantial, efforts,\nlet the boy grow toward the acquisition of a good hand.\nSenator Stanford was the first to begin the training of race horses when they were\ncolts. “Let them do their best for their distances.\nIt is supreme effort that develops,”\nhe said. Until I get further light, this is my view of the whole question of motor, and,\nfor that matter, of intellectual, training. Do your best for your distance. It is supreme\neffort which develops.\nAs a final word, I wish to say that there is one thing of more hygienic importance\nthan the #zethod of motor training, and that is the emotional tone of the schoolroom.\nA\nshort time ago, in Anderson, Ind.,\n\n1 saw some\n\nartistic primary teaching, which had\n\nthis\n\nlast touch of excellence that results were obtained without emotional storm.\nThe children were doing good things, with reasonable attentiveness, and they were not wiggling\nand squirming under the spell of a hypnotic teacher. The hypnotic teacher, whom the\nparents all praise, and whom the school board always re-elects, because the children cannot take their eyes off her, does more to induce\n\nneurasthenia\n\nthan\n\ndoes\n\nany method\n\nof\n\nteaching penmanship which I have seen.\n\nFATIGUE\n\nBY\n\nAND\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nH.\n\nSENSE\n\nE.\n\nKRATZ,\n\nDEFECTS.\n\nSIOUX\n\nCITY,\n\nIA.\n\nThe cry of overwork in our schools is frequently heard. We superintendents are\nbound to listen to that cry, and give it most careful consideration.\nIf the requirements\nof the schoolroom are too heavy, if the hours of work are too many, if the study periods\nare too long, if the rest periods are too infrequent, if any change can be made by which\nthe maximum of mental efficiency can be secured with a minimum expenditure of\nthe\nchild’s energy\n— then let the cry never cease until superintendents introduce such needed\nchanges.\nFatigue is nature’s kind warning against overexertion.\nWe should no more ignore\nits manifestations in the schoolroom than the fireman does the safety valve\nof his engine.\nHere are important indications which, if carefully studied, will give the\nright ordering of\nthe daily work, and secure the largest degree of mental efficiency\nwith the least loss of\nenergy. This problem has not yet been fully worked out, and we should\nearnestly address\nourselves to its solution,\n\n=\n\n"}
{"page": 291, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nFATIGUE\n\nAND\n\nSENSE\n\nDEFECTS\n\n281\n\nExperiments have shown that mental fatigue is sooner induced where work ig distaste-\n\nful, because of the heavy strain that is brought to bear upon the will to keep the pupil at\nhis task.\nThe struggle between duty and inclination is taxing and severe.\nIf the body\nis not well fed, weariness, irritation, and difficulties of discipline follow.\nIt is believed\nthat irritability is due to an acid which is formed in the blood after severe activity, and\nthat this is relieved by a fresh supply of oxygen.\nWe are all familiar with the fact that\nthe adult is more irritable when tired, that the best of us are more piously inclined in the\n\nmorning than at the close of a hard day’s work.\nGive the children the benefit of such\nknowledge, and help them over such periods. If oxygen in blood corrects this acid condition, throw in some music or physical\n\nexercise, when\n\nchildren\n\nmanifest\n\nweariness\n\nand\n\nirritation.\nIt is known, also, that rapid growth diminishes endurance, and, since these periods\nare not the same in the two sexes, that some modifications should be made in the course\nof study to meet that demand.\n\nVigor, or its lack, varies\n\nalso somewhat\n\nin the hours of\n\nthe day, as well as during different kinds of weather, etc. These should all have due\nconsideration.\nExperiments have shown that with the average pupil mental fatigue from school work,\n\nwhile it is quickly induced, quickly passes away.\n\nMental efficiency, or skill, the result of\n\npractice, however, is much more permanent in its character, and is not soon lost. Hence,\nto secure the maximum of skill through practice, with the greatest economy of effort, provide more frequent rest periods, and thus secure, through this rapid recuperation, an\nalmost continuous high state of mental vigor. But little, if anything, of skill through\npractice will be lost through these more frequent rest periods, because skill is not easily\nlost. Here, I believe, is a suggestion that we will more largely utilize in the near future.\nI believe it has in it the possibilities of greatly increasing the efficiency of public-school\nwork, as well as relieving it of much of its present drudgery.\n\nAnother fact that will greatly aid in realizing a greater freedom\nthat is not new, as none of these are —is that change is rest.\n\nfrom fatigue—one\n\nThere are some facts which point in the direction of the theory that each sense\nhas a corresponding brain area to which such sensations are referred.\n‘There is a brain\narea to which sights are referred; another, sounds, etc. Many of us recall how, at the\nWorld’s Fair, when sight was so weary that nothing more could be taken in, we then\nturned to the music hall, and refreshed and rested and reinvigorated ourselves with divine\nharmonies.\nWhile mental activity is a very complex affair, and its localization cannot\nalways be determined, yet there is enough basis of fact in it to warrant utilizing it. Certainly, change is rest, and it is the part of wisdom to arrange the daily programme so as\nto bring out stronger contrasts in studies.\nOur teachers, especially in primaries, have already secured encouraging results in\nthis direction. Not only are music, drawing, and physical culture brought in as sharp\ncontrasts to other studies, but when the first primary children show unmistakable signs of\nfatigue, the teachers often request them to lay their heads upon the desks, close their eyes,\nand take a little pretended nap, while the teacher sings some lullaby. A few minutes’\nrest, and the recuperation is wonderful.\nTime is economized.\nWe have never made\nsuch rapid progress as now.\nAnd here permit me to say just a word concerning the senseless cry against “fads.”\nThe thread-bare argument is that the “fads” rob the children of valuable time which should\nbe given to the three R’s. The false assumption is that, if the children master a certain por-\n\ntion of the three R’s in a day of two hours, they will master three times as much ina\nof six hours.\n\nTime,\n\ndull monotony,\n\ncan\n\nnever\n\nbe made\n\na measure of progress\n\nday ~\nin the\n\nschoolroom,\nInterest, vigorous mental activity, must determine.\nThe “fads”— music\n—instead of hindering the mastery of the three R’s, by afforddrawing, physical culture\n\n"}
{"page": 292, "printed_page": null, "text": "we\n\n282\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\ning those strong contrasts\n\nin studies so much\n\ncontribute to such mastery.\n\nAnd\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nneeded in the daily programme, positively\n\nI make this statement fearlessly that the three R’s are\n\nbetter taught in the schools which also teach the ‘‘fads” than in the schools where the\n“fads ’are not taught.\nUnder sense defects I shall confine myself to the discussion of defects in sight and\nhearing, because these two senses are most prominently utilized in school work.\nI have already referred to the localization of sensations in different brain areas. I\nbelieve, also, that these brain areas contain countless brain cells, some of which\n\nulated and developed\n\nare stim-\n\nby sights or sounds; that the number of these brain cells roused\n\nup into activity depends somewhat upon the normal condition and activity of the corresponding sense organ ; that, if these brain cells do not receive their normal amount of stimulus, during their most impressible, or nascent, period —usually childhood —they will\nnot only fall short of their normal development, but can never afterwards attain to their\n\nfull measure of activity.\nI believe, therefore, that the child’s psychical development depends very largely upon,\nthe normal activity of his senses.\nShould this activity of his senses, because of defects in\nthe sense organs, fall below the normal, his psychical development must also be restricted\n\nto a lower plane of development than the normal.\nSome eminent authority has stated that nine-tenths of our sense\nthrough sight.\n\nA child whose vision is one-third\n\nknowledge\n\ncomes\n\nbelow normal would, therefore, be con-\n\ndemned to construct his thought world out of three-tenths less material than his normally\nactive brother.\nThink, then, of the children, handicapped from the start by defective\nsenses, how they are doomed to live in a contracted sense and thought world, unless their\n\ndisabilities be early removed.\nIs there a superintendent. present who does not recognize\nthat it is his urgent duty to discover quickly these unfortunates, remove, wherever possible,\nthe handicap, and guard against any schoolroom conditions which even tend towards\nimpairment of the senses ?\nThe number of those suffering from defective vision is surprisingly large. Thousands\nof school children in this country and in Europe have been tested, and the same sad condition is discovered.\nPer cents. vary from Io to 30,and even higher.\nWe began such\n\ntests in the Sioux City schools nearly three years ago. The returns from our last test have\njust been compiled, and are as follows: Number tested in all the grades, 4,256; defective\nsight ranged from 6.6 per cent. in the first grade to 19.6 per cent. in the sixth grade, with\nan average of 13.9 per cent. throughout; 590 pupils have defective sight.\nNo doubt the thought is suggested that we have some highly unfavorable conditions\noperating in our schools, but I wish to assure you that our schoolrooms are exceptionally\n\n~\n\nwell lighted, and our plans of work, text-books, etc., are similar in use to those of schools\n\nin general, If you haven’t made a test of this matter, will you not do so at the first\nopportunity and convince yourselyes that school work is very seriously retarded by\ndefective vision ?\nSuch tests are easily made with oculists’ test cards. It should be remembered that\nthese tests, made\n\nby the teachers,\n\nare not intended\n\nto determine\n\nthe exact\n\ndisease, but\n\nsimply to determine where defects exist. When defects are discovered, parents should be\nnotified and urged to secure proper treatment. In case parents are in indigent circumstances\nsome means of treatment can be easily secured.\n\nThe results richly compensate all the effort expended.\nMany pupils with defective\nvision secure relief through proper treatment or the use of glasses. Many cases of defective\nvision are discovered where no one but the teacher suspects it. Children have also a sensitiveness about revealing such defects, but generally they are not aware of them.\nMany\nsuch children, when sight is rendered normal, make surprising progress in their school\nwork,\nPupils who are near-sighted are seated in-front of or near the blackboard, and\n\ngiven every advantage concerning the light.\n\nee\na\n\n"}
{"page": 293, "printed_page": null, "text": "\\\nrm\n\nSuperintendence]\n\nFATIGUE\n\nAND\n\nSENSE\n\nDEFECTS\n\n283\n\nTesting of the sight has also demonstrated that a word can be more readily recognized than a letter, and hence word and sentence methods of teaching primary reading\nshould be utilized.\nThe number of those who are defective in hearing is also surprisingly large. There is,\nhowever, a larger number of those who are defective in hearing, and are unaware of it, than\nin sight. Tests here bring many surprises, even to adults. There are two reasons why partial deafness in pupils is not readily discovered: one, pupils, from a false sense of delicacy,\ntry to conceal it; the other,\n\nthey are often\n\nunconscious of their defect.\n\nMany persons\n\nhave impaired hearing in one ear, and are not aware of it.\nThe mode of testing is usually by the ticking of a watch.\nA normal ear hears an\naverage watch about two feet from the ear.\nHere, as in testing the sight, the results richly\ncompensate all the efforts expended.\nCauses of deafness are better known.\nI need not\ngo into the discussion of the structure of the ear, only to speak of a few of its features.\nWe are all familiar with the office of the Eustachian tube, how it equalizes the pressure on\nthe membrane of the ear by affording an opening for the passage of air to and from the\nmiddle ear.\nThis Eustachian tube opens into the naso-pharynx behind the soft palate.\nImpairment of hearing often begins through secretions retained about the mouth of the\nEustachian tube, which temporarily close this opening.\nThe most common causes of\nsuch secretions are adenoid vegetations, which form in the vault of the naso-pharynx and\nare easily removed, enlarged turbinated bones, and enlarged tonsils.\nSuch pupils can usually be recognized by their open mouths, obstructed breathing,\nthick nasal voice, elongated face, and dullness of expression, as well as dullness in general.\nAs to this dullness to which they are thus condemned, you can form some idea by closing\nthe nostrils with the thumb and finger and performing the act of swallowing two or three\ntimes in rapid succession.\nIn this depressed condition they are condemned to live and\nact. What wonder that they become dull!\nAnother singular feature about this condition is its variableness.\nSome days these\nstoppages of the Eustachian tubes do not occur, and such pupils manifest a mental brightness that is in surprising contrast to their usual dullness.\nRapid progress is made such\ndays, but when the secretions again close up the tubes, they are their usual dull selves.\nTeachers not understanding the causes which are operating to produce this depressed condition are apt to regard it as confirmatory evidence of the existence of a spirit of obstinacy\nor perversity, and proceed forthwith to exorcise the imagined evil spirit by an exercise of\nmuscle.\nChildren are thus too frequently driven into obstinacy, sullenness, and finally\ndriven into that condition of stupidity to which they were at first unjustly assigned.\nSuperintendents, this is not a sensational picture. I firmly believe that a large per\ncent. of the cases of “falling behind” begins in such defects as the above.\nThe loss in\nteaching because of defective sight and hearing is not generally understood, or appreciated ;\nnevertheless, it is alarmingly great and threatens to increase.\nTalk about enriching the\ncourse of study! Here is the possibility of enriching the minds (lives) of many thousands\nof unfortunates.\nAnd the loss is not all summed up in failure of pupils to hear instruction given, nor\nin the condemning of pupils to live in a contracted thought and sense world; but these\nunfortunates retard class work, furnish a large per cent. of the cases of difficult discipline\nwhich wear out teachers, and furnish the recruiting ground for many so-called “bad boys\nand girls.”\n* We have found in our investigations, covering a period of more than three years, that\n\nmany pupils who were supposed to be hopelessly dull were simply dull in hearing, and,\nwhere this disability was removed, manifested at once an increasing intellectual vigor.\n\nThe same results have been found true wherever tested.\nPer cents, vary. Our investigations show that over 10 per cent, are defective in\nhearing.\n\n"}
{"page": 294, "printed_page": null, "text": "petemni\n“yd\n\n284\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\n~f\n\nThree years ago my attention\nPermit me to relate a few of our own experiences.\nwas called to a boy who had entered our beginning primary grade some five months\nAlthough apparently an average boy, and coming from one of our best fampreviously.\nIn spite of the most earnest efforts of his teacher, he\nilies, he soon fell behind his class.\nmade no progress, and the first year was practically lost. By some accident it was discovered that his sense of hearing was defective ;an examination by an aurist disclosed\nAt once the boy’s mental powers seemed\nadenoid vegetations, which were easily removed.\nto be invigorated, and he has ever since kept pace with his class.\nA case of total deafness in one ear was reported to me the other day. A girl was a\nthird-grade pupil, and stated that more than a year ago a part of the rubber top of a lead\npencil-had been lodged in her ear.\nIt seemed incredible that any parents should be so\ncriminally careless as to neglect to have itremoved at once, even though they were in\nindigent circumstances.\nI sent the girl to one of our aurists, with whom I had made\narrangements, and, after several trials, he succeeded in fishing out a piece of rubber more\nthan a quarter of an inch in diameter and an eighth of an inch long. Fortunately the ear\nhad not beem permanently impaired, but such result would have soon followed.\nThe\ngirl now has normal hearing in both ears.\nJust a few days ago I found a boy nine years of age in a second-grade room.\nThe\nteacher had discovered that his eyesight was greatly impaired in one eye, but so far noth-\n\ning had been done for him. We at once took the case in hand.\nHe had lost over a year\nthrough his defective eye.\nI found also a thirteen-year-old girl, just entering the third grade. Investigation\ndisclosed that she had been in school pretty regularly, but had failed of promotion because\nof poor work.\nRecently her parents have placed her under-treatment.\nHer vision was\nfound to be one-fifth of the normal.\nIs it a matter of surprise that she lost nearly three\nof the best years of her life? She is now making wonderful progress.\nFellow-superintendents, this is a rich field for work.\nLet me urge you, if you have\nnot done so, to occupy it. It isa very easy matter to secure the co-operation of oculists and\naurists. I found that when I went to them, they were not only willing, but glad, to assist\nin relieving the needs of these unfortunates.\nEveryone of them promptly offered to give\nhis services free to those children in indigent circumstances.\nI want to say that the cordial\nco-operation accorded me by them in this humane work was very refreshing, and greatly\nstrengthened my faith in the altruistic side of human nature.\nI feel confident that you can secure the co-operation of these oculists and aurists in\nevery city, not only because of the humane instinct which would prompt them to respond,\nbut also because they need such cases in their clinics to illustrate these defects before\ntheir medical students.\n\no\n\nsi\n\n—_\n\nPRACTICAL\n\nRESULTS\n\nBY PROFESSOR\n\nOBTAINED THROUGH\nDREN'S INTERESTS.\n\nG. W. A. LUCKEY,\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nTHE\n\nSTUDY\n\nOF CHIL-\n\nOF NEBRASKA.\n°\n\nI find myself objecting to that spirit of the age which is constantly clamoring for the\npractical results of every new movement or scientific investigation, without granting sufficient time for the proper digestion or assimilation of the facts. The tendency of this\nspirit is to retard rather than to advance truth, and it frequently causes the giving forth of\nhasty generalizations which go far toward placing the whole subject under disrepute. The\n\n"}
{"page": 295, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSTUDY\n\nOF CHILDREN’S\n\nwork of the scientist must not be hurried.\n\nThe more\n\nINTERESTS\n\ncomplex\n\n28 5\n\nthe subject under consid-\n\neration, the more time and freedom from external influences are required.\n\nI do not wish to criticise, however, that legitimate desire for the immediate practical\nLeisure hours will allow culture for culwhich the condition of the age makes necessary.\nture’s\n\nsake, and\n\nscience\n\nfor science’s sake, but the many demands\n\nupon the time of the\n\naverage citizen of today require him to economize his energy in the direction of present\nand future efficiency.\nPerhaps the members of no other class of society have more frequent or urgent\ndemands upon their time, or fewer leisure hours, than teachers.\n\nFor this reason it is to be\n\nexpected that teachers should desire to know some of the practical benefits to be derived\n_ from a study before entering heartily into the work.\nIt must not be forgotten, however,\nthat the working-out of any subject may prove eminently helpful, while the results themselves are of little value.\nTeachers should not make the mistake of thinking that it is only necessary for them\nto use the facts that others have gained in order to become proficient in their work.\nWhile\nmuch of our knowledge must always come through this second-hand source, yet it may\nwell be questioned whether anyone can become a true teacher who is unable to carry on\noriginal investigation.\nEvery teacher should have lines along which she can think independently and intelligently.\nShe must be a master in some field of thought in order to be\na guide and an inspirer of others.\nIt is here that I should place the greatest practical value that has yet been derived\nfrom the study of children’s interests.\nThe inspiration, knowledge, understanding, and\nreal growth that have come to the teacher who has earnestly watched the throbbing pulsebeat of her school in order to become better acquainted with the real interests of her children, have exceeded all anticipation.\nShe has observed, questioned, and read; then\nobserved and questioned again; each day has added new life, both to herself and to her\nschool.\nThe mass has become individualized, the teaching improved, and the native\ninterests of the children aroused.\n\nThe effect of this actual work in child study upon the teacher can scarcely be overestimated.\nShe has become interested in the problem that lies at the foundation of all\ntrue teaching.\nIt does not require a very keen superintendent to be able to pick out\nthose teachers who have really become students of childhood.\nBut the great benefit\nderived comes from the actual work, and not from the mere study of results. As well\nmight an individual hope to obtain a physical education or become an athlete by merely\nsitting where he could hear the commands of the trainer and oversee the executions of the\nsame, as to hope to become acquainted with children through the study of another. Gy\nKnowledge might be gained in either case, but not education ; for the latter means growth\nand skill gained through individual activity and exercise.\nWhile it must be admitted that child study is greatly influencing our practice in teaching, it may be claimed that it has not materially added to our knowledge.\nFor instance,\nevery subject in the school curriculum has been thoroughly discussed, and opinions diamétrically opposed, including the various shades between, have been maintained.\nThese\nopinions cannot all be right, but some of them may be. Now, when child study comes to\nthe rescue and assists us in determining the right, it may be stated that what we have\ngained was advocated by some writer before. Nevertheless, we have given tangible proof\nof what was only vaguely accepted by few, and possibly practiced by none.\n‘This is\nespecially true in the studies on children’s interests, a subject which covers nearly the\nwhole field of children’s spontaneous activities.\n:\n\nTake, for instance, the many studies that have lately been made\n\nof children’s\n\ndraw-\n\nings. These indicate that the child begins drawing as a means of expression, and not as\nIn the beginning he likes to draw, and improves rapidly if allowed\na matter of imitation.\n\n"}
{"page": 296, "printed_page": null, "text": "Seca\n\n286\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nto make brief sketches of his own environment and thought ; but dislikes to draw and loses\nYoung children show\ninterest if confined to rule in which imitation of form isprominent.\ngreat native interest in drawing as an early means of expression, but there seems to be an\narrest of interest about the age in which the child acquires the ability to express himself\nThe spontaneous drawings of children are not conventional, but show constant\nin writing.\nChildren are most interested in drawing\nevolution, in which every change means progress.\nsketches of people and animals in which life and motion playa part. Next in interest are\nhouses, plants, and crude illustrations of local environment.\nThe first drawings of the child are simply the result of memory images. Later, howAt\never, he becomes interested in making accurate drawings of things as they appear.\nthis stage the child becomes especially interested in form, perspective, and the grammar\nof drawing.\nFor this reason the child’s drawings differ from those of the adult. The latter represents artistically an instantaneous photograph, while the former endeavors to show\nFrom these and many other facts, which this\nin a single picture a series of photographs.\nstudy has revealed, we are led to infer that very much of the teaching of drawing has been,\nand still is, wrong.\nBesides, I must admit that in\nThe remedy may not be so apparent.\nall this work I have been too much interested in the gathering of evidence, and too much\nat sea, to feel ready to point out specifically the needed changes.\nEveryone must be familiar with the progressive changes which are continually occurring in text-books, school curricula, and methods of teaching.\nMany of these are due\nto the results of child study, or to the keen observation of some educator along parallel\nlines, which is virtually the same thing. In this way many of the discoveries in this field\nseem to have been anticipated and worked into the curriculum before the results have been\nfully established.\nFrom our studies of children’s drawings I believe we are at least warranted in these\nsuggestions :\n\n1. For the first three or four years in school the drawing work of the children should\nconsist in encouragement of spontaneous drawings and frequent illustrations of objects of\ninterest in the various lessons and local environment.\nThe object here is not alone the\nacquiring of a free and accurate use of the muscles, but also the increasing and prolonging\nof the inherent interest of the child in expressing his thoughts in drawings.\nThis will give\ngreater play to the individuality, which the teacher can use to advantage in future lessons.\nShe can also direct the work somewhat by allowing the class to see all the sketches, and\nby calling attention to the more appropriate drawings.\n2. The grammar and technique of drawing should be reserved for the period in which\n- the child becomes interested in sketching things as they appear, and it should then be\ntaken up incidentally in connection with the child’s own drawings.\nWhile modeling may\nbe given with advantage in the first period, accurate drawings of things as they appear, or\ngeometrical form, should not be insisted upon before the second.\nAgain, from our study, I believe we are warranted in advocating\n\nchanges in our teaching of writing.\n\nChildren\n\neven more radical\n\nshow much interest in writing when\n\nper-\n\nmitted to write large or to scribble, but become cramped, nervous, and irritable when con-\n\nfined to small, accurate writing, often between ruled lines. This is unnatural and wrong.\nWho thinks of confining the baby, in its first attempts to walk, to accurate steps and parallel lines? Ifthe results of child study mean anything, they mean that all the writing of\nthe child from five to eight years should be on the blackboard, where he can write large,\nand avoid those cramped finger movements which are sure to result when the child is\nasked to do that for which nature has not yet paved the way.\nDuring this period of blackboard writing the child will get full control of the larger muscles and acquire a knowledge\nof the form, proportion, etc., of the letters. With this experience, and with the greater\ndevelopment of the muscles, the child will be able to take up more successfully the subject\n\n"}
{"page": 297, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSTUDY\n\nOF\n\nCHILDREN’S\n\nINTERESTS\n\n287\n\nof writing on paper.\nTwo years ought now to be sufficient to complete the instruction in\nDuring this period chief\nwriting, and especially so if the work is properly presented.\nstress should be placed on position, movement, etc. The shapes of the letters have\nalready been acquired through the blackboard practice, which should be continued.\nOur study of children’s interests likewise suggests changes in reading.\nThe stories\nshould conform more nearly to the child’s form of expression, which is different from and\nmore pleasing to children than the expression of similar thoughts by the adult. In preparing our primary readers, therefore, we should select the stories as told by children, possibly\n\nby children of the next higher grade. Classic stories may be read to children, and they in\nturn requested to retell them.\nBy wisely uniting the best parts of these retold stories, we\nwill have the story complete in its most interesting form for children.\nSuch is the work of\nMiss Smythe in her “Old Time Stories Retold.”\nFrom four to seven the child seems to have unusual interest in knowing the names\nof things. This desire may be stimulated and used to advantage in teaching reading,\nlanguage, and the common\nronment.\n\nobjects—\n\nplants, animals, minerals, etc.—in\n\nChildren show more interest in colored\n\nthan\n\nin uncolored\n\nthe child’s envi-\n\npictures, but unless the\n\nformer are of high grade, they soon loose their attraction. Again, in the rapidly growing\nchild, interests are changing constantly, due perhaps to the change in form of nervous\nstructure; and if the pictures and subject-matter do not allow sufficient leeway for this\nvarying interest, they are sure to grow monotonous and dwarfing.\nPictures that bring\nup real memories have a peculiar fascination, and for this reason pictures of the child's\nown environment should furnish a large part of the illustrations of his early readers.\nGirls and boys show great inherent differences in their lines of interest, as seen in\ntheir play, their stories, their spontaneous drawings, their likes and dislikes.\nThis difference is not sufficiently recognized at present in our courses of study and in our\nteaching.\nHas not the study of children’s interests made us feel that the order of teaching form\nby the Froebelian gifts is contrary to nature?\nWe begin with an artificial, typical form,\nwhich is the result of man’s abstraction from nature.\nIn the sphere we give the child\ngeneralized\n\nform before he has the concrete\n\ncases\n\nfrom\n\nwhich\n\nit has been\n\nabstracted.\n\nShould not the melon, the apple, the peach, the orange, etc., lead up to this generalized\nform, just as the various concrete forms lead up to the abstract term “dog,” etc. ?\n\nFollowing the line of children’s interests, our teaching should be extensive rather\nthan zz¢ensive. Children’s interests are fleeting, but soon return to the same subject, with\never broadening circles. We should not, therefore, expect of the child adult thoroughness in any subject.\nTo demand such would most likely mean arrest of development.\nIn many subjects the child is satisfied with a mere glimpse, and more would be a surfeit.\n\nNevertheless, these glimpses should be clear and\nbroader and deeper knowledge of the subject.\n\nsystematic,\n\nEvery child, as well as every adult, has his dominant\n\neach one leading to a\n\ninterests, which,\n\nfor the time\n\nbeing, are shaping his life and character.\nInterest alone gives persistence to the child’s\nactivity, and it is this continued activity which establishes habits, gives permanence of\ncharacter and stability of will.\n:\nWhatever may be the demands of the curriculum, the true teacher will deviate far\nenough to discover and call forth the native interests of the child, for it is only when this\ninterest is aroused and properly directed that the schoolroom can offer anything of permanent good. If we are right in assuming that character is the resultant of habits, the\nremains of former experiences, we must appreciate the importance of every activity in the\nThe subject which calls forth the greatest amount of activity will\nchild’s education.\nleave the most permanent influence on his life.\n\n"}
{"page": 298, "printed_page": null, "text": "ell\noN\n\n288\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nThe reason that the street frequently stamps itself deeper into the child’s character\nthan the home or the school lies in the fact that it offers to him a greater variety of\nThis\nsubjects from which to select one more nearly conforming to his native interest.\ntendency is being minimized by every true student of childhood by discovering the child’s\nreal interest, and bringing the school environment and the subjects to be taught in harmony with this interest.\nIn this short paper I have been unable to mention many other facts which may seem\nto you to be more clearly pointed out by our study of children’s interests than those given\nabove — such, for instance, as: the greater importance to be given to wse and movement\nin our early instruction of children, and the less stress to be given to form, structure,\nquality, etc., of objects during the first few years of school life; the danger of causing\n\narrested development in the teaching of number by overestimating the child’s number\nsense, or number capacity; the greater interest and success which result from teaching\nnumber, at first incidentally in connection with other lessons, and of bringing into greater\nprominence the child’s motor activity and dramatic instinct; the danger of too early\ninsisting upon a single unit of measurement; the value of the child’s natural interest in\nplants (flowers) and animals as a means to zsthetical culture; the changes and progress\noccurring in kindergarten methods, due to a better understanding of children’s interests,\nhealth, and growth;\n\nthe large part played by myth, fairy tale, folklore, etc., in developing\n\nthe imagination, and in giving versatility and readiness of expression; etc., etc.\nOf course, these suggestions are only meant to be tentative.\nThey seem to be\nindicated by the present state of evidence and may be accepted as working hypotheses,\nbut that is all,\n\nWe must continue patiently to accumulate evidence, and not rest satisfied\n\nuntil we are sure we have the truth,\n\nHOW\n\nMAY THE RESULTS OF CHILD STUDY BE BEST EMBODIED\nMETHODS OF TEACHING [IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS?\n\nBY\n\nJAMES\n\nL,\n\nHUGHES,\n\nINSPECTOR\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nTORONTO,\n\nIN\n\nONT.\n\nThree things are necessary in order that psychological principles may be successfully\nreduced to psychological practice, as they are discovered: teachers must be inspired,\nparents must be instructed, and the work of the home and\n\nthe school\n\nmust\n\nbe co-ordi-\n\nnated.\nThe new revelations resulting from child study must be introduced into the schools\nby the teachers, and the only way they can be successfully introduced is by training\nteachers to be intelligently, independently, and suggestively co-operative in studying and\napplying new ideals. The best work a superintendent can do is to secure a right intellectual and spiritual éexdency on the part of his teachers.\nHis primary aim should be to\ndefine in their characters the essential elements of power which will qualify them for progressive development towards higher conditions, truer ideals, and better methods.\nThe most essential elements of progressive power in teachers are :\n1. Perfect [ntellectual and Spiritual Freedom.— They should be free from the conventionalities of empiricism and the bonds of restrictive ideals regarding the aims of education, Their minds should be open, not merely to admit new ideals, but to welcome\nthem, and to apply them when convinced of their philosophical basis. They should not\nbe dwarfed by emasculative reverence for the past. The revelation of transforming\nthought should not shock them. They should be grateful for truth already revealed, but\nsupremely grateful for the ever-expanding power of the human mind that makes revealed\n\n"}
{"page": 299, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence |\n\nCHILD\n\nSTUDY\n\nIN ELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n289\n\ntruth the source of greater revelations.\nTheir eyes should be turned towards the lights\nThe movement of the race towards God has been a progressive advance\nabove them.\ntowards perfect freedom. Teachers should lead the world in this triumphal march. They\ncannot do so properly till they are free themselves.\n2. Belief in the Law of Evolution. — All teachers should be trained\n\nto believe in the\n\npossibility of the evolution of individual man through the successive periods of infancy,\nchildhood, youth, and manhood, through freedom, stimulating environment, appropriate\nknowledge, and self-activity. They should believe, too, that, epoch after epoch, humanity\nshould reach a better condition physically, intellectually, and spiritually, in a continuously\nprogressive ascent from one higher stage of culture to a still higher, limiting the highest\nonly by “the goal that touches upon infinity.” There is hope for the teacher in the\nwidening conception of the possibilities of human evolution based on reverence for the\nchild.\nShe is no longer a hearer of lessons, a teacher of words, or even a developer of\npower.\nShe is a stimulator of life and a helper of life to higher life.\n3. A Clear Revelation of the Distinction between Development and Schooling. — This is\n\nnecessary in order that they may have a definite and logical thought basis to guide them\nin their work and in their continuous preparation for better work in future. Teachers\nshould not value knowledge less ; they should value the child more.\nThe child is greater\n' than knowledge, because it posesses elements of divinity that qualify it for progressive\ndevelopment towards the divine. To make the development of the child the central ideal\nincreases our estimate of the value of knowledge by making it an element in man’s evolution.\nKnowledge takes a subordinate place in the true ideal of a teacher, not because\nof the lessening of its own value, but on account of the clearer revelation of the majesty\nof the child. So long as the supreme aim of teachers is the communication of knowledge, their strongest desire will be to get new methods of giving knowledge easily,\n\nrapidly, and permanently.\nThere is little inspiration in such an ideal. It restricts to the\nmechanism of teaching.\nProfessional enthusiasm languishes till teachers rise beyond\nthe ideal of schooling and grasp the wider, higher ideal of the development of the child,\nadopting Froebel’s motto, “The renovation of life,’ instead of the old precept that\n“knowledge is power.”\n4. True Faith in Themselves.— Grateful recognition of our own power and of our\nresponsibility for its wise use in aiding the development of the race are the strongest\npossible motives to intelligent and persistent efforts along new and independent lines. A\nteacher who has a reverent consciousness of her own power as the divinity in her, as her\ngift from God to be used in helping humanity in its evolutionary growth, does not require\nexternal stimulus to keep her on the alert for fresh light and truer philosophy to guide\nher in her work.\nThe progress of humanity has been retarded by the failure of individuals to gain a true consciousness of their own selfhood.\nThe day has gone by when the superintendent’s chief function was to direct his\nteachers, or even to instruct them in regard to their work.\nInspiration is mightier than\ndirection or instruction.\nResponsive activity on the part of the child to its teacher is\nmuch better than passive receptivity, but responsive activity is feeble and non-productive\nwhen compared with the true self-activity of the child. It is equally true that independent self-activity on the part of the teacher is infinitely more developing to her than\nactivity in response to the superintendent’s suggestions.\nThe stages in the evolution of\nthe true relationship between superintendents and\n\nteachers\n\nhave\n\nbeen, first and lowest,\n\ndirection and obedience; second, instruction and intelligent obedience ; third, suggestion\nand co-operative activity ;fourth, inspiration and co-operative se/f-activity. The highest\npower of a superintendent is to make his teachers so free that their minds will open\ntowards new truth, as the bud opens to the dew and the light ;to unfold the enchantments\nof the philosophy of the evolution of man, and their duty in aiding the race to rise; to\n\n"}
{"page": 300, "printed_page": null, "text": "tery\neet\n\n290\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nhelp them to gain so true a reverence for the child that they will value development more\nthan schooling, growth to greater life more than knowledge, and, more than all else, to\nlead them to a consciousness of their own power and responsibility, and a conception of\nWhen their hearts and minds are so prepared, they hunger\nthe sacredness of their work.\nand thirst for new light, and the fresh thought of the great leaders drops into soil so rich\nthat it is soon revealed in improved teaching and training processes.\nBy the inspiHow can a superintendent guide his staff to such an ideal condition?\nration of his addresses, by suggesting the best books relating to the child, and by organizing voluntary associations for child study. The highest result of child study up to date\nIt is\nhas been the magic transformation of the ideals of teachers in regard to their work.\nis\nchild\nthe\nwhen\nadvancement\neducational\nin\ninterest\nof\natmosphere\ncreate-an\nto\neasy\nmade the center of investigation.\nIn arousing an interest on the part of teachers, I have found it a good plan to make a\nbook of distinctively stimulating character the subject of an address to them.\nAfter an\naddress on Preyer’s “Infant Mind,” when\n\nit was first translated, one hundred\n\nand\n\nninety-\n\ntwo copies were at once purchased by the teachers of Toronto.\nThe best plan, very much the best plan, for enabling a body of teachers to grasp a\nnew ideal is to get a few teachers in each grade (there are always leading spirits freer and\nmore progressively self-reliant than the rest) to investigate and apply it in their own\nclasses.\nThen, when they have grown to it by using it and are able to exemplify the\nprocesses based on it, grade or group conventions should be held in their class-rooms to\n\nsee their processes and note their results.\n\nWe\n\ndevote the forenoons of such conventions\n\nto observation of actual work, and the afternoons to discussing the new\n\nideals and\n\npro-\n\ncesses, and relating them to past development.\nTeachers gain new ideals much more\nrapidly by seeing them applied than in any other way.\nThe teachers of the future should enter upon their professional work in the spirit of\nprogress. Normal schools and all institutions for training teachers should be centers for\nconcentrating the light and power of the new revelations of child study.\nEach class of\nstudents, as the years pass, should go out freer, broader, and more eager for the discovery\nand revelation of vital truth to transcend the old.\nComplete success, both with the teachers of the present and the future, will depend on\nthe independent, enthusiastic, self-active investigations of the teachers themselves.\nThey\nmust be made free from the blight of domination and inspired with self-reverence.\nThey\nmust become originative as well as investigative, in order that they may grow.\nIt is very important that parents as far as possible be kept alive to the developments\nof the new educational ideals, and kept in sympathy with them.\nMinisters and editors\nshould be led to study the child, so that they may aid in molding a correct public opinion.\nNew ideals grow slowly in the face of popular prejudice.\nIt is discouraging to have\neducational work along true lines of child development tested and criticised by parents\nand school boards with the standards of progress laid down by the old knowledge-storing\nideal, Parents must be led towards the light by addresses, sermons, editorials, and the\ndissemination of child-study literature.\nMore than this, they should be organized into\nvoluntary associations for the study of the child.\nChurches and social organizations\nshould be inspired with the ideal of saving men, and leading the race to higher ground\n\nand complete unity by true child development.\n\nThe kindergartens\n\nare, on the whole,\n\nthe best centers around which to organize society.\nMothers’ meetings are now the most\npopular school meetings.\nThey should not be confined to mothers.\nThey must become\nparents’ meetings.\n\nThe co-ordination of the home, the school, and the church will be the\ngreatest work of the twentieth century.\n\n"}
{"page": 301, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nBY\n\nMISS\n\nSARAH\n\nC.\n\nBROOKS,\n\nGE\n\nSPREE\n\nLSE,\n\nSINS REVE, TEMOIM TERS\n\nSUPERVISOR\nST.\n\nSLO\n\nEE?\n\nOF\n\nPRIMARY\n\nPAUL,\n\nMINN.\n\n2QI\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nAND\n\nKINDERGARTENS\n\nis\n\n(THESES.)\n\nThe teacher, burdened with numbers of pupils and the attendant discipline, instruction, and classification, is from force of circumstances inclined to think of pupils in mass,\n\nrather than as individuals.\nChildren are classified as good or bad, bright, medium, or\nslow, without effort to arrive at specific reasons for the differences thus existing. This\nhabit of considering children in the aggregate lies at the root of much of the weary grind\nin school work.\n‘The remedy lies in awakening the sympathetic interest of the teacher in\nchildren, which is brought about only by changing her habits of observation from mass to\nindividual.\nShe must learn to put herself in the place of the child and endeavor to look\nout upon the world from his point of view. Thus only will she do the best work for her\npupils; and thus only will the problems of discipline and instruction become simplified.\nMEANS.—\n\nSOME\n\nFORM\n\nOF\n\nCHILD\n\nSTUDY.\n\nScientific method, cumbersome and unsatisfactory, because the teacher lacks scientific\npreparation and is embarrassed with numbers.\nThis objection does not apply to the\nteachers’ doing work at the request of experts for the sake of scientific investigation, but\nlittle help from the work done; especially as the con-\n\nthe teacher individually receives\n\nscious condition under which the child submits\n\nto tests or answers\n\nquestions frequently\n\nresults in incorrect data, and, even if the data may be counted upon as correct, the amount\n\nis insufficient to warrant a conclusion.\nThe “still hunt” is to be preferred for the following reasons:\nIt fosters the habit of observing the act and noting the conversation of children, out\nf\nof school as well as in.\nIt preserves the child’s unconsciousness, without which he cannot speak and act in a\n\nnatural manner.\nIt does not restrict the field of observation.\nIt encourages the observer to recall her own early acts and states of mind, by the aid\nof which she may more intelligently interpret sayings and actions recorded of children\nunder observation.\n\nMETHODS\n\nOF PROCEDURE.\n\n1. Record names of pupils in a blank book.\nOpposite names record traits, habits,\nsayings of children as heard and seen in school, upon playground, and in the street.\n2. Without obtrusion, observe children at play and alone, whenever opportunity\naffords. Make note of the most interesting data. Especially observe children of the age\ncorresponding to pupils in room.\n3. As certain pupils come into the foreground from forwardness, timidity, listlessness,\ninattention, or other reasons, seek every opportunity of talking these cases over with the\nprevious teacher or kindergartner, if there be such. Thisis the best form of teachers’\nmeeting.\n4. Enlist the sympathies of parents in the work. It would be helpful to prepare lists\nof questions, as suggested by Dr. Van Liew in the “Hlinois Handbooks of Child Study,”\nVol.1., No. 2, and, after the case has been freely discussed, put into the hands of parents\n:\nto be answered and returned.\n\n5. A study of the literature of experimental\n\npsychology, notably “The\n\nSeminary,” Vol. I., No. 2, Vol. Il., No. 3; the “Illinois Handbooks\n\nPedagogical\n\nof Child\n\nStudy;”\n\n"}
{"page": 302, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n292\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nXVI. and\nEarl Barnes’ “Studies in Education ;” Popular Science Monthly, Vols.\n\nX VIL;\n\nand Sully’s “ Studies of Childhood.”\nRESULTS.\n\nAn awakening of both sympathetic and scientific interests; a consideration of the\nneeds of the individual child; a modification of methods of discipline and instruction in\naccord with this broadened view.\n\nCHILD\n\nBY\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nL.\n\nH.\n\nSTUDY\n\nGALBREATH,\n\nIN CLASS\n\nILLINOIS\n\nWORK.\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nUNIVERSITY.\n\n(THESES.)\n\n1. It is now commonly admitted that method in teaching should be based upon the\nprocess of learning, as exemplified in the undirected movements of the mind in acquiring\nknowledge, and as detected and described in psychological studies.\n2. Notwithstanding this, it is a matter of easy proof that relatively few of the teachers who have studied psychology make immediate conscious use of it in guiding children\nin class work.\n3. Mediately, however, psychology aids the teacher in furnishing a theory of the\nrecitation;\n\nbut, besides this basis for method, it should give motive and\n\ndirection\n\nto the\n\nteacher for the study of her own pupils.\n4. Pedagogy, also, should contribute something which should give rise to a phase of\nchild study that might be designated with propriety as pupil study—a study of children\nunder definite schoolroom conditions and educational influence, for the purpose of practical and educational control.\n5. The requirement involved in this is a complex and difficult one, to meet which\nteachers need guidance, and in respect to which they are left at present, I believe, entirely\n\nto self-direction.\n6. As aids to teachers in this direct and immediately\n\nserviceable study of children\n\nthe following two plans are zypical-\n\nPLAN I.\nA STUDY OF ATTENTION IN CLASS WORK.\nI. Signs of attention.\na) How is attention to class work manifested, in bodily attitudes, in actions, in questions, in answers, in reproductions, or in voluntary participation ? What help may come\nfrom this study?\n6) Can you find any signs peculiar to individuals? What manifestations are very\ngeneral? What help may come from a knowledge of the peculiarities of attention?\nc) What variations in signs are discoverable in relation to time of day, to subject, to\nmethod, or to attitude of teacher ?\n2. Conditions of attention.\n\n’\n\na) Are the conditions of heat, light, atmosphere, seating, and of seeing and hearing\nin class work, conducive to good attention?\nIn what cases not ?\n6) Are the physical conditions of the child’s body with respect to health, energy,\ndegree of fatigue, and muscular activity and expression conducive to the best attention ?\nIn what cases not?\nc) What social events or experiences at home, at school, or in the neighborhoo\nd\naffect perceptibly the attention to schoolroom duties,?\n\n"}
{"page": 303, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nCHTEDES\n\nLUD\n\nYAINVCLASS\n\nWORK\n\n@) How is attention conditioned by previous studies in school\nfrom reading, travel, and the like ?\n\n29 3\n\nor out of school, as\n\n3. Power of attention.\n\na) What differences can you note in your children’s ability to grasp thought?\nCan\nthey attend equally well to matter of difficult interpretation.\n6) What differences in intensity of attention are discernible?\nIs this difference\nnoticeable in all the subjects?\nDoes it vary with the time of day?\nc) Is there a difference in the rapidity of attending to the matter’ of instruction ?\nWhat variation is found in this ?\n@) Can you find any peculiarity in attention in your pupils due to “eye-mindedness,”\nor “‘ear-mindedness,” or other special mental type ?\n4. Stimuli to attention.\n\na) What external influences are operating to affect his attention either in direction or\nintensity ?\n6) Through what senses is he receiving the stimuli ?\nc) What of these are subject to control by the teacher, and what not?\nd@) What benefit to teacher should arise out of such study as this?\nThis plan is designed to direct a teacher’s observations, inquiries, and reflections,\nwhile he is actively engaged in work with his pupils.\nTo apply it successfully, young\nteachers, and those not well trained in inductive psychology, will need careful guidance\nfrom principals or superintendents. Itis believed that a faithful daily use of this scheme,\nor more helpful and significant parts of it, in following the work of individuals and\nclasses, will eventually lead to a valuable habit of mind toward pupils.\nPLAN\nA STUDY\n\nOF INTERESTS\n\nIl.\nFOR LITERATURE.\n\n1. Signs of interest in literary study.\na) How is interest in literature manifested by your pupils individually? Can you\ndescribe these signs and tell how you detected them?\nHave you used any special sign\nthus discovered in your efforts to acquaint yourself with the interest of another student?\nCan you classify these signs as they appear in your schools ?\n.\n6) What is the earliest manifestation of the literary sense discoverable in the youngest children?\nHow do these signs change as the pupil grows older or broadens his expe.\nrience?\nHave you as teacher affected any change in any way?\nc) Watch for signs of any abnormal and harmful interests. What leads you to think\nthem injurious to the child? What treatment of the child would you propose ?\n2. Source and degree of interest in literature.\na) Does the interest arise out of the pupil’s “mental make-up,” or from influences at\nhome, or requirement of regular school work ? In what ways are you helped by knowing ?\n4) Is this interest of high, low, or medium degree of intensity ?. What is the basis of\nyour judgment ? Is this intensity variable?\nWhat leads to such variation?\nHow have\n\nyou affected it in any way?\nc) Are any sources or degrees of interest that you discover regarded by you as peculiarly helpful or harmful to your pupils?\nAre the factors working thus upon the child\ncontrollable or not by parent or teacher ?\n\n3. Values of literary interests.\na) What effects from the reading of literature upon the intellectual life are\n\ndiscern-\n\nible in any individual ?\n6) How many of your pupils use literature as a resort for pleasure or pastime, rest or\nrecreation ?\n\n"}
{"page": 304, "printed_page": null, "text": "620i\nJ\n\nNATIONAL\n\n294\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nc) To what extent can you find the use of literature of value in school as a positive\nor negative force in affecting disposition, conduct, and character 2\nd) How do such observations and discoveries affect the spirit, energy, and method of\nyour work with literature, if in any way ?\n4. Kinds of interest.\na) Are evidences indicative of a permanent or a passing interest?\n6) Toward what forms of literature does the detected interest tend?\n\ni\n;\nIs it for “ liter-\n\nature of power,” as distinguished from “literature of knowledge” ?\nc) Is the interest in the literature a direct or an indirect one in the matter or in the\nform, in the symbol or in the thing symbolized ?\nd) What benefit comes from the observations and inquiry of this nature ?\nIn this plan it is assumed that efficient teaching demands a knowledge of the pupils’\ninterests as zmdividwals, and that the chief object in literary instruction is the cultivation\nof this interest.\n\nIt is believed, therefore, that its use in helping the teacher\n\nto ascertain\n\nthe attitude, ability, and progress of her pupils through its revelations of their interests in\nthe selections used ought to lead to better teaching.\nIt will aid in the discovery of the\nneeds of the children. More effective adaptations and more definite knowledge of results\nare likely to be secured thereby, and, morever, in the future, better selections\n\nand\n\nadjust-\n\nments of literary materials to the needs of the pupils.\n\nThe teacher may be assisted by\n\nthe analysis\n\nmore\n\nof the\n\nfield\n\nfor study\n\ninto\n\na closer\n\nand\n\ncareful\n\nattention,\n\ninto\n\nincreased accuracy and exactness in discrimination and judgment, and into a more\n\nful and sympathetic treatment of pupils.\nThe best execution\nkeen, painstaking observation and wise, critical questioning.\nother important information may be obtained.\n\nCHILD\n\nSTUDY\n\nBY PROFESSOR\n\nWITH\n\nTHE\n\nC. C. VAN\n\nLIEW,\n\nCO-OPERATION\n\nILLINOIS\n\nSTATE\n\nan\n\nfruit-\n\nof this design will need\nAnd with such a study\n\nOF\n\nNORMAL\n\nPARENTS.\n\nUNIVERSITY.\n\nOne of the first values of child study to the active teacher is the more complete\nrecognition of the individual child in school.\nIn these days of growth away from small\nto large school communities there is a tendency to lose the individual in the mass, to place\nhim within the cramping limitations of an iron system of gradations, and to make the\ndemands of class work superior to those of the individual.\nThe active teacher needs\na constant stimulus to give the individual freedom within her system.\nTo do this, she\nmust £zow the individual.\n\nNowhere is this need greater thanin the primary grades, for it is here that the child\nfirst learns to think of himself as a member of a larger social community than the family.\nThe family was comparatively narrow in its social relations, so far as the child was concerned ; here the child’s individuality was most pronounced.\nHe enters school, and its\nlarger community life reduces the force of his individuality in proportion as the number\nof his associates is greater.\n\nHe must, in a measure, re-establish\n\nit.\n\nThe success\n\nof the\n\nteacher’s first efforts here can be measured by the completeness with which she utilizes the\nsix-year-old’s home-past in establishing an easy transition to the school-present.\nThe\nincipient pupils before her are widely different, because the forces and stimuli of their\n\"respective environments have differed so widely. Again, upon first entering school, they\nare So many strangers to the teacher, who is expected, however, to give them intelligent\ninstruction at once. The parent who places the child in school knows a great deal about\n\n"}
{"page": 305, "printed_page": null, "text": "Ay\n\nSuperintendence]\n\nCH/ZD\n\nSTUDY\n\nWITH\n\nCO-OPERATION\n\nOF PARENTS\n\n295\n\nits nature and peculiarities that would be of great service to the teacher, if she could\nknow it.\nThis thought suggests a method of child study in school with the co-operation of\nparents, by the use of questions to parents.\nPerhaps the method here described is not\nworthy the name “child study.” It can lay no claim to scientific and analytic value.\nIt\nmight be better to speak of it as an introduction to the study of the child. The following\nquestions are given as illustrating certain lines of information in which the parent may be\nof great service to the primary teacher.\nThe value of most of them is very obvious; yet\nthey do not include all that might be useful, nor is it intended that all should be asked.\nMany valuabie facts are brought out that are not sought directly in the questions.\n“What sicknesses has the child passed through ? Are any after-effects of these sicknesses still present (nervousness, incontinence, spasms)?\nHave the child’s ears, eyes, or\nthroat ever been affected ? Has the child any other physical defect that you know\nof?\nDescribe the child’s sleep (breathing regular? restful? dreams? about what ?\nlength of sleep ?). Does the child eat heartily? Especially at breakfast? Used to forenoon lunch? What does the child drink (coffee, tea, milk)? Appetite dainty or hearty;\nand for plain or fancy food?\nGeneral health good, as seen in the play, work, power of\nAt what age?\nendurance, disposition, etc.? Has the child been out of doors much?\nWhither?\nAt what age? In what\nHowlong?\nPlaces ? Has it made any journeys?\nplaces brought up? Where lived most of its life ? Name as many striking sights that\nthe child has seen and remembered as you can. What can you say of the child’s curiParents’ occupation, past and present ? Has\nosity ? Reflectiveness ? Talkativeness?\nthe child experienced unusual events (death, fire, wedding)?\n\nEffect\n\non the child?\n\nWho\n\nAge of these\nhas had the chief care of the child?\nAny persons beside the mother?\npersons?\nFrom whom did the child learn to talk? One or more languages?\nHad\nCharacter of these companions?\nmany companions?\nHad to amuse itself largely?\nHas the child been much in the\nFavorite companion?\nTheir influence on the child?\ncompany of adults? In large gatherings of adults? Favorite plays, occupations, toys,\nfancies?\n\nwith\n\nDoes\n\nverses,\n\nany\n\nit know\n\nbrothers, sisters, playmates?\n\nit generous?\nmals?\n\nmoods ?\n\nHas\n\nit a hasty temper?\n\nIs it affectionate?\n\nShow\n\nEasily embarrassed ? Shy?\nadmonitions ?\n\nExpressive\n\nfear of anything?\n\nCry\n\nBlush easily?\n\nSpecial habits or tricks, such\n\nwell\n\nIs\n\neasily?\n\nof love?\n\nWhat?\n\nit get along\n\nDoes it like to govern, to tease?\n\nDoes\n\nDisposition?\n\nsongs?\n\nQuarrelsome?\n\nHow\n\ndoes\n\nSpeak truth\n\nFond of\n\nit habitually treat ani-\n\nalways?\n\nChangeable\n\nin\n\ncolor, beautiful pictures, stories?\n\nDoes it obey readily, or does it need several\nas\n\nbiting the finger nails?\n\nPersistent\n\nin\n\ncarrying out undertakings?\nSkillful in home occupations, such as dressing, home\nchores, etc. ? Careful and orderly with property ? Ever made collections of anything\n(buttons, stones,\n\nstamps, etc.)?\n\nRight- or left-handed ?\nsition 2?\n\nQuick\n\nand ready to act, or does it stop and Ts\n\n— is\n\nDoes it resemble the father or mother physically and in dispo-\n\nWhich child, by number, in the family?\n\nHow\n\nmany brothers and sisters?\n\nIts\n\nexpectations as to the future ?\nThe value of this method of individual study may be summed up in general as follows :\n1. It furthers very materially the sympathetic co-operation of school and home, of\n—a result greatly to be desired. Contrary to the expectation ofmany,\nteacher and parent\nparents have been found very appreciative of the work and its object,and have given it\nes\ntheir hearty and candid support.\n2. This work furnishes an excellent basis for the further study of the individual.\nMany idiosyncrasies are revealed that suggest educational problems and the need of\nFoul\nwatching their further growth and influence.\ninstruction and\nin\ncontact\nof\npoints\nconcrete\nmany\nwith\nteacher\n3. It furnishes the\n\ngovernment, something tangible in each child for the exercise of her sympathy and love.\n\n"}
{"page": 306, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n296\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\n4. A knowledge of the child’s physical limitations and peculiarities, which the parent\noften understands and can explain, prevents the teacher’s unwittingly subjecting the child\nto pain or chagrin.\n5. The teacher learns\n\nsomething of the child’s environment and its forces, as they\nhave helped to shape the child, and is the better able to adapt the school environment to\nhis needs.\n6. Both parents and teachers are by this means interested from a new point of view\n;\nin the general problem of the child nature and growth, and of child education.\nIt\nIt is not claimed that this method might not be improved or replaced by a better.\nExperience has shown it to be both practical and\nis merely presented here as suggestive.\n\nvery valuable.\n\nSHOULD\n\nTEACHERS IN PREPARATION HAVE INSTRUCTION\nTHEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL CHILD STUDY?\n\nBY\n\nMISS\n\nMARY\n\nE. LAING,\n\nOSWEGO\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nIN\n\nSCHOOL.\n\nAllow me to re-echo a thought that has already been expressed here this evening.\nThe young teacher must learn through investigation.\nShe herself must study particulars and reach her conclusions through her own experience.\nMuch of the large body of\nfacts concerning the nature of the child, as well as the finding of means in furthering his\ndevelopment, she should be helped to discover for herself. From this standpoint I would\nlike to name the practice school a teachers’ laboratory.\nThe young teacher herself must grow; under our direction best possibilities must be\ndeveloped and the individual teacher helped into conscious possession of individual\npower.\nThe practice school should as truly be a place affording ideal opportunity for\nyoung teachers to grow as the schoolroom should afford ideal opportunity for right child\ngrowth.\nIt should be a Lehrergarten.\nWe have sometimes forgotten this. We have\nburdened the young teacher with ready-made devices and elaborate schemes; we have\ninstructed and criticised, and too often our efforts have had the unhappy effect of directing her thought toward herself and inducing a self-consciousness detrimental to her own\nbest development.\nChild study tends to turn her thoughts away from herself toward its\nlegitimate object, and so to become an effective means in the teacher’s own more natural\ndevelopment.\nThere are three factors in instruction:\n\nthe teacher, the subject-matter, and the child.\n\nWork prospers as the interests of the latter are made prominent.\nThere are no contradictions here. The teacher’s true advantage is the advantage of the child, and in the\nproportion that she furthers the good of the child she furthers her own best good. He is\nthe proper focus for her attention and effort ; subject-matter must be adapted to his needs,\nand methods of presenting it to his nature ;to know him is the first necessary step in\nknowing how to shape conditions to the desired end of his development.\nTo this»end\nthe teacher must study the child, but let her study him with disinterested motive.\nThat\nchild study is best for the average teacher that is undertaken for the child’s own sake;\nthat aims to help him zow.\nEyery teacher in preparation should, if possible, undertake a kind of child study that\nwill enable her to read quickly and accurately the mental and moral characteristics of\nchildren, to note habits mental and physical, to gain, in short, a clear apprehension of\npresent conditions in order that she may wisely shape them so as-to induce best results in\nfuture growth. This work must be prepared for by the right kind of psychology\n—a psy-\n\n"}
{"page": 307, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nNATIONAL\n\nTEACHERS’\n\nCERTIFICATES\n\n207\n\nchology that has trained her to a quick observation, not only of those mental processes\ninvolved in learning, but of mental habits and acquired conditions, of volitional or emotional manifestations which enter into the daily lives of growing children.\nThere is in every child, not only the present John or Mary, but also the potential\nchild. There is for every child a best possible character to be developed.\nNothing is so\nimportant to the child as the realization of this possible best in himself.\nLet the young\nteacher be trained to quickness in knowing the present child before her, that she may the\nmore surely aid in the unfolding of that possible best.\nThis necessitates power in understanding individual children, and it can be most\nsurely developed in the systematic study of individuals.\nDoubtless there may be many excellent ways of doing this work.\nWe have recently\nadopted the plan of asking the pupil teacher to study one child as thoroughly and\nexhaustively as possible, just as a pupil in science, who begins the study of insects, begins\nwith a single individual and learns from it how to study all of its class. This study of\nindividual traits and habits of individual children is naturally extended to the entire\ngroup of children under the young teacher’s care, and she is encouraged to know these\nindividual children as truthfully and thoroughly as possible.\nThe results of the work are shown in greater self-forgetfulness on the part of the\n-young teachers, attention centering more in the children and less in themselves.\nAs they\nwork more directly with the children, an improved quality of work results. More sympathy between pupils and teacher is exhibited, and greater spontaneity enters into the\nwork with this improvement in vital conditions.\nWe cannot doubt the power of child study to help in the solution of some of the\ngravest problems in the training of teachers.\nWe may question if at no distant future we\nshall not wonder that we could have seriously put into interrogative form the query if\nteachers in preparation should have instruction in theoretical and practical child study.\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\nThe round\n\nON NATIONAL\n\ntable on National\n\nTEACHERS’\n\nCERTIFICATES.\n\nTeachers’ Certificates, conducted\n\nby Ossian\n\nH. Lang,\n\nof New York city, resulted in the adoption of a resolution to instruct the chairman to\nsecure from the Department of Superintendence an indorsement of the following propositions:\n1. Appointment of a committee to draft a report setting forth clearly and in detail\nwhat should be considered the minimum standard of professional qualifications to be\nrequired of candidates for state certificates.\n2. This committee to consist of sixteen members:\nThe United States Commissioner\nof Education, the present President of the N. E. A., the present President of the Department of Superintendence, four state superintendents, three state normal-school principals,\ntwo principals of local training schools, two presidents of boards of education, and two\nothers.\nThe following topics were discussed by the round table :\n1. National teachers’ certificates may or may not be recognized by political authorities, but a universal recognition of this kind should be the end of our efforts.\n2. A national teachers’ certificate would be merely a diploma testifying that the\nholder possesses all the qualifications required by law of teachers in the state or states\n\nhaving the highest professional standard or standards.\n\n"}
{"page": 308, "printed_page": null, "text": "298\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nseta\natd\n,\n\n3. Interstate recognition of state certificates cannot be compelled by law. It will\nWhat\nalways remain a courtesy shown by the authorities of one state to those of another.\nought to be secured is the passage of laws by the several legislative bodies empowering\neither the state board of examiners or the state superintendent to indorse state teachers’\ncertificates issued by other states.\n\n4. Practical recognition of state certificates by every school\ncan be, and ought to be, compelled by law.\n\nThis, then, would\n\ncommunity in the state\nbe the first definite result\n\nto be secured.\n5. Before this recognition can be secured\n\nthe state certificate must\n\ncarry with it con-\n\nvincing proof that the holder possesses the highest professional qualifications required of\nteachers in any part of the state.\n6. In order to come to an understanding as to what demands may be reasonably\nmade upon applicants for state certificates, a clearly defined standard of professional\nqualification would have to be agreed upon.\nThe following propositions were made to get the movement under way:\nThat the Department of Superintendence appoint a committee to draft a report, setting forth what should be considered minimum requirements for a professional certificate.\nAfter this report has been fully discussed and adopted by the Department of Superintendence, its indorsement by the National Educational Association, the various state\nteachers’ associations, and\n\nthe school\n\nauthorities\n\nin the several states should\n\nbe secured.\n\nThe next step would be the incorporation of its main provisions into the school laws\nof every state in the Union.\nThe state normal schools should then arrange their courses of study in accordance with\nthese provisions, and be made the only institutions qualified to issue teachers’ certificates\nto their graduates.\nAll who are not graduates of these schools should be examined by a state board of\nexaminers, made up principally of representatives of the state normal schools, and certificates issued to them.\nEvery certificate of this kind should be valid for at least three years.\nAfter the possessor of this certificate has taught three years and fully demonstrated\nhis fitness for school work, a life certificate ought to be issued to him upon an application to the state superintendent, indorsed by the state examiners and the superintendent\nunder whom he has taught.\nThe holders of life certificates should then be required to register their names in the\ncounties in which they are employed, and appointments and promotions may then be\nmade from these lists without any further examinations, upon the recommendation of the\nlocal superintendent to the board of education.\nAs soon as all states have come to an agreement as to the requirements for a professional life diploma, the United States commissioner should be empowered to indorse the\nlife diploma, and by his signature give it a national character.\n\nThe difficulties involved\nthe following:\n\nin the propositions offered by Mr. Lang were discussed by\n\nState Superintendent J. Q. Emory of Wisconsin; State Superintendent N. C. Schaeffer of Pennsylvania; State Superintendent W. W. Stetson of Maine; Superintendent E.\nA. Jones, of Massillon,\n\nO.; State\n\nSuperintendent\n\nD. M. Geeting of Indiana;\n\nDr. Ida C.\n\nBender, Supervisor of Primary Schools, Buffalo, N. Y.; State Superintendent Chas. R.\nSkinner of New York; Dr. W. N. Hailmann, Supervisor of Indian Education, Washington, D. C.; John MacDonald, Editor Western School Journal; State Superintendent John\nKirk of Missouri; Superintendent C. J. Pearse, of Omaha, Neb., and others.\n\ne\ne\no\n\n"}
{"page": 309, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nLIBRARIES\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\n299\n\nON LIBRARIES.\n\nIn the absence of Melvil Dewey, the round table was conducted, at the request of\nPresident Gilbert, by J. H. Van Sickle, of Denver,\nthe Vice-President of the Library Department of the N. E. A, Miss Mary E. Ahern, of Chicago, acted as secretary. The discussion,\n\nwas opened by Mr. F. M. Crunden, Librarian of the Public Library of St. Louis, Mo. The\n\nsubjects were as follows: (1) The reading of teachers.\n(2) The proper function of the\nnational library as a part of the American educational system. What it might do to assist\nschools and libraries throughout the country.\n(3) Practical help to the evolution of book\nborrowing with book owning.\n(4) The functions of the schools in training readers for\nthe public library.\n\n(5) Using books vs. reading books.\n\nMr. CRUNDEN said that in many cases the teacher was the only source of inspiration\nthat children met; therefore it was important that this fountain head should be clear,\npure, and fresh in its contents.\nWhat a teacher is in himself is more important than what\n‘he gives out. Heshould keep up with current ideas, which, after all, are the old thoughts\nin new form.\n\nMr. F. A. Hurcuins, Library Clerk of the Office of Superintendent of Public\nInstruction of Wisconsin, said: Teachers should be thoroughly familiar with the great\nchildren’s classics, and should\n\nenjoy them\n\nso thoroughly that they can inspire a love for\n\nthese classics in the breasts of all their pupils. The school libraries will not do their best\nwork until we have a generation of teachers who have been reared from childhood in homes\nand schools where the best books are habitually read. The teacher who has done very little\nreading can well afford to begin with the children’s classics for other reasons than to be\nbetter able to help her pupils.\nIn Madison, Wis., where pupils of the lower grades are furnished free text-books,\nthey are required to buy the books used for supplementary reading. Each pupil purchases two or three books each year, which are read in class. Among these volumes are\nScudder’s “ Fables and Folk Stories,’’ Ruskin’s “ King of the Golden River,” Eggleston’s\n“First\n\nBook\n\nin American\n\nHistory,”\n\n“The\n\nWonder\n\nBook,” “ Evangeline,” and “Snow\n\nBound.” The child who has spent eight years in the lower grades of the Madison schools\nhas, therefore, gathered a choice library of the children’s classics. The booksellers in that\ncity sell now large quantities of such books, but have lost as large a sale of the books of\nOptic, Castlemon, e¢ a/.\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nWoops, of Michigan City, Ind., said that teachers of the present\n\nday were sadly deficient in knowledge of children’s books, or of what children ought to\nread, because they themselves were not taught what such books should be.\nJ. H. Mixer,\n\nEditor Northwestern\n\nJournal\n\nof Education, Lincoln, Neb., said\n\nhe\n\nwas opposed to reading for teachers as such. They are men and women, and should\nread just what other people do. He observed teachers to be tireless readers, but their\nreading was too professional, They should read what other people of culture read. He\nthought normal schools and colleges should teach how to read for the soul of literature,\nand not for so much dissection.\nALBERT\n\npeople,\n\nE. WINSHIP, Editor Journal of Education, Boston, Mass.—There are some\nold and young, who will never read; there are many who can easily be made\n\nIt is possible to read too many books, even good books. The Sunto read too much.\nday-school library, and even the public library, sometimes bring to the young people too\n\n"}
{"page": 310, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n300\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nmany books for their mental development. We need to emphasize the use of books rather\nthan the reading of books.\nBooks used for information are to be consulted, not read. It is a pedagogical crime\nfor a child\n\nto study geography, history, literature, science, as though\n\nthe book\n\nhe was\n\nOne great mission of the school is to teach\nstudying had all the information he needed.\nchildren that no information is reliable that he does not get from the latest authorities.\nMore and more do the libraries need to furnish accommodations for students to go directly\nto their shelves for reference books in various subjects.\nBooks, to be of professional\n\nservice, should be owned.\n\nOne\n\ngood book owned\n\nand\n\nlived with is worth more than five books taken from a library and read as one takes in\nscenery from a car window.\nBooks for culture should, even more\ncompanioned with.\nOne needs his own\n\nthan for professional\nShakespeare, Lowell,\n\nservice,\n\nbe owned\n\nHolmes,\n\nIrving,\n\nand\nas he\n\nneeds his own toilet case, to which he goes knowing it is always ready for personally\ntoning up thought and sentiment.\nOne reading of a play, poem, or work of fiction is of\nlittle more value than to have had the loan of a watch foran hour; it is all well while you\nhave it, but for service it needs to be consulted when one wishes to bring himself up to\nthe standard.\nA professional book or a classic is to be used a hundred times where it is read once.\nHunt through its pages for a pet couplet that you need, and you will see a score of others\nthat you will need at another time.\nThe reading circle’s greatest mission is the insistence that teachers buy a few books\n\neach year and use them until they are not willing to part with them.\nSets of books, like\nthe “International Educational Series” of the Appletons, or the new inexpensive set of\nBritish and American Masterpieces of Houghton, Mifflin & Co., are a constant inspiration\nfor teachers to buy as fast as they are able —books upon whose value they can depend,\nbecause they are ina standard series.\nLawyers, physicians, editors, clergymen use books in their own way; teachers must\nhave a way of their own —using rather than reading books, going to the latest sources of\ninformation and companioning with professional and literary masterpieces.\nMuch more\ncould be done for teachers by librarians thanis being done. Librarians need to get closer\nto the teachers and not get off by themselves, putting up barriers to keep the teachers out.\nTeachers are afraid of librarians.\nI was afraid of them myself. I believe no one can\nlove and understand a good book who depends on the library for it.\n\nMary E. AHERN spoke next in defense of the librarians.\nShe thought Dr. Winship\ncould not know of the work being done for the schools and teachers in Massachusetts by\nLibrarians\n\nPutnam, Green, Cutter, Jones, and\n\na score\n\nof others, or\n\nhe\n\nwould\n\nnot\n\nbe so\n\nsevere.\nLibrarians have been literally chasing teachers for twenty years, trying to do\nthem good. They are coming close together, and the change from reading as a task to\nreading as a delight is due to their united efforts.\n\nBy request, Mr. Van Sickle spoke of the work of the Denver Public Library in connection with the schools of that city. Teachers are allowed to take to their schoolrooms\na large number of books and to keep them for several weeks or months, if they choose.\nThe shelves of the library are accessible at all times to teachers and pupils. The children’s room is a feature of great popularity. Each child may help himself to any book on\nthe shelves.\n\nIn some of the schools\n\nthis plan is carried out on a smaller scale, each room\n\nbeing\n\nsupplied with fifty books, carefully selected with reference to the age of the children. The\nchildren move on from room to room when promoted, and are brought in contact with\nanother set of books new to them.\n\n—_\na\n\n"}
{"page": 311, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSTATE\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\nAT SUMMER\n\nINSTITUTES\n\n301\n\nSUPERINTENDENT CarTER, of Danville, Ill., advocated putting everything into the\npublic library. His teachers sent to the library for the books wanted and were supplied by\nmeans of duplicates, which were bought by the school board; had as many as necessary,\nand kept them as long as needed.\n\nMr. CRUNDEN, speaking of the function of the library in relation to the public schools,\nsaid it was better to learn to love books than to know their contents and hate them.\nLet\nthere be reading for pleasure in schools, not all fora task. Then will students come\nout with a taste for good books.\nOften the reading is so dull and poor~in school that\nstimulants are needed to get them to read at all afterwards.\nA good book is an open\ndoor to life and the development of the mind.\nMr. Aucust F. ForrstTE, Teacher of Physics in the Steele High School, Dayton, O.—\nIn some of the larger city libraries the books on the various sciences, whether in the line\n\nof natural history or of physics, chemistry, and\n\nthe like, are too exclusively of service to\n\nthe very few, to the specialists, or those having had higher courses of training.\n\nToo great\n\nemphasis cannot be laid upon the fact that these libraries are mainly for the general\npublic, and that the most careful selection should be made of such books as would be of\n\nvalue to those who haye not had previous training.\nThe teachers of the high school and others should be encouraged to prepare lists of\nbooks in the library of especial value for the study of special topics in their own line of\nwork in the schoolroom.\nSuch lists might be recorded in the form of a card catalogue, and would serve as a guide to the librarian while selecting books for pupils\neager to continue in these lines of investigation, and to pursue them farther than in the\nschoolroom.\nThe preparation of such lists will often reveal the weaknesses of a library\nand lead to filling-in of the gaps discovered.\nAll references should be made, not only to authors and titles of books, but even to\nchapters and pages.\nThis saves time and teaches the use of books as sources of information.\n\nWHAT\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\nSHOULD\n\nTHE\n\nBY\n\nS. M.\n\nOF STATE\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS.\n\nSTATE SUPERINTENDENTS\nINSTITUTES ?\n\nDO AT\n\nINGLIS,\n\nILLINOIS.\n\nSTATE\n\nSUPERINTENDENT,\n\nTHE\n\nSUMMER\n\nThe summer institute is, in a measure, the seed time of the school year for the rural\n\n— the time when the teachers gather to seek the necessary preparation for the\nschools\nwork of the approaching fall and winter campaign.\nIt is an opportunity afforded the wide-awake county superintendent for doing some\nof his most vigorous and efficient work of the entire year. His supply corps of institute\ninstructors can be brought to bear, and his own counsel, fresh in a large measure and ripe\nwith the added experience of the past year.\nare used judiciously, the summer institutes may be a means of valIf these elements.\nuable support to the teachers attending, a prolific source of inspiration and enthusiasm, and\n\nfairly and fully pay for the time spent and the money expended.\nThe state superintendent has his share to do in the summer school preparation, but\nit must not be forgotten that his is only advisory, while, at the same\n\ntime, it may be a\n\n"}
{"page": 312, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n302\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n[Indianapolis —\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nre-enforcement to other means that may prove very valuable in the certain progress of the\nschool work of the entire state.\nHe should see to it that these institute instructors are doing good work.\n\nThe school law of Illinois requires a high grade of professional instruction\nteachers of each county, for at least one week in every year.\n\nfor the\n\nThat law collects a fund to\n\ndefray the expenses of the annual institute.\nThe teachers supply that fund, and they are entitled to such expenditure of it as will\nThe necessity for the annual institute was\nbe most helpful to them in their occupation.\nperceived by those who secured the enactment of the law, and the need of having its\nlimited time given to such instructors only as are\n\nbility for greater usefulness\n\nable to lift the teachers\n\nis certainly yet felt keenly in some\n\ninto a capa-\n\ncounties of Hlinois and,\n\nI doubt not, of other states.\nThe annual, or summer, institute may be made a means of instructing, strengthening,\nand inspiring the teachers of a county, or it may be so conducted as to enervate those who\n\nattend.\nIf the pressure which the county superintendent of schools can so readily employ by\ninsinuation and implication be used to enforce the attendance of teachers on the exercises\nof feeble or erratic instructors, the result must be a twofold injury.\nThe teacher will lose the spirit of freedom and dignity which a sense of coercion\ndestroys. And as the teacher cannot develop well in his pupil that which is wanting in\nhimself, constrained attendance on poor institutes will degrade our schools.\nMoreover, when the work done is inferior, the teachers will conclude\n\nthat they are\n\nstronger than their instructors, and that further effort at real improvement is unnecessary.\nThe lawmakers of Illinois intended to guard against the employment of unfit instructors in the annual institutes, and, to this end, provided that the county superintendent of\nschools, “with the concurrence of the state superintendent of public instruction, shall procure such assistance as may be necessary to conduct said institutes at such time as the\nschools of the county are generally closed.”\nIt is customary in Illinois for the state superintendent to issue license to give instruction in institutes, to those whom he knows, from personal acquaintance, to be well qualified, and to those bearing proper testimonials of worthiness.\nThe possession of this license enables the worker to receive, lawfully, compensation\nfor his services as instructor in institutes.\nBut the granting of a license, and the recommending\n\nof a suitable\n\ninstructor,\n\nocca-\n\nsionally, to inquiring county superintendents, fill the measure of the duty of the state\nsuperintendent in concurring with the county superintendent in employing institute\ninstructors.\nSo far as the personal acquaintance of the state superintendent extends, or the recommendations of applicants are given by very conscientious and disinterested persons, he is\nsatished that he can reasonably indorse the holder of the license.\nBut, sometimes, the county superintendent, judging from his own criterion of fitness\nor obligation alone, arranges to employ those who do not hold the license of the State\nDepartment ; and, having made such arrangement, he feels under obligation to obtain\n\nthe recommendations which would secure license for those whom he had employed.\n\nThis\n\nis not by any means an impossible task for a county superintendent.\nAs a consequence, some persons who are not well qualified have been authorized to give\ninstruction in institutes. Other states than Illinois that have adopted the custom of\nissuing state license to instructors in teachers’ institutes know whereof I speak.\nIt is only with the hearty co-operation of all the county superintendents of a state\n\nthat the state superintendent can hope to keep unworthy holders of institute license at a\nminimum.\n\n"}
{"page": 313, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSTA 7E\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\nAT SUMMER\n\nINSTITUTES\n\n303\n\nThe licensing authority, and the recommendation on which the licenses are issued,\nshould be kept as distinct as possible from the employing power.\nI do not mean that a county superintendent should not recommend anyone as worthy\nto receive an institute instructor’s license.\nOften his recommendation will be among the\nmost valuable; but he should not be expected to recommend for this license anyone\nwhom he has in immediate prospect for employment in his institute.\nThen, if the county superintendent declines to employ anyone who, he is assured, has\nnot the indorsement of the state superintendent for such work, some aspirants may fail to\nsecure employment.\n‘The institute may not be injured thereby in the least.\nIt would be exceedingly fortunate for all concerned if no one who recommends an\napplicant for institute license would permit any consideration to influence him to write\nwhat he would hesitate to be held responsible for when the indorsement is given a literal\ninterpretation.\nThe millennium is not yet here, and we must not expect what we cannot realize.\nIf those who furnish testimonials on which a license is issued, and those who\n\nemploy\n\ninstructors for their institutes, would be guided in their action by the consideration only\nof what is best, professionally, for the teachers who attend the institutes, often at a great\nsacrifice, it will be possible for the summer institutes to effect an improvement in the\n-teaching force of the state which will be rapid and decisive —an improvement which the\ninstitute law contemplates.\nWe trust that the day is not far distant when the intrinsic value of our institute\ninstructors will be so enhanced, and the scholarship of our teachers be such, that academic\n\ninstruction and details of method will not be so much\npractical grasp of underlying principles.\n\nneeded\n\nas revival\n\nof spirit and\n\n“Second, the state superintendent should lecture to the teachers on some topic particularly appropriate to their work.\nHe should impress upon them emphatically the necessity of feeling very sensibly the\nneed of the presence of the age in which they are living and laboring— that they are the\nunits that make up the aggregate of human society; that each age makes special\ndemands upon the men and women that belong to it, in strict accord with their environments; that the tinsel and pageantry of a superstitious past have yielded to intrinsic worth\nand substantial advancement; that the ideal has given birth to the real, and they must\n\nkeep pace with the times in which they live, and bend their every effort towards still\ngreater achievement in art and science, in training a citizenship for the higher plateaus of\npossibilities.\nThe teachers must recognize that the age\n\ndemands\n\na more practical education\n\nthan\n\nwas needed in the musty past; that every department needs the best; that every age has\nits work, every man his mission, and that truth is the great moral lever in action.\nThey must know and realize that the man for this age must understand the times in\nwhich he lives, the changes of passing objects, and the multiplied operations of man in\nhis everyday encounters; that he who lacks this knowledge and cares to know nothing of\nthe future is not fitted to play any conspicuous part in the drama of the present age.\nMost earnestly must we impress the teachers with the fact that this is an age of\nobjective activity; that everyone of worth is alive with a pardonable excitement; that all\n\nothers are regarded as drones, and are driven from the busy hive, and crushed\ndenizens of progress;\n\nby the\n\nthat the-very watchword of the age is Progress, and that everyone\n\nmust do his duty or fall before the victorious millions, in this ever-restless world.\n\nThe teacher must feel that every man, woman, and child is a common\n\nfactor in the\n\ngreat workshop of life; he must realize that he must be a student; that, should\n\nto fan the Promethean\n\nachievement in the world of thought, he must willingly tread\n\nAst\n=\nPa.\n\nhe desire\n\nspark, latent in the hearts of his pupils, and inspire them for\nthe fiery furnace of faith in\n\n"}
{"page": 314, "printed_page": null, "text": "a\n\n304\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nthe prose, poetry, and philosophy of the fathers; that the age demands scholarship in the\ninstruction of the youth of today, and the teacher who lightly regards this demand must\nstep down and out of the magic circle ; that our greatest need in the educational world is\nfor more men tg explore its broad acres, climb to its dizziest heights, and tunnel to its\ndeepest depths.\nI would not forget, in these talks, to impress upon the teacher the necessity of teach-\n\ning a Supreme Being in the moral ethics of the schoolroom, and his obligation to enforce\n°\nthis teaching by both precept and example.\nScience, history, language, every branch of study in the curriculum of the school\nThe teacher cannot avoid the conviction of such a truth;\nwork, dictate this vital truth.\ndare not, if he would, evade the duty to teach it.\n\nI would not forget to encourage the teachers to discipline the pupils to self-control ;\nto train them in the habit of right acting; to develop in them mental power; to lead them\nup to noble manhood; to inspire them for achievement, reminding them that minds only\nare immortal;\n\nthat the marble obelisk may\n\ncrumble into dust, but that the teacher’s work\n\nendures.\nThird, the state superintendent should address the patrons.\n\nAn evening during the week, or a portion of a day, should be devoted to this purpose\nThe superintendent may\n\ndevote a portion of the time in showing that, as Americans,\n\nwe are a nation of homes, that the pivotal point about which revolve the cycles of progress\noutward and upward is emphatically the home, be it ever so humble in its modest environments, or ever so high in the scale of propitious appointments.\nThe people should be brought to realize that from the home come legislators, governors, presidents;\n\nour consuls and\n\nministers to foreign courts, hence\n\nour\n\ncharacter\n\nabroad;\n\nour statesmen and philanthropists, hence our safety at home; our literary men and\nwomen, hence our intellectual power and position among nations; yes, that the home is\nthe nucleus about which cluster our prophecies, our fondest hopes of success; it is where\nour faith is strengthened, and whence it is winged to higher flights of destiny.\nThe citizens should remember that in the home the education of the child begins,\neither for good or for bad; its first teachers are its parents—the mother standing preeminent;\n\nthis is the mind-formative period, when disposition and character are shaped.\n\nHome training is unconscious tuition, and we should recognize that the plastic\nnature of the child is molded into shape largely by its surroundings; hence the people\nshould be taught to shape the surroundings properly before they can shift their responsi-\n\nbility.\nThe force of the mother’s will, under the intelligent guidance of educational principles and of restraints of conscience, stimulates growth.\nThe simple environments of\nthe child are its instructors, exciting its curiosity, and imparting to its growing mind ideas\nthat are to constitute its stock in trade in its life work.\nHere it begins, here it increases\nits vocabulary under the further guidance of the schoolmaster.\nThis must be made\napparent to the people, that they may be able to grasp their duty in the education of the\nmasses.\n‘The state superintendent will faithfully admonish his constituency to this end.\nA representative democracy demands an intelligent constituency.\nFor this purpose the public-school system has been created, and the schoolmaster is\nabroad in the land—largely, in the country, not to prove his skill in educational tactics by\nhis power to wield the cat-o-nine-tails, but to build a noble character ; not to cram the mind\nwith dry and burdensome facts, but to set on fire the soul, that it may burn and purge\naway the dross, and see only the prevailing truth.\nWe should see that the masses of the patrons understand that the school is not to\npropagate speculative philosophy, but to teach the boys and girls the practical truth with\nwhich they may bridge the valleys of discontent, tunnel the mountains of difficulty, and\n\na\n\n"}
{"page": 315, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSTATE\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\nAT SUMMER\n\nINSTITUTES\n\n305\n\nthrough the arts of peace and the pulsations of trade bring happiness and pour the horn of\nplenty into every home.\nThe people should comprehend fully that public-school training increases the\ncapacity of youth to grasp and grapple with the great problems of life in a manly and a\nwomanly way, thereby adding materially to the great push of progress, and giving hard\nand telling blows to threatening forms of error.\nEspecial attention should be directed to the environments of the school buildings,\nthe preparation and keeping of the grounds, the sanitary advantages, that physical\ngrowth may be fostered, that mental power may be stimulated, and that the moral ethics\nof the schoolroom may be enhanced in value.\nWe should incite the citizens to cherish the public school as the palladium of our\nsafety, the fortress of our success as a nation.\nAt these meetings of the summer institutes the state superintendent should insist\nupon friendly relations between the patrons and the teachers, brought about by frequent\nvisitation to the little college, peopled with the growing and curious children.\nThey must recognize that such visits promote mutual friendship between parent and\n\nteacher, securing\n\norder, adjusting\n\ndifficulties, often allaying sore grievances, softening\n\nprejudices\n—in short, securing obedience in the schoolroom, and reverence for civil law.\nPatrons should be in sympathy with the idea that the labors in the home must be in\nharmony with those in the school.\nWhen a distinguished writer said, “God be thanked for the gift of mothers and\nschoolmasters,’”’ he expressed a common sentiment with us all.\nAs state superintendents we may be efficient at the summer institutes in promoting a\nhealthy growth in fayor of the public-school system, its enlargement and its permanent\npower in promoting a positive Christian civilization.\n\nThe sacred influence of home and childhood ever follows us in our busy life; the\nconsecrated recollections of a mother’s love and confidence ever brightens our pathway.\nBut the next place in the human heart is always reserved for the devoted teacher.\nMany a loving mother has pressed the hand of a faithful, self-denying, patient\nteacher, and called down the blessing of God upon him —upon her —for having brought\nback a wayward son or daughter to the path of duty and rectitude.\nAgain, the state superintendent should arrange with the county superintendent to\nhave a part of one of the institute days devoted to a talk with the school officers of the\ncounty, encouraging mass meetings of these officials: treasurers, trustees, directors, etc.,\nfor the purpose of discussing school matters and the relation of the school law to their\n\nduties.\nIn these summer institutes the state superintendent has a golden opportunity.\nHe\nmay emphasize the necessity of discharging every obligation studiously ;may make clear\nthe several duties and functions of their respective offices, and lead them to feel that they\nalso have responsibilities to subserve the interests of the state.\nThese officers should, at times, read papers themselves, and engage in the discussion\nof such topics as will contribute to a better comprehension of their duties.\nDistance from the law-making power and the indifference of subordinate executors of\nthe law are two elements of weakness that must be met in the solution of the rural-school\nproblem —a problem that the statesman must solve successfully or suffer the pangs of an\nilliteracy, coupled with rank superstition, both common foes to an intelligent suffrage, and\ncertainly suicidal to any nation that fosters or nourishes them by simple neglect to apply\nthe corrective panacea.\nThe state superintendent can do much to remedy these existing evils that tend to\n\nweaken the efficieney of the rural schools.\nThe necessary tools with which the average school director must labor should be\n\n"}
{"page": 316, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n306\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nThe state must not be parsifreely and cheerfully furnished by the proper authority.\nmonious in provisions made along this line, or it may result in a “ penny-wise and poundfoolish” policy.\nHe should point out the delice and firmly insist upon the course of action that will\nbring about radical changes for the betterment of the country school.\nAttendance may be improved by cultivating a taste for the artistic-esthetical, making\nthe school-home environments attractive; this by building better schoolhouses (in many\ncases), fencing the grounds and painting the fence; planting shade trees, surrounding the\n\nschool home with ornate shrubbery ;supplying the home with a good well of water, a crystal tide of temperance beverage; providing the district with plenty of good reference\nbooks, with an excellent library, selected with a view to the culture of the children, along\nthe lines of moral teaching: honesty, honor, temperance, good hadits, personal sympathy,\nkindness to their fellows, and a disposition, deep-seated, to live for the constant up-building of society.\n\nA hundred other things will the observing and faithful state superintendent suggest\nto those who are put in charge of the rural schools. The summer institute may thus\nbecome a prolific source of benefit to the country school work.\nBut the greatest need, after\nall, that we should urge upon the school official is the selection of the best teachers for\nthe money in hand —teachers thoroughly versed in the science and art of pedagogy, the\nprinciples and methods of teaching, and strongly endowed with common sense, known in\nthe vulgate of our everyday verbiage as “‘ gasption ;”’ teachers who will study and investigate, but not be swerved from the higher path of duty by every whiff ofsnewly spun theory,\ncovered with glass, but false when sifted to the bottom.\nThese are a few of the things that may be done by the state superintendent of public\ninstruction when attending the summer institutes.\nAn “inspiration” may be gathered by all concerned ; indifference will be changed\nto interest; the best teachers will be secured for the schools, and they will be paid the\nbest celagy afforded, even at some sacrifice, it may be thought.\nCulture and intellectual\npower and moral status will rise in value far above a minimum; the boy and the girl of\ntoday will make the man and the woman of the future, a noble specimen of American\nmanhood and womanhood.\n\nSCHOOL\n\nBY\n\nJASON\n\nE. HAMMOND,\n\nARCHITECTURE.\n\nSTATE\n\nSUPERINTENDENT,\n\nLANSING,\n\nMICH.\n\nLike a bit of fresh air coming through an open window into an ill-ventilated room,\nwithin the last decade there has swept over all our land, penetrating even into the rural\ndistricts, the first breath of a growing interest in the sanitary conditions of our schoolhouses, conditions which have so much to do with the health of our future citizens who, in\nmany places, are spending one-half of their waking hours in poorly ventilated, badly\nlighted, and uncleanly schoolrooms.\nIt is no exaggeration to say that much of the alarming increase in defective vision\nmay be charged to this source, as also that the delicate lung tissues are permanently injured\nand the whole system weakened by this daily inhalation of vitiated air, at a time, too,\nwhen the child should be laying a firm foundation for physical as well as mental development.\nThus it is that no one of the numerous things demanding a state superintendent’s\nattention is of greater importance than this question of modernizing our school architecture.\n\n"}
{"page": 317, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSCHOOL\n\nARCHITECTURE\n\n307\n\nRealizing this, it has been the policy of my predecessor in Michigan, not only to fan\nthis growing interest into a steady and ever-increasing current by personal exhortation as\nhe went about among patrons, but two years ago this little pamphlet was prepared under\nmy Supervision, as Mr. Pattengill’s deputy, and scattered broadcast by the State Department.\n\nIt is entitled\n\n“School Grounds, Schoolhouse Architecture, and Outbuildings,” and\n\nperhaps I can make no better use of the short time accorded me on this programme than\nby giving you some idea of the contents.\nAfter an introduction, which calls attention to the greatest necessity for reform in this\nregard, we find the object of the pamphlet set forth as follows :\nWe are, through the kindness and study of a wide-awake young architect, Earl H. Mead, of Lansing,\nable to give sketches of several school buildings that may be built at but little more expense than the regulation, rectangular, non-ventilated, inconvenient rural schoolhouses of'today.\nIn planning these buildings the architect has had in mind what every board should insist upon, v/z.,\ngood lighting and good ventilation,\nBesides these two great essentials, there are many little accessories that\nmake no extra expense, but render the building a’ thousandfold more convenient and comfortable. It is usually\nbest to secure details of the plans from the architect, for the guidance of the builder, and to insure satisfaction.\nArchitects, however, frequently overlook many things which to the teachers are of vital importance.\nWe give\nherewith some miscellaneous suggestions to be considered by those about to build schoolhouses :\n1. The window lighting surface should equal one-fifth of the floor surface.\n\n2. No pupil should sit further from the window than two and one-half times the distance from the floor to\nthe top of the window.\n3. The window should extend to the ceiling, only leaving enough room for the casing between the opening and the ceiling.\n4. The windows should be grouped.\n5. Light is better from both sides than from one side and the back. The light at the back, unless high,\nwill cast the pupil’s shadow on his work.\n6. There should be no windows for pupils to face.\n7. Light from one side should be from the left, so as not to throw the shadow of the pupil’s hand upon\nhis work,\n8. The windows should be provided with green shades; yellow is not as good for the eyes.\ng- The blackboards should not have a glossy surface.\nto. If windows are grouped as they should be, and as they are in the accompanying sketches, zo dlackboards come between windows to try the eyes of the pupils.\n\nThe pamphlet also contains some practical suggestions regarding heating and ventilating, as follows:\nThe\n\n1. A wood furnace is the cheapest and best means of heating small schoolhouses where wood is abundant.\nfurnace heats and ventilates, and will burn long wood, knots, branches, etc., that cannot be used in a\n\nstove.\n\n2. A jacketed stove is the next best heater and ventilator. A round, tall stove should be encased by a\nsheet-iron jacket, the jacket being placed four or six inches from the stove. The jacket should reach within\ntwo inches of the floor and extend to top of stove. Air conductors, 6x 12 inches, should lead from the wall on\ntwo opposite sides of the schoolhouse under the floor and open into a register immediately under the stove.\nThis furnishes fresh air. Dampers can be placed in these ducts to regulate the amount of fresh air, A good\nstove and jacket can be bought for $25 to $40.\n3. The chimney should extend to the ground and contain a flue two feet square, with either a brick partition, dividing it into two parts, or an eight-inch chimney tile for a smoke flue, This smoke flue warms the\nshaft, creates a current upward, and thus the impure air of the room may be drawn off.\n4. Flues built into walls without provision for warming them are merely monuments to fools.\ns. Place a large register inthe room at base of chimney, and also one in the chimney near the ceiling.\nLet both be provided with valves with which to close them when necessary.\n6. Place a ventilator in ceiling of room near the center, opening into the attic,\n7. Hang windows with cords and weights, if possible, or at least make them easy of movement, and supplied with easy catches at lifts of short intervals, Place a five-inch board under lower sash of window, just as\nlong as window is wide, This will create a space between upper and lower sash, through which the air can\ncome in without direct draft on pupils.\n*\n5\n8. Occasionally open doors and windows, and let the air change while pupils are marching or exercising.\n\nMr. Mead’s\n\nsketches include a representation of both exterior and interior of four\n\none-room buildings, three two-room buildings, and one of four rooms, besides the new\nThese are intended to be suggestive, and school\nhigh-school building at Iron Mountain.\n\n"}
{"page": 318, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n308\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nofficers desiring any modification of these plans or any designs for houses of different\nsize, or any who wish detailed drawings and specifications, are invited to communicate\nwith the architect.\n\nThe\n\nnumber of inquiries\n\nhe received\n\nin response to this invitation,\n\nand the demand for these pamphlets, have given sure proof that our seed was not sown\nin vain.\nj\nTrue, it might seem to the mere casual observer that the results of this effort have\nbeen but meager, since only a small per cent. of our new rural school buildings have\nbeen patterned after these strictly modern plans. But a more minute investigation reveals\n\na great improvement in the location of windows and blackboards, in the floor space,\nThus,\nventilation, seating, and many minor details of our recently built schoolhouses.\nindirectly, much good has resulted, and we hope to keep the ball rolling till the day shall\n\ncome when none but model school buildings are erected in Michigan.\n\nAmong the miscellaneous suggestions of our booklet you will find attention called to\nthe following important, but oft-neglected things:\n.\nMISCELLANEOUS.\n\nx. Wardrobes for country schools are better made of wainscoting six or eight feet high, at both sides of\nentrance door, in the schoolroom.\nThose old entries are great breeders of disorder.\n2. The girls and boys should have separate wardrobes.\n3. The teacher’s desk should be tn the opposite end of the room from the entrance.\n4. The end of the room opposite the entrance should have no windows.\n5. The blackboard should extend across the end of the room back of the teacher’s desk and down each side\n\nto the windows.\nIt will do no harm to run the blackboard the length of both sides as well as one end,\n6. If necessary, stand over the builder with a club to make him put the blackboards low enough for the\nlittle people. The side boards should be within two feet of the floor, and made four feet wide. The end board\nshould be six feet wide.\n7. The floor should be of narrow and well-seasoned maple. Don’t put in a soft-wood floor,\n8. Provide a neat woodbox, if no fuel room is given.\ng. Provide at least one extra chair for a chance visitor.\nio. There should be an average of sixteen square feet of floor space to each pupil, A little increase in\nthe dimensions of the building does not add materially to the expense, but adds much to health and comfort\nof pupils.\nAny of the one-room buildings represented on the succeeding pages may be built for from $600 to $1,000.\nThe two-room buildings may be built for $1,000 to $1,600, and the three-room buildings should not cost more\nthan $3,000. Designs are furnished with a view to cheapness, convenience, and durability, taking into consideration the principles on heating, lighting, and ventilating given in this report.\n\nSeveral pages of the pamphlet are devoted toa feature of school sanitation which\nis, perhaps, the most important, as it surely is the most neglected, of all.\nSCHOOL\n\nOUTHOUSES,\n\nAn entire volume might be written on the topic of school outhouses, Conversation with nearly every\nschool commissioner of the state, with many teachers and school officers, has compelled us to believe that the\ncondition of these buildings in the average country district and in too many villages is deplorable indeed.\nThey are frequently very inadequate in size, injudiciously located, shabbily constructed, horribly kept,\nshamefully marked with obscene characters and writing, seething with vileness, abounding in filth. They\nstand as damning evidence of the carelessness and criminal negligence of somebody. The civilization of the\nmost debased tribe of Darkest Africa can show no condition of affairs worse than are these surroundings of the\nschools where so many of our future citizens are receiving their education.\nThis phase of the subject would seem sufficient to arouse every person who has in his breast a pure thought,\nor who wishes his country well; but there are other reasons why the reform in this direction should be immediate and thorough, We refer to the health of our children, Thanks to the vigorous and intelligent labors of\nboards of health, our people are coming to see more clearly the necessity of cleanliness, Even the most narrow-minded are learning the lesson that a few cents saved in preventing disease is far more economical than\nspending large sums of money and valuable time in curing the disease that comes as the result of negligence\nand from the stupid violation of the most simple rules.\n\nThen follows a detailed account of the various abuses connected with this subject,\nsuggesting a remedy for the same; and it is most gratifying to note from the reports of\nour county commissioners that far greater attention is being given to the sanitary con-\n\n"}
{"page": 319, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\n309\n\ndition of school premises, and that school officers in our rural districts are awakening to\ntheir duty in this regard.\n\nStill, the cases are not few in which no effort whatever is made\n\nby negligent officials to remedy\n\nthe evils Bevew\n\nto their notice by preereouve county\n\ncommissioners.\nBoth the health and morals of our boys and girls require a crusade in this direction.\nNotwithstanding. our introductory statement that there is a growing interest in school\nsanitation, it is true of this, as of every reform, that progress is slow.\nSo it is only by\npersistent, never-ceasing, and long-continued effort along this line that we shall some day\napproximate to an ideal environment for the pupils of our public schools; and it is\nimperative that we who have accepted responsible positions in our educational system\nshall see to it that the gradually rising tide of public opinion is taken at the flood and\n\nmade to assist in our efforts at reform in this direction,\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\nON COLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS.\n\nThe meeting was called to order at 2:30 P.M., February-16, 1897, by A. F. Nightin-\n\ngale, Superintendent of High Schools, Chicago. The chair appointed as secretary Dr.\nJames E. Russell, Professor of Philosophy and Pedagogy in the University of Colorado.\nThe following is a partial report of the proceedings :\nCHAIRMANS\n\nBY\n\nDR.\n\nA.\n\nF.\n\nNIGHTINGALE,\n\nADDRESS.\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nCHICAGO.\n\nWe are assembled this afternoon for a discussion, which I hope may be more practical than theoretical, of the very burning question of a closer union between the secondary\nschools and the colleges, on the basis of an appropriate uniformity in college-entrance\nrequirements.\n\nAs a leader in this round table conference, I do not deem it my duty, nor do I assume\nit my privilege, to air my personal views, or to limit in any way the full freedom of debate.\nThe questions before us strike at the very root of the matter. Are the colleges to be the\ndictators as to the subjects taught and the ground covered in all secondary schools whose »\npupils may ask a higher education, or are the public high schools to be allowed in a fouryears’ course to supplement the work of the grammar schools along lines best adapted to\nindividual pupils, and find the colleges ready to receive their products, to give them a\ndeeper, richer cultivation?\n\nPersonally I have no doubt as to the issue. The high schools of this country are\nestablished and maintained by public taxation, for the one grand purpose of giving to\npupils of from fourteen to eighteen years of age the very best equipment for life which\ntheir capacity and their aptitudes in those years of development will permit, without\nspecial regard to that higher education, of inestimable value, which the colleges and\nuniversities furnish to the few who may be influenced to strive for this larger legacy, a\n\nlegacy which will he coveted in the future in the ratio of its adaptability to the talents of\nthose young people, and of the cordiality with which their credentials are received as\nthey knock at the doors of the college.\nThe recent discussions in the associations of. New England, the Middle and the\nNorth Central states, which have lifted them\n\nout of the traditional\n\nconservatism of an\n\neffete past; the attitude of Harvard University; the advanced position of Cornell Uni-\n\n"}
{"page": 320, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n310\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nversity —indeed the whole trend of educational thought in this and other countries gives\nus the assurance of larger liberty in courses of instruction.\nBars and bolts are found no\nWe are living in no cloister period of human thought.\nlonger upon the sources of human intelligence ; we have emerged from the dullness and\ndarkness of medizevalism, and it is futile longer to argue for the maintenance of its\nWhen the history of higher education shall have been written, it will be found\nclaims.\nthat not until after the middle of the century now closing was there acknowledged to be\nmore than one path leading to the summit of the hill of learning, and those who became\n\ngreat as the thinkers and leaders in the development and practical application of science\nbecame so in spite of the universities, and because the Infinite Architect of mind and\nmatter gave to these souls those talents which, through self-activity, blossomed and bore\nfruitage for the world’s need, while the great institutions of learning were still feeding all\ntheir students upon an unvarying diet, suited to some, but ill-adapted to many, and careless of the great revolutions that were going on in the domain of nature, by which its\npowers were being adapted by the few to the world’s rapid enlightenment and advancement.\n\nI am not so blind to the varying capacities\n\nof our young\n\nto their cries for food suited to their digestive organs;\n\npeople; I am not so deaf\n\nI am not so out of touch\n\nwith\n\nmy\n\nenvironments as a humble educator in a neighboring city, as not to see and hear and feel\nthe pathos and potency of the great evolution that is going on in our educational theory,\nthat shall make the development of the individual, and not of the mass, the shibboleth of\n\nour institutions of learning as we cross the threshold of the twentieth century.\nWe are living in an era of unshackled thought, of man’s immortal personality, an era\nthat no longer compels genuflections at the altars of the ancient, simply as ancient, but\none that inspires man as an individual to learn the use of the weapons that God has placed\nin the particular arsenal of his brain, and to keep them burnished and sharpened for his\n\nengagement\n\nin the conflict of life.\n\nOnly that knowledge\n\nthat can be assimilated and\n\nappropriated becomes real education.\nThe discipline alone, the simple unfolding of the\nmental faculties, is not all of education, but in the process of that unfolding the mind\nshould garner the largest possible amount of potential, useful knowledge.\nThe lines of\ndemarkation between those studies once lauded as disciplinary and those scoffed at as\n\ninformational are obliterated.\nAll informational studies are now disciplinary, if properly\npursued, and all disciplinary studies are informational, if rightly appreciated.\nIt was said\nlong ago that “education is power,” and power can come only through the growth and\ntraining of those talents of God’s endowment; no process of man’s inoculation can educate\nwhat does not exist, and it is high time\n\nthat we should recognize\n\nin all our schools\n\nthe\n\ninequalities of natural endowments, and adapt our instruction to the capacities of the\nindividual child.\nWe differentiate too late rather than too early; we crush when we\nought to uplift; we discourage when we ought to inspire.\nI will allow no one to excel me in his appreciation of the intellectual results of longcontinued application to the traditional subjects. I believe language study to be fundamental to the broad culture of most students,\nNo better instruction probably has ever\nbeen devised for the highest production of mind power than that imparted, I may say, in\nthe ancient languages, and yet my experience of thirty years has taught me that to compel\nall students to pursue them for any extended time leads to a discouragement that causes\nmany to forego a good education which they might otherwise secure. These mental gymnastics denominated\n\nmathematics are invaluable.\n\nIt is an exact science, and its study by\n\nthose capable of comprehending the close analysis demanded marvelously develops the\npower of reasoning and acute discrimination ; but shall all pupils who seem to be born\nwithout mathematical faculty, and yet are bright in language, thirst for history, and delight\n\nin science, be deprived of their share of the inheritance of all the ages?\n\n"}
{"page": 321, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\n200\n\nI am not wholly out of harmony with the agitation of the past few years for better\ninstruction in the English language, and yet I am far from being persuaded that good\ngrammarians and good rhetoricians are made through the study of English fer se.\nThe influence of another language to accompany the English is invaluable and everywhere recognized.\nIn the acquisition of a good vocabulary, in the cultivation of the habit\nto appreciate nice distinctions in the use of words, and in the mastery of choice expression, the study of Latin is a larger factor than that of English. In the teaching of English in\nour secondary schools we are aping the colleges, instead of preparing pupils for them. So\nlong as pupils enter our high schools without knowing a noun from a verb, and when no\nmore than 25 per cent. of them can spell correctly ten words selected from the\nfirst reader of the six-year-old child, so long will it be useless for our high schools to browse\nin the fields of Chaucer and Addison and Bacon and Carlyle. We must get down to first\nEnglish must be\nprinciples, lay foundations, and let the colleges erect the superstructure.\ntaught in all classes at all times, under all circumstances.\nIt is just as important that the\nteacher of physics, of geometry, of history, be held responsible for the correct expres-\n\nsion of his pupils as the chair of English itself.\nI do not think that\n\n“ grammar, rhetoric, and composition ” as texts should be studied\n\n“throughout every course,” but I do think there is need for us all to study English, until\nwe tune our harps on the golden shores and speak with other tongues.\nThe natural and physical sciences are claiming, and of right ought to claim, a larger\nand larger place in every curriculum of study, primary, secondary, higher.\nThe history of\neducation for the last twenty-five years could not be written without a very long chapter\non the irrepressible conflict between the classicists and the scientists, for which there has\nbeen no good educational excuse, and which has resulted in many specific technological\ninstitutions, which ought to have been departments of our great universities.\nThe sciences\nhave fought their way to recognition inch by inch, on all sides opposed, traduced, abused,\nas mere informational, fact-dispensing, bread-winning subjects; and yet in every pitched\nbattle they have won, because\n\nnature and its God were on their side; not on the side of\n\nthe largest battalions, but of eternal truth; for the greatest study of mankind is nature—\nGod’s architecture.\nAnd yet there are many that are not particularly benefited by the study of science. It\nhas no special attractions for them and, therefore, imparts to them no real growth. Such\nought to graze in other pastures.\nThis brings me to the real essence of what I wish to say and to the central thought of\nthis brief paper. All secondary courses of study, all requirements for admission to college,\nand all courses in college should be eminently elastic, and abound in such substitutions\nthat every pupil may find those studies whose proper pursuit will guarantee to him that\nintellectual grasp and growth which the Infinite Architect of his latent mental aptitudes\nintended him to secure.\nContend as you may, argue as you will, this is to be the keynote of the educational\nprogress of the next quarter of a century. It may be a period of empiricism rather than\nof rationalism, but the people have decreed that this is the music the secondary schools\nare to march by, and the colleges will covet concord.\nPresident Eliot of Harvard, who has perhaps earned the title of leader of the great\neducational movement of the last decade, looking toward a larger choice in subjects, and\nmore ample substitutions, says: “We need to have wide options as to subjects, so that\npupils of different capacities may not be obstructed in their progress, and secondary schools\nof different tendencies may retain their freedom.\nWhat fundamental principle is clearly\nIt is the recognition that {English, the modern laninvolved in this recommendation?\n\nguages, history, and the sciences can be made in secondary schools the vehicle of just as\nsubstantial a training for the human mind as Latin, Greek, and mathematics.\n\nWhen we\n\n"}
{"page": 322, "printed_page": null, "text": "EDUCATIONAL\n\nNATIONAL\n\n212\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nhow to\nhave recognized the equal value of these subjects, new and old, and have learned\nany\nfor\nsubjects\nmany\ntoo\nare\nthere\nthat\nfind\nshall\nwe\nefficiency,\nteach them with equal\nWe must, therefore, have options, and wide options,\none youth of eighteen to compass.\nin admission requirements.”\n\nPresident Schurman of Cornell, in defending the departure of that institution from\nthe traditional moorings, by the abolishment of all degrees save that of A.B., says, in reply\n\nto the anticipated criticism that this action destroys the conception of liberal culture :\n“Far from destroying the conception, it enlarges and revivifies it, and brings it into living\nrelation with all the intellectual aad zesthetic elements of our modern complex civilization.”\nAgain he says: “The two principles which influenced Cornell to take this action were,\nfirst, the adaptation of studies to the weeds of students, and, secondly, the recognition of\nthe natural sciences, and of modern languages and literature, and other liberal arts, on\nequal terms with the ancient classical languages, as fitted to yield discipline, culture, and\n\neducation to the minds of students.”\nGermany, the very Nestor of the ancient classics, is passing through an educational\nawakening which is destined to result in radical changes in her gymnasia, by which\nmodern subjects will be advanced to a position beside the ancient.\nThe whole educational world is astir on this subject of educational\n\nvalues, and the\n\nconsequent claims of wider options that all pupils “ May run and not be weary, may walk\nand not faint.”\nThis stone of eclecticism\n\nin courses\n\nof study, hitherto\n\nrejected,\n\nseems\n\ndestined\n\nto\n\nbecome the head of the corner; and wisdom, not policy, right, not expediency, necessity,\nnot sentiment, bid us to accept the logic of the situation. It is part of the evolution of\neducation, manifesting itself in the successful establishment, the rapid multiplication, and\nthe remarkable popularity of the public high schools, which, keeping close to the people,\nand providing means for the development of the individual, are destined to become the\npeople’s colleges to the extent of furnishing opportunities for the universities to do their\nlegitimate work of providing enlarged facilities for individual research and investigation.\nIf Latin and Greek are to retain their share of rightfully constituted authority in\ncourses of study and remain invaluable aids'in the development of English thought and\nexpression, it will not be accomplished through contention and in accordance with the\ntheory that “To the victors belong the spoils,” but rather as the result of a spirit of good\nfellowship, manifesting itself in the universal recognition of the divine right of choice,\nbetween and among those studies which unfold the laws of nature, and tell the story of\nman, all of which, rightly pursued, under right conditions, will eminently insure the\ndevelopment of the human intellect and the inculcation of a deeper reverence for the\nCreator of all natural phenomena and all human intelligence,\n\nDISCUSSION.\n[REPORTED BY JAMES\n\nE, RUSSELL,|\n\nPRESIDENT J. G. SCHURMAN of Cornell Univer\n— College-entran\nsity.ce requirements\nof thirty years ago belong to a remote past. The exclusive study of Latin, Greek, and\n\nmathematics\n\nbelongs to a period when\n\nunknown,\n\nLatin was\n\nand when\n\nscience, history, and\n\nthe universal\n\nmeans\n\nmodern languages were\n\nof communication\n\nin the learned\n\nworld. In the last fifty years there has been a great change; new subjects of study\nnow\ndemand our attention. Shall we cling to the old and ignore the new?\nShall we devote\n\nourselves\n\nto the new to the exclusion of the old?\n\nShall we grant®a fair field to all and\n\n"}
{"page": 323, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nno favor to any?\nequal chance.\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\nB13\n\nCornell University was founded with a view to giving .all subjects an\nJust twenty-nine\n\nvalue\n\nof the\n\nmodern subjects as equivalent to the old, and ever since it has been advancing\n\nyears\n\nago\n\nit recognized\n\nthe educational\n\nin that\n\nline.\nStill, at that time, the B.A. degree was conferred as a recognition of classical\nscholarship.\nAccordingly the new subjects were adjusted and arranged in new courses\nparallel with the classical course, and leading to degrees which were coined to give\nthem recognition, namely, Ph.B., B.L., and B.S.\n\nOne thing\n\nto these modern courses is that in every instance\n\nthe entrance\n\nthan to the classical course.\nin operation,\n\nto be remarked with regard\n\nrequirements were\n\nlower\n\nDuring these twenty-nine years two tendencies have been\n\nrecently culminating\n\nin important legislation by the Cornell faculty.\n\n(1)\n\nFor years the elective principle has been growingly adopted, until the larger part of all\nthe courses has become elective.\n(2) Within the last few years the entrance requirements to the Ph.B., B.S., and B.L. courses have been raised to the level of those to the\nB.A. course —not that the prescribed subjects were the same, but that, whatever the sub-\n\njects, the amount of time required by the student for their preparation should be as great\nin one case as in the other. As the result of these two changes, Cornell University consolidated\n\nthe four courses\n\nleading to one degree—B.A.\n\nthere are three different avenues.\n\nFor admission\n\nto this course\n\nAfter a student has entered, his work is entirely elect-\n\nive. The three gates are (apart from certain elementary subjects) Greek and Latin,\nLatin and a modern language, French, German, and higher mathematics.\nConsequently\nCornell University will hereafter be granting the B.A. degree to students who may be\nignorant of both Greek and Latin. In practice the great majority will continue to offer\n_ Latin;\n\nstill, if a student\n\noffers\n\nFrench and German\n\nof equal amount\n\nto the Greek and\n\nLatin, he will be admitted and may graduate without any knowledge whatever of the\nancient languages.\n‘This change leads to two or three results of the greatest importance.\nIn the first place, the university gives equal recognition to all the great branches of\nhuman knowledge, favoring none and discriminating against none.\n(2) It has a tendency to favor the classical students, inasmuch as no cheap degrees and easy courses will\nhereafter compete with the classical course.\n(3) At present the university enters into\nclose correlation with the high schools. At present only about 5 per cent. of the students\nin the high schools study Greek—shall the others be excluded from the colleges for\nthat reason?\nCornell University’s answer is obvious. Indeed, a boy or girl who has\ncompleted a good course in the high school, by which is meant a course, not of shreds\nand patches, but of a small number of staple subjects, systematically and continuously\n\npursued, will on graduation\n\nfind the doors of Cornell academic department open to him\n\nor her.\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nEDMUND\n\nJ. JAMES, The University of Chicago.— Secondary schools may\n\nbe divided into three classes: (1) Those which are organized solely for the purpose of\npreparing students for college; (2) those formed to give a general, liberal, disciplinary\ntraining during the period which follows the completion of the primary or elementary\ncourse of training, and intended to supply the needs of the general public, the great\nmasses of the people, for higher education; (3) those formed to give special, technical\ntraining for practical callings, such as commercial high schools, trade high schools, technical high schools, etc. I should say that the relation of the first class of schools to the\ncollege should be exactly what the college is pleased to make it. I see no reason for us\nto attempt, even in the sphere of higher, secondary, or lower education, to construct a\nsingle, cast-iron curriculum, to be applied equally to all persons who have attained a certain age and obtained a certain elementary training. The second class ought to have\nvery intimate relations with the college, but in such a way that, on the whole, the college\n\nshall adapt itself to its needs and requirements, rather than the secondary school to the\nneeds and requirements of the college; that, however, largely for the reason that care-\n\n"}
{"page": 324, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n314\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nful investigation will, in my opinion, show\n\nthat\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nthere\n\nis in essence\n\nno\n\ngreat\n\ndifference\n\nbetween the true interests of these two classes of institutions, properly understood.\nthird\n\nclass, that of a technical, special, commercial, trade\n\nhigh\n\nschool, will stand\n\nThe |\nin no\n\nimmediate relation to the college, except so far as the curriculum, or course of study, even\nin these special schools, shall afford\n\nthe liberal, general, disciplinary training\n\nwhich\n\nthe\n\nThat is to say, I leave here the question entirely undiscollege requires for its work.\ncussed and untouched as to whether such special courses may not also offer such a genI leave\neral or liberal training as will be sufficient to answer the purpose of the college.\nthis to one side, for, while I believe it is destined to become of importance in course of\ntime, it has at present no immediate practical urgency.\nI shall confine my attention,\ntherefore, in the few remarks that I shall make, to the high schools of the second class—\nthose which aim to provide a liberal, disciplinary training in continuation of the elementary training of the youth, which may be considered to have come to a close, if anything\n\ncan ever be considered to have come to a close, by the end of the thirteenth or fourteenth\nyear. I believe, on the whole, that the curriculum in this kind of school should be adapted\nto the needs and wants of the great majority of its pupils. The great majority of its\npupils do not intend to go to college, and if the high school shall have that growth which\nit ought to have in our society, this will be true for an indefinite period to come, and perhaps forever.\n\nThere will be found to be no conflict of interests, however, between\n\nthose\n\nto go, since the course\n\nbest\n\nclasses not intending to go to college and those intending\n\nadapted for the former, or at least fairly adapted for the former, must also be fairly\nadapted for the latter. Nothing shall be admitted into this curriculum which has not a\ndefinite educational value, with reference to the purposes for which this school was organized. Such being the case, the colleges ought to accept the results which this institution\nThat is to say, it\nis able to attain as the basis upon which it shall continue its work.\nshall recognize in its system of admissions and promotions, in a distinct and positive way,\nevery individual unit which the high school thus organized and thus controlled shall\nadopt.\nIn general, therefore, my answer to the question is that the college shall adapt\nitself to the secondary school, and not the latter to the former. In working out the best\nsecondary curriculum, or a good secondary curriculum (for I doubt very much whether\nthere is any such thing as the best secondary curriculum), the advice and sympathy of\ncollege men, the utilization of their expert knowledge, are of great and fundamental importance; but the curriculum shall be constructed from the standpoint of a secondary school\nin this large sense, and not from the standpoint of the college. As the high school offers\nat present, and probably will continue to offer in the future, the only opportunity for the\nmasses of the people to obtain a higher education on practicable terms, certain subjects\nand departments of science, or perhaps one might say, all subjects and all departments of\nscience, must have a representation in this institution. Certainly, besides literature, grammar, and mathematics, natural science and social science should be represented in a very\n\npositive way. One of the practical results of the acceptance of these propositions will be\nthat the college may have to offer elementary instruction in certain subjects which it may\nconsider fundamental for the conferring of a degree. Thus, if our American college of\ntoday desires to insist upon Latin as a condition of obtaining a degree, it must either cut\noff a large part of the students now in our high schools, and, as I believe, in the typical\nhigh school of the future, or else it must offer elementary instruction in Latin after admission to college, covering the ground of the minimum requirement for graduation.\nThe\noutcome of this development will be that a youth who has spent four years in any of the\ncurricula accepted by this high school will be admitted to college. That is to say, any\n\nyouth who has spent four years upon any particular combination of subjects, accepted by\nthis school for graduation, will be able to offer a combination which the college ought to\n\naccept for admission, and, so far as it may surpass the reasonable requirements of admission, for promotion.\n\n"}
{"page": 325, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sap aiatendehce]\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE REQUIREMENTS\n\ngis\n\nPRESIDENT CaPEN, Tufts College.—It is only within a few years that the colleges\nhave shown a disposition to recognize what is going on in secondary education.\nThe\nNew England Association of Schools and Colleges is the pioneer, and that was organThe New\nized only eleven years ago. Since that time much has been accomplished.\nEngland colleges have been forced to reckon with forces outside their own walls. As for\nTufts College, it has taken\n\nits stand\n\nfirmly on\n\nthe ground of the equivalence of studies,\n\nand proposes to grant the degree of A.B. for all college courses:\nGeneral Walker\nsaw the problem years ago, and worked steadily in his institution to remedy the defects\n\nincident\n\nto the prevailing\n\nmethods\n\nof higher education.\n\nFor years he has urged the\n\nadmission of liberal studies into the curriculum of the School of Technology for the sake\nof those students who have been forced by circumstances into technical lines. We may as\nwell admit the fact that for many years our colleges have been impeding the progress of\neducational reform.\nPRINCIPAL\n\nJOHN T. BUCHANAN,\n\nKansas\n\nCity High\n\nSchool.—There\n\nis an impera-\n\ntive need for more and better teaching of English in all our schools.\nEnglish cannot be\nlearned through the medium of a foreign language.\nVocabulary is necessary, and that\ncomes only from wide reading and much practice.\n\nthe method of presentation\nequivalence of studies.\n\nthan\n\nupon\n\nMore depends upon the teachers and\n\nthe subjects.\n\nHerein\n\nmust be found\n\nthe true\n\nPRESIDENT JOSEPH H. SWAIN, Indiana State University Indiana University has\ngranted the degree of A.B. for all academic courses during the past ten years. More_over, the university has found it necessary to take for college entrance what the higher\nschools are prepared to give. Four years of honest work is all that can be expected.\nIt has never been demonstrated that one subject gives the training that cannot be had\nthrough others. Future progress must be evolutionary.\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nW.\n\nH.\n\nMAXWELL,\n\nBrooklyn,\n\nN.\n\nY.—I\n\nam\n\nsurprised\n\nat\n\nthe\n\napparent unanimity of opinion.\nThree years ago, when the chairman of this meeting\nand I attempted to present these views at Richmond, Va., we were greeted by laughter,\nnot by applause.\nBut the question is not yet settled. One problem is how to meet the\nrequirements of most eastern colleges in three foreign languages.\nWe must have four\nyears of English, but that is impossible if three foreign languages are to be taught.\nSixty-seven per cent. of our secondary pupils are in public high schools, and not over 10\nper cent. of these —less rather than more — intend to go to college. It is absolutely necessary that all these, whether going to college or not, do the same work in the studies that\nthey enter at all. Some adjustment must be made whereby the course of study that is\nnecessary for the majority may be accepted for college entrance.\n\nSUPERINTENDENT CHARLES\nfarther.\nThe small high school\n\nE. SHELTON, Burlington, Ia.—I will go one step\nthat can give instruction in but one foreign language\n\nshould not find its efforts in vain in preparing pupils for college. The colleges should\naccept equivalents for certain entrance requirements, even though they insist on having\nthe entrance deficiencies made good during the college course.\n\nPRoFESSOR JAMES E. RUSSELL, University of Colorado.— It would be a serious mistake if we should accept the theory that the colleges must take whatever the schools\nchoose to give.\n\nThere\n\ncan\n\nbe no close connection\n\nbetween the two unless the schools\n\ngive something good. A four-years’ course consisting of studies continuously and systeIt would be\nmatically pursued is the least that should be accepted for college entrance.\n\na step backwards to let the weakest and poorest secondary schools determine the stand-\n\nards of secondary education.\n\n"}
{"page": 326, "printed_page": null, "text": "316\n\nNATIONAL\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nEp.\n\nEDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\nBoyLe,\n\nMichigan\n\nCity,\n\nInd.—I\n\nwish\n\n[Indianapolis\nto enter\n\na protest\n\nagainst the trend of opinion as expressed in this meeting.\nThe truth is that all these\nmen who so vigorously champion the new studies have themselves gained their power\nfrom a study of the old subjects—the classical languages.\nThere is no knowing the\nEnglish language without Latin; there can be no familiarity with modern history and\npolitical economy and economics without a knowledge of the history of Greece and\nRome.\nBanish the classics, and you put aside forever the only means of understanding\nthe modern world.\nThe discussion closed with a short speech by President Schurman in reply to several\nquestions that had been addressed to him during the progress of the meeting.\nHe contended that the colleges should not cope down to the level of the lowest high schools\nbut should adjust their entrance requirements to the curricula of the best schools.\n\n"}
{"page": 327, "printed_page": null, "text": "PeallUNAL\n\nCOUNCIL\n\nOF EDUCATION:\n\nCONSITLEEOUTION,\nPREAMBLE.\nThe National Council of Education shall have for its object the consideration and\ndiscussion of educational questions of general interest and public importance, and the\npresentation, through printed reports, of the substance of the discussions, and the conclusions formulated.\nIt shall be its object to reach and disseminate correct thinking on\neducational questions ; and, for this purpose, it shall be the aim of the Council, in conducting its discussions, to define and state with accuracy the different views and theories\non the subject under consideration, and, secondly, to discover and represent fairly the\ngrounds and reasons for each theory or view, so far as to show, as completely as possible,\nthe genesis of opinion on the subject. It shall be the duty of the Council, in pursuance\nof this object, to encourage from all its members the most careful statement of differences\n_ in opinion, together with the completest statement of grounds for the same. Itshall further\nrequire from the chairmen of its committees the careful preservation and presentation of\nthe individual differences of opinion, whenever grounds have been furnished for the same\nby members of their committees.\nIt shall invite the freest discussion of the reports of its\ncommittees, and, whenever such reports are not so amended as to embody the new suggestions developed by such discussion, any member making such suggestion or objection\nmay put in writing his view and the grounds therefor, and furnish the same to the Secretary for the records of the Council. It shall prepare, through its President, with the aid of\nthe chairmen of the several committees, an annual report to the National Association,\nsetting forth the questions considered by the Council during the previous year, and placing\nbefore the association, in succinct form, the work accomplished.\n\nIt shall embody in this\n\nreport a survey of those educational topics which seem to call for any action on the part of\nthe association.\nThe Council shall appoint, out of its own number, committees representing the several departments of education, and thereby facilitate the exchange of\nopinion among its members on such special topics as demand the attention of the profession or of the public.\nARTICLE\n\nI.— MEMBERSHIP.\n\n1. The National Council of Education shall consist of sixty members, selected out of\nthe membership of the National Educational Association.\nAny member of the association identified with educational work is eligible to membership in the Council, and after\nthe first election such membership shall continue for six years, except as hereinafter\nprovided.\n2. In the year 1885 the Board of Directors shall elect eight members— four members for six years, two for four years, and two for two years; and the Council shall elect\neight members —five members for six years, two for four years, and one for two years;\nand annually thereafter the Board of Directors shall elect five members and the Council\nfive members, each member, with the exception hereinafter provided for (Section 5), to serve\n\nsix years, or until his successor is elected.\n317\n\n"}
{"page": 328, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n318\n3. The annual\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nelection of members of the Council\n\n[National\n\nshall be held in connection with\n\nIf the Board of Directors shall fail, for any\nthe annual meetings of the association.\nreason, to fill its quota of members annually, the vacancy or vacancies shall be filled by\nthe Council.\n4. The term of service\n\nof the several\n\nmembers\n\nof the Council, chosen\n\nat the first\n\nelection, shall be arranged by the Executive Committee of the Council.\n5. The absence of a member from two consecutive annual meetings of the Council\nshall be considered equivalent to resignation of membership, and the Council shall fill\nvacancies\n\ncaused\n\nby absence\n\nfrom the Council as herein\n\ndefined, as well as vacancies\n\ncaused by death or resignation, for the unexpired term. All persons who have belonged\nto the Council shall, on the expiration of their membership, become honorary members,\nwith the privilege of attending its regular sessions, and participating in its discussions. No\nstate shall be represented in the Council by more than eight members.\nARTICLE\n\nII.—FEES.\n\nThere shall be no fee for membership in the Council of Education, but each member\nof it shall secure a membership in the National Educational Association by becoming a\nlife member of the same, or by paying to the Treasurer of the association the annual mem-\n\nbership fee of two dollars.\n\nj\nARTICLE\n\nIII.— MEETINGS.\n\nThere shall be a regular annual meeting of the Council held at the same place as the\nmeeting of the National Association, and at least two days previous to thismeeting. There\nmay be special meetings of the Council, subject to the call of the Executive Committee,\nbut the attendance at these meetings shall be entirely voluntary.\nThe regular meeting of\nthe committees shall take place on the days provided for the annual meeting of the Council.\nMeetings of committees may be called at any time by the chairmen of the respective committees, but attendanee at such special meetings shall be entirely voluntary. A majority\nof the Council shall constitute a quorum for the transaction of business at any meeting,\nwhether regular or called ; but any less number, exceeding eight members, may constitute\na quorum for the transaction of business at the regular annual meeting, as defined in this\narticle.\nARTICLE\n\nIV.—COMMITTEES.\n\nThe general management of the affairs of the Council shall be vested in an Executive\nCommittee, composed of the President, Vice-President, and Secretary of the Council, and\n\nfour other members, all of whom are to be elected by the Council at its annual meeting.\nThere shall be twelve standing committees, each consisting of five members.\nThey shall\nbe appointed by the Executive Committee, and be named as follows :\nI. Committee on State-School Systems.\n. Committee on City-School Systems.\n. Committee on’ Higher Education.\n. Committee on Secondary Education.\n. Committee on Elementary Education.\n. Committee on Normal Education.\n. Committee on Technological Education.\n. Committee on Pedagogics.\n. Committee on Moral Education.\nDN\nONT\nOo\nDW\nAM\n. Committee on School Sanitation, Hygiene, and Physical Training.\n\n- Committee on Psychological Inquiry.\nee\nOo\nR . Committee on Educational Reports and Statistics.\n\n"}
{"page": 329, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nCONSTITUTION\n\nARTICLE\n\nV.—DUTIES\n\n319\n\nOF STANDING\n\nCOMMITTEES.\n\nThe committees of the Council shall consider the topics assigned to them, and report\non the same ; they may select for their deliberations such other questions belonging to\ntheir departments as they deem proper to discuss.\nWhenever called upon, the committees shall continue the deliberate work of the association on topics assigned to them, or prepare questions to be submitted to that body.\nIt shall be the duty of the standing committees to observe the new educational experiments and original investigations within the scope of their assigned topics, and report the\nsame from time to time to the President of the Council.\nARTICLE\n\nVI.—DUTIES\n\nOF MEMBERS\n\nOF THE\n\nCOMMITTEES.\n\nThe members of the Council shall render active service and assistance in the work\nof the committee to which they have been assigned, and further the general work of the\nCouncil as much as is in their power.\nThey shall give their attention to the questions\nsubmitted to them, and communicate their conclusions in writing to the chairman of the\ncommittee.\nMeeting of Committees for Special Work.—A\n\nset apart for “round\nown\n\nmeeting\n\nhalf day at each annual session shall be\n\ntable” discussions, and each standing committee\n\nmay conduct\n\nits\n\nseparately, inviting, at its pleasure, experts, original investigators, or other\n\npersons, to present their experience or theoretical views before it, for discussion.\nARTICLE\nThe chairman\n\nVII.—DUTIES\n\nOF THE\n\nof each committee\n\nCHAIRMEN\n\nOF COMMITTEES.\n\nshall communicate the questions which are to be\n\ndiscussed to each of the members of his committee, and\n\nsend\n\nthem\n\nsuch other communi-\n\ncations as may assist them in their work. He shall arrange a suitable plan for an\nexchange of opinion, and embody the conclusions arrived at in a brief report. He shall,\nfrom time to time, inform\nmittee.\n\nHe\n\nthe Secretary of the Council of the progress made by his com-\n\nshall, with the: consent\n\nof the other members\n\nof his committee,\n\narrange\n\nspecial meetings at a convenient time and place. He shall see that the communications,\nsent in turn to each member of his committee, are promptly forwarded.\nHe shall state\ndistinctly (in the form of questions, when feasible) the topics on which he desires to have\na brief expression of opinion from the members of his committee, and embody the substance of their answers in his report.\nARTICLE\nThe work\n\nVIII—THE\n\nof the committees\n\nWORK\n\nOF THE\n\nCOMMITTEES.\n\nof the Council shall be carried on in the regular meet-\n\nings provided for above, and in such special meetings as can be arranged from time to\ntime, according to the pleasure of the committee, and principally in writing, by an\nexchange of briefly expressed opinions.\nIt shall be the duty of each chairman to devise\na plan for the latter. Each member may be required to report on a part of the subject ;\nor the whole topic may be submitted to each member, together with the opinion of the\nother members that have considered the subject before.\n\nARTICLE\n\nIX.—DUTIES\n\nOF THE\n\nCOUNCIL.\n\nIt shall be the duty of the Council to further the objects of the National Association,\nand to use its best efforts to promote the cause of education in general.\nThe Council shall assign work to each committee, and receive a report on the same ;\n\nit shall cause to be published such reports of committees, or parts of the same,as in its\n\n"}
{"page": 330, "printed_page": null, "text": "320\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\njudgment should be brought to general notice; it shall present, through the President of\nthe Council, an annual report of its work to the National Educational Association.\nArrangement of Annual Programme.—The President, in making up the annual programme of exercises, may select any of the twelve standing committees which will, in his\nopinion, prepare work for the Council of the most timely and vital character, and he shall\nnot be limited in his choice by considerations of routine.\nThe committee thus reporting may introduce before the Council such specialists,\nexperts, original investigators, or inventors of new methods, as they may deem essential to\npresent effectively their subject-matter before the Council for discussion.\nARTICLE\n\nX.—AMENDMENTS.\n\nThis constitution may be altered or amended, at a regular meeting of the Council, by\na two-thirds vote of the members present, and any provision may be waived at any regular meeting by unanimous consent.\n\nBy-laws not in violation of this constitution may be adopted by a two-thirds vote of\nthe Council.\n\n"}
{"page": 331, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nOFFICERS—MEMBERS\n\nOFFICERS,\n\nMEMBERS,\n\nSTANDING\n\n321\n\nCOMMITTEES.\n\nOFFICERS FOR 1896-97.\nBae NEEDS\nLD)ACER cate ceraeren cane naieee cick ATEN UAT DOL MACH esiecls okie\nairs esis\nPresident.\nCHARLES: DE GARMOs.\n20 ocsctee\ncece SWwallamorey Paces wane\nmeee el Vice-President.\nBRITIE, A. DUTTON sec.5 sca siete eae Gleveland5 Os -ncrsnceneact\nWiccan ence. Secretary,\nExecutive Commttiee.—-The President, Vice-President, Secretary; H.S, Tarbell, Providence,\nJ. M. Greenwood, Kansas City, Mo.; W. E. Sheldon, Boston, Mass.; W. F. King, Mt. Vernon, Ia.\n\nR. I.;\n\nOFFICERS FOR 1897-98.\nCHARLES Dr GARMO See .cce cess tes\nINSEE pe OLIN Grcyzrectetotae\nStee einem ccicle ae\n\nSwarthmore, Pa........ B aS\nRE cE\nIME Vermont, datwamnaces\ndeen cteet eaosmoeee\n\nPSALM\n\nCleveland's\n\nLOIN\nDL\nc.24.- aac ace Rest.coc\n\nOlen\n\nmetccie. sseisisterceion eh\n\nare\n\nPresident,\nVice-President,\nSecretary.\n\nExecutive\nCommztttee—The President, Vice-President, Secretary;\nB. A. Hinsdale, Ann Arbor,\nMich,; J. H. Phillips, Birmingham, Ala.; C. H. Keyes, Berkeley, Cal.; Walter L, Hervey, New York, N.Y.\n\nMEMBERS.\nNore:\nThe letter “‘A’’ following a name denotes that the member is of the class elected by the association; the letter “*C,”’ by the Council.\nTerm Expires.\nTerm Exptres\n*Richard G. Boone, Ypsilanti, Mich.......\nA 1898\njames M. Green, Trenton) Ni. J o..4. sec\nA 1901\n*F, Louis Soldan, St. Louis, Mo...........\nWalter L. Hervey, New York, N. Y.....*Joseph Baldwin, Huntsville,Tex .... ....\n\n*James H. Canfield, Columbus, O.........\nJA. S. Draper, Champaign, Ill... ........+\nWilliam H, Maxwell, Brooklyn, N. Y.....\n*James H, Van Sickle, Denver, Colo.......\n*B, A, Hinsdale, Ann Arbor, Mich........\n=N.C. Dougherty, Peoria, Il.......:..-..\n\nA 1898\nA 1898\nA 1898\nA 1898\nC 1898\nC 1898\nC 1898\nC 1898\nC x898°\n\n*Augustus S. Downing, Albany, N. Y....\ntA R, Laylor, Emporia, Kane..ds.ecineene\n*Ellen C, Sabin, Milwaukee, Wis.........\n*J, R, Preston, Jackson, Miss...........+\n*Geo. P. Brown, Bloomington, Ill.........\n*Bettie A. Dutton, Cleveland, O ...:....\n#+Chas. Hy Keyes;.Pasadena, Call. 2. ...-...,\nWn. L. Bryan, Bloomington, Ind.....- See\n«-*#Wm. F. King, Mt, Vernon, lay...\n2.. 2.0.\n\nA x90r\nA 1g0r\nA 1901\nA 1901\nC xgor\nC xzoor\nC x90\nCRIOOL\nC 1901\n\n*W, H. Bartholomew, Louisville, Ky......\n*Frank A. Fitzpatrick, Boston, Mass.....\n*Henry Sabin, Des Moines, Ia............\n*E. Oram Lyte, Millersville, Pa...........\n*], M. Greenwood, Kansas City, Mo.......\nWm. A. Mowry, Salem, Mass.........+\n\nA 1899\nA 1899\nA 1899\nA 1899\nA 1899\nC 1899\n\n*Edwin C. Hewett, Normal, Ill.... .......\n#Albert G. Lane, Chicago, Ill.............\nHuler B. Smith, Athens, Ga..v..+......\n*Chas. A. McMurry, Normal, [ll..........\n*J, F. Millspaugh, Salt Lake City, Utah ..\n*Charles M. Jordan, Minneapolis, Minn...\n\nA 1902\nA 1902\nA 1902\nA 1902\nA 1902\nC xgo2\n\n*John Dewey, Chicago, Ill.... .. ........\n*Nathan C, Schaeffer, Harrisburg, Pa......\n*David L. Kiehle, St, Paul, Minn .........\n*Mary E, Nicholson, Indianapolis, Ind ....\n\nC 1899\nC 1899\nC 1899\nC 1899\n\nHaw. Coys Cincimmati,'Ons.eeeeceiere\nHorace S. Tarbell, Providence, R.I......\n*Edward R, Shaw, New York, N. Y.......\nete)\n*John W. Cooks Normal, lle y.esece)\n\nCntoo2\nC 1902\nC 1902\n(Ge xg02\n\n*C, C, Rounds, New York, N. Y........+++\n*J.H. Phillips, Birmingham, Ala.........\n*E, E. White, Columbus, O............665\n*James H. Baker, Boulder, Colo......-....\nOscar H. Cooper, Galveston, Tex.........\n\nA\nA\nA\nA\nA\n\n*W. T, Harris, Washington, D.C.........\n*C, B. Gilbert, Newark, N. J.......+.-0+William R. Harper, Chicago, Ill.........\nEarl Barnes, Stanford University, Cal....\n*Charles R, Skinner, Albany, N. Y.......-\n\nA\nA\nA\nA\nA\n\n1900\nxzg0co\n1900\n1900\ntg00\n\n*Charles De Garmo, Swarthmore, Pa. ....\nC 1900\n*Aaron Gove, Denver, Colo..........++.+*L, H, Jones, Cleveland,.O.........-.+++:\nC xrg00o\n*Wm. E. Sheldon, Boston, Mass...........\nElmer E. Brown, Berkeley, Cal..........\n+*Irwin Shepard, Winona, Minn......... ..+» € 2900\nson nse\n4S; GC. Williants; Ithaca, Ne Yoo.\n@irqo0)\n*Lucia Stickney, Cincinnati, O...,..--..-*Nicholas Murray Butler, New York, N.Y.\nC1900\n*H, H. Seerley, Cedar Falls,Ia...........\n* Present at the meeting of the Council in Milwaukee, 1897.\n\n1903\n1903\n1903\n1903\n1903\n\nC 1903\nC 1903\nC 1903\nC 1903\nC 1903\n\n"}
{"page": 332, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n322\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nHONORARY\n\nMEMBERS.\n\nAlbert P. Marble, New York, N. Y.\nFrancis A. March; Easton, Pa.\nLillie J. Martin, San Francisco, Cal.\nThomas J. Morgan, Washington, D. C.\nLemuel Moss, Minneapolis, Minn.\nBirdseye G. Northrop, Clinton, Conn.\nJohn M. Ordway, New Orleans, La.\nFrancis W, Parker, Chicago, Il.\nWarren D. Parker, River Falls, Wis.\n*S. S. Parr, St. Cloud, Minn.\nW. H. Payne, Nashville, Tenn.\nSelim H. Peabody, Chicago, Ill.\nJohn B, Peaslee, Cincinnati, O.\n*William F, Phelps, St, Paul, Minn.\n\nLarkin Dunton, Boston, Mass.\n*John Eaton, Washington, D. C.\nChas. W. Eliot, Cambridge, Mass.\nGeo. T, Fairchild, Manhattan, Kan.\nWilliam W. Folwell, Minneapolis, Minn.\nW. R. Garrett, Nashville, Tenn.\nDaniel C. Gilman, Baltimore, Md.\nJames C. Greenough, Westfield, Mass.\nJohn M. Gregory, Washington, D. C.\nW. N. Hailmann, Washington, D. C.\nG, Stanley Hall, Worcester, Mass.\nJ. George Hodgins, Toronto, Canada.\nIra G. Hoitt, Sacramento, Cal.\nJames H. Hoose, Pasadena, Cal.\nGeorge W. Howison, San Francisco, Cal.\nJames L. Hughes, Toronto, Canada.\nThomas Hunter, New York, N. Y.\nEllen Hyde, Framingham, Mass.\nJohn S, Irwin, Lafayette, Ind.\nE, J. James, Philadelphia, Pa.\nHenry N. James, Tacoma, Wash,\n\nJosiah L. Pickard, Iowa City, Ia.\nJohn T, Prince, Boston, Mass.\n\nZalmon Richards, Washington, D, C,\nWilliam H. Ruffner, Lexington, Va.\nJ. G. Schurman, Ithaca, N. Y.\nH. E. Shepard, Charleston, S. C.\nEdgar A. Singer, Philadelphia, Pa,\nJames A, Smart, Lafayette, Ind.\nHomer B. Sprague........- Cals\nJ. W. Stearns, Madison, Wis.\nThomas B. Stockwell, Providence, R. I.\nGrace Bibb Sudborough, Omaha, Neb.\nJohn Swett, San Francisco, Cal.\nW.R. Thigpen, Savannah, Ga.\nH. S. Thompson, Columbia, S. C.\nL, S. Thompson, New Wilmington, Pa.\nJulia S. Tutwiler, Livingstone, Ala.\nDelia L. Williams, Delaware, O.\nJ. Ormond Wilson, Washington, D. C.\nH. K, Wolfe, Lincoln, Neb.\nC. M. Woodward, St, Louis, Mo.\n\nDECEASED\nNGS a)NGG iraboSenehsodeodtoee Somsohen enone nSO4)\nIsrael Wc Andrewsfasiy saviesiescnte ease earns\nNormantAs Calkinsi-phlccecsctenceemeeeeni\n1895\nINGP Riedy DAWSOM a sists critoe heer\nSamuel S. Greene...\n\nWaniel) By, Hager...\nc/s sesie testes eeeeeees.1896\nJohn Hancock..........4+ bec. eleaieites es. ete\n1891\n\nWilliam D, Henkle........ seis Senora\nCRE ee 1862)\nlmathan H. Hipbee.\n(sd csses alees eeier shee tOSQu\n11\" s<s0cscuen ee\n\n[National\n\nH. S. Jones, Lincoln, Neb.\nE. S. Joynes, Knoxville, Tenn.\nThomas Kirkland, Toronto, Canada.\nHenry M. Leipziger, New York, N. Y.\nJames MacAlister, Philadelphia, Pa,\n\nHenry Barnard, Hartford, Conn,\nWilliam N, Barringer, Newark, N. J.\nNewton Bateman, Galesburg, III.\nD. Bemiss, Spokane, Wash,\nThomas W, Bicknell, Providence, R. I.\n*Albert C. Boyden, Bridgewater, Mass,\nAnna C. Brackett, New York, N. Y.\nJohn E, Bradley, Jacksonville, Il.\nEdward Brooks, Philadelphia, Pa.\nJohn T. Buchanan, New York, N. Y.\nMatthew H. Buckham, Burlington, Vt.\nDavid M. Camp, New Britain, Conn.\nAaron L. Chapin, Beloit, Wis.\nClara Conway, Memphis, Tenn.\nMatilda S. Cooper, Nyack, N. Y.\n*William J. Corthell, Gorham, Me.\nJ. L. M. Curry, Richmond, Va.\nV.C. Dibble, Charleston, S. C.\nJohn W. Dickinson, Boston, Mass.\n\nGegive Howland.\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n-«092'\n\nMEMBERS.\na MerkicksLiy\nOu jawreape.'- piscine\ns/f\nee 1888\nJames MéCosh iy ayers cn waa oon\neee 1894\nIMAG Niewellissecietsie acne sees\nte, fereision LOGS\nEdward Olney: .ctiemacate.moereie\noeeeeee 1886\nGustavasi) Orr jeertee sialaran someseietalaniaiee +++, 1888\nJohn D, Philbrick........... velar eee geee seh cn. F005\nRe We Stevenson..cin\nseen\ns\ne e 1893\n\nBiv. Tappan) wanes seer\nea ulererstey etek1888\n|Charles OLE hompsouysersenmees ese icrtneenee\n1885\nJames P, Wickersham .. sauder es see eee eee . 1891\n\n*Present at the meeting of the Council at Milwaukee, 1897.\n\n"}
{"page": 333, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nSTANDING\n\nCOMMITTEES\n\n323\n\nSTANDING\n\nCOMMITTEES.\n\nMILWAUKEE\n\nMEETING,\n\nI.— ON\n\nSTATE-SCHOOL\n\n1897.\n\nSYSTEMS,\n\nSUB-TOPICS.\n\nOrganization (1883).\n\n8. State, County,\n\n. Supervision (1885).\n. Licensure of Teachers (1889).\n\nCity, and District Super-\n\nvision (1892).\n9. The Ungraded School (1895).\n\n. School Revenues.\n\nN. C. Schaeffer, Harrisburg, Pa., Chairman.\n\nCompulsory Education (1891).\n. Tenure of Office of Teachers (1887).\n. Supplying the Schools with Text-Books.\nHo\nwWHD\nIANS\n\nJ. H. Canfield, Columbus, O,\nJ. R. Preston, Jackson, Miss.\nJ- G. Schurman, Ithaca, N. Y,\nHenry Sabin, Des Moines, Ia.\n\nII.— On CitTy-SCHOOL\n\nSYSTEMS,\n\nSUB-TOPICS.\n. Organization.\n. Supervision (1884, 1890).\n\ng. Evening Schools.\n10. Enriching the Course\n\n. Superintendency.\n\n11. Graded\n\n. Qualification of Teachers.\n\nof\n\nCourse of Study on Herbartian\n\nPrinciples (1895).\n\n. Classification of Pupils (1886).\n. Ungraded Schools.\n. Business\nSide\nDN\nBW\nTom\n\nof Study below\n\nthe High School.\n\nCity-School\n\nSystems\n\n(1888, 1889, 1890, 1896).\n. Promotions and Examinations.\n\nAaron Gove, Denver, Colo., Chairman.\nL. H. Jones, Cleveland, O.\n\nOscar H. Cooper, Galveston, Tex.\nN. C. Dougherty, Peoria, Ill.\nChas. M. Jordan, Minneapolis, Minn.\n\nII].— On HIGHER\n\nEDUCATION.\n\nSUB-TOPICS,\n. Higher Institutions Required (1885).\n. Harmonizing of Higher, Secondary,and\n\n7. The Seminary Method of Instruction.\n8. Professional and Technical Instruction\n\nElementary Schools (1882).\n\nin the University (1894).\n\n. Admission to College (1884).\nElective System (1888).\n\n. Higher\n\nLife of the\n\nJ. E. Bradley, Jacksonville, Ill., Chazrman.\nWilliam F. King, Mount Vernon, Ia.\n\nAmerican\n\nCollege\n\n(1896).\n\nJames H. Baker, Boulder, Colo.\n\nA. S. Draper, Champaign, IIl.\n\n. What Should Precede the University?\n\nS. G. Williams, Ithaca, N. Y.\n\nIV.— ON SECONDARY\n\nEDUCATION.\n\nSUB-TOPICS.\n\n. High Schools (1882).\n. Academies (1885).\nPreparation for College (1884).\n. Relation\n\nof High\n\nSchools\n\nto\n\n8. Difference between College Methods of\nInstruction and High-School Methods.\nColleges\n\n0 enn)\na\nofthe\nRural Population\nLe Ne\nOe\n\nfi\n\nW.¥4. Bartholomew, Louisville, Ky., Chazr-\n\npoe\n\nSecondary\nEducation\n(1889).\niy bySalata)\n. Schools\nCorrespondence.\n\nFT euis Soldany St: Louis, Mo\n:\nRae\nAmite\nH. H. Seerley, Cedar Falls, Ia.\n\n. Uniformity in Requirements for AdmisBRWDHNH\nMW\nSD\nston to College (1891).\n\nEdward R. Shaw, New York, N. Y.\n\nHorace S. Tarbell, Providence, R. I.\n\n"}
{"page": 334, "printed_page": null, "text": "te\n\n324\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nNATIONAL\nV.—On\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nEDUCATION.\n\nSUB-TOPICS,\n\n9. The Uses of Literature in Elementary\nEducation (1892).\n10. Economy\nin Elementary\nEducation\n\n. Course of Study (1882).\n. Oral Teaching (1884).\n. Text-Books (1886).\n. Waste in Elementary Education (1888).\n. Kindergarten.\n. Language\nLessons\n\nP. Brown, Bloomington, Ill., Chazrman.\nWilliam E. Sheldon, Boston Mass.\n\nElementary\n\nin\n\nf&\nWN\nAm\n\n(1895).\nGeo.\n\nSchools.\n. Science Teaching in Lower Grades.\n. Essentials\ncom\n\nin\n\nElementary\n\nZalmon Richards, Washington, D. C.\nJ. H. Phillips, Birmingham, Ala.\n\nEducation\n\nBettie A. Dutton, Cleveland, O.\n\n(1890).\nVI.—On\n\nNORMAL\n\nEDUCATION.\n\nSUB-TOPICS.\n\n8. The Kind and Amount of Practice Work\n\n. Kind of Normal Schools Required.\n. Academical\nNow\n\nand\n\nProfessional\n\nand Its Place in the Normat-School\n\nTraining\n\n(1883, 1889).\n. Practice Departments (1885).\n. City Normal Schools (1891).\n. Teachers’ Institutes (1887).\n\nCourse (1895).\nR. G. Boone, Ypsilanti, Mich., Chazrman.\n\nIrwin Shepard, Winona, Minn.\n\n. The\nWw\n&\nnum\n\nRelation of the Normal School to\nOther Institutions of Learning (1892).\n7. Normal-School Extension.\n\nJames M. Green, Trenton, N. J.\n\nWilliam L. Bryan, Bloomington, III.\nJohn W. Cook, Normal, Ill.\n\nVII.— On TECHNOLOGICAL\n\nEDUCATION.\n\nSUB-TOPICS,\n\n1. Technical\n\nTraining\n\nin\n\nPublic\n\nSchools\n\n(1881).\n2. Preparation for Institutes of Technology.\n3. Pedagogical\n\nValue of the School\n\nWork-\n\nshop (1886).\n4. Agricultural Colleges (1888).\n5. Summer School of Science.\n6. Relation\nof Technological\nEducation (1894).\n\n7. The Preparation of Manual Training\nand Technical Teachers a Function\nof the Technical College (1896).\nEuler B. Smith, Athens, Ga., Chairman.\nWilliam H. Payne, Nashville, Tenn.\n\nCharles H. Keyes, Berkeley, Cal.\nto\n\nLiberal\n\nVIIIL—On\n\nElmer E. Brown, Berkeley, Cal.\nJ. H. Van Sickle, Denver, Colo.\nPEDAGOGICS.\n\nSUB-TOPICS,\n\n1. Chair of Pedagogy in Colleges (1882).\n2. Pedagogy as a Science (1884).\n3. Pedagogical Inquiry.\n4. Function of Public Schools (1886, 1887).\n5. Educational Value of Manual Training\n\n(1889).\n. Moral Education.\n. Pedagogical Terminology.\n\n. The Education of the Will (1891).\n. Distinguishing Ideas in the Herbartian\nSystem of Pedagogy.\n\noOo\non\n\n10. Scope and Character of the Pedagogical\n\nWork in Universities (1892).\n11.\n\nThe Laws of Mental Congruence and\nEnergy Applied to Some Pedagogical\n\nProblems (1895)«\nNicholas Murray Butler, New York, N. Y.,\nChairman.\nDavid L. Kiehle, Minneapolis, Minn.\nA. R. Taylor, Emporia, Kan.\nCharles A. McMurry, Normal, Ill.\nB. A. Hinsdale, Ann Arbor, Mich.\n\n"}
{"page": 335, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nSTAMDING\n\nIX.—On\n\nCOMMITTEES\n\nMora\n\n325\n\nEpucatTion.\n\n[Changed from “ Ox the Education of Girls,” 1891.]\nSUB-TOPICS.\n\nCo-education (1883, 1890).\n\n7. Moral\n\n. Technical Training for Girls (1886).\nWhat Education is Best (1888).\nCulture of the Moral\n\nSCHOOL\n\nLucia Stickney, Cincinnati, O.\nCharles C. Rounds, New York, N. Y.\n\nJ. F. Millspaugh, Salt Lake City, Utah.\nWalter L. Hervey, New York, N. Y.\n\nSANITATION,\n\n[Changed from\n\nthe Elementary\n\nME\n\nVirtues\n\n(1892).\n6. Direct and Indirect Moral Teaching.\n\nX.— On\n\nin\n\nCharles De Garmo, Swarthmore, Pa., Chair-\n\nThe Education of Girls (1891).\n. Practical\nMP\nwn\n\nInstruction\n\nSchools (1896).\n\nHYGIENE,\n\nAND\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nTRAINING.\n\n“On Hygiene in Education,” 1891.]\n\nSUB-TOPICS.\n1. Sanitary\n\nExercises\n\nand Appliances\n\nin\n\nPublic Schools (1883).\n2. Recesses (1884, 1885).\n3. Relation\n\nof Mental\n\n6. Schoolroom Hygiene (1896).\n\nWilliam\n\nLabor\n\nto\n\nPhysical\n\nA. Mowry,\nChairman.\n\nHyde\n\nPark,\n\nMary E. Nicholson, Indianapolis, Ind.\n\nHealth (1887).\n4. Harmonious Development (1889).\n\nJoseph Baldwin, Austin, Tex.\nF, A. Fitzpatrick, Boston, Mass.\n\n5. Physical Education (1891).\n\nC. B. Gilbert, Newark, N. J.\n\nXI.—ON\n\nMass.,\n\nPsYCHOLOGICAL\n\nINQUIRY.\n\n[Changed from “ On Educational Literature,” 1891.|\nSUB-TOPICS.\n1. School Reports (1885).\n\n7. How the Will Combines\n\n2. Books on Pedagogy (1888).\n3. Use of General Libraries (1887).\n4. Educational Literature (1890).\n5. Relation of Mnemonic Systems\n\nthe Higher Orders of Knowing (1896).\nE. O. Lyte, Millersville, Pa., Chazrman.\nWilliam T. Harris, Washington, D. C.\nEdwin C. Hewett, Normal, Ill.\n\nto\n\nthe\n\nCultivation of the Power of Thought\n\n(1892).\n\n6. The Psychology\n\nof the Imitative Func-\n\nwith Intellect in\n\nEarl Barnes, Stanford University, Cal.\n:\n\nUO\n\nISDS\n\nCRM\n\ntions in Childhood (1894).\nXII.—On\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nREPORTS\n\nAND\n\nSTATISTICS.\n\n[Changed from “ Ox Educational Statistics,” 1891.]\nSUB-TOPICS.\n1. Reform in Statistics (1885, 1887).\n2. What Statistics Should be Collected(1889,\n\n1891).\nWilliam\nH. Maxwell,\nChairman.\n\nJ. M. Greenwood, Kansas City, Mo.\nE. W. Coy, Cincinnati, O.\n\nAugustus S. Downing, Albany, N. Y.\nBrooklyn,\n\nN.\n\nY.,\n\nA.G, Lane, Chicago, Ill.\n\nNote: In view of proposed radical changes in the organization of the Council, the\nusual committee reports will not be made at the meeting in 1898. A special programme\n\nwill be prepared and duly announced by the President and Executive Committee.\n\n"}
{"page": 336, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n326\n\nSECRETARY’S\n\n[National\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nMINUTES\n\nFiksSl\n\nDAY.\n\nOPENING SESSION.—Juty 5, 1897.\nThe Council assembled in Temple Emanu-E]\n\nand was\n\ncalled to order at 9: 30 A.M.\n\nby the President, B. A. Hinsdale.\nThirty-eight members were present.\nPrayer was offered by Nathan C. Schaeffer.\nPresident Hinsdale welcomed the members present, explained the absence of others,\nand\n\nreferred\n\nparticularly to that of W. E. Sheldon,\n\nwho was\n\nabsent on\n\naccount of the\n\nrecent death of a daughter.\n\nOn motion, President Hinsdale was requested to express to Mr. Sheldon the sympathy of the Council.\nW. H. Bartholomew, Chairman of the Committee on Secondary Education, presented\na report on “The High School and Its Functions.”\nThe report was discussed, and was\nreferred back to the committee.\nAFTERNOON\n\nSESSION.\n\nThe Council opened its session at 2: 30 P. M.\nCommittees were appointed by the President as follows:\nOn Memberships —Henry Sabin, L. H. Jones, Miss Mary E, Nicholson.\nOn Nomtnations—D., L. Kiehle, W. H. Bartholomew, H, S, Tarbell.\n\nThe subject for the afternoon, “ The Atsthetic Element in Education,” was presented by\nJohn Dewey, W. T. Harris, and Miss Mary E. Nicholson.\n\nOn motion of Mr. Greenwood, the Council\nprinted with the reports.\n\ndirected that the papers in discussion\n\nThe Council adjourned at 4 :30 P. M.\nEVENING\n\nbe\n\n:\nSESSION.\n\nThe Council met at 8 Pp. M.\n\nOn motion of S. G. Williams, the Council of Education went into executive\n\nsession.\n\nForty-five members were present.\nMr. Soldan, Chairman of the committee appointed at Buffalo to report on the question\nof “The Education of the Negroes and Indians,” requested further time. Granted.\nMr. Sabin presented the report of the Committee of Twelve on Rural Schools, and\nmoved that the Council receive this report, and that the committee be discharged.\nCarried.\nMany suggestions were made as to the most effective means for giving the report large\ncirculation.\nMessrs. Henry Sabin, W. T. Harris, and B. A. Hinsdale were appointed to\npresent the matter to the Board of Directors of the general association.\nQuestions relative to future work of the Council were presented in a paper by Geo.\nP. Brown, and, after discussion, a committee of five was suggested to act with the Presi-\n\ndent relative to the work for the next year.\n\n"}
{"page": 337, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nSECOND\nMORNING\n\nMINUTES\n\nDAY.\n\nSESSION.—\nJuty\n\n6, 1897.\n\nThe Council assembled at 9:30 A. M.\nPrayer offered by William F. King.\nThe subject for the morning, “‘ University Ideals,” was\nOrmond,\nJoseph\n\nof Princeton\n\nSwain,\n\nUniversity;\n\nof Indiana\n\nJames\n\nUniversity.\n\n327\n\npresented by Professor A. T.\n\nH. Baker, of the University of Colorado, and\n\nW.T.\n\nHarris,\n\nby request, followed in discussion\n\nof the general topic.\nD. L. Kiehle expressed, on behalf\n\nof the Council, thanks to Professor Ormond, and,\n\nafter the calling of the roll by the Secretary, the Council adjourned to 2:30 P. M.\n\nAFTERNOON\n\nSESSION.\n\nThe subject of “ Election in General Education” was presented in a paper by E. E.\nWhite.\n\nMr. White’s\n\npaper\n\nwas\n\nreceived,\n\nand, with\n\ndiscussions\n\nof the same,\n\nordered\n\nprinted.\nAt 4:30 Pp. M. the Council went into executive session.\nThe following report of the Special Committee on the Organization of a Committee\non School Hygiene was submitted by E. Oram Lyte, of the committee:\nIt is evident that the most important interests of the public schools and of the nation are bound up with\nthe health of school children and school-teachers. The assembling of large numbers of children for several\nhours a day in the same building involves special perils to health, even when all conditions are as\nfavorable as possible. In very few schools are the best possible hygienic conditions attained. In a vast number of schools the hygienic conditions are, without doubt, deplorably bad. There are not wanting scientists of\nrepute who hold, upon the ground of more or less adequate investigations (mostly European), that the modern\npublic school seriously threatens the vitality of the people. Some, who pretend to speak with scientific\nauthority, charge the public school with almost all the disease and death among school children and schoolteachers; and quacks of various sorts join in the hue in hope of furthering their private interests.\nIn presence of this situation—in presence of indictments which, if wholly true, would put the public\nschool on trial for its life, and which, even if wholly false, tend to impair its good name and efficiency\n— in\npresence of this situation, what action is demanded from the only organized body which represents all the\neducational interests of America ?\n¢\n:\nYour committee believes that two things should be done.\nIl. There should be investigation.\nAs members of the Council know, by far the greater number of researches in school hygiene have been\nmade in Europe. Many of the results obtained there are equally applicable in America; others are not. In\naddition to all researches already made at home or abroad, we need to have made, at least in a few typical communities, a thorough scientific survey of all conditions affecting the health of the school. This survey-should\nbe made, as far as it goes, at least as thorough, from a scientific point of view, as that which under government\npatronage is applied to the hygiene of cattle. Work of this sort is expensive in time and money, and requires,\n\nas sine gua non, the devoted service of the best scientists.\n\nBut in what other way can we hope to know how\n\nour public school is actually affecting public health, how to meet actual evils with intelligent remedies, or even\nhow to hold public confidence against attacks, which, truly or falsely, claim scientific warrant?\nNo reason\nthat will appeal to the common sense of men can be given for delaying such investigation, except lack of\n\nmoney. If the National Educational Association is too poor to make a beginning of such investigation, how\ncan individual scientists, with their usually slender resources, be expected to make a beginning for us?\nIl.\n\nThere should be propaganda,\n\n+\n\nYour committee would by no means undervalue what has already been done in the field of school\nhygiene. On the contrary, it believes that one of the most important duties of this association is to gather up\nthe large and valuable outlay of results in this field and bring them to bear more directly and effectively than\nat present upon actual school conditions, To this end we suggest:\nx. There should be prepared a compendious statement of what is already known in the field of school\nhygiene. This compendium should cover (a) all phases of the physical environment of the school (school\ngrounds, drainage, schoolhouse construction, heating, lighting, ventilation, seating, type of text-books, etc.) ;\nand (4) all phases of school occupation (length of recitation period in different grades, length, frequency, and\ncharacter of rests, physical exercises, play, requirements in writing, drawing, manual training, home-study\n\nrequirements, treatment of children during period of second dentition and of early adolescence, etc.).\nOn all these points there should be (a) statements of those conclusions in respect to which competent\nauthorities are generally agreed; and (4) statements of opposing views where such exist. The need of setting\n\n"}
{"page": 338, "printed_page": null, "text": "328\n\n;\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL\n\n_\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\na moral right to\nbefore the educational public those hygienic requirements which no school has any longer\ninvestiignore, in distinction from the assertions of individual investigators who may be contradicted by other\nIf not a\ngators, is great and immediate, The school superintendent cannot be a specialist in everything.\nto distinspecialist in hygiene, it is practically impossible for him, in many cases of fundamental importance,\nguish, amid the conflicting voices of scientists, the voice of science. Let us meet his need. Let us, through\ntell\na committee of scientists and school men, give the superintendent a manual which will, on the one hand,\nhim what ought to be done, and which will, on the other hand, stand between him and those who unwarrantably\nassume to speak for science.\n\n2. There should be a well-considered report upon education in school hygiene.\n\nThis report should show\n\n(a) what is now doing in this field in our universities, normal schools, or elsewhere; and (4) what ought to be\ndone in them, It is alleged by those high in authority that our universities, technical and medical schools, for\nthe most part, fail to provide adequately for the training of experts in hygiene; and that our normal schools\n\nhave not yet given school hygiene its due place and proportion of time in the professional\n.\nteachers.\nThe facts upon this subject should be made known.\n\ntraining of\n\nThe report should advise us what enlargement of\n\nfacilities for training in hygiene the present situation demands of our great universities ;and what kind and\namount of training in hygiene should be undertaken in normal schools, city training schools, and with the\npresent teaching force.\n3. There should be a report upon legislation relative to school hygiene, including (a) a summary of\nexisting legislation in Europe and America upon this subject; and (4) a consensus on needed legislation. A\nsingle example may serve to illustrate the necessity in this direction. When steamboats and elevators are subject to government inspection in the interest of public safety, no good reason appears why school buildings\nshould not be subject to equally stringent inspection in the interest of public health.\nThe work outlined were better not undertaken unless it can be made an unquestionable success.\nFor a\nreport of questionable value supported by the authority of this association would prove a source of great mischief for many years. The work requires the highest scientific training coupled with the wisest practical\njudgment. It is not common sense, but common nonsense, to suppose that school hygiene requires less\nthorough scientific consideration than that which the government specialists give to the hygiene of wheat. On\nthe other hand, the actual application of scientific principles must also have regard to actual and varying conditions in the schools, and requires the wisdom which comes alone from everyday practical experience,\nYour committee accordingly recommends to the Council:\n(x) That there be appointed a general committee on school hygiene.\n(2) That this committee be organized by the appointment of five active members of the National Educational Association, who shall have power to invite the co-operation of experts in the various sciences touching\nschool hygiene.\n(3) That the committee be instructed to report to the Council in 1899.\n(4) That the council request the trustees of the National Educational Association to appropriate two\nthousand five hundred dollars to pay expenses necessary in connection with the work of the committee.\nRespectfully submitted,\né\nWituiaM L, Bryan, Chazrman,\nE, Oram Lyte,\nALBERT P, MARBLE,\nWiriram A. Mowry,\nEpwarp R, Suaw,\n\nMr. Kiehle moved that this committee be appointed by the Executive Committee in\nconnection with the President about to elected.\nCarried.\nThe chair named as committee to consider and report on the general work of the\nCouncil the following:\nF. Louis Soldan,\nJames H. Baker,\nNicholas Murray Butler,\nJ. M. Greenwood,\nC. B, Gilbert.\n\nThe report of the Committee on Memberships was submitted and adopted :\nYour Committee on Memberships of the Council submits the following :\nThe following vacancies exist:\nTerms expiring in 1897: Charles De Garmo, L. H. Jones, Elmer E. Brown, S. G.\nWilliams, Nicholas\nMurray Butler,\nMemberships lapsing according to the constitution by absence from the meeting of the\nCouncil for two\nsuccessive years: Zalmon Richards, W. H. Payne.\nWe recommend the election of:\nCharles De Garmo, to succeed himself; term to expire 1903.\n\n"}
{"page": 339, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nTHE\n\nAASTHETIC\n\nELEMENT\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n329\n\nL. H. Jones, to succeed himself; term to expire 1903.\nE]mer E. Brown, to succeed himself; term to expire 1903.\nS. G, Williams, to succeed himself; term to expire 1903.\nNicholas Murray Butler, to succeeed himself; term to expire 1903.\nE, E, White, to succeed Zalmon Richards ; term to expire 1900.\n\nMiss Ellen C. Sabin, to succeed W. H, Payne; term to expire root.\nRespectfully submitted,\nHenry SaBIn,\nChatrman.\n\nThe report of the Committee on Nominations was submitted and adopted :\nYour Committee on Nominations begs leave to report the following:\nFor President, Charles De Garmo.\nFor Vice-President, William F, King.\nFor Secretary, Miss Bettie A. Dutton.\nFor Executive Committee, B. A, Hinsdale, J. H. Phillips, C. H. Keyes, W. L. Hervey.\nRespectfully submitted,\nFor the committee,\nD, L, Kiexe,\nChairman.\n\nThe thanks of the Council were expressed by Messrs. Canfield and Rounds to the\nretiring President, for his able, just, impartial, and courteous manner of conducting the\nsessions of the Council.\nAdjourned.\n\nPA\nTHE\nBY\n\nBETTIE A. DUTTON,\nSecretary.\n\nDiese ON DE DISCUSSIONS:\n\nAASTHETIC\nJOHN\n\nDEWEY,\n\nELEMENT\nTHE\n\nIN EDUCATION.\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF\n\nCHICAGO.\n\nI interpret this title to mean a certain phase of all education, rather\nthan a particular group of studies.\nI. Responsiveness, an emotional reaction to ideas and acts, is a neces-\n\nsary factor in moral character.\nII. It is alsoa necessary element in intellectual training, as supplying a delicacy and quickness of recognition in the face of practical situation.\nIII. The significance of the esthetic element is that it trains a natural\nsensitiveness and susceptibility of the individual to usefulness in these\ndirections.\nThe individual has a natural tendency. to react in an emotional way; but this natural disposition requires training.\nIn some, who\nare naturally obtuse or thick-skinned, it requires to be brought out; in\nothers, who are naturally more sensitive, it may assume a morbid and\nexaggerated form, unless made to function in definite ways.\nIV. The factors in esthetic experience which are especially adapted\nBalance implies\nto afford the right training are balance and rhythm.\ncontrol or inhibition which does not sacrifice a fullness and freedom of\n\n"}
{"page": 340, "printed_page": null, "text": "330\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nIt is opposed both to random, undirected action and to\nthe experience.\nRhythm involves regularity and econrepressed, or undeveloped, action.\nBoth balance and rhythm are forms of\nomy in the sequence of actions.\nvariety in unity: rhythm being temporal, balance spatial.\nV. The esthetic element thus should combine freedom of ‘individual\nexpression and appreciation with the factor of law and regularity in what\nIt is possible to extend the idea of artistic production to all\nis expressed.\nkinds of work.\nVI. Modern theory and practice in education have laid relatively too\nmuch stress upon the volitional training in practical control and intellectual training in the acquisition of information, and too little upon the\ntraining of responsiveness.\nWe need to return more to the Greek conception, which defined education as the attaching of pleasure and pain to\nthe right objects and ideals in the right way. This ideal over-emphasized\nthe emotional element, but we have now gone to the opposite extreme.\n\nTHE\n\nBY\n\nW.\n\nT.\n\n@ESLAETIC\n\nHARRIS,\n\nUNITED.\n\nELEMENT\n\nSTATES\n\nIN EDUCALTON.\n\nCOMMISSIONER\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION.\n\nIn the course of study, as we find it in the schools, there are five distinct lines of intellectual development which have deep significance, both\nas regards the unfolding of the mind itself and as regards the adjustment of\nthe career of the pupil towards the social institutions in which he is to live.\nThese five lines of intellect, which the pupil cultivates in school, aid\nhim in perfecting his powers as an individual, and also in solving the\nproblem of life. They have both a psychological side and a sociological\nside.\nTwo of these five intellectual disciplines are mathematics and grammar, these relating respectively to the world of nature and to the world of\nmind as revealed in language.\nWhile mathematics gives us the forms in\nwhich inorganic matter may exist and be moved, and makes known to us\nthe structure of time and space and all externality, grammar and its\nkindred studies, pure logic and ethics, give us the form of self-activity\nand the structure of all that possesses internality.\nHere are the two polar directions of intellectual education, relating\nthe pupil to matter and to mind.\nPsychologically these branches give\nhim the first use of the two deep-lying categories of the intellect, quantity\nand energy; the category of quantity deals with results in space and\ntime; the category of energy deals with causal originations.\nIf one\ndoes not see, at first, how grammar and logic deal with energy and its\n\n"}
{"page": 341, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nTHE\n\n4STHETIC\n\nELEMENT\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\nBes\n\nlaws of self-activity, let him reflect on the fact that logic deals with the\nideas of universal, particular, and singular, and grammar shows the devices\nin speech for their expression ; and then, next, let him consider that\nenergy, or self-activity, has just these aspects, being general, if we consider\nit before it has acted on itself and particular in the process of activity. It\nis, Moreover, singular or one activity, uniting general and particular. He\nwill find this thought the key to logic and grammar.\nOut of these two primordial studies, mathematics and philology, arise\nthree other studies, making up the five.\nFirst, there\n\nis the study of organic\n\nnature, the first transitions\n\nfrom\n\nmathematical nature towards mind, or the pole of energy; not only the\nplant and the animal belong to the organic nature, for they are manifestations of life or energy which is active in organizing matter and movement\ninto\n\nbodily\n\nand\n\ngeological\n\nbodies,\n\nexpression ; but, besides\n\nthese, we\n\nhave chemical\n\nchanges, cycles or circular movements\n\nsun, moon,\n\nand\n\nplanets, and\n\nthe meteorological\n\nprocesses,\n\nof astronomical\nprocess, all of\n\nthese belonging to the crude first stages of the manifestation of energy\non matter.\nFor, in short, we have a world that is in the process of making. Itis ascending out of the mathematical condition, so to speak, to\nthe organic condition, wherein energy or mind is manifesting itself in a\nmore direct and adequate form.\nFor the plant and animal show us perpetual readjustment of the internal to the external.\nThe internal readjusts itself to the external, but. with a purpose, namely, to make the\nexternal environment of nature conform to its ideals and become its\ninstrument.\nIt is, therefore, at first an act of adjusting itself to the\nexternal, but\n\nfinally a readjustment\n\nof the external\n\nto the\n\ninternal, all\n\nbrought about by the power of mind or energy. Thus all studies of\nnature, not only botany and zodlogy, or biology in general, but also\nphysics, both molecular and molar (movements of molecules and masses) ;\nin short, chemistry,\n\nand the sciences of heat, light, and electricity ; also\n\ngeology, meteorology, astronomy —all relate to the beginnings of the\norganic process and are a sort of foundation to it.\nHence the two branches that bring the school pupil face to face\nwith nature are mathematics and biology, or the science of organism.\nIn the elementary school, geography covers this line of intellectual\ntraining, while arithmetic covers the purely inorganic side of nature.\nThere are two other lines, namely, the study of history and the\nstudy of art and literature, both of these subsidiary to the study of\nenergy or self-activity, as found in grammar, logic, and ethics.\nHistory shows the spectacle of the will power of individual man\nconsolidating into social units of will power—organizing institutions,\nthe state, the church, and civil society, with its division of labor and its\nIn history the little individual\nunion of labor through commerce.\n\n"}
{"page": 342, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n332\n\nhis bigger self.\n\nsees\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nIn the Middle\n\n[National\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nAges\n\nthe\n\nphilosophers\n\nused\n\nto\n\nspeak of the microcosm, or the individual man, and the macrocosm, or the\n\nHistory, in this way of looking at it,\norganic whole of individuals.\nenables the microcosm to see the macrocosm.\nEven in the most elementary beginnings in the district school or\nthe kindergarten there are scraps of history and biography that initiate\nthe pupil into this great and important field of knowledge, and enable\nhim to see in dim, shadowy outlines what the great world (the macrocosm)\nis doing; and he is astonished to find that there are not only individual\ndeeds for particular uses, but also deeds done by society as a whole—\nnational deeds, and even cosmic deeds.\nIt takes a long time to grow\ninto the use of this category of the mind, whereby we can see clearly social\naction and understand its results, critically. The growth of this insight\nis the development of a moral sense in the pupil. It is something higher\nthan moral hadi¢s, which he has already acquired\n\nin the\n\nfamily, or ought\n\nThe stage of moral habit\nto have acquired, before coming to school.\nwas learned through obedience to authority.\nIt listened to the commands,\n“do this, and refrain from doing that.” But though moral habit is a\ngreat thing in the conduct of life, it is not so great as moral insight,\nwhich sees the necessity of morals for the very existence of the social\nwhole.\nWithout ethical action the individual cannot be re-enforced by\nthe action of his fellow-men;\n\nhe cannot have institutions back of him—\n\nthe family, civil society, the state, the church.\nThe fifth study, or literature and\n\nart, is called\n\n‘“ esthetics,”\n\nor, as in\n\nour Council programme today, “the zsthetic element in education.”\nI\nam sure that we can understand it better if we approach it, as we have\ndone in this paper, by considering the hierarchy of studies\n— mathematics,\ngrammar, biology, and history\n— on the way to it. For we have already\nbecome familiar with the trend of the whole.\nWe have the general spectacle of a world of matter acted upon and organized by a world of mind\nor energy.\nFrom the mathematical, or inorganic, field we ascend to\nplants and animals organized by the principle of life. Then we come to\nthe world of man, in which individuals unite to form social wholes, and\nsee the ethical idea which forms the structures of institutions.\nFor man\nas individual cannot form a member of an institution unless he is moral.\nMorality is, in fact, a name for the kind of action which will not\n\ninjure\n\nothers nor obstruct their freedom\n-— the name for deeds that will re-enforce\nthe deeds of others.\nThe manifestation of mind or self-activity on matter appears first in\nplants and animals.\nFor all living being has self-activity.\nBut there is\na higher form of manifestation, and that is found in history.\n\nhave\n\nseen, the smaller\n\nindividual\n\nselves of men\n\nIt is, as we\n\nforming above\n\nbigger selves, or social selves, such as states and nations.\n\nthem\n\n"}
{"page": 343, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nTHE 48STHETIC ELEMENT IN EDUCATION\n\nArt and literature, which\n\nare the\n\nesthetic\n\nactivity of men, have\n\nfor their function the manifestation of energy\nAnd, indeed,\n\n333\nalso\n\nor mind, or self-activity.\n\nit is specially a manifestation, for\n\nit essays to create\n\nthe\n\nappearance of it where there is no realization of it. History shows us, not\nonly an appearance of divine reason, but also a realization of it. Art\nshows us an\n\nappearance of it, in fields\n\nof mere\n\ninorganic\n\nbeing — the\n\nmathematical province.\nIt takes matter and shapes it into living forms,\nand makes it take on poses and movements that express freedom and\nmoral action.\nIn short,\n\nit turns\n\nthe world of externality, pure\n\nand\n\nsimple, into\n\na\n\nworld of internality made perceptible to the senses of seeing and hearing.\nIt shapes bronze and wood and marble into temples and statues.\nIt\nbrings out by light and shade and color and perspective on surfaces the\npaintings and drawings that represent rational and moral beings.\nIt\nproduces sounds, arranged in a tonic system, and can by this means\nexpress feelings ina more direct manner than by the plasticarts.\nFinally,\nit makes the words of language its art material and reaches poetic\nexpression, the highest of the arts, because of greater compass than all\nthe others and more adequate in its manifestation of reason.\n_ The school has always had literature in all its grades, but not so\ngenerally the other arts, except music.\nIt is the practical part of this discussion to show that architecture,\nsculpture, and painting should add their healthful lesson to the curriculum\nof the school.\nLet us briefly consider in the remainder of this essay the nature of\nthe several arts and their respective capacities to educate man by the\nspectacle of reason.\nPlato said that ‘‘ the beautiful is the splendor of the true.”\nThis is a\ndefinition good for all time.\nFor art renders visible or audible the world\nof internality and\n\ntruth—the\n\nworld\n\nof mind\n\nor reason\n\nis, indeed, the\n\nobject of the several arts or esthetic modes of expression.\nThe several fine arts are, in an ascending scale, architecture,\nsculpture, painting, music, and poetry.\nDancing, landscape gardening, engraving, elocution, dramatic art, and rhetoric are accessory to\none or more of the five great departments of art rather than separate\n\ndepartments.\nIt arouses emotions and aspirations, but\nArt appeals to the feelings.\nnot appetites. Its effects are, therefore, to purify the feelings. It directs\nthem towards ideals. It is not so much an education of conscious thought\nas of instinctive judgments in matters of taste. But, as it has to do with\nideals, it inspires religious and ethical emotions, and through these indi-\n\nrectly develops thought.\n\n"}
{"page": 344, "printed_page": null, "text": "334\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nARCHITECTURE.\n\nThe silent lessons of architecture—the impressiveness of its masses,\nits harmonious proportions, its suggestion of great natural powers overArt has an end of\n—these effects are obvious.\ncome by spiritual might\nits own, and to be art of a very high character it must show that the\nbeautiful object exists for itself and does not exist for the sake of other\nBut, of course, the highest art\n— not even for morals or religion.\nobjects\n\nwill be found in harmony with both morals and religion.\nThere are, as shown by Hegel, three stages to each of these arts, namely,\n\nthe symbolic stage, wherein a spiritual might struggles without pronounced\nsuccess against the natural powers which hinder it; higher than this,\nclassic art, wherein the spiritual might has completely subdued matter and\nforce into means of expression for its ideals; third, there is romantic art,\nChristian art, which expresses the ideal, with more or less antagonism\ntowards what is material and natural.\nThus the architecture of India and Egypt belongs to symbolic art.\nThe human is struggling against the natural, but is not able to subdue it\nand achieve freedom.\nThe highest achievement of Egyptian architecture\nappears in the pillars or columns of its temple, crowned with the lotus.\nFor in the lotus capitals there is an approximation towards gracefulness.\nGreek architecture is much superior in its expression of freedom.\nIts\nDoric, Ionic, and Corinthian\n\ncolumns\n\nfully achieve\n\ngracefulness.\n\nIn a\n\nsolid wall for the support of roof the manifestation of the forces which\nare struggling and the power of gravity are not so adequate as when the\nsupport is a pillar or column.\nThe column being isolated, the effects of\ngravity are exhibited in the yielding of its capital—its expansion, as in\nthe Doric capital, or the graceful yielding curves, as appearing in the\nTonic volute, or the graceful bending of the acanthus leaves in the Corinthian capital.\nGravity is manifested on the one hand, but the Greek\ncapital shows how easily and gracefully the supporting column resists the\ndownward force.\nThe Roman arch is converted into a dome by carrying out its principles on all sides instead of laterally alone.\nThe arch is a ready suggestion, symbolically, of the Roman national principle.\nEach stone in the\narch is relatively a keystone to all of the rest. All depends on each and\neach on all. Each Roman citizen felt and acted as if he were the keystone\nto his nation.\n‘he dome suggests the sky over all, and hence toleration.\nUnder the dome of the Roman Pantheon the gods of all nations were\nset up and worshiped.\nThe dome is an appropriate symbol for the state\nor nation.\nLach patriotic citizen consecrates his life for the life of the\nsocial whole, and each is in turn supported and protected by the rest like\na keystone.\n\n"}
{"page": 345, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nTHE\n\n42STHETIC\n\nELEMENT\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n335\n\nRomantic architecture comes to its highest completeness in such\nGothic structures as the cathedrals of France and the abbeys of England,\nbut especially in the Cologne cathedral and that of Amiens, and the\nSainte Chapelle of Paris.\nIt celebrates the divine, not as something originating in matter and lifted up away from matter by its self-activity, but\nit expresses, rather, the complete nugatoriness of matter, except as supported by spirit. For, instead of expressing the effects of weight or\ngravity in its slender columns, it expresses rather the support of what is\nbelow by what is above.\nThe columns seem visibly to pull instead of to\npush or thrust.\nIt is the heavens that support the earth.\nIt seems as if\nthe cathedral floor is fastened to the columns, and these pull up and\nsustain the floor by fastening it tothe roof.\nAll the lines point upwards\nand seem to worship what is above.\nThe Christian religion is expressed\nin the Gothic cathedral, which has been called “petrified prayer.”\nThe\nRoman dome expresses the universal sway of civil law—a\nsky of justice\nwhich extends over all. The Greek temple shows freedom in matter.\nIt\ncrowns a hill, like a blossom which has ascended\n\nfrom\n\nthe surface of the\n\nearth to manifest a deep inner self-activity of matter itself.\nSCULPTURE.\n\nThe statuary of Egypt and the Orient does not express freedom; it\nabounds in stiff and ungraceful lines; but the statuary of the Greeks is the\nsupreme achievement of that beauty-loving people.\nIn the highest period\nofits perfection it represents so much dignity of character, so much rationality and clear consciousness of purpose in its figures of the gods, that the\ndivine itself seems to be present in material form.\nChristianity has not\nbeen able to express its distinctive ideals in sculpture.\nIt finds painting\na far more adequate means.\nPainting can express sentiment by means of\ncolor ; it can show subjective feelings and subtle reactions occasioned by\nthe situation in which the theme of the work of art is placed.\nModern\nsculpture is defective through the fact that an attempt is made to express\nsentiment rather than action.\nThe highest sculpture exhibits the serenity\nof the soul, even in the presence of danger.\nPAINTING.\n\nThe proper subjects of painting are to be found especially in the\nChristian religion and in the situations of modern life that appeal intensely\nto our ethical emotions.\nGreek painting, except what has been preserved\nfor us in the frescoes of buried cities, is known to us only through descriptions.\nFrom the evidences before us it is safe to say that painting did\nnot find with the ancients its appropriate themes. The subjects of Christian\npainting are divine love and tenderness, as seen in the madonnas; the\nsoul, supported by its faith in the divine, manifesting its constancy, even\n\n"}
{"page": 346, "printed_page": null, "text": "!\n\n336\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nwhen enduring the bodily tortures of martyrdom ; the divine, gracious and\nforgiving, even in the crucifixion scene; the transfiguration, reflecting\nthe light of the soul when seeing pure truth; the Last Supper, exhibiting\nthe emotions of the good when betrayed by the bad; the last judgment,\nshowing the return of the deed upon the doer: not so much action as\nreaction, not so much the deed as the emotion aroused in the depths of\nthe soul by the presence of injustice and hate.\nMUSIC.\n\nMusic has the form of #me, while architecture, sculpture, and painting\nhave the form of space; hence z¢ can express all the steps in the genesis\nof the situation which it portrays, and is not confined to a single moment\nlike the special arts. The group of statuary, the Laokoon, for instance,\nmust seize the highest moment of the action and present it. In this\nhighest moment we can see what has happened before, and what is likely\nto happenin the time that follows (Goethe has discussed this admirably in his\nessay on the Laokoon).\nIt will not do for the sculptor to attempt to present us in his work of art the entire completion or working-out of the theme ;\nhe must seize it in the middle, where the spectators can easily read the\npast series of actions and motives, and forebode what is to succeed.\nPainting is not so closely confined’to a point of time assculpture.\nPainting can idealize space through perspective, light and shade, color, clearness and obscurity.\nWhile actual size, actual length of line, is necessary\nin architecture, in painting it can be represented by perspective.\nNot\nonly the largest temple\n\nof the\n\nworld, but even\n\nMont\n\nBlanc,\n\ncould\n\nbe\n\npainted ona piece of ivory which could be covered with one’s thumb.\nPainting, moreover, by reason of the fact that it can present to us sentiment through the aid of color, finds the limitation of its theme to a single\nmoment of time less important.\nBut music can take up the whole series\nof actions and reactions which are presupposed by a serious situation of\nthe soul, and can carry these all through to the final dénouement.\nThe\nmaterial side of music is found in the structure and peculiarities of the\nseveral musical instruments: vibration by means of strings, columns of\nair in wind instruments, and, above all, by the vocal chords of the human\n\nbeing.\n\nA tone is a repetition of the same wave-length.\n\nOne\n\ntone can\n\nproduce with another one which has an agreement with it partial or -complete chords and concords; with another tone not agreeing with it\nit produces a discord.\nThere is a natural order of tones, partly discordant\nand partly concordant, which forms the scale. It includes what is called\nan octave.\nAn aria starts from the fundamental tone of a scale, or from\nits third, or fifth, and, by departing from the fundamental\ntone or\nfrom those kindred with it, expresses its alienations and collisions.\n\nFinally it returns to the fundamental\n\ntone, or one of its close kindred,\n\n"}
{"page": 347, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nTHE A@STHETIC ELEMENT IN EDUCATION\n\nand the problem is solved.\n\nThere\n\nis also\n\n337\n\ncounterpoint, which, like\n\nthe\n\npersons in a drama, expresses a concordant or opposing aria to the chief\none.\nWith these resources music excels all the plastic arts in its ability\nto express problems and collisions of human life and their solution.\nEmotional disturbances and the restoration of harmony naturally take on\nthis form of expression.\n\nBut there is the music of sensuous pleasure, and,\n\nopposed to it, the music of moral action.\nThe Italian boat song or the\nScotch reel may express the former, and a sonata or symphony of Beethoven willexpress moral action.\nArchitecture has been called “ frozen music.”\nNeither architecture nor music deals directly with the shapes of rational\ncreatures or with the image of the human form divine; they are confined\nto proportions and symmetries.\nPOETRY.\n\nPoetry is the form of art that unites in itself all the others.\nIt is\nclosely allied to music—the time art—and through the imagination it\ncan reproduce each and all of the space arts.\nIt can do more than this;\nit can, through its appeal directly to imagination, transcend the time limitations of music, and the space limitations of architecture, sculpture, and\n\npainting.\nThere is the poetry of the nation, or epic poetry, the poetry\nof society, or the drama, and the poetry of the individual, or lyric poetry.\nComedy shows us a collision which has arisen between the individual and\nsome\n\nsocial\n\nideal, in which the discomfiture\n\nof the individual is not\n\nso\n\ndeep as to destroy him.\nThe social organism in which man lives is such\nas to convert his negative deeds into self-refuting or self-annihilating deeds.\nThis occasions laughter, when the individual is not seriously injured by\nhis irrational\n\ndeed.\n\nTragedy,\n\non\n\nthe\n\nother\n\nhand, shows us a serious\nupon the doer,\n\nattack upon the social whole, and the recoil of the deed\n\nso that he perishes through the reaction of his deed. Tragedy, however,\nrequires as a necessary condition that the individual who perishes shall\nhave a rational side to his deed.\nA mere villain is not sufficient for a\ntragic character; there must be some justification for him.\nThe greatest poets are Homer, Dante, Shakespeare, and\n\nGoethe, and\n\nthese artists are in the truest sense educators of mankind.\n‘The types of\ncharacter exhibited in their literary works of art— Achilles, Agamemnon,\n\nUlysses,\n\nMacbeth,\n\nHamlet,\n\nWilhelm\n\nMeister,\n\nand\n\nFaust—have\n\nhelped and will always help all mankind to self-knowledge by showing them how feelings become convictions, and how convictions become\ndeeds, and how deeds react upon the doer through the great organisms\nof human society. The world-wisdom of a people is largely derived from\nits national poets, not as a moral philosophy, but as vicarious experience.\nAristotle said that the drama purifies the spectator by showing him how\nhis feelings and convictions will result when carried out. Without mak-\n\n"}
{"page": 348, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n338\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n[National\n\nASSOCIATION\na\n\nof\ning the experience himself, he profits by participating in the world\nhuman\nin\nless\nor\nmore\nis\nIt\npoet.\nthe\nby\nhim\nfor\nexperience depicted\nWe do\nnature to recoil against direct advice, especially moral advice.\nart we\nof\nwork\nthe\nin\nbut\npersonal:\nmade\non\nnot like to have its applicati\nthe\nand\ns,\npersonage\nideal\nupon\nacting\nsociety\nsee the moral energies of\nbecause\ne,\nwholesom\nmore\ne\nand\nimpressiv\nlesson to the spectator is more\nit is accepted by him in his freedom and not imposed upon him by\nexternal authority.\n\nTHE\n\nBY\n\nMISS\n\n“STHETIC\n\nMARY\n\nELEMENT\n\nE. NICHOLSON,\n\nIN EDUCATION.\n\nPRINCIPAL\n\nINDIANAPOLIS,\n\nOF\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nIND.\n\nWhoever goes to work seriously to plan a general system of education\nfinds that he must first give an adequate answer to the question, “‘ What\nis the destiny of man ?” This being determined, everything in his scheme\nmust be made to serve as means to the end of realizing that destiny.\nThe acceptance of the great democratic idea of the essential value of\neach individual soul renders it still more necessary that he find the absolutely universal principle in humanity—that which is common to Caliban\nupon Setebos and to the great mind who gave us the picture of him.\nIt is easy to train for a class, be it that of servant or master.\n‘The end\naimed at is near.\nIt has sharp boundaries.\nBut who is ready to say just\nhow the finite mind is to be helped to the realization of its infinite possibilities\n\n?\n\nSome things, however, we do know.\n\nIn the final synthesis, without which all analysis is worthless, it is seen\nthat the true, the good, and the beautiful are essentially one, since each is\nan expression of the divine spirit; that the demand of the soul for beauty\nis as legitimate as is its hunger for truth..\nIt is a hundred years since Schiller, in his ““Atsthetic Letters,” pointed\nout to the modern world the fact that play is the earliest form of the artistic impulse.\nPlay is its own end.\nIt is prompted by joy; in it the creative spirit acts with freedom.\nIt begins with the beginning of conscious\nlife, and continues until stifled by care or overshadowed by a sense of\nduty.\nAnother remarkable modern insight is that of Mr. John Fiske, who, in\n\nhis study of the development of man, has shown with great clearness that\nman’s progress is directly proportionate to what he calls the prolongation\nof the period of infancy or childhood.\nHere are two starting points of great value to those interested in education.\nFrom the first it is easy to trace the much misused phrase “art\n\n"}
{"page": 349, "printed_page": null, "text": "Coitncil]\n\nTHE 4STHETIC. ELEMENT IN EDUCATION\n\n339\n\nfor art’s sake” and find in it a certain validity.\nPlay, which is the earliest form of artistic expression, is its own end. Beginning with the first\nspontaneous bodily movements, repeated solely because they give pleasure,\non through the process of imitation of nature, we reach the sphere of\nfree art, in which man transcends\nactually is, but ashe may become.\n\nnature and expresses himself, not as he\n\nWhat, then, is art?\n\nIn’a most general\n\nsense it is the free expression of man’s spirit in visible forms ; in a stricter\nsense it is the free expression of man’s spirit in a form perfectly adequate\nto the representation of the thing to be expressed:\nWhat is the function of art in education?\n\nIt is to reveal\n\nto man\n\nhis ideal self, and thus\n\nstimulate him to action for its realization.\nSince\n\nthe educational\n\nvalue\n\nof art is self-revelation,\n\nit follows\n\nthat\n\nman’s truest thought, his highest feelings,and his noblest deeds are fit\nsubjects for artistic treatment, and that their presentation in beautiful\nform cannot fail to awaken the desire for self-realization.\nNot less clear\nis the universality of its message.\nArt in its various forms— painting,\nsculpture, music, poetry, architecture—appeals to all. It belongs, then,\nnot to the realm of special, but to general, education. It is not alone for\na favored class, nor does it especially fit one for a trade.\nIt trains the\nspirit for\n\nfree, harmonious\n\nliving, in conscious\n\naccord\n\nwith\n\nthe\n\ndivine\n\norder.\nAsa result the soul becomes sensitive to beauty, receives it with\njoy, seeks it, judges it intelligently, and endeavors to give it expression in\nits own person and environment.\n\nAssuming the value of zsthetic training on a general system of education, the practical question at once presents itself: What are the means\n\nto the desired end?\n\n‘They may all be classed under (1) proper environ-\n\nment, which is the source of all those\n\ninfluences which we receive uncon-\n\nsciously ; and (2) instruction, which will cover all that comes to us consciously through our own efforts.\nIf either of these is more potent than the other, it is the first ‘ environment.”\nIt is so subtle and far-reaching, so continuous and persistent\nWhen we are really convinced\n\nof this, the schoolroom will be built, fur-\n\nnished, and decorated with the greatest care; the location, the proportions, color,\n\nfurniture,\n\ndecoration\n\nwill be a matter\n\nof serious\n\nthought.\n\nThe severest and purest taste should dominate in all this.\nThis will require the banishment from it of all that is tawdry, grotesque, and meaningless.\nEverything in the room must be measured by\nthe standards of utility and beauty. Has it a distinct practical use and,\ntherefore, a place by necessity, or does it minister in some way to the\nspiritual nature by creating joy?\nNothing but the best of its kind is good enough for a child; nothing\nbut the best of its kind should be placed before him.\nWhen the present commissioner of education took charge of the St.\n\n"}
{"page": 350, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n340\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n[National\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nLouis schools some years ago, he found that the building committee,\nanxious to distinguish its administration, had ordered some new buildings finished in the richest wood of the Mississippi valley, the black\nThe order was at once countermanded and oak or yellow pine\nwalnut.\nMr. Harris felt it to be a matter of the\nsubstituted for the walnut.\nUnder influgreatest importance that the rooms be light and cheerful.\nences derived from environment must also be placed the hearing of good\nHere the same severity\nmusic and of rhythmic verse beautifully read.\nand purity of taste will at once rule out much that has not only been\nconsidered good enough, but excellent.\nNothing should be tolerated\nexcept that which,\nnature.\n\nit is believed,\n\nwill\n\nminister\n\nto the higher\n\nspiritual\n\nThe development of machinery, which has made it possible to reproduce the crude and ugly a million fold, makes it necessary that those\nwho, by virtue of their position, have power to control, to some extent,\nthe surroundings of those under their care, shall exercise the greatest\nvigilance in determining what those surroundings shall be.\nIt is chiefly through environment that the taste is cultivated and\nesthetic standards established.\nTaste is not inborn.\nIt is a matter of\ncultivation and requires for its development the constant presence of\nideals.\nComing now to znstruction, the second great means of the development of the zsthetic sense, these questions present themselves: What are\nthe subjects in which instruction may be given, and, how can this be best\ngiven ?\nInstruction in any art is best given through the practice of that art.\nMany of the occupations of the kindergarten afford excellent ground\nfor artistic development.\nThere is not a single one of the fine arts for\nwhich the foundation may not be laid in the amusements of children and\ncontinued through their early school life. Without instruction they\nbuild,\n\nthey\n\nmodel,\n\nthey draw,\n\nthey\n\ncolor,\n\nthey\n\nsing,\n\nthey act\n\nlittle\n\ndramas, they dance.\nThe instinct prompting to expression is there. What they need is the\nideal which shall guide this expression and assist them in producing the\nbeautiful rather than the ugly, the harmonious rather than the discordant.\nAs a childish mode of artistic expression dancing has by no means\nhad its proper place. By this is meant dancing in the Greek sense, which\nis'a rhythmic movement of the whole body to some simple melody of\npronounced rhythm and slow movement.\nLittle children should early\nbe taught to dance together; the figures should be simple, but with sufficient variety of parts to enable the child to guide his movements by\nthose of his companions and thus, through concerted action, ‘develop\nthe sense of harmony and of courtesy.\nWhen gymnastics is introduced,\n\n"}
{"page": 351, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nTHE\n\nZESTHETIC\n\nELEMENT\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n34 I\n\nit should be a system in which the esthetic element is prominent.\nExercises having for their sole purpose the development of muscular\npower should be reserved for adult prize fighters.\nThe result of all this will be strong, graceful bodies, with a dignified\ncarriage, such as served as models for the Apollo Belvedére and the Venus\nof Milo.\nOf all the arts music most clearly and directly expresses the heart of\nman.\nFormed out of vibrating air, existing only while it is being created,\nsubtile, elusive, it is still a ready means of expressing the hopes, the fears,\n\nthe longings, and the aspirations of the soul of man.\nThe plaintive minor expresses his unsatisfied longings, the triumphant major his sense of powerto attain. Music is thus a powerful instrument which, acting from without, may be used to uplift or to degrade,\nto refine or to harden.\nIn the “ Pedagogical Province’’ Meister found\nthat the art of singing formed the first step in education ; that everything else was subordinate to it; that from it paths radiated in all directions.\nThe artistic possibilities of children’s singing were shown by the\nchoruses trained by Mr. Tomlins for the World’s Fair. People who knew\nlittle of music and people of the highest musical culture were alike\nentranced.\nThe quality of tone, the artistic expression, were marvelous.\nAll this was the work of the wise director, and is possible in some\n\ndegree\n\nto anyone possessing artistic power.\nThe loving mother instinctively\nmakes her cradle song simple and tender.\nIts simplicity is the source of\nits charm and power.\nHe who writes a great symphony subordinates,\nco-ordinates, harmonizes the parts, until each tone in its place is necessary for the artistic whole.\nA great oratorio, a great opera, or a great\nsymphony is perhaps man’s most wonderful creation ; yet a song taught\nto a child ought to be as good of its kind as the most perfect and complex musical composition.\nThis is possible, and will become real when\nwe have more teachers like Mr. Tomlins.\nAristotle, who, im his scheme\n\ngreat use\n\nof education\n\nfor free-born men, makes\n\nof music as a means of development, insists that the music of\n\nchildren shall be of the simple, manly type, free from sentimentality.\n\nProperly trained young people will bring with.them to the high\nschool power to read simple music and to render it with taste and precision. Now should begin a study of masterpieces, which will still further\npurify the taste, refine the spirit, and bring joy into life. In making\nselections for this study, it is not enough that a thing be not bad; it\nought to be aggressively good.\nThe two great arts appealing to the soul through the eye are paintThey demand for their full appreciation a cultivated\ning and sculpture.\nTraining for the interpretation of great\nsense of color and of form.\n\n"}
{"page": 352, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n342\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n[National\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nworks of art may be commenced at once through drawing and modeling.\nModeling is far simpler than drawing and should precede it in practice. The teacher’s field for instruction and for the cultivation of the\nBeautiful\n‘love of the beautiful here lies in the selection of models.\nthings are as easy to find as ugly ones, if there are eyes to see them, and\nthe difference to the child in the matter of his development is vital.\nThese models should never be type forms, mathematical solids, but living\nthings, taken’ directly from his own world— things which have ministered\nThe first law of art from the side of\nin some way to his inmost being.\nTo ignore this law is to set sail without comits origin is self-expression.\npass or rudder.\nDrawing and coloring, commenced as amusements, should be continued under careful guidance, the subjects to be taken from nature,\nleading up to drawing from casts and from life. Somewhere near the\nbeginning of the high-school course there should be commenced a careful study of the development of art. This might very properly begin on\nthe decorative\n\nside, with\n\na study\n\nof historic\n\nornament.\n\n‘The\n\nmaterials\n\nfor this are now abundant and not very expensive.\nThe study itself,\nwhen conducted by a skillful teacher, is of absorbing interest.\nThe further study of the development of art ought to form an integral\npart of a general course in history.\nSuch a course ought to be given in\nevery high school and college.\nIt is not a matter of accident that the\ngreat epochs in the history of nations are, for the most part, those which\nare characterized by the greatest development in some form of art—in\n. literature, artitecture, or sculpture.\n\nIndeed, it is the art which represents\n\nin the fullest, completest way the the life of that time.\nIt is here that\nman, freed from the domination of utility, has freely expressed himself.\n\nCan anyone be said to know much about the Middle Ages who is\nunfamiliar with the rise of Gothic architecture, and who knows nothing of\nthe cathedrals of Cologne, Milan, Strassburg, and a hundred more ?\nThese marvelous buildings were the work of no class and of no generation, but of the whole people, who, during centuries, laid stone upon\nstone that a structure might rise commensurate with their idea of the universal church.\nMan’s aspirations for a better life found expression in\nthese airy pinnacles, rising hundreds of feet into the air ; in these flying\nbuttresses, offering a firm support below, but soaring above.\nHis limitations and his crude notions of the future life appear in the carvings which\nadorn them.\nThe perfect arch which was Rome’s contribution to architecture is in exact correspondence with her theory of government.\nAn outfit of casts, engravings, and photographic reproductions should\nbe provided for such teaching, just as Bunsen burners, retorts, air pumps,\n\nand\n\nmicroscopes\n\nare\n\nprovided\n\nfor laboratory work\n\nin: science.\n\nThese\n\nworks of art should be placed in halls, corridors, and upon the walls of\n+\n\n"}
{"page": 353, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council ]\n\nTHE\n\nAESTHETIC\n\nELEMENT\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n343\n\nrooms, in constant view of all. The air pump, the retort, has meaning\nand interest for only a few; a work of art gives something to all; its\nmessage is universal.\nWhat is it that one should know of Greece in order to have any adequate idea of its place in human development and the debt of the modern\nworld\n\nto it?\n\nMarathon, Thermopyle, Salamis, Platea?\n\nYes, certainly.\n\nThese are inspiring words, but other nations can show battlefields where\nmen as cheerfully, as joyously, laid down their lives that their country\nmight be free..\n\nHellas is something more than these:\n“T am the Muse who sang alway\nBy Jove, at dawn of the first day.\n\nStar-crowned, sole-sitting long I wrought\nTo fire the stagnant earth with thought.\nOn spawning slime my song prevails;\nWolves shed their fangs and dragons scales.\nFlushed in the sky the sweet May morn,\nEarth smiled on flowers, and man was born.\n\nThen Asia yeaned her shepherd race,\nAnd Nile substructs her granite base;\nTented Tartary, columned Nile—\nAnd under vine, on rocky isle,\nOr on wind-blown sea marge, bleak,\n\nForward stepped the perfect Greek.\nThat wit and joy might have a tongue,\nAnd earth grow civil, Homer sung.”\n\nThe Delphic Oracle ; the Parthenon and the great Athena, in whose\nhonor it was built ; the statue of the Olympian Zeus ; the ‘“ Prometheus”\n\nof A’schylus ; the “‘ Antigone” of Sophocles ; the ‘ Alcestis ” of Euripides ; the ‘‘ Apology” and the ‘“ Crito”’ of Plato — these are a few of the\ntopics that should be studied as a part of Greek history.\nGood translations of some of the plays of A%schylus, Sophocles, and Euripides cost\nbut a few cents each, and should be read under the direction of a teacher\n\nwho can fill every difficult place with meaning.\nThere is nothing which will so quickly and so thoroughly refine ‘the\ntaste as a careful study of Greek architecture.\nIts different styles ought\nto be as familiar to us as our neighbors’ faces.\nDoes not the fact that\nthe temples of Zeus\n\nand Athena were built\n\nin the plain, sincere Doric,\n\nand thoseof Venus in the ornate, flaunting Corinthian, tell its own story ?\nAlong with this should go a study of the development of the Greek\ndrama, and the great open-air theater, where each citizen had a seat, and\n\nwhere he heard the great plays which portrayed the religious traditions of\nhis race.\nThe outcome of such a study will be, first of all, knowledge far more\ncomplete than is usually possessed by those who study Greek history.\nBut better than this, here will have been formed, through this acquaintance\n\n"}
{"page": 354, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n344\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n[National\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nwith the most artistic of all races, a love of beauty and a standard by\nwhich to judge it.\nGreek art recognized its limitations and worked within them, produc-\n\nThe sense of proportion,\ning works which seem perfect of their kind.\nIt is just these\nof restraint, together with perfect freedom, are there.\nqualities which give it its external value, and make its study an incomparable educational discipline.\nAmong all peoples, ancient or modern,\nTheir gymthe Greeks stand pre-eminent in sound educational theories.\nnastics and music, which gave training for the body and training for the\nmind, ran along together, and in each the esthetic element was prominent.\nThe result was splendid individuals.\nBut this training was for men who formed a leisure class, resting upon\na substratum of slavery. The work of the world was then done by slaves.\nThe Greek educational problem was simple and easy of solution beside\nthe one that today confronts this great democracy.\nOld class distinctions\nhave vanished.\n‘The Republic has said that all men must labor, and that\nall men must be educated.\nManifestly this is impossible, except through\nthe prolongation of the period of childhood, and the wise use of every\ninstant of that time.\nThe wisdom of any particular use of this period will\nbe determined by our theory of man’s destiny and by the conditions of\nthe society for which we are fitting him— the one ideal, the other actual.\nIt would be folly not to recognize the present economic conditions,\nwhich are increasing at an enormous rate the ratio of employé to\nemployer;\n\nthe effect upon the soul of this sharp division\n\nof labor, con-\n\nsequent upon the rapid introduction of machinery, all of which tend to\ncurtail the field of individual expression and make labor itself mechanical.\nHowever, these are the conditions under which\n\nhe is to live, against\n\nwhich he must reach or be utterly crushed.\nThe cry of men like John\nRuskin and William Morris has a profound meaning, and must be headed\nby those who love their kind. The first to heed it should be those who have\ncharge of the period of childhood.\nWhat can be done in this preparatory\nperiod\n\nthat shall enable one, later on, to overcome\n\nthe deadening\n\neffect\n\nof labor in which there is no joy —labor whose product is not loved, either\nbecause it is not beautiful or because the producer has no share in it ?\nA wise answer to this question will be a boon to the modern world.\nThose who take part in the discussion today hoped to show that a\ncultivation of the love of the beautiful and of the power to express it\nshould find a place in any general system of education; that the warrant\n\nfor this is found in the nature of the soul of man ; that art, which\n\nis the\n\nhighest expression of this side of man’s nature, is a powerful instrument\nwhich may be used for his uplifting ; that opportunities for this do not\nneed to be sought ; they are abundant and everywhere present.\nThe discussion was not meant to be exhaustive, but suggestive,\n\n"}
{"page": 355, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nTHE\n\nAESTHETIC\n\nELEMENT\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n345\n\nDISCUSSION.\n[REPORTED\n\nRICHARD\n\nJONEs,\n\nAlbany,\n\nBY L. H. JONES.|]\n\nN. Y., being called\n\nfor, explained\n\nthe experiment\n\nnow\n\nbeing made by the University of the State of New York in art education.\nOut of the funds\nat their disposal the regents of the university have purchased photographs of great works\nof art, covering architecture, sculpture, paintings, etc. These are divided into groups and\n\nare loaned to schools for a definite period.\n\nTheir use has been intended mainly to stimu-\n\nlate and vivify the work in literature, and this comes directly under my notice as inspector\nof this study for the state, under direction of the regents.\nWhile the matter is to some\nextent still an experiment, its influence for good is distinctly noticeable.\nF. Louis\n\nLouis.\n\nSOLDAN,\n\nSt. Louis,\n\nMo.—A\n\nsimilar\n\nexperiment\n\nhas been\n\ntried\n\nin St.\n\nThe Art Committee ofthe Wednesday Club bought 160 pictures of worthy art sub-\n\njects and divided them into ten groups, so that each group should contain at least one rep-\n\n~ resentation of each kind and each important age. These pictures of a group are held by\none school for ten weeks, and they are then exchanged for another group.\nSuperintendents and teachers lecture to pupils, explaining the history of the picture, its motive and\nartistic significance.\nOne good effect, in addition to many others, has been to stimulate pupils, teachers,\nand patrons to buy pictures for the adornment of schoolrooms.\nNATHAN C, SCHAEFFER, Harrisburg, Pa.—I wish to propound a question. We\nhave heard much of the value of nature study from a scientific standpoint. We hear little\nof nature as the home of beauty. What is the comparative place of beauty as we find it\nin nature with beauty as we find it in art, as a means of education?\nI would like to hear\nfrom Dr. Harris.\nW. T. Harris, United States Commissioner of Education.—I smiled at the question of my friend Schaeffer, remembering my controversies with Colonel Parker over the\nsame question. He finds the source of beauty in nature ; I affirm art superior to nature in this\nrespect. Art undertakes to give a manifestation of reason instead of a realization of it.\nHistory and nature do the latter. No scene is really worth painting as it really is, but as\nit is seen by the painter after certain changes which make it fitter to express beauty and\nreason.\nChurch’s Heart of the Andes is highly idealized, and thus expresses the feelings\nof the artist as no mere reproduction can do. Some pictures are mere photographs.\nA\nlandscape photograph is not really beautiful, though one may like it for its truth to nature.\nThe true picture is symbolic; has in it the feelings of the artist, expressed by his arrangement and treatment of details. By his arrangement he makes us see or appreciate more\nthan is shown —gives us a vicarious power of the senses, so to speak, enabling one to\ntake the place of others. Nature, by her arrangement of elements, gives us the sense of\nfreedom\n— freedom from carping care; but art alone puts these elements together so as to\npreserve this freedom and exhibit perfect reason.\nD.\n\nL.\n\nKIEHLE,\n\nMinneapolis,\n\nMinn.—I\n\ncordially\n\nindorse\n\nwhat\n\nDr. Harris\n\nsaid. In our school work we have approached nature from the scientific side.\nbelieve to be a mistake — we should seek to lead pupils to love nature.\n\nhas\n\nThis I\n\nHENRY SABIN, Des Moines, Ia.—I think we have had no more important subject\nup for discussion in this Council. The education of the next century is wrapped up in the\nthesis treated so ably here this afternoon.\nI would like to ask a question of Miss Nicholson: What would you do if you were principal of a four-room building, each room having\ndirty walls, with cracked plaster, etc, ?\n\n.\n\n"}
{"page": 356, "printed_page": null, "text": "a\nit\nt\nSe\n\n346\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nMiss NicHoLson.—I would have the walls whitewashed (or better, buff-washed), if\nPlants are the safest form of\nI had to do it myself. Then I would bring in nature.\nschoolroom decoration for general use.\nW.T. Harris.— Photographs of great works of art are safer than poor original\npictures.\nC. B. GitBERT, Newark, N. J— The contemplation of great works of art, as conThere\nBut this is not all that should be done.\ntended for in this discussion, is excellent.\nDrawing should be‘made to contribute to zsthetic culture,\nshould be a construction side.\n\nwhile the child is securing skill in his work.\nthis may be done.\n\nI should like to have Dr. Dewey tell us how\n\nJoun Dewey, The University of Chicago.—I do not know.\nI believe drawing\nshould be made to contribute to the end of art education.\nOne of the first principles of\nart education is that of free self-expression.\nDrawing should contribute to this end.\n\nS. G. WiLiiAMs,\n\nCornell\n\nUniversity.—Is\n\nnot the technical knowledge\n\nnecessary\n\nas a means of developing the art sense ?\n\nJoHN DEWEY.— History shows that nations have gained the power to achieve while\ndeveloping the appreciation of art effects in education.\nTwo interesting experiments in\nattempting to carry the two hand in hand are those undertaken in Pratt Institute and in\nBrookline, Mass.\n\nOn the request of Mr. Gove, of Colorado, the chair called upon Principal W. H.\nSmiley, of the Denver High School, to give the plan pursued in his school.\nW. H.SmMILEyY.—\nThe study of the outside world for classification has led us away from\nthe zsthetic study of nature—so our pupils miss the joy they should obtain from such\nstudy. The Denver High School has had some help from the public library. We have\nsecured many illustrations from magazines.\nWe advised this in connection with the work\nin history. The school authorities have bought 100 fine pictures of Seemans, Wandeholde,\nLeipzig, at a cost of $30.\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nBY\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nA.\n\nT.\n\nIDEALS\n\nAT PRINCETON.\n\nORMOND,\n\nPRINCETON\n\nUNIVERSITY.\n\nBefore entering on the account of the university which I have the\nhonor to represent before this association, permit me to express my belief\nthat an institution of learning is not to be regarded as an isolated unit, or\nas endowed with any abstract irresponsibility.\nIt cannot ignore its relations with the academic sisterhood to which it belongs, or its place in\nthe educational economy of which it is a part.\nA school is also an organized form of life, not to be developed mechanically from without, but rather organically from within.\nThis brings it\nunder the rubrics of growth and history.\nIts life becomes gradually\nrooted in the traditions of the past, and the course of its development, as\n\nwell as the modifications of type it undergoes, will arise normally from\nthe coursing of its energies through channels which have been worn by\nthe attrition of its past experience.\n\n"}
{"page": 357, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nSo conceived,\nrestrictions\n\nand\n\nIDEALS\n\nthe laws of growth\nlimitations.\n\nBut,\n\nAT PRINCETON\n\n347\n\nand history may be regarded\n\nfrom\n\nanother\n\nand _ truer\n\nas\n\nstandpoint,\n\n_ they are the normal conditions of real progress.\nLife is not mechanical,\nbut organic.\nLife, development, and history form an inseparable trinity.\nThe past of a living institution is the rich soil in which it grows, and its\ntraditions are accretions which fertilize its roots and nourish its development.\n\nThese accretions are, in fact, the main source of what is called its\n\nspirit and the atmosphere in which its richest and most characteristic\nproducts are brought to maturity.\nViewed in the light of their origin, the universities of our country may\nbe distinguished into two groups, according as they have been founded\nat the outset as universities, or have developed out of college foundations.\nPrinceton is an old college that has developed slowly into the proportions of a university.\nAgain, from the point of view of control, universi“ties may be classified as ecclesiastical, state, or independent.\nPrinceton\nbelongs to the third class.\nInstituted by a body of men whose affiliations,\nit is true, were mainly with one\n\nbranch\n\nof the Christian church, the col-\n\nlege was chartered by the state as a non-sectarian institution, under the\ncontrol of a self-perpetuating board of trustees.\nIt has maintained this\nindependence of church and state, while cultivating intimate and vital\nrelations with both.\nTo understand the position of Princeton among our\nAmerican institutions of learning, it will be necessary to remember that\nas a university she has developed out of an old college whose life and history are\n\nher own;\n\nand, secondly, that, while\n\nin a large sense dominated\n\nby Presbyterian influence, she is, and has been, absolutely free from eccle-\n\nsiastical jurisdiction.\nChartered in 1746, and again in 1748, the young college was founded for\nthe twofold purpose of promoting sound learning and true religion.\nThe\nmost pressing demand which a college had to supply in those early days\nwas that of the church for an educated ministry.\nBut the other professions, as well as the public service, needed trained men, and it was mainly\nto supply these that the older colleges of our country were established.\nHarvard and Yale had been modeled after the English college, and Princeton embodied the same type, with the traditional course of classical-mathematical instruction as a nucleus around which other branches of learning\nwere gradually organized.\nIt is not my purpose to dwell on the early history and struggles of the\nyoung college, and only passing allusion can be made to the well-known\nstory of its splendid contribution to our revolutionary struggle, under the\nOnly mention, also,\nleadership of its great war-president, Witherspoon.\nwhich, under the\nduring\nperiod,\npost-revolutionary\nthe\nto\ngiven\ncan be\nadministration of able and\n\ndevoted men, Princeton, not without her full\n\nshare of struggle and adversity, maintained\n\nher prestige among\n\nthe sis-\n\n"}
{"page": 358, "printed_page": null, "text": "tn\n~am\nie\n\nNATIONAL\n\n348\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n[National\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nterhood of colleges, enlarging her resources, increasing her staff of\ninstructors, expanding her curriculum by the introduction of new studies,\nincluding the leading branches of science, as the demand for them arose,\nand, in connection with growing libraries and facilities for studies, developing the mechanism of better methods of instruction.\nSituated in the middle states, and holding, territorially, a key to the\nWest and South, as well as the eastern seaboard, Princeton became in her\n\nconstituency more cosmopolitan than any other American institution.\nShe had an especial hold on the South, drawing, perhaps, one-third of her\nstudents from that region in the period immediately preceding the Civil\nWar.\n\nShe\n\nsuffered\n\nmore\n\nfrom\n\nthe outbreak of the war, therefore, than\n\nany other northern institution, losing at one blow a large percentage of\nher students, and finding herself seriously crippled in her resources.\nFrom the effects of the war Princeton had scarcely begun to recover\nwhen, in the year 1868, a new era in her history was opened.\nIt must be admitted that, during the Jater fifties and the sixties, Princeton lost something of the relative position which she had held among\nAmerican colleges during the earlier period of her history.\nFor this\nlapse there were other causes besides the reverses of the war.\nIt was\nduring this period that science began to knock imperatively at the doors\nof our colleges for more generous recognition than had been accorded\nto her in the old curricula.\n\nNow,\n\nwhile Princeton\n\nhad not been behind-\n\nhand in her recognition of science, as her record in chemistry,\" physics,\nastronomy, and geology bore witness, yet there is an end to all things,\nand, under the old system of one required course for all, the limit of\nexpansion had been reached.\nPrinceton found herself at the dividing of\nthe ways,\n\nand\n\nwas forced\n\nto choose\n\nbetween\n\nthe alternatives\n\nof\n\neither\n\nremaining a small college or opening her doors to the new studies by\ngiving an elective choice to her students.\nThe convictions which shaped\nthe policy of the college at this critical period proved to be over-conservative, and the alternative of the closed curriculum was honestly, but,\nas I think, mistakenly, adhered to.\n\nThe year 1868 marks an epoch in Princeton’s history.\nIn that year\nJames McCosh, a Scotchman like Witherspoon, and a distinguished oldworld educator and thinker, became president of Princeton, and the old\ncollege entered upon the most important period of its development. The\ninaugural of Dr. McCosh, as well as other utterances of his, clearly indicated his wise and statesmanlike grasp of the situation.\nBy a species of\nintuition, he realized the fact that our most representative institutions\nwere normal products of our national life, in response to whose needs\nthey had grown up and assumed their present form.\nWhat they required,\n\ntherefore, in order to realize their highest efficiency was development and\nt The first college chair in chemistry was founded at Princeton in 1795,\n\n"}
{"page": 359, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nUNIVERSITV\n\nmodification,\n\nrather\n\nthan\n\nIDEALS\n\nrevolution.\n\nAT PRINCETON\n\n349\n\nIn the main Dr. McCosh\n\nwas in\n\nsympathy with the education and religious traditions of Princeton.\nBut\nhe saw the mistake that ultra-conservatism was committing, and set about\nwith characteristic energy to undo the evil.\nFrom the beginning of his\nadministration Dr. McCosh cherished the ambition of developing the old\nThe realization of his plans was made possible\ncollege into a university.\nby the unstinted generosity of such patrons as Mr. John C. Green, who\npoured out their treasures with almost lavish munificence.\nEvery departOne of the first acts of\nment of the college felt the transforming touch.\nMcCosh’s administration was the laying of the foundations of the old John\nC. Green\n\nSchool\n\nof Science, an\n\ninstitution in closer\n\norganic\n\nconnection\n\nwith the university than the Sheffield School at Yale, but discharging a\nHenceforward the\ncorresponding function in its educational economy.\nrights of science were secured, and the new learning was to be permitted\n* to form itself in accordance with its own type.\nThe founding of the\nSchool of Science marked a radical departure in the policy of the college.\nBut it was only one step in the transition to the university.\nAn indefinite\n\nexpansion of studies on the side of humanities was also _ initiated.\nMcCosh’s new scheme of studies embraced the threefold categories of\nliterature, science, and philosophy.\n‘These were the rubrics under which\nthe studium generale, which was to constitute\n\nthe\n\nsoul\n\nof the university,\n\nwas to be developed.\nIn order to realize this scheme, the Procrustean\nbed of the old required course of study must be broken up; not by abolishing it, but by incorporating with it the principle of elective freedom.\nA solid nucleus of required studies was to be maintained as the backbone\nof the courses, but in connection with this a graduated scheme of electives\nwas to be introduced, strictly limited in the lower years, but expanding\nuntil in his senior year the student had practically carte blanche in his\nAn indefinite expansion of the curriculum of studies was thus\nselection.\nThe faculty of instruction was constantly enlarged to\nmade possible.\nmeet the growing demands.\nDepartments were differentiated and developed, and advanced attainments were encouraged by the founding of\nscholarships and fellowships, while to the undergraduate courses a graduate department was added and organized on the basis of university\nfellowships and asystem of higher degrees. Dr. McCosh devoted his energy\nto the enlargement of the curriculum, and to the promotion of advanced\nscholarship and research along every important line. As outward and\nvisible marks of this internal activity there arose, as by magic, the city of\nbuildings which has made Princeton famous, including libraries, laboratories\n\nfor experimental research in various departments, and museums of science\nand archeology. Dr. McCosh’s hand transformed the whole life of the college, trebling its body of students, raising it in its resources from thousands\nto millions, fostering a spirit of true investigation and study, consolidating\n\n"}
{"page": 360, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n350\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[ National\n\nIt\nits alumni and organizing them into a body of the highest efficiency.\nwas McCosh’s brain and energy that supplied the idealism as well as the\nmotive power of Princeton’s transition from the college to the university.\nIn saying this I do not wish to detract from the merits of any of his contemporaries or co-workers, or from the just meed of praise due to any of\nUnder the brilliant\nthe living agencies connected with the institution.\nadministration of President Patton the longed-for consummation has been\nreached in the dedication of the infant university on the one hundred and\nfiftieth anniversary of the old college’s life. Compared with the larger\nrealization of the present, the period of Dr. McCosh, was, in a sense, a day\nof small things, but the time is a long way off when Princeton will cease\nto venerate the man whose large intelligence and invincible determination\nrendered her existence as a university possible.\nPrinceton University inherits the traditions of the college.\nThese bind\nit closely to the life of the nation, and at the same time, being incorporated\nin the constitution of the university, form an important ingredient in its\nspiritual life. One of its most potent traditions is the series of events which\nidentified its early experience so closely with the formative period of the\nnation’s life. This politico-national tradition has supplied rich material\nfor the nurture of historical and political studies, although it has manifested its power, not so much in actual literary production as in a certain\nspirit and atmosphere pervading the life of the institution and molding\nthe character of its students.\nAgain, the university inherits from the old\ncollege the classical tradition and its devotion to the humanistic ideal of\nlearning and culture. The institution of the scientific cult and the naturalscience type of education have not had the effect of dethroning the\nhumanities.\nThe tendency is rather toward a correlation of the two\nspheres of knowledge under a broader concept, in which pure science\nand pure literature shall stand side by side in republican equality.\nIf, however,\n\nwould,\n\nthe university were\n\nI am\n\nfain\n\nto believe,\n\nforced to declare its supreme love, it\nplace the diadem on the brow of the\n\nhumanities, as lying nearest to the spiritual life of man, and as supplying\nthe most potent stimuli to mental culture and development.\nThis preference would\n\nnot be influenced, however, by any lack in the traditions of\n\nscientific study.\n\nOne of the first colleges to respond to the demands of\n\nscience, Princeton has had in chemistry her McLean, the first master of\nSilliman ; her Henry in physics, her Alexander and Young in astronomy,\n\nand her Guyot in geology.\nTo the traditions already named we need to add the commanding\nplace which, since Edwards of the “iron heel,” has been held by the\nphilosophical studies, a primacy which, beginning with Edwards and\nreceiving the stamp of Witherspoon, finally led, under McCosh, not\nsimply to the expansion of the department of philosophy into a school,\n\na\n\n"}
{"page": 361, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nUNIVERSITY IDEALS AT PRINCETON\n\n351\n\nbut also to the\n\nconception of a trinity of categories— literature, science,\nand philosophy, into which the stwdium generale was to be distributed, and\n\nover which philosophy was to preside as the unifying principle of the\nwhole.\nIt may well be that for ordinary purposes the dual categories of\nBut Dr. McCosh saw clearly that in\nliterature and science are sufficient.\nthe ideally complete scheme of knowledge the function of unification is\nessential, and that for this task neither literature nor science is competent.\nThe keystone of the arch of culture must, therefore, be supplied by philosophy.\nI have dwelt with such tediousness of detail on the historical antecedents of the university because they are the things which enter into and\ndetermine its spirit and atmosphere.\nThe atmosphere of an institution\naffects both teacher and student, and if it is sound and good it imparts to\nthe older institution a culture-power which the younger members of the\nfraternity can only acquire with age.\nI feel like accentuating this fact\nhere as an offset to the charge commonly made, and with a measure of\ntruth, that the older institutions are hampered and limited by their traditions.\nGranted, but there is a compensation that to those who have\nfelt the power of these things more than atones for the loss.\nThe conditions of Princeton, and in particular its position and space\nlimitations, have largely predetermined the lines along which its most\nfruitful work may be done.\nLocated in a small town almost midway\nbetween Philadelphia and New York, Princeton has not felt in a pressing\nsense the demand for the development of professional schools.\nIt is\ntrue that an independent school of theology exists under the shadow of\nthe university, and various attempts have been made in the past, which\nmay be successfully renewed in the future, to found a school of law. But\na school of medicine seems to be impracticable.\nImportant, however, as\nfaculties of law, medicine, and theology may be as adjuncts to a university,\nthe history of universities goes to prove, Professor Laurie to the contrary\nnotwithstanding, that their existence is not essential to the exercise of a\ntrue university\n\nfunction.\n\nDr. McCosh\n\nconceived, truly, as I think, that\n\nthe studium generale constitutes the soul of the university, and that in the\nfacilities it affords for scholarship and research the main function of a\nuniversity isconserved.\nPrinceton has, it is true, schools of civil and electrical engineering, which lead to separate degrees, and she has schools of\nart, literature,\n\nand\n\nphilosophy,\n\nwhich\n\nare\n\ncrowned\n\nby no\n\ndistinctive\n\ndegrees of their own.\nBut her central ideal is the promotion of pure\nlearning, if we understand by that term the pursuit of knowledge apart\nfrom immediate utilitarian ends.\n\nBe it understood, however, that Prince-\n\nton has no quarrel with the practical. This, in the large sense, she seeks\nto conserve, while only opposing, as too narrowly practical, that mercenary\nspirit which is blind to all but immediate results, and which worships in\n\n"}
{"page": 362, "printed_page": null, "text": "o\n\n352\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nthe temple of learning solely for the sake of its loaves and fishes. On\nthe other hand, the legitimate demands of utility cannot be slighted, and\nPrinceton has nothing but generous recognition for those schools whose\nposition and opportunities enable them to go beyond her in responding\nto the demand for technical education.\nOf the present facilities of the university for doing the work it has\nset itself to accomplish I can speak but briefly. A concrete example will\n‘Taking,\nbe more telling in this connection than any general statements.\nfor obvious reasons, the department of the university with which I am\nmost familiar, that of philosophy, the work of this department begins in\njunior year with required instruction in the elements of logic and\npsychology.\nThis elementary work is followed in junior year by an\nIn senior year the\nelective in the elements of experimental psychology.\nexperimental work is continued through the year. In addition to this,\nan elective in brain psychology, accompanied with practical demonstrations, is given in the first term, while a course in advanced general\npsychology runs through the year. The experimental work is accomThe psychological\npanied with practice in the psychological laboratory.\nwork is carried on into the graduate department, experimental courses\nbeing conducted by an experienced demonstrator, while the general work\nculminates in the study of genetic and social psychology in the psychoThe work in logic is continued through senior year,\nlogical seminary.\ncourses being given in induction, symbolic logic, the theory of probabilities, and the psychology of logic, and culminates in the graduate department in the work of the philosophical seminary.\nIn the other branches\nof philosophy a two-years’ course is given in the history of philosophy,\nopen to juniors and seniors.\nCourses in constructive philosophy, including epistemology and metaphysics, run through senior year, while in the\ngraduate department the work is continued by courses in contemporary\nphilosophy and in the philosophical seminary, which runs through the\nyear and is devoted to the study of the works of philosophers.\nThe\ninstitution of a graduate seminary for special research in the history of\nphilosophy is also in contemplation.\nOutside of the lines above indicated, there\n\nare given\n\ncourses\n\nin the logic of the sciences, in ethics, and\n\nthe philosophy of religion, as well as practical opportunity, open to both\nundergraduates and graduates, to read the Greek and Roman philosophers in the original. The departments of ethics and the philosophy of\nreligion are not, as yet, fully developed, and in other parts of the scheme\nempty categories exist to be filled by the departments of the future.\nIn\npedagogy, also, while its historical aspect has been ably treated, little has\nbeen done as yet on the psychological side. If to this account we add\nthe fellowships and prizes which the department offers, and which we\nhope largely to increase ;the organized courses leading to the degree of\n\n"}
{"page": 363, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nUNIVERSITY IDEALS AT PRINCETON\n\n353\n\ndoctor of philosophy, which are formed largely upon German models,\nand the constantly enlarging facilities for study and investigation supplied by growing libraries and other instruments of study —some conception of the philosophical work and aims of the university may be formed.\nSomething has already been accomplished in the department, but much\nremains in the form of a programme for the future.\nThe representation\n‘of the work in philosophy may be taken as descriptive, mutatis mutandis,\nin a greater or less degree, of what is going on in the leading departments\nPrinceton is not lacking in intellectual life,\nof literature and science.\nand, while her university energies are as yet largely unorganized, there is\nnothing amorphous about the ideal that she hopes to realize in the future.\nRespecting the future of Princeton I prefer not to indulge in speculation or predictions.\nI propose rather to select and accentuate certain\narticles of academic faith which are likely to act as conserving forces\nin her future developmeut.\nThe idea, of a university, as conceived at\nPrinceton, is a comprehensive category, which includes the college, but\ndoes not stop at its limit.\nWithin its scope, the terms undergraduate\nand graduate represent intra-university distinctions.\nPrinceton, as I\nhave said, is an institution of the synthetic type, one in which an old\ncollege has passed into a university without losing its individuality.\nNow, a university may exist for the prosecution of a single specialty, or\nit may exist solely for graduate work, leaving the college function to\nothers.\nIn either case the problem is simplified, and the institution\nescapes some of the most burning questions of the academic world.\nI\ncannot but think, however, that it purchases this immunity at the expense\nof a certain isolation from the currents of our national life. The most\nrepresentative\n\nPrinceton,\n\ninstitutions\n\nhave developed\n\nmust\n\nbe those which,\n\nlike Harvard, Yale, or\n\nin close sympathy with the fortunes of the\n\nnation, and which, in response to its demands, have passed from the college state into the larger sphere of the university. Princeton, as an insti-\n\ntution of this type, finds herself the bearer of a twofold responsibility.\nShe must conserve the interests of the college and of the collegiate type\nof education, while seeking to further the work of the university. And\nthis dual responsibility brings her face to face with the question, how the\ngeneral culture demanded by the college shall be maintained in connection with the necessary freedom and specialization of the university.\nThe aims of the college are a broad and liberal culture, mental discipline,\nthe training of faculty ; those of the university are the increase of knowledge by specialized research and study, the conservation of knowledge,\nand, as a secondary aim, its diffusion among the people. Now, Princeton feels the necessity of conserving both these sets of aims. She is not\nwilling to sacrifice either the college to the university or the university\nto the college. She is not, therefore, in sympathy with that “unchartered\n\n"}
{"page": 364, "printed_page": null, "text": "354\n\nNATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n[National\n\na\nee\nee\n\nfreedom” which some would accord to the youth on the threshold of his\ncollege life, believing that the average graduate of a fitting school is not\nin possession of all the wisdom of the ages, but that, in the first stages of\nhis college\n\nin need of the experience and\n\neducation, at least, he stands\n\nTo secure this\nguidance of those who are older and wiser than himself.\noversight and guidance he is introduced to a schedule of required studies,\nembracing, as the essentials of a liberal education, those subjects which\nThis schedule is\nhave borne the test of the best educational experience.\nincluded,\n\nhowever,\n\nin a broader\n\nscheme,\n\nwhich\n\nprovides\n\na constantly\n\nenlarging scope for elective freedom. A principle of specialization is\nthus planted in the very heart of the college, and the undergraduate is\nled by a regular advance to the threshold of the freer life which awaits\nhim in the graduate stage of the university.\nAnother article of Princeton’s faith arises out of the relation of the\nuniversity to the humanistic studies.\nShe has no quarrel with the modern spirit. The university’s plant, as well as its scheme of studies, rests\non a dual basis of nature and man.\nThe college includes the two\nco-ordinate types of humanistic and nature study, with the appropriate\ndegrees to which they lead, while the university makes even more liberal\nprovision for the study of nature than it does for the study of man. The\narticle of faith in question arises rather in view of the demand made by\nsome of the votaries of science that the humanistic studies themselves\nshall be revolutionized;\n\nthat, in short,\n\nGreek\n\nand\n\nLatin\n\nshall be cast\n\ndown from the central place they have hitherto occupied, and that modern tongues shall take their place. Now, be it understood that no\ncriticism is here intended on the establishment of courses in which the\nmodern languages are central, and the recognition of these by appropriate degrees.\nNor is the culture-value of these tongues decried.\nThe\npoint of the controversey here is rather the proposed exclusion of Greek\nand Latin as necessary conditions of the arts degrees.\nIt is not my purpose here to enter the field of the interminable dispute between classicist\nand anti-classicist, but rather to express in a sentence or two the reasons\nfor Princeton’s adherence to traditional grounds on this question.\nShe\nbelieves in the retention of Greek and Latin in their central place in\nthe humanistic studies, and as indispensable conditions of the arts\ndegrees, because of their disciplinary value as instruments of culture,\nbecause of their historical value as imbuing the mind of the present with\nthe finest distillation of the spirit of the past, and, lastly, because of their\n\nessential spiritual value as stimulators of the moral and intellectual energies of the soul. This last reason bears with especial force on the retention of Greek, for it was surely no historic accident that the intellectual\ndecline of the West was coincident with the loss of the Greek culture, or\n\nthat the later centuries found it worth while to endure the throes of two\n\n"}
{"page": 365, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council ]\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nIDEALS\n\nAT PRINCETON\n\n355\n\nperiods of renascence in the thirteenth and fifteenth centuries in order to\nregain what had been lost. Princeton shares with the most intelligent\nadvocates of the classics the fear that the omission of Greek from the\nrequirements of a liberal humanistic education will lead to its dropping\nout of our educational economy altogether, and that its loss will be an\nevil of such magnitude as only another renascence of the human spirit\nwould be able to cure.\nA third article of faith arises in view of the relations that ought to\nsubsist between culture and religion.\nSetting aside the questions of\ndenominational\n\nand\n\necclesiastical\n\ncontrol\n\nas irrelevant to the real issue,\n\nand conceding the impracticability of sectarian instruction for the majority of institutions, the question still presses: What attitude are our colleges\nand universities going to take toward the religious life of the nation P\nShall they disclaim all responsibility for the relation that is to subsist\nbetween religion and culture, as well as for the religious life of their students, or shall they regard as one of the great problems for academic\nstatesmanship the establishment of such a modus vivendi between learningand religion as shall bring religion in some way to bear on the daily lifeof their students?\n‘The stand of Princeton on this cardinal question is\nnot doubtful.\nShe would insist that it is incumbent on our academic:\nstatesmen to devise such a modus vivendi. And on the question of the\nplace the Bible is to hold in such a scheme Princeton is in agreement\nwith those who think that its study and appreciation as literature are not\nenough, but that it ought to be accorded that higher kind of value which\narises out of its function as an awakener of moral and spiritual energy, as\n\nwell as out of the relation it bears to our civilization as the magna charta\nof its religious life. Friends of their kind, who care for the things of the\nspirit as well as for the things of the mind, may well deprecate any movement that would result in side-tracking the Bible, as fostering a hurtful\nbreach\n\nbetween\n\nreligion\n\nand\n\nculture, and as tending, in the end, to cut\n\nthe race off from the most vital spring of its spiritual life and inspiration.\nThat the unity of knowledge shall not be sacrificed in the interests of\ndifferentiation and specialization; that the humanities shall not be\nrobbed of the spiritual light and inspiration of the classic past; that the\npursuit of knowledge for its own sake shall not be held to imply that a\nculture that has been vitalized by religion is not the best thing for man\n—these are cardinal points in the educational creed of Princeton.\nOn the question as to what the educational policy of the university shall\nbe in the future there is some room for speculation.\nPrinceton stands,\nin asense, at the dividing of the ways, where the statesmanship of her rulers.\nis likely to be put to a severe test. Shall the main energies and resources:\nof the university be devoted to the organization and development of its:\ngraduate departments, not neglecting, of course, the collegiate work; or\n\n"}
{"page": 366, "printed_page": null, "text": "356\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nNow,\nshall they be absorbed in the building-up of professional schools?\nwhile there may be a kind of fascination in the idea of a great professional\nschool, say of jurisprudence, like Bologna in the Middle Ages, and while\nthe\n\nconservation\n\nof both\n\nends would, no doubt, be desirable, if it were\n\npracticable, yet my own opinion is that Princeton will be moving in the\nline of her best traditions, as well as her largest opportunities, if she\ndevotes her main energies to the fostering of her graduate activities.\nI hardly need to say that my sketch of Princeton has been touched\n\nsomewhat in ideal lines. The actual achievements of the university do\nnot satisfy its most optimistic friends.\nThe Princeton we love is partly\na dream of the future.\nThe most obtrusive features of the present are\nunsatisfied wants, which persist in developing faster than available resources\nto meet them.\nBut if, as has been wittily said, the normal condition of a\nhealthy institution is that of clamorous beggary, Princeton can certainly\nshow the best certificates of health.\nFor her present achievements are as\nnothing to her hopes for the future.\nbooks, larger facilities for study and\n\nShe needs more teachers, more\nresearch.\nShe needs endowed\n\nscholarships, fellowships, and professorships.\nShe needs a_ better\norganization of her departments.\nBut through the very number and\nurgency of her wants she is stimulated to activity and to the hope of\ncompassing the means of realizing her ends.\nAnd in this faith she does not\nshrink from her part in the great work to which our universities are called.\nThere remains a topic on which I cannot resist the temptation of a\nword in conclusion.\nThe question is under debate as to whether our\nhigher institutions of learning are educating our people in the highest and\nbest sense of the term, and the charge is being made in the public prints\nthat the practical is in danger of being sacrificed to ideals that are not in\ntouch with the real wants of the present.\nNow, I do not mean to deprecate the function of criticism.\nColleges and universities can lay no claim\nto infallibility. And it is a cardinal necessity that they should be alive\nwith the life of the age, and that they should respond organically to the\ndemands of the present day. It is their manifest duty to keep in touch\nwith the popular currents, and to meet as effectively as possible the practical requirements of the time for training and knowledge.\nBut is there not\ndanger that the critics may be asking us to be too narrowly practical ? It\nis important, of course, that the young man should not be ignorant of\nthe best method of choosing a wife or buying a farm; that the young woman\nshould make no mistake in selecting the materials for a gown, or the cook\nin giving the last turn to a roast of beef.\nBut life itself is a great training\n\nschool, and some things must be left to its extra-university departments.\nThere is danger that, in the desire to be too narrowly practical, our institutions will be smitten with blindness to the higher essentials of their\nduty. They must respond in a large way to the practical demands of the\n\n"}
{"page": 367, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nTHE\n\nSTATE\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\n357\n\ntime.\nThey must attend to the extension and conservation of knowledge\nin all its departments.\nThey must supply the professions and the public\nservice with highly trained and competent men and women.\nThey must\ncontribute trained minds to the work of producing and distributing wealth.\nAnd they must bear in mind that in ademocracy the proposition to lower\nthe level of our culture cannot be entertained;\n\nthe humblest citizen has a\n\nAgain, our schools and uniright to the highest and best we can give him.\nversities should be broadly practical in qualifying their students to respond\nwisely and effectively to all the great relationships of life, in fitting them\nto perform their individual, social, and civic duties; to take their part in\nthe institutional life of the nation—the\n\nfamily, the church, and the state;\n\nto discharge well their duties to God and humanity.\nBut there isa\n\nstill higher sense in which, I think, our great universities,\n\nat least, should strive to be practical.\nThe aim of education should be\nto develop something more than a mere mouthpiece of the time.\nThe\nindividual can realize the highest results of culture only through the\nfunction of self-criticism.\nThe same is true of an age or people. The\nnation establishes for itself these centers of self-criticism in its higher\nschools and universities, whose business it is to conserve the whole results\n‘of experience, and, by reflection in its light, to bring to bear on the\n\npresent the cathartic of a healthy criticism, in order that it may be purged\nfrom its evil extreme tendencies, and its energies be directed into productive channels.\nAnd, if in the discharge of this function, the university\nshould find itself at times called to stem the tide of popular opinion, let it not\n\nbe disheartened.\n\nThe student of history knows that universities planted\n\nin the midst of despotisms, which foster stagnation, are wont to become\ncenters of sedition and revolution, whereas in a democracy, where change\n\nis constantly outrunning progress, they may often be called on to do\nthe work of conservation in opposing, or at least moderating, extreme, or\nrevolutionary, tendencies.\nFrom this office they must not shrink, if they\nwould be practical in the highest sense.\nNot blindly to follow, but intelligently to lead, should be their ambition.\nOnly so will they be able to\nfulfill their true end, and render the highest service to their time and nation.\n\nTHEVSTATE\nBY\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nJAMES\n\nH.\n\nUNIVERSILY.\n\nBAKER,\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF\n\nCOLORADO.\n\nHISTORICAL.\n\nTo an extent a university must\nat a given\n\nrepresent the philosophy of a people\n\nepoch, and its political, social, and\n\nindustrial\n\ntendencies.\n\nIt\n\n"}
{"page": 368, "printed_page": null, "text": "358\nSe\n\nre\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nNATIONAL\nEE\nIea EE EE\nOE\n\n[National\n\nASSOCIATION\nI\ni\n\nThe ethical\nsymbolizes the stage of civilization and spiritual insight.\nthe innate\nGreece;\nin\nphilosophy\nof\nstudy\nthe\nto\nled\ntime\nthe\nof\nneed\nthe\nattending\nproblems\nthe\nand\njustice\nfor\npeople\nRoman\nthe\nof\nregard\nChrisRome;\nin\nlaw\nof\nstudy\nthe\nemphasized\nempire\nthe\nof\ndevelopment\ntianity and the influence of the Greek philosophy made theology the ideal\nof the Middle Ages; the development of the inductive method places\nemphasis on physical science today ; the industrial spirit of America gives\na practical turn to our higher education.\nIt is no mere accident that the\nEnglish university is conservative and aristocratic, and aims at general\nculture; that the French faculties are practical, or that the German universities are scientificana democratic. The differences in spirit and method\nare determined by factors that belong to the history and character of the\ndifferent peoples.\nThe colleges of New England were founded on the traditions of\nOxford and Cambridge, and embodied their Platonic and theological aims\nand conservative method, although they naturally were more liberal and\ndemocratic than the parent institutions.\nThe history ‘of the early\nAmerican colleges has been varied, but the more successful ones have\ncertainly become catholic and progressive.\nAs the country grew and men\npushed westward, leaving tradition behind and developing more freely\nthe spirit of our advancing civilization, the conception of a university in\ntouch with all the people, and scientific, and free, arose.\nThus we have\nthe state university. At the same time the leading religious denominations\nhave vied with each other in founding in the new states colleges or universities that are more or less denominational in spirit and aim.\nThe American university of today contains many elements.\nBroadly\nspeaking, it represents the ideals of the Platonic philosophy—the direct\ninheritance from England, the character of the German university\n— the\nmodern scientific method, and the practical demands of American civilization.\nAll these elements are woven into the web of our national life.\nThere\n\nis, of course, much diversity.\n\nEach class of universities contains\n\nsomething of all the ideals, but each emphasizes certain ones.\nThe older\nand larger denominational school is more nearly the direct representative\nof English education, but has madea great advance.\nThe state universities\nrepresent the people as such and the tendencies of our civilization, but in\naccord with the highest ideals. They more readily accept the influence\nof the German university.\nThedemominational colleges scattered throughout the West aim to perpetuate the denominational idea.\nTHE\n\nSTATE\n\nUNIVERSITY.\n\n:\n\nAlmost from the foundation of our government free elementary schools\nhave been regarded as an essential and characteristic part of our American\ninstitutions.\nThey became a logical necessity when our forefathers\n\n"}
{"page": 369, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nTHE\n\nSTATE\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\n.\n\n359\n\nadjured the caste and intolerance of the Old World, and with prophetic\ninsight proclaimed the era of a new civilization in which the welfare of\nthe state should mean the welfare of all the people.\nWhile the idea of\neducation at the expense of the state and under its control was early\naccepted in that part of the country which has gradually influenced the\nwhole nation, we of today have witnessed a part of the struggle to place\non a permanent foundation the modern system of high schools.\nThese\nschools, especially in the West, now have an assured\n\nposition\n\nand\n\ncom-\n\nThe attempt to take the next step\nmand the confidence of the people.\nAt a\nand establish state universities was met with doubt and opposition.\ncomparatively recent date, however, many state universities have come into\n\nprominence, and today they appear in the main to be the coming institutions of university training, from Ohio to Oregon and from Texas to\nMontana.\nHere is a development that is marvelous, and we may well\nexamine its significance.\n* In the first place, the state university is the logical outcome of our\ndemocratic ideal that made the public schools a necessity—an outcome\nwhich naturally would be first realized in the newer states. As America\nfurnished new and favorable conditions for the development of civiliza‘tion, freed in part from the traditions of the Old World, so the new\nstates of the West became the field for a still more liberal growth of the\ntendencies of the age. There is a recognized tendency in our institutions toward a broader community of interests in respect to many things\nthat affect the common welfare, and in no way does this tendency find\na grander expression than in the means for elevating the people at the\nexpense of the people to a better citizenship, higher usefulness, and\nwiser and nobler manhood.\nThe safety of the state depends upon giving\nthe brightest and best of all classes and conditions an opportunity to rise to\nthe surface of affairs.\nIn Prussia, Switzerland, and Italy a healthy organization of society\nis held to depend upon public control of both secondary and higher\neducation.\nEngland’s system of education tends to maintain social distinctions and an intellectual conservatism that are harmful both to the\naristocracy and to the common people.\nEducation in Germany shows\nits superiority in that it reaches a larger number of the poor classes, and\ndevelops greater freedom of thought.\nThe public control of education\nmakes it democratic and progressive, and strengthens its influence with the\npeople.\nIt makes the scholar a leader in the line of advance indicated\nIn the American state university men come\nby. the ideals of the people.\ntogether as a faculty, bringing with them training and educational ideals\nThey place themselves in\ngained in the best universities of the world.\ntouch\n\nwith\n\nthe\n\npublic schools,\n\nthe press, and all the state agencies of\n\nKnowing\n\nthe needs and demands of the people,\n\ninfluence and control.\n\n"}
{"page": 370, "printed_page": null, "text": "360\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[ National\n\nThe state university\nthey take the lead in the line of natural progress.\nis inseparably linked to the state, and must carry with it the best influences\nof the state, and thus extend its influence to the whole people.\nThe greatest denominational schools at first represented homogeneous\nelements in the national life. Harvard was essentially a state institution.\nIt was founded in “accord with the fundamental principles of the comThe people of Massachusetts at that time\nmonwealth of Massachusetts.”\nYale\nwere largely homogeneous in race, religion, and love of freedom.\nwas founded partly on the conservative Congregationalism of Connectiut; hence it represented the mass of people in that state.\nPrinceton\nwas founded in the interest of the Scotch and Scotch-Irish political and\nreligious views in the middle states, but was so far catholic as to enlist\n\nthe sympathy of the Dutch and the Quakers.\nHowever, it served a comparatively homogeneous people. In later years each of these universities,\nin order to reach large numbers of people maintaining diverse views, has\nbeen obliged to subordinate specific sectarian or denominational elements\nand emphasize only the highest ideals common to its constituency.\nThe\nnewer states of the West have a mixed population, with heterogeneous\ninterests.\n\nHence it follows that, not\n\na denominational school, but a state\n\nschool, broad enough for all the people, alone can satisfy the need of each\nstate. Since it is impossible to maintain a real university for each peculiar interest, all must unite to support one institution, an institution\nmaintaining the highest ideals common to humanity and specifically to\nour own civilization.\nThe ideals common to the American people are\nample enough for an ideal university, founded and maintained by the\nstate.\nHarvard or Princeton may say, We have done for the state all\nthat the state university claims as its function.\nThen let each state have\na Princeton, which, from the start, is assured of an adequate foundation.\nIn our western states the same reason that would create one denominational\ncollege would create in each state fifteen or twenty.\nThe history of the\nworld never has seen such a dissipation of educational energy as is now\nseen in America, and a system of state education which tends to correct\nthe evil merits enthusiastic support.\nIt may be added that the state university exists in the West because the majority of the people are coming\nto prefer that kind of institution.\nWe may say, then, that the state university represents (1) the completion of the democratic ideal of public education ; (2) the unity of progress\namidst diversity of view, and the mutual influence of the knowledge and\npower of the scholar and the ideals of the people; (3) the broad platform\nupon which the heterogeneous elements of the state may unite in the\ninterest of higher education.\nIt is understood, of course, that these three\nstatements are not altogether mutually exclusive.\nThese views of the raison d’étre of the state university lead directly to\n\n"}
{"page": 371, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nTHE\n\nSTATE\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\n361\n\nthe presentation in detail of some facts in its history, and some of its\naims, showing that its ideals are practicable.\nThe state university virtually, if not formally, is a part of the publicschool system.\nAs such it holds a peculiar and influential relation\ntoward the public high schools.\nIt furnishes teachers trained in the\nuniversity in regular and pedagogical courses. It scrutinizes the courses of\nstudy and the character of the work, and formally approves the schools of\nstandard merit.\nIt helps in every prudent way the influence of the school\nwith the community.\nBy its friendly relation it may present freely the\nadvantages of higher education, and thus reach a large number who\nwould otherwise rest at the goal of high-school graduation.\nIn every\nstate, through the agency of the university, the number of high schools\nis materially increased, and their standards, plan of organization, and\nmethods are improved.\nMoreover, it gives the promise of something\n’ beyond that stimulates the efforts of pupils in every grade of work.\nThe connection between the high school and the university still gives\nrise to troublesome problems, not alone in this country.\nThe ideals of\nthe older American university are often at variance with the systematic\ndevelopment of education below the university and the demands of the\npeople.\nThe state university has come nearer than any other to the solution.\nWhile Harvard and Yale met the growing demands of science by\nestablishing separate schools, Michigan introduced the scientific course\ninto the college, making it rank with the classical.. This plan, generally\nadopted by the state universities, places them nearly in line with the\nnatural development of the public-school system.\nThe state universities\nalso show their regard for popular demand by admitting special\nstudents.\nBy offering free tuition, the state university reaches many who\nwould otherwise fail to enjoy higher training.\nIt tends to equalize\nthe conditions for rich and poor in the struggle for the survival of the\nfittest.\nThe state university, as it develops and realizes its true function,\nmust be thoroughly catholic in spirit, because it stands for humanity,\ntruth, and progress.\nNowhere is the professor or the scholar permitted\nto use such intellectual freedom as in the state university in Germany,\nand in the natural course of events the same freedom will be allowed in\nthe United States.\nNot only will the free and inventive spirit become\ncharacteristic, but our western universities, standing in the midst of the\nmost\n\nadvanced\n\nideas\n\nof civilization,\n\nmust\n\nfurnish\n\nsome\n\nof the\n\nmost\n\nimportant contributions to the study of all social, economic, and ethical\nproblems.\n.\nIn the state universities the mental and moral atmosphere is healthful.\nA strong, honest manhood is cultivated. There all ideals are strongly\n\n"}
{"page": 372, "printed_page": null, "text": "362\n\nmaintained,\n\nnot\n\n[National\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\naccording\n\nto a particular\n\ncreed, but with\n\nregard\n\nto all\n\nAll influences tend to make\nthe implications of man’s higher nature.\ncitizens who are in harmony with the national spirit. An extended\nacquaintance with graduates of various state universities shows me that,\nas a whole, they are broad-minded\n\ncitizens, loyal to the public interest.\n\nThe relation of the religious denominations to the state university is one\nThe university says to each class of\nthat commands serious attention.\npeople, Here is an institution which is equally for the advantage of all —\nIts platform, founded on ideals of truth, beauty, and goodit is yours.\nSince there must be a diversity of religious\nness, is as broad as humanity.\n‘views, establish your theological schools, halls, guilds, or professorships\nin the vicinity of the university, and, making use of what\n\nthe state offers,\n\nsupplement in your own way the work of the state. The plan is in the\nhighest degree economical ; it combines unity of effort with variety of\nindependent view; it makes the general good and the special interest\nmutually helpful.\nIt is the plan of business. common-sense and of wise\ninsight into the problems of the age.\nThat the denominations— granting their point of view—should join their interest with that of the state\nuniversity is shown also by the fact that often a given denomination finds\nmore of its students there than at its church school.\nMany state universities are beginning to receive private endowment.\nEvery consideration of public interest in each state should turn the contributions for education toward the one great center of learning; very\nfew states can support more than one such center.\nLibraries, art collections,\n\nmuseums,\n\nlaboratories,\n\nbuildings,\n\nwell-endowed\n\nchairs, beautiful\n\ngrounds, should testify to the munificence of private wealth as well as\nto the benefactions of the state.\nSpeaking generally, the state universities have large incomes and good\nfacilities.\nThey require high standards for admission and graduation.\nWherever feasible, they maintain professional schools, and schools of\napplied science.\nThey do this upon the theory that the state should both\nregulate and provide professional education in the interest of proper\nstandards,\n\nand that, in the\n\ninterest of the state\n\nand of the individual,\n\nsuch education should be made available to the sons of the poor.\nEvery\nleading state university is developing a graduate school.\nIn the matter of electives the state university occupies a middle\nground. Yale and Princeton represent the conservative side, and Harvard\nand Stanford the liberal extreme.\nAn examination of the curricula of\nten leading state universities shows that the requirements for admission\nare definitely prescribed, although two or more courses are recognized ;\nthat about half the college studies are required, while the remaining half _\nare offered as groups or free electives. The state universities naturally\nshow a tendency toward the German university system.\n\n"}
{"page": 373, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nTHE\n\nSTATE\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nSOME\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\n363\n\nPROBLEMS.\n\nIn America the college has been frankly maintained in accord with\nPlatonic ideals.\nA full-rounded manhood, drawing its powers from each\nchief source of knowledge, and prepared in a general way for every practical activity, has been the aim. The American college is dear to the\npeople, and it has done much to make strong men, who have powerfully\ninfluenced\n\nthe nation.\n\nThere are, however, various tendencies which are\n\nlikely to modify the whole organization of the American university,\nincluding that of the college.\nThe recent tendency toward free election, reaching even into the high\nschool, is a subject of animated controversy.\nThis tendency I have frequently discussed elsewhere, and I must still maintain that in its extreme\nform it is irrational.\nOne university of high standing makes it possible\nto enter its academic department and graduate without mathematics,\nscience, or classics.\nThis is an extreme that is not likely to be sanctioned\nby the educational world.\nIf there is a human type with characteristics\nby which it is defined —characteristics which can be developed only by\nlooking toward each field of knowledge—a secondary and higher education which makes possible the entire omission of any important group of\nsubjects is likely to prove a great wrong to the average student.\nI agree\nwith some recent high educational authorities that no one can be called\nliberally educated who does not at least possess knowledge of (1) mathematics and science, (2) language and literature, (3) philosophy.\nPhilosophy, as it was in Greece and as it is in Germany, is rapidly becoming a\nfactor in our American education.\nThere is another tendency which is working toward the inevitable\nresult.\nThe average American student who desires higher or professional\neducation will not spend four years in high school, four years in college,\nand three or four years in a graduate or professional school.\n‘There is a\nmovement to shorten in some manner the whole course of education.\nAlready many colleges and collegiate departments of universities offer\nelectives that will count\n\nfor one or two\n\nyears\n\nof law, medicine, or theol-\n\nogy.\nAlready the university system in the form of group electives is\nintroduced into the last two years of college.\nThe outcome will probably be a gradual reorganization of the highschool studies and those of the first two or three years of college. The\nnew curriculum should lay for the student a broad and firm foundation in\nknowledge and power for all subsequent aptitudes. Upon this should be\nbuilt the graduate school, the professional school, and, perhaps, the school\nIn this plan the American college need not be lost, for\nof technology.\nthe bachelor’s degree could be granted for a given amount of work beyond\n\nthe college in the graduate school.\n\nThe claim that the student should\n\n"}
{"page": 374, "printed_page": null, "text": "364\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nbegin university work almost anywhere along the line of education before\nIt may be\nlaying a complete foundation for a specialty appears absurd.\ncan\nsystem\neducational\nour\nof\nn\nreorganizatio\npartial\nby\nonly\nadded that\nmade\nbe\never\nschool\nprofessional\nAmerican\nthe\nto\nstandard\nthe admission\nrespectable.\nThe scientific spirit—the term is used in the broadest sense —in all\ninvestigation and instruction is a most encouraging feature of present\nIf the American professor cannot always be an original\ntendencies.\ninvestigator, he may keep abreast of investigation and impart its inspiration to the student.\nTo this end the Lehrfretheit (freedom in teaching) is\nIt is a sad comment that the spirit of the Inquisition has\nnecessary.\nrecently appeared in a New England university. The professor’s thought\nmust not be prescribed for him by any creed, religious, political, or\nOf course, he must stand on the safe foundation of the past;\nscientific.\nhe is not expected to soar in a balloon or leap over a precipice. A recent\nwork on “The Ideal of Universities” says: ‘We can distinguish four\nchief currents in the theology of the present era: (1) The Roman Catholic; (2) the Protestant; (3) that objective historic theology which\nsimply states the origin and development of the Christian doctrine; and\n(4) the inception of a theology based upon recognized facts of science,\nI believe all philosophy of nature\nof human nature, and of history.”\nand of human nature must become truth-see—king\nindeed, this is a mere\ntruism. No philosophy or belief can afford to maintain any other attitude.\nLeaders in the orthodox churches are teaching us this fact by their bearing\nThe\ntoward new conceptions.\nAnd I have no fear of the outcome.\nhighest ideals and hopes of humanity, I believe, will be confirmed by the\nmost thorough investigation, in which metaphysics shall use the contribution of every department of objective and subjective science.\nA course\nin theology, scientific theology, should be a part of every university,\nincluding the state university—and some dare to think the latter is the\nplace for it. The facts of man’s higher intellectual and emotional life are\nthe most important data for investigation.\nThe doctrine of Lernfrecheit, the freedom of the student, unhappily\nhas been ignorantly applied in this country. It may be properly employed\nfor the German university student at the age of twenty to twenty-five,\nafter his training in the gymnasium, but not to the American college\nstudent at the age of eighteen to twenty-two.\nIn America it may apply\nto the students in the graduate school.\nSome American colleges have\ntried the extreme theory of mental and moral freedom for the college\nstudent, and have learned from an unsatisfactory experience the lesson of\na wise conservatism.\nThe old struggle between science and the humanities still goes on.\nWe must adopt a view of education which regards the nature of man and\n\n"}
{"page": 375, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nTHE\n\nSTATE\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\n365\n\nits adaptation to the whole environment, including its historical element.\nIn a keen analysis of the nature of things we shall not find Greek and\nLatin, but we shall find them historically in our language and literature,\nand in the generic concepts of our civilization.\nHence they are a necessary part of any extended study of language, literature, or art.\nI do not believe that the practical tendency of American education\nwill destroy our reverence for what the Germans call the philosophical\nfaculty in the university.\nThe liberal arts—I include pure science— are\nthe gems of human culture, and are given a high value even in the\nimagination of the ignorant.\nThe editor of Zhe Cosmopolitan draws a\nbold and somewhat original outline for modern education, and it is in\nmany ways suggestive.\nBut the author overlooks, what every true scholar\nknows, that thorough scientific knowledge of principles must remain the\nfundamental work of education and the substantial ground of progress in\ncivilization.\nA university course may not consist chiefly of lectures upon\nprudential maxims, such as all must learn partly from experience.\nSuch\na theory would award the palm, not to Socrates, but to the sophists.\nThe\ntruth in all the clamor for practical work in the college is that the culture\nstudies must bevivified by closer relation to the real world and to modern life.\nI have said little of what is called the graduate school.\nGermany\ncredits us with eleven institutions that have either reached the standard\nof a genuine university or are rapidly approaching it. Of these eleven\nfive are state universities.\n\nThis estimate, of course, is made in accord with\n\nthe plan and standard of the German university.\nIt appears certain\nthat in time the name university in America will be applied only to those\ninstitutions which maintain the graduate school and raise the dignity of\nthe professional schools.\nThe university system will develop freely in\nthis country only after a somewhat important reorganization of our higher\neducation.\nThe line must be drawn more sharply between foundation\neducation and university work, the whole period of education must be\nsomewhat\n\nshortened, and, in all but three\n\nor four of our universities, the\n\ngraduate faculty must be strengthened.\nThat these changes will be\nwrought, and that we shall have a rapid development of the genuine\nuniversity, I believe.\nI believe also that much is to be expected from our\nhigher scholarship in many lines of investigation.\nIn America men are\nsolving problems the existence of which has only been dimly conceived\nInspired by our advanced\nby the masses of people in the Old World.\nconceptions of government and society, and by the free, inventive, truthseeking spirit characteristic of our people, the American scholar will make\nleading contributions to the world’s literature of sociology, politics, and\nAnd when the spirit of reality, now superficial, gains a deeper\nscience.\ninsight into the nature of things, America may yet lead the world in those\ninvestigations which belong to the sphere of philosophy.\n\n"}
{"page": 376, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n366\n\nUNIVERSITY\nBY\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nIDEALS\n\nJOSEPH\n\nSWAIN,\n\n[National\n\nAT STANFORD.\nINDIANA\n\nUNIVERSITY.\n\nDuring the busy days before the last college commencement I received\na letter from the President of this Council, saying Dr. Jordan had been\nasked to present a paper at this time on “University Ideals at Stanford.”\nAt the last moment Dr. Jordan found he must go to Alaska in the interest\nof the United States government, to finish his studies concerning the seal\nproblems, the investigation of which he and his assistants, as the agents\nof our government, had begun last summer.\nUnder these conditions I\nwas asked to present a paper on the topic assigned Dr. Jordan. I replied\nto President Hinsdale that my duties were so numerous and the time so\nlimited that I could not present an adequate paper, but if he would leave\nme entirely free to make my talk as short or as rambling as I pleased, I\nwould give a few off-hand impressions, which would furnish a basis for\ndiscussion.\nAs I was for the first two years of its existence connected with Stanford\nUniversity, I am familiar with the practical workings of that institution.\nI shall take pleasure in answering, to the best of my knowledge, any question any member of the Council may wish to ask concerning Stanford\nUniversity.\nThe ideals at Stanford were in the beginning essentially the same as\nthose of Indiana University.\nPresident Jordan and six other professors\nof the original fifteen members of the faculty were from Indiana.\nThe\ncurriculum, the requirements for degrees, the system of electives, the\nmethod of government, the independence of the professors, were all transplanted to the new institution.\nThat it may be clear what the distinctive\nideals of Stanford are, I present a comparison of the freedom of the student, as exemplified by the entrance and college requirements, in Indiana\nand Stanford Universities.\nThe entrance requirement in Indiana permits a certain amount of\nelection. For example, the science requirement may be satisfied by acceptable work in any science.\nIt may all be in botany, zodlogy, chemistry,\nor physics, or any other science. The requirements for entrance at Stanford to all courses are the same.\nStudents taking engineering, courses in\nliberal arts, or law, are all required to have an equivalent amount of train-\n\ning on entrance.\nIn other words, the purpose of the examinations is to\ntest the fitness of the candidate to enter upon college work, and not to\ntest the degree of his competence to meet certain arbitrary or traditional\nrequirements.\nThe standard of admission is kept at the level attained by\n\n"}
{"page": 377, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nIDEALS,\n\nAT STANFORD\n\n367\n\nthe best high and preparatory schools; but the largest liberty of substitution is permitted.\nThorough preparation in science, modern languages,\nliterature, or history is given the same value as thorough work in ancient\nlanguages or mathematics, while superficial work in any subject or work\npursued for less then one year is rejected.\nAccording to the Stanford\ncatalogue of 1896-97, for meeting the entrance requirements of the university candidates are offered a choice of twelve out of twenty-two subjects.\nThese subjects are all reduced to a unit of a high-school year, making\ntwenty-eight credits, and placed on an exact equality, except the Subject I.\n(English), which is required of all applicants.\nTwelve credits are necessary to full standing, and these may be made up of English (two credits)\nand such other subjects (aggregating ten credits) as may be selected by\nthe candidate. The twenty-two subjects are: English, elementary algebra,\nplane geometry, solid geometry, trigonometry, advanced algebra, physics,\n- chemistry, physiology, botany, zodlogy, drawing, American history, English\nhistory, Grecian and Roman history, English literature, Spanish, French,\nGerman,\n\nelementary\n\nLatin,\n\nadvanced\n\nLatin,\n\nand\n\nGreek.\n\n‘The\n\nregular\n\nstudent in Indiana is required to take in the university English, mathematics, science for one year daily, language for two years daily, and, in\naddition to this work, must take at least three years daily in some one\ndepartment as his major subject.\nThe rest of his work is elective.\nThis\nrequirement, while not giving the student absolute freedom of choice, does\ngive him a very considerable opportunity to follow his own bent and the\nadvice of the head of the department in his major subject.\nThere are only two departments in which every candidate for a degree\nmust take work, namely, English and mathematics. A student must take\nwork in science for one year, two terms of which must be laboratory work.\nIt is claimed that the educated man of the present day should at least\nknow something of the spirit and method of modern science, on which so\nmuch of the advancement of the modern world depends.\n‘This science\nrequirement is designed to meet this university ideal.\nFor this purpose\nit is not necessaryto prescribe botany, or zodlogy, or chemistry, or physics,\nor geology, or physiological psychology, or any particular branch of\nscience, but that the method and spirit of the work can be obtained in\nany one; hence the science requirement is as above stated.\nIn language\nthe requirement is not in Latin, Greek, French, German, Spanish, or Italian,\n\nbut two years of language in college in any of those mentioned.\nThe\nrequirement is based on the theory that no matter whether these languages\nare of equal importance or not, the results to the student are best within\nthese languages when the student is permitted to take the one which fits\nhis case best. The major subject of the student is only limited by the\nnumber of the departments, and there are certain opportunities for choice\nwithin these departments.\n\n"}
{"page": 378, "printed_page": null, "text": "368\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nScarcely any two students whose major subject is history, for example,\nIn addition\nare pursuing for the four years the same courses in history.\nto the freedom of choice mentioned\n\nabove, the student has three or four\n\nsubject daily in which\n\nhe has absolute freedom to select.\n\nyears in one\n\nHe does, however, in most cases advise with the head of the department\n\nin his major subject.\nThis course of study has been very closely adhered to for twelve years.\nWith young students, whose course of instruction has been continuous from\nthe grades through the high school and the university, it has been strictly\nadhered to.\n\nIn the case of mature students, such as teachers from twenty-\n\nfive to forty years of age, of whom there are .an increasing number, one\nyear of other work is frequently substituted for one year of required work.\nThe system is designed to secure a fundamental uniformity, and at\nthe same time to be flexible and adaptable to the needs of individual\nstudents.\nAll courses demand an equal amount of preparation for admission. All must include a group of similar required studies.\nAll oblige\nthe student to follow some special line of study during three or four years,\nand all lead to the degree of bachelor of arts.\n\nBut, at the same time, the\n\nstudent is granted great freedom in the selection of studies, the educational value of the element of personal choice being fully recognized.\nIn the catalogue of Indiana University of 1888—89 the following statements of principles are made:\n“In the arrangement of the courses of study several principles have\nbeen recognized.\nThe beginnings of any study are easy compared with\nthe difficulties the student meets after going beyond the mere elements of\nhis subject ;hence a better mental training can be obtained from the continued study of one subject during several years than from the study of\nvarious. subjects for a short period each. The thorough study of any\nsubject is conducive to good mental discipline ; therefore all the departments should be placed on the same footing.\nMoreover, as no two minds\nare alike, and as different minds\n\nrequire different discipline, the student\n\nshould be granted great freedom in the choice of studies, after the completion of certain subjects, necessary to all culture, and the continued\nstudy of a specialty, necessary to efficient mental discipline. The educational value of the element of personal choice, on the part of the student,\nis also fully recognized.\nOne of the most important functions of the\nschool is to place the individual on his feet, to give him the ability of\nself-direction.\nTo this end no method is more effective than a wellguarded elective system.”” The degree of bachelor of arts at Stanford is\ngranted on the completion of a four-years’ course, of three subjects per\nday, provided the major and minor subjects are satisfied.\n\n‘“ Each student\n\nselects as his major subject the work of some one professor. His professor\nhas the authority to require the completion of the major subject, and also\n\n|\n\n"}
{"page": 379, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nUNIVERSITY IDEALS AT STANFORD\n\n369\n\nsuch minor subjects in other departments as he may consider necessary\nor desirable collateral work.\nSuch major and minor requirements, taken\ntogether, will not exceed forty hours\n\nof university work, or one-third of\n\nthe student’s time for the four years of undergraduate work.”\nWith these exceptions, the student is absolutely free to choose such\nsubjects as he may think best, subject to the conditions that he must\nsatisfy his teachers that he is ready to profitably pursue the subjects of\nhis choice.\n“In the arrangement of the courses of study,” says President Jordan,\n“two ideas are prominent: first, that every student who shall complete a\ncourse in the university must be thoroughly trained in some line of work.\nHis education must have as its central axis an accurate and full knowledge of something.\nThe second is that the degree to be received is\nwholly a subordinate matter, and that no student should be compelled to\nturn out of his way in order to secure it. In other words, no work in\nitself unprofitable to the individual should be required of him in order\nthat he may secure a degree. This leads naturally to the discarding of\nthe conventional college curriculum; for any curriculum that can be\nmade up is calculated for the average student; and every college curriculum implies a large amount of waste, either through taking unprofitable subjects which are undesirable for the culture of the individual\nstudent, or else through taking desirable subjects under unsatisfactory\nteachers.\n“This arrangement has an advantage over the elective system pure\nand simple, requiring of every student such a degree of thoroughness in\nsome one line that he becomes in some degree an authority in that direction.\nHe has by this special work a base line by which he is able to\nmeasure the attainments of others and his own attainments in other\ndirections.\nBy making the professor in charge of the major subject the\nofficial adviser of the student, the latter is enabled to secure the help\nwhich experience should give, and it is found, as a matter of fact, that\nthe course of study selected by students for themselves, the power of\nresponsibility of self-direction being in their own hands, is better capable\nof defense than any prescribed curriculum which could be placed before\nsuch a student.\nThe element of consent on the part of the student is\nregarded as of as high importance in the development of scholarship as that\nof self-direction is in the formation of character.\nIt is better for the\nstudent that he should sometimes make mistakes than that throughout\nEach one of the\nhis course he should be arbitrarily directed by others.\nown course, so\nits\ntherefore,\nhas,\nuniversity\nthe\nin\ndepartments\ndifferent\nrequired by\nsubjects\nminor\nthe\nand\nconcerned,\nare\nsubjects\nfar as major\nbut can be\nsubject,\nmajor\nthe\nto\njoined\narbitrarily\nnot\neach student are\n\nvaried indefinitely as the needs of the student demand.\n\n"}
{"page": 380, "printed_page": null, "text": "oro\no04\n\nNATIONAL\n\n370\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\n“In order that all courses and all departments may be placed on\nexactly the same level, the degree of bachelor of arts is given in all alike\nShould the major subject,\nfor the equivalent of the four-years’ course.\nfor instance, be Greek, then the title given is that of bachelor of arts in\nGreek; should the major subject be chemistry, bachelor of arts in\n\nchemistry, and so on.\n“It is the purpose of the university to treat all departments alike, to\nfurnish the best instruction and best appliances available for work in all,\nand to leave all question of the relative value of studies to the student\nhimself and to the adviser whom he has chosen.”\nA careful study was made of the system of election in Indiana by Dr.\nThis study\nBoone, in 1892, and published in the Aducational Review.\nshould be extended to the present time, but I quote his conclusion, with\nthe results then available:\n“The following propositions are submitted as inferences fairly borne\nout by the investigation :\n““(1) The principle whose policy is here discussed, and which has\nbeen followed for eight years, has improved the student body, by relating the culturing process to a well-defined and interested motive.\n“(2) By so much it has improved teaching, through the attractive\nforce of interested learners.\n““(3) It has rationalized deportment, in that it has dignified the\nmotives of students.\n(4) It has discovered unexpected ability among students, furnishing,\nat the same time, opportunity for its encouragement.\n(5) There is an obvious tendency toward the obliteration of class\ndistinctions and their accompanying antagonisms.”\nSo far as the ideals of Stanford University are shown in their requirements for entrance and graduation, it is only in the extension of the\nelective system that it differs from Indiana.\nThe\n\nuniversity\n\nexists\n\nfor the good\n\nevery sort of personal helpfulness\n\nof the students, and, therefore,\n\nis part of the university’s duty.\n\nA\n\nstudent should not be forced to do what is not best for him, either for\nentrance, continuance, or graduation.\nHe is taking his own course, not\n\none prearranged for someone else. With this view of the duty of the\nuniversity the teacher must know the student.\nHe must live with him.\nHe must occasionally have him at his home, be with him in his leisure\nhours.\nHe must be an older brother, who has gone a little farther on\nthe road to learning, and is in the university to give the benefit of his\nexperience to those who are younger and have not traveled so far on the\njourney.\nThe government of students in Indiana and Stanford Universities has\nbeen reduced toa minimum.\nThere are no rules and regulations.\nNo\n\n—\n\n"}
{"page": 381, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\nTE\n\nUNIVERSITY IDEALS\noa\ncnc AT STANFORD\nle le\n\n371\n\nmention of government is made in the college catalogue.\nIt is understood that students are expected to act in accordance with the regulation\nof the best society ; that, being gentlemen and ladies, they are expected\nto act as such;\n\nthat students are amenable to the laws\n\nof the state, and\n\nhave no privileges which the best citizens should not claim for themselves.\nIt is as much the duty of the student as of the professor to see\nthat no one shall do aught to bring the university into discredit.\nThe best way to keep students out of evil paths is to give them something to do and interest them in it. The elective system is helpful to\nthis end.\nThere are but two worthy objects in college discipline: the\npromotion of the welfare of the institution, and the welfare of the\nstudent.\nThe university has moral duties.\nIt can inculcate genuineness by\nbeing genuine, unselfishness by devotion to truth and to the helping of\nothers.\n‘“‘The teacher,” says Dr. Bryan, “is one of the accredited delegates of civilization.””\nIn Heine’s phrase he is a “knight of the Holy\nGhost.”\nIf virtue and integrity are to be propagated, they must be propagated by people who possess them.\nIf this child world about us that\nwe know and love is to grow up into righteous manhood and womanhood, it must have a chance to see how righteousness looks when it is\nlived.\n‘That this may be so, what task have we but to garrison our state\nwith men and women?\nIf we can do that, if we can have in every square\nmile of our country a man or woman whose total influence is a civilizing\npower, we shall get from our educational system all it can give and all\nthat we can desire.\nThe value of thoroughness in something as the basis of a useful life\nis not to be overestimated.\nIn the present day, when research is the\npassword among all scholars, the value of thoroughness to scholars needs\nno comment.\nThe great virtue of the old classical course, consisting of\nGreek, Latin, and mathematics, for those whose natural food was these\nsubjects, was the fact that the course was continuous, each lesson had to\n\nbe learned before the next could be taken, and required thoroughnessto\nproperly pursue it. Thoroughness became a habit.\nOne of the virtues\nof the system pursued both at Indiana and Stanford is that all students,\nwhatever their natural bent, must be thorough in at least one line,\nnamely, their major subject.\nThe object of Stanford University, as stated in its charter, is ‘‘to\nqualify students for personal success and direct usefulness in life,” and\nits purpose ‘to promote the public welfare by exercising an influence in\nbehalf of humanity and civilization, teaching the blessings of liberty,\n\nregulated by law, and inculcating love and reverence for the great principles of government as derived from the inalienable right of man to life\nliberty, and the pursuit of happiness.”\n\n"}
{"page": 382, "printed_page": null, "text": "372\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n[National\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nSenator Stanford had the notion that training our young men in college should in some way be such that the power gained should at once,\non leaving college, be more effective in the affairs of this life. He had\ncome to the view through contact with a large number of college graduHe\nates from the East, recommended to him by his eastern friends.\nfound it the rule, he said, that these men had been trained away from the\naffairs of this life instead of trained for it. It was a matter of deep con-\n\ncern with Senator Stanford that the work\nstudents for direct usefulness in life.\nThe ideas of individual development,\nthoroughness, of enthusiasm,\n\nof the university should\ngenuineness,\n\nof\n\nof self-restraint,\n\nare\n\nof simple\n\nof self-devotion,\n\nand\n\nfit\n\nnot peculiar to Stanford, but they have been emphasized there in greater\ndegree than has been done in some institutions.\nThe freedom of the teacher to use his own judgment in what he\nteaches, within the limit of the subjects he is employed to teach, and his\nown methods of instruction, is unquestioned.\nHe is held responsible\nfor results.\nThe modern university is an institution where all subjects are considered of equal value, and the great ambition of the teacher of each subject is that he himself shall first gain a complete mastery of his subject,\nand that he shall be able to assist his students\n\nto such\n\nmastery;\n\nand, in\n\nthe second place, shall be able to contribute something to the sum total\nof human knowledge in his own line of work.\nThe university does\nnot do its duty to the state if it does not, in some degree, at least,\nwiden the field of human knowledge.\nIt is chiefly through the discoveries and contributions of original workers that those facts and principles\nare discovered through which the state seeks a more advanced stage of\ncivilization and culture.\nAfter all, university ideals amount to little if these are not embodied\nin the teacher.\nI close this paper with a quotation from Dr. Jordan, who\nI wish might have been with us today to present this theme.\n“Tf our work is successful, our ideals will appear in the daily life\nof the school.\nIn a school, as in a fortress, it is not the form of the\nbuilding, but the strength of the materials, which determines its effective-\n\nness.\nWith a garrison of hearts of oak, it may not matter even whether\nthere be a fortress.\nWhatever its form, or its organization, or its pretensions, the character of the university is fixed by the men who teach.\n‘Have a university in shanties, nay in tents,’ Cardinal Newman\n\n‘but have great teachers in it.’\nteachers, and its organization\n‘Colleges can only serve\n\nhas said,\n\nThe university spirit flows out from these\nserves mainly to bring them together.\n\nus,’ says Emerson,\n\n‘when\n\ntheir aim is not to\n\ndrill, but to create ;when they gather from far every ray of various genius\nto their hospitable halls, and by their concentrated fires set the heart of\n\n"}
{"page": 383, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nELECTION\n\nIN\n\nGENERAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSiS\n\ntheir youth in flame.’\nStrong men make universities strong.\nA great\nman never fails to leave a great mark on every youth with whom he\nToo much emphasis cannot be laid on this: that the\ncomes in contact.\nreal purpose of the university organization is to produce a university\natmosphere, such an atmosphere as gathered itself around Arnold at\nRugby, around Déllinger at Munich, around Linneus at Upsala, around\nWerner at Friedburg, around Agassiz at Cambridge, around Mark Hopall great\n\nkins at Williamstown, around White at Ithaca, around\n\nteachers\n\neverywhere.\n“The university should be the great refuge hut on the ultimate boundaries of knowledge, from which daily and weekly adventurous bands set\nout on voyages of discovery.\nIt should be the Upernavik from which\npolar travelers draw their supplies, and, as the shoreless sea of the\nunknown meets on every side, the same house of refuge and supply will\nserve for a thousand different exploring parties, moving out in every\ndirection into the infinite ocean.\nThis is the university ideal of the\nfuture.”\n\nPLE GCIION SN GGHNERAL\nBY\n\nEMERSON\n\nE. WHITE,\n\nLDUCA LION,\n\nCOLUMBUS,\n\nO.\n\nSeveral conflicting theories are earnestly contending for the control\nof American education.\nThe most confident of these is the industrial\ntheory\n—a phase of utilitarianism.\nIt asks of every school study, ‘Of\nwhat practical use will its facts be in the shop or in the store, on the farm\nor in the factory, in managing a railway or abank?”\nIt asserts that the\nsupreme and ultimate test of the worth of knowledge is its practical\nutility for the purposes of guidance in life’s business and toil. If a fact\ncannot be used\n\nin the work of life, it is declared to be a useless fact, and\n\n“its acquisition a positive waste of time and effort.”\n“Light!\nYes, we\ndo want light,” says Mr. Froude, “ but it must be light which will help us\nwork, and find food and clothing and lodging for ourselves.\nNo education which does not make this its first aim is worth anything at all.”\nMan’s labor is thus made the supreme good, and the prime test of the\nworth of knowledge is the utility of its facts in the industries of life.\nThe wide acceptance of this theory is an indication that not a few\nminds are dazzled, if not dazed, by the brilliancy of our material civilization. The marvelous progress in the past fifty years in discovery and\ninvention, and the consequent multiplication of the forms and applications of human skill and industry, are, indeed, bewildering.\n\nThe material\n\nproducts of these various forms of effort are also so tangible, so sensuous,\n>\n\n"}
{"page": 384, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n374\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n[National\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nnent\neh\n\nso impressive, that they assume the importance of the very ends of human\nexistence.\nUnder this dazzling influence of material forces and enterprises man’s\nchief end\n\nseems\n\nto be to till the\n\nsoil, invent\n\nmachinery,\n\nmanufacture\n\nThe susmaterial products, and build and run railroads and steamships.\nup the\nfit\nto\nis\nlife\npresent\nthe\nin\nmission\npicion grows that man’s supreme\nWe\nministry.\nmaterial\nits\nof\nworthy\nbeings\nof\nworld for some coming race\nfirst\nour\nof\nabode\nthe\nfor\ncreated\nare told that the Garden of Eden was\nparents ; but this new philosophy of life assumes that Adam and Eve were\ncreated for the garden, and especially to till and dress it.\nAnother of these aggressive theories may be called socialism in education.\nIt assumes that the practical end of education is to fit man to bea\nhelpful factor ina social organism\n— to co-operate with his fellows in securing social well-being and progress.\nIt sees nothing in the individual\nthat is abiding, much less supreme, except as he is absorbed in the greater\nand more permanent self called society.\nIt asserts that what the individual needs is not self-directing power\nor selfhood, but the power\n\nof easy articulation with others ; a lock-step\n\nfacility in social and civil activities.\nEducation thus becomes a process\nof fitting youth for social absorption and service ; and the knowledges of\nsupreme worth are the facts of social, or community, life and progress.\nOrganized society thus becomes the lord and master of men, with power\nto allot their work and mission ; and, as a logical consequence, with the\nduty of supplying each with food, clothing, and shelter.\nOver against this socialistic doctrine, and in sharp contrast with it, is\nthe theory which is known as individualism in education.\nIt assumes\nthat every child\n\nis born into the world an\n\nindividual entity, with little in\n\ncommon with his fellows in capabilities, tastes, and tendencies.\nIt asserts\nthat every child should be studied and educated as an individual being, asa\npersonality, with sharply defined\n\nee\n(\n\ncharacteristics and\n\nneeds ; and\n\nit, con-\n\nsequently, condemns the attempt to provide a general course of instruction for children and youth as impracticable and undesirable.\nIt clamors\nfor individual instruction and opportunity.\nThis theory also assumes that the special endowments or aptitudes of\nyouth are so clearly manifest in consciousness that each may be left free,\nnot only to choose his future pursuit, but the preparations and steps that\nlead to it. This involves individual choice of studies and training from\nthe beginning.\nIt is further claimed that the aptitudes and possibilities of children\nmay be early discovered by observation, and hence the special studies and\ntraining needed by each as a preparation for his special work in life fall\n\nwithin the certainties (?) of the new science called “child study.” It is thus\nproposed to reduce individualism in child education to a scientific basis.\n\nS”.\nC-\n\n"}
{"page": 385, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nELECTION\n\nIN GENERAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n375\n\nThis view of education has recently been advocated under the assumption that all persons are born lop-sided\n\nin mental endowment,\n\nor, to use\n\nthe stronger diction of an apostle of the new philosophy, all children are\nborn “long” in some powers and “short” in others.\nOne child, for\nexample, is born short in mathematics, another in language, another in\nIt thus becomes the province of the\nmusic, another in drawing, etc.\nteacher to discover in what powers his pupils are born “long,” and then\nafford these powers the opportunity to grow longer, thus co-operating\nwith nature and moving in harmony with her “ divine ordinations.”\nThis “long-and-short”’ theory of the mental endowments of youth\nalso applies to their activities and labor.\nOne child is born short in farm\nwork, another in the mechanic arts, another in housekeeping, and\n\nso on;\n\nand, since inclination is assumed to be in the direction of natural ability\nor aptitude, it follows that no youth should be required to do what he\ndoes\n\nnot\n\nlike to do.\n\nIf, for\n\nexample, he does\n\nnot\n\nlike\n\nfarm work, he\n\nshould be excused from what will be to him drudgery ; and if, perchance,\na youth is born short in all work, he should be permitted to honor\nnature’s ordination by being an idler and living off the toil of others.\nIn the light of this philosophy the professional tramp may be defined as a\nman born short, except in stomach and legs.\nClosely related to this theory of individualism are phases of the doctrine of interest, the term being loosely used to cover, not only interest\nproper,\n\nbut tastes,\n\ninclinations,\n\naffections,\n\ndesires,\n\netc.\n\nThis\n\ndoctrine\n\nassumes that the interests of a child indicate his special endowment or\nnatural aptitude, and hence, in following the child’s interests education is\nmoving in the direction of least resistance, and thus makes the most\nrapid progress.\nIt is even claimed that interest may be accepted as a\nsure and safe guide, not only in education, but in industrial pursuits, and\nit is confidently urged that it is the duty of the teacher to discover the\npupil’s interests and follow them, not only in the selection of studies, but\nalso in methods of instruction.\n\nIt is assumed, somewhat\n\nin the face of\n\nexperience, that teachers have the insight and wisdom necessary for such\na task.\nOther advocates of the doctrine of interest recognize the fact that the\npresent interests of pupils are not always in harmony with their best\nendowments, and so the problem in their education is the establishment\nThis view\nof new interests that are in harmony with such endowments.\nproper\nconfirming\nand\nawakening\nof\nmakes education largely the process\ninterests in pupils, interest thus becoming an end of education.\n\nBoth of these views overlook the fundamental fact that interest is at\nbest only a condition or concomitant in education—never a cause or end.\nIt is true that interest is ‘‘the mother of attention,” that it leads the way\n\nin man’s best efforts; and so is a necessary\n\ncondition\n\nin all successful\n\n"}
{"page": 386, "printed_page": null, "text": "376\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nExperience attests the statement that the awakening of the\nlearning.\nIt is thus seen that\npupil’s interest is essential to success in teaching.\ninterest is a principle of great importance in pedagogy; and it is well\nthat this principle has lately received new attention and emphasis.\nBut the assumption that interest is a safe guide in education is sadly\njostled by the well-known fact that human interest is subject to very\nA new interest is often born of some deep\nsudden and radical changes.\nexperience in a day, and new interests are constantly supplanting earlier\nAs we climb the ladder of human experience, we are constantly\nones.\nWe do not carry”\nleaving the successive rounds of interest behind us.\nthese rounds with us.\nIt is also to be noted that new interests are awakened by new\nknowledge.\nThere may be a subjective aptitude and condition, but there\nmust also be an external excitant.\nInterest in a new style of hat is\nexcited by seeing it, and we are assured that absorbing interest in a\nbicycle can only be realized by riding it. We suspect that this principle\nexplains several things in this modern art; as, for example, the apparent\nindifference of a lady to on-lookers when she is riding a wheel.\nTHESE\n\nTHEORIES\n\nREVIEWED.\n\nThese several theories of human nature hold each a large element of\ntruth, but the difficulty arises when any one of them is put forward as the\nwhole truth, or even as the basis of the whole truth.\nA complete human\nlife is a very complex thing, even if we accept Herbert Spencer’s analysis as\ncomprehensive.\nThe ends of such a life, according to Mr. Spencer, are\n\n(1) direct self-preservation, the preservation of life and health; (2) indirect\nself-preservation, or self-maintenance ; (3) parenthood, or the rearing of\noffspring ; (4) citizenship, including the social and civil functions; and\n(5) rational enjoyment, enriched by culture, which Mr. Spencer belittles\nas “the refinements of life.” The attainment of even these ends of complete living involves, not only endowments of a high order, but wise and\n\nwide preparation.\nMoreover, they are attained, if attained, under the\ndemands and limitations of civilization, to say nothing of the conditions\nand laws of an all-controlling divine moral government.\nIt is obvious that an education that prepares man to fulfill these ends\nof human existence must deal primarily with common endowments and\ncommon interests. It is true that each individual of the race is born with\nindividual characteristics, but the deeper and more vital fact is that all\nmen are born with common powers and needs.\nIt is this common, or\ntype, endowment, facing, as it does, common,\n\nor type, ends, that makes\n\nthe school and the college possible and necessary.\nSpecial aptitudes are\nthe variations of the individual from the type, but the type remains and\nis the dominant factor in the education of youth.\n\n"}
{"page": 387, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nELECTION\n\n.\n\nbe, it is true, a wise recognition\n\nThere must\n\nIN\n\nGENERAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nof the individual\n\nShy\n\nvaria-\n\ntions, but the common powers and needs must not be sacrificed.\nPreparation for complete living, even in the five directions specified by\nMr. Spencer, involves the efficient training of type or race powers, and\nthis training must be aided by “organized knowledge”—‘. ¢., knowledge\nproperly arranged and correlated.\nThere is no problem of human life more interesting than the adjustments of the special endowments of individuals to the conditions and\ndemands of civilized life. The industries and arts that minister to selfpreservation, self-maintenance, parenthood, and citizenship lie at the\nbasis of civilization, and are properly considered as fundamental activities. The normal child is born with capabilities needed for the mastery\nof these activities.\nWide experiments show that children, as a class, can\nlearn\n\nthe\n\nprimary arts of reading,\n\nlanguage,\n\nnumber, writing, drawing,\n\n'and singing.\nVery few children are born “short” in any one of these\nfundamental school arts.\nThey involve the common endowments of the\nrace for great common ends.\nBut each of these arts has a higher, or true art, phase, and its attain-\n\nment requires special endowments, which in a degree are exceptional, not\nuniversal.\nHence few persons, comparatively, are born with aptitudes\nthat make it possible for them to be great artists, whether in oratory,\nliterature, music, painting, or sculpture; and for the reason that the\nhighest civilization demands but comparatively few great artists—a reason\nthat touches the deep principle of design in human life, a principle which\n\nhas been strangely overlooked.\nThis principle is strikingly obvious in those industries that minister\ndirectly to self-preservation and self-maintenance.\nAll men are born\nwith capabilities for the simple industrial activities that supply food,\nclothing, and shelter, while but few men, comparatively, have those\nspecial endowments which are requisite for high inventive skill or large\nexecutive efficiency.\nIn a sentence, there seems to be a marvelous adaptation of individual capabilities to the demands and needs of civilization\n—a divine economy, if I may so speak, in the distribution of human\n\nendowments.\n\n.\n\nIt would, however, be a serious mistake to infer from these facts that\n\nthe common endowments of the race are low and rudimentary in possible\nactivity, or to assert, with Carlyle, that “the mass of mankind are born\nputty-headed.”\nIn a low civilization the great majority of the race seem\nto be born “hewers of wood and drawers of water,” but universal enlightenment and wider opportunities find man’s natural endowment equal to the\nnew demands.\nThe marked triumphs of popular education have been in\nthe direction of industrial power and skill, as well as in moral and social\nIt has put intelligence at the loom and the spinning wheel,\nelevation.\n\n"}
{"page": 388, "printed_page": null, "text": "378\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nIt is, indeed,\nand made the brain of labor stronger than its muscles.\nhuman race\nthe\nbut\ncivilization,\nhigh\nto\nbarbarism\na long road from low\nis capable of making the ascent.\nRESULTS\n\nOF\n\nCONFLICT\n\nBETWEEN\n\nTHESE\n\nTHEORIES.\n\nThe conflict between these theories of human life for supremacy in the\nAmerican school and college has brought the traditional methods of\nThis conflict is thickest\neducation into the very throes of revolution.\naround the question of a true course of study.\nFor years past there has\nbeen an increasing recognition of the importance of several courses of\nstudy in the college, and also in the high school, each looking to some\ngreat interest, or department of industry or life. Hitherto these several\ncourses have contained in common at least the elements of all fundamental studies and arts, and their differentiations have been in the higher\n\nphases of these studies or in branches less fundamental.\nBut individualism demands something more radical than several\ncourses of study, each leading to an appropriate degree.\nIt urges that\nthe student should have a choice, not between courses, but between\nstudies, thus determining his own course, if course it be, from first to last.\n\nIn an address at John Hopkins University a few years since the president of one of our leading universities advocated the scheme that a\nuniversity should provide instruction in some eight or nine great lines of\nknowledge, and that students should be permitted to select any three of\nthese and, on completing the studies selected in a satisfactory manner, be\ngraduated.\nThis scheme was presented in the interest of what the distinguished speaker was pleased to call a “broad education.”\nIt struck\nme at the time as a broad scheme for permitting students so choosing to\nobtain a narrow education under the cover of a deceptive degree.\nIt is\nnot the breadth of the university scheme on paper, but the studies actually\nmastered by students, that determine the breadth of their training and\nattainments.\nThis scheme for “broad education” is akin to the assumption that a\nwell-equipped college gymnasium, in which a score or two of students are\ntrained to be athletes, will, in some vicarious manner, impart physical\n\ndevelopment to the hundreds of students who have no systematic: physical training.\nIt is also a close cousin to the assumption that lends a\nsupposed special virtue to the provision made for manual training in\nsome of our cities—this provision being limited to a separate manual\ntraining school of high-school grade, in which less than one pupil in\ntwenty in the schools takes shop exercises, called “work,” for two hours\na day for a few months.\nIt seems to be assumed that this limited recognition of the value of manual training will somehow inspire all the youth\nof the city with desired respect for hand labor, and that, by a common\n\n"}
{"page": 389, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nELECTION\n\nIN\n\nGENERAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n379\n\nimpulse, they will at last rush from the schools into the workshop and\nthe kitchen.\nThe value of physical and manual training is largely\nlimited\n\nto the students, few or many, who take the training.\n\nNothing\n\nis\n\ngained in education by over-claims and pretention.\nENDS\n\nOF\n\nHUMAN\n\nEXISTENCE.\n\nIt seems unnecessary in this presence to enter into a formal discussion\nof the ends of human existence in order to show that no one of the\ntheories now considered affords an adequate basis for a system of general\neducation—z. ¢., an education that seeks to give the student a general\npreparation for complete and successful living ; an education that involves\nat least five fundamental studies and disciplines, both in their elementary\nand higher phases.\nMr. Spencer seems to overlook the fact that the preservation of man’s\n- physical nature is but the condition of a higher good.\nThe body exists\nfor the soul that inhabits and glorifies it. Physical health, comfort, and\nperfection are but means to a higher end—that end the nurture and\nperfection of man’s physical nature.\nWhat is the worth of this physical\ntemple when reason chatters at its portals, or idiocy stares through its\nwindows?\n‘The soul is the supreme human fact, and the perfection of\nthe soul is man’s supreme personal interest and duty.\nNor is this subordination of man’s two natures, the physical to the\nspiritual, changed if we make earthly happiness the supreme end of life.\nHere we shall find that the highest enjoyments flow from the perfection\nand use of man’s highest powers.\nThe sensualist, the glutton, and the\nsavage are not the best types of human happiness.\nThe exalted delights\nof the intellect, the exquisite joys of esthetic taste, the sacred raptures of\nmoral beauty and Christian faith, far exceed the epicurean pleasures of\n;\nappetite and sense.\nMorever, the culture and perfection of man’s spiritual nature multi_ ply and ennoble the sources of physical enjoyment.\nThe nearer a man\n\ncomes down to the brute, the fewer and the coarser\nwants; and, on the contrary, the higher his elevation\nanimal, the more\n\nexalted\n\nare his desires, and\n\nare his physical\nabove the mere\n\nthe richer and\n\nnobler\n\nhis\n\nenjoyments.\n\nTHIS LAW OF SUBORDINATION\n\nUNIVERSAL.\n\nThe same law of subordination that rules in man’s nature pervades all\nhuman activities and interests.\nAs a man’s chief personal duty is the\nperfection of his higher nature, so the highest parental duty is the develThe body of the\nopment and culture of his child’s spiritual nature.\nvigor faithfully\nand\nhealth\nits\nfor,\ncared\nwisely\nbe\nto\nindeed,\nis,\nchild\ndearer to the\nlife\nunfolding\nthat\nin\nsomething\nis\nthere\nbut\npreserved;\nevery smile\nIn\nwell-being.\nand\nperfection\nparents’ heart than physical\n\n"}
{"page": 390, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n380\n\n[National\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nof joy, in every gleam of dawning intelligence, is seen the indwelling\nworth, the object of supremest care and solicitude—the God-imaged soul.\nA like subordination is seen in man’s relation to material civilization.\nThe great enterprises that tax and honor human skill and industry, the\nhumming manufactories, the winged and steam-pulsed commerce, the\niron highways that belt the continents, the lightning’s nerves stretched\nthrough the ocean’s depths and pulsating with the world’s passing history\n—these all are but agencies to minister to man’s needs and well-being.\nLet\nTheir glory and their value are alike the reflex of the soul’s worth.\nintellectual and moral civilization be turned back towards paganism, and\n‘The supreme human\nhow quickly the tide of material progress recedes!\nneed is a higher, broader, richer, and truer manhood.\n\nThe same law of subordination pervades man’s civil and political\nduties. An important function of government is the protection of life\nand property, and for the reason that these are necessary to the higher\nends of human existence.\nLikewise material advancement and physical\ncomforts and easements are important elements of national prosperity,\nand as such demand the attention of government.\nBut these are not the\nhighest ends of government.\nThe vital elements of national life are\nliberty, justice, truth, honor, virtue, righteousness, dwelling\nhuman hearts and life; and when these cease to vitalize and\n\nregally in\nennoble a\n\nnation’s material civilization, its bloom\n\nConstitu-\n\ntions\n\nand\n\nlaws, executives\n\nand\n\nand fruitage perish.\n\ncourts, commerce\n\nand\n\nart, churches\n\nand\n\nschools, are but co-ordinate agencies for the nurture and perfection of\nman in his complete birthright and destiny.\nThis view reveals the fatal defect in that philosophy of education\nwhich regards man as a grand physical organism, born of physical nature\nand reaching up to nothing; that makes a complete human life rest upon\nthe broad base of bread-winning activities, and taper upwards through\nparental, social, and civil duties and interests to mere esthetic gratification and enjoyment; that makes the material forms and conditions of\ncivilization\n\nmore\n\nimportant\n\nand\n\nfundamental\n\nthan\n\ncivilization\n\nitself.\n\nSuch a view of life subordinates the soul to the body and reverses the\nends of human existence.\nA complete life is rather a truncated cone, resting on the smaller\nbase of physical being, and lifting itself by widening sections of nobler\nactivities, until it fills the circle of the soul’s highest aspirations and loses\nitself in the infinite perfections of its Maker.\nIn a true philosophy of\nlife man is broader and higher than his physical conditions and needs.\nTHIS\n\nSUBORDINATION\n\nRULES\n\nIN EDUCATION.\n\nThis law of subordination that rules in man’s nature and activities—\nthe physical to the spiritual—indicates, not only the prime functions of\n\n"}
{"page": 391, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nELECTION IN GENERAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n381\n\neducation, but also their true subordination.\nThe first and highest\nfunction of school training is the development and culture of all the\npupil’s powers in due harmony.\nThe second and subordinate function\nis the imparting of a knowledge of those facts and principles which are\npractically useful for the purposes of guidance in life. The first is discipline or training; the second knowledge.\nIn each of these functions the physical is subordinated to the spiritual.\nThe disciplinary function includes (1) the perfection of man’s physical\npowers—the developing, purifying, and beautifying of the soul; and (2)\nthe nurture and perfection of the body. The second function includes\n(1) the acquisition of knowledge needed for the proper discharge of life’s\nhigher duties; and (2) the acquisition of information useful in promoting\nphysical well-being and self-maintenance\n—that is, “in getting a living.”\nIn the order of time the physical may, especially in early training, take\n’ precedence, but in importance and emphasis it is always subordinate to\nthe spiritual.\nIn determining the value of knowledge for guidance in life, a careful\ndistinction must be made between those empirical facts and details which\nare best learned by experience, and those general facts and principles\nthat can guide and fructify experience.\nThe knowledge necessary to\nmake a boot or a coat, to shoe a horse or build a house, is to be acquired\nby learning the art, and the schools cannot be made workshops for this\npurpose.\nIt may be true, as Froude claims, that ‘every honest occupation to which a man sets his hand would raise him into a philosopher if\nhe mastered all the knowledge that belongs to his craft,” but this method\nof making philosophers is not practicable in our schools.\nA school in\nwhich\n\ntailors,\n\nweavers,\n\ncarpenters,\n\nshoemakers,\n\nhostlers, nurses, etc., are\n\neach taught the “knowledge” that belongs to his craft would be a curiosity. Such a scheme of general education is utterly Utopian.\nThe fact\nis, the knowledge directly and specially used in the different trades and\npursuits of life can receive but little attention in a course of general\neducation, and for the reason that such knowledge has a special application and is not of general interest and utility.\nMoreover, what a man most needs, even for the work of life, is not so\n\nmuch specific knowledge as mental aptitude and power.\n\n‘‘ Education,”\n\nshoemaker,\n\nif that be his\n\nsays\n\nMill, ‘makes\n\na man a more\n\nintelligent\n\noccupation, but not by teaching him how to make shoes; it does so by\nThe abiding,\nthe mental exercise it gives, and the habits it impresses.”\nof the facts\nknowledge\nA\npractical result of school training is power.\nand principles relating to a given pursuit is very important, but higher\nthan this is that developed strength and ability, that power of discernment and application, which can change the dead facts of knowledge into\nKnowledge may guide and\nthe living realities of human action.\n\n"}
{"page": 392, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n382\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n[ National\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nenlighten, but discipline gives acumen, insight, grasp, inspiration ; and\nthese are the lucky winners of success in all the conflicts and emergencies\nof life. Practical facts, to be of practical utility for guidance, must be\n‘‘ With brains, sir,” was Mr. Opie’s reply\napplied by an intelligent mind.\nto the student who wished to know with what the great artist mixed his\npaints, and this answer contains the practical philosophy of both art and\nThe prime want in getting a living, which Mr. Froude makes\nindustry.\nthe chief\n\nend\n\nof life, is brains—a\n\nmind\n\nkeen-sighted\n\nand\n\nfar-sighted,\n\nsteady in aim and purpose, and full of faith.\nThe prime question to determine the value of knowledge for guidance\nis not whether it bears directly upon the labor of the farmer or mechanic\nas such, but rather, Will it fit him for complete and successful living as @\nThe artisan must also be\n‘Man does not live by bread alone.”\nman?\nthe guide of the family,\n\na member\n\nof society, a citizen\n\nof the state, the\n\nsubject of divine government; and out of these relations flow duties of the\nEvery child born into American citizenship is conhighest importance.\nfronted by the grandest political and social problems in earth’s history,\ndemanding a ripeness of judgment, a breadth of information, and a\ncatholicity of spirit. Here the knowledge of most value is that which\nprepares man to meet the obligations of an exalted, noble manhood.\nThe engineer must be swifter than his engine, the plowman deeper than\nhis furrow, and the merchant longer than his yardstick.\nBesides, all experience shows that an education dwarfed to the facts\nthat concern a given occupation defeats itself.\nSpecial preparation for\ngiven pursuits needs to rest upon a general preparation for all pursuits,\nand the more comprehensive the general preparation, the more fruitful and\nuseful the special training.\nThis general training is all the more necessary since most occupations, when pursued continuously and intensely,\ngroove the mental activities and result in narrow, lop-sided men.\nMoreover, were it desirable to narrow everyone’s education to the\ngroove of his future calling, such a system would not be feasible in this\ncountry, where the child is not necessarily born into the occupation of\nhis father.\nHere the different pursuits stand with open doors, and\nneither the child nor his parents know which he will enter, nor how long\nhe will remain.\nHow few Americans find themselves at forty in those\ncallings which guilded their day-dreams at fifteen!\nThis one fact is\nsufficient to show the fallacy in deducing the necessity of a system of\ngeneral industrial education in this country from the educational experience of countries where the occupations of life are inherited and predetermined.\nThe future calling of an American boy does not fall within\nthe certainties of intuition or instinct, and by no calculation of chances\ncan he foretell what knowledge or what quality of mind he will need in\nthe affairs of life. A majority of American students come to the begin-\n\nSno\nse\nA=\n\n"}
{"page": 393, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\nELECTION IN GENERAL EDUCATION\na\nAE\nee\nSY\n\n383\n\nning of their college course ignorant of their special bent or their\naptitude in higher studies.\nIt is only after a wide and varied trial of\ntheir powers in the mastery of branches in all the great departments of\nknowledge that they find out the studies and pursuits for which they have\nspecial aptitude or fitness.\nIt is one of the purposes of general education\nThe idea of putting before a\nto disclose the student’s bent and mission.\nyoung lad a catalogue of studies from which he is to select his course is\nabout as hazardous as a later attempt to choose a wife from a collection\nof photographs, or, what is a fitter illustration, from a list of names of the\nOur likes and tastes are quite dependent on knowlfeminine gender.\nedge, and love before sight is not quite sure to be love at sight; and\nespecially after sight.\nELECTIVE\n\nSTUDIES.\n\nI here venture the judgment that a choice by students between two or\nthree carefully arranged courses of study in college leaves no rational\nplace for elective studies below the junior year. A knowledge of all the\nfundamental higher branches is necessary to an intelligent choice among\nelective studies in succeeding years.\nAnd this knowledge is now\nembodied, more or less fully, in the more progressive courses of study\narranged for secondary schools and the first two years of college. These\ncourses include, not only language and mathematics, but also modern\nscience, literature, history and government,\n\netc.\n\nWhile these studies are\n\nnot taught exhaustively to train experts, they are increasingly taught by\nscientific methods, thus affording students a broad and fruitful preparation for university work or for special pursuits.\nIt is true a youth’s\ngeneral education may be limited by conditions beyond his control, and\nso he may be obliged to turn to special studies earlier in the course—as\nearly, it may be, as the close of the high school, or even\n\nas early as the\n\nclose of the elementary school.\nBut whatever be thé length of his\ngeneral education, it should be broad and helpful.\nBesides, we are now\nconsidering what is ideally best, not what hard necessity may demand.\n\nCONCLUSION.\nThe principles reached in this discussion shed a clear light upon the\nproblem of American education.\nThey show that our schools and\ncolleges for general education should have for their first aim the development and culture of man as man, and his elevation toward the highest\nand best ideals of human\n\nlife; and\n\ntheir second\n\nand\n\nsubordinate\n\naim\n\nshould be to furnish him with knowledge necessary for guidance in the\nduties of life. They show that such is the harmony between man’s nature\nand his life work that the education which best meets the needs of the\nformer is the best general preparation for the latter—thus converting the\n‘They indicate that the\nterms of Herbert Spencer’s famous aphorism.\n\n"}
{"page": 394, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n384\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nreform needed in our courses of study is not one of exclusion or narrowing, but of adjustment and correlation; that the “‘new education”’ of the\nnear future will be as wide as the soul’s needs and as comprehensive as the\nduties of life. They welcome the modern sciences and arts to their true\nplace in the school and the college, and they open the doors of the\nuniversity, not only toward the professions, but also toward technical\npursuits and the great industries that conquer nature for man.\nWe thus reach the basis for an exhaustive statement of the aim and\npurpose of school education—a statement that places man above, and yet\nprepares him for, his life’s work; that neither exalts him into an ethereal\nregion of supreme repose to be satiated with what Arnold calls “sweetness and light,” nor trails his manhood in the furrows of life’s toil.\nIt\nunites man to nature, to society, and to God—to nature, that he may\n\ndiscover\n\nher laws, utilize her forces,\n\nand\n\nenjoy\n\nher munificence ; to\n\nsociety, that he may eradicate its evils, improve its condition, and receive\n\nits protection; and to God, that he may be sustained, guided, purified,\nand saved.\nMy earnest plea is for an education which seeks the perfection of man\nin nature, enjoyment, and\n\nlabor;\n\nthe mind only, but the man;”\n\nan education whose polar idea is “not\n\nan education\n\nthat prepares the mind to\n\nthink the truth, the heart to enjoy it, the will to purpose it, and the hand\nto perform it.\n\nDISCUSSION.\n[REPORTED BY R, G. BOONE.|]\n\nIt was explained by the writer of the paper that the discussion had reference to work\nbelow the university entirely.\nD. L. KIEHLE raised the question: What has been the contribution of Herbert\nSpencer on this matter of elective work in education?\nHas he not subscribed to the view\nas set forth by Dr. White?\n\nPROFEssoR A. T. ORMOND, Princeton University—The difficulty with Mr. Spencer’s\ndefinition that education has to fit one for complete living lies, not in its form, but in the-\n\ninterpretation which he puts upon life. This conception is wrong. It approaches life\ngenetically and not spiritually. The notion is not broad enough to include the higher\nactivities. It is, therefore, inadequate as a pedagogical guide. It does scant justice to\nthe spiritual activities. He gives no satisfactory scale of values. He reduces the ethical\nrelation to a material basis, and does not adequately provide for the humanistic instinct\nin nature —that instinct which responds to the higher and refining influences of life.\nHis definition is inadequate from the religious point of view. No scale of values is\nsufficient that leaves this out.\nThe standpoint from which our view is to be developed is on the side of art rather\nthan science.\n\nArs\ne9g\n1\n\n"}
{"page": 395, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nOF TWELVE\n\nTo the National\n\nCouncil of Education:\n\nON RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n385\n\nTHE\n\nON\n\n-RURAL SCHOOLS.\n\nThe undersigned Committee of Twelve on Rural Schools, appointed\nat the meeting of the National Council of Education, Denver, Colo., July\n9, 1895, has the honor to submit the following report discussing the rural\n\nschool problem in its four several aspects, each of which has been the\n- special care of a subcommittee of three persons, who have submitted their\nresults from time to time to the criticism of the entire committee. These\nsubcommittee reports are preceded by a general introduction, written by\nthe Chairman of the Committee of Twelve, in which a history of the formation of the committee is given, together with a brief summary of the\nrecommendations of the several subcommittees.\nIn the appendix will be\nfound a number of valuable contributions illustrative of different points\nmade in the several reports.\nHENRY SABIN,\nD. L. KIEHLE,\nA. B. POLAND,\nC. C. Rounps,\nJ. H. PHILLIPS,\nB. A. HINSDALE,\n\nINTRODUCTION.\n\nTo the National Council of Education:\nThe undersigned, Chairman of the Committee on Rural Schools\nappointed at the meeting of the National Council of Education, Denver,\nColo., July 9, 1895, would respectfully submit the following report :\n\n"}
{"page": 396, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION |\n\n386\n\n[National\n\ndll\nA.\n2\n\nAt the meeting of the Council on July 5 the Committee on State\nSchool Systems made a report on the rural-school problem, through\nits chairman,\n\nHenry\n\nSabin.\n\nC. C. Rounds,\n\nPresident\n\nof the Council,\n\nurged immediate action, in view of the importance of the subject, and of\nthe growing interest in the question of improving the condition of the\nOther members joined in the discussion, and, on motion\nrural schools.\nof B. A. Hinsdale, the chair was directed to appoint a committee of five,\nwho should submit a plan for the further investigation of this subject.\nJuly 9 the committee reported as follows:\nResolved, That there be undertaken, under the auspices\n\nof the Council, an investiga-\n\ntion of the subject of rural schools, embracing such topics as revenues and expenditures,\nthe constitution, organization, and duties of boards of management and control, and the\nprovision of suitable teachers.\nMore definitely, said investigation shall be conducted in\ngeneral on the lines laid down in the report of the Committee on State School Systems\nsubmitted to the Council at its present session.\n\nResolved, That a committee of nine be appointed to conduct this investigation, said\ncommittee to consist of the following persons:\nHenry Sabin, of lowa; D. L. Kiehle,\nof Minnesota;\nA. B. Poland, of New Jersey; C. C. Rounds, of New Hampshire ;\nJ. H. Phillips, of Alabama; B. A. Hinsdale, of Michigan; S. T. Black, of California;\n\nW.S. Sutton, of Texas;\n\nand L. E. Wolfe, of Missouri.\n\nResolved, That the Board of Directors\n\nof the National\n\nEducational\n\nAssociation\n\nbe\n\nurgently requested to appropriate, at some session to be held during the course of the present annual meeting, the sum of two thousand five hundred dollars, or such part thereof as\nmay be necessary, to defray the expenses of this investigation, including the publication\nof the report of the committee.\n\nResolved, Thatthe committee should report within the period of two years, in such form\nas it may determine, and that it be authorized to publish its report.\nRespectfully submitted,\nB. A. HINSDALE,\nG. P. Brown,\nD. L. KIEHLE,\n\nJ. R. PRESTON,\nEARL BARNES,\n\nCommittee.\n\nAt the same time the committee was empowered to enlarge its number to twelve, and to fill any vacancies which might occur.\nOn the twelfth day of July the Directors adopted a series of resolutions, under which a sum not exceeding two thousand five hundred dollars was set aside and placed in the Emergency Fund for the use of the\ncommittee.\nThe resolutions also provided that not more than one\nthousand five hundred dollars should be drawn during the year 1895-96;\nthat no compensation should be allowed any member of the committee;\nand that the fund may be drawn upon, if necessary, to defray in whole or\nin part the publication of the report. It is proper to add here that at a\n\ne\n\n"}
{"page": 397, "printed_page": null, "text": ">\noe\n\nCouncil]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nmeeting of the Directors at Buffalo,\n\nON RURAL\n\nupon the request\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nof the Council, an\n\nadditional one thousand dollars was placed in this fund\nthe committee under the same conditions as above.\n\nfor the use of\n\nThe committee held its first meeting July 10, 1895, at which\nmotion\n\n387\n\ntime, on\n\nof Dr. Hinsdale, the committee was increased from nine to twelve\n\nby adding the following persons:\n'B. Evans, Augusta, Ga.;\n\nW. T. Harris, Washington, D. C.;\n\nL.\n\nC. R. Skinner, Albany, N. Y.\n\nMessrs. Sabin, Kiehle, and\n\nHinsdale were constituted\n\na special\n\ncom-\n\nmittee to formulate a plan of work and furnish members with copies of\nthe same; also, to divide the committee into sections and to assign\nappropriate work to each.\nThe committee as finally constituted\n\nconsisted of the following gen-\n\ntlemen:\nHenry Sabin, Des Moines, Ia., Chairman; B. A. Hinsdale, Ann Arbor, Mich.; D. L..\nKiehle, Minneapolis, Minn.; W. T. Harris, Washington, D.C.; A. B. Poland, Trenton,\nN. J.; C. C. Rounds, Plymouth, N. H.; J. H. Phillips, Birmingham, Ala.; S. T. Black,\nSacramento, Cal.; W. S. Sutton, Houston, Tex.; C. R. Skinner, Albany, N. Y.; L. By\nEvans, Augusta, Ga.; L. E. Wolfe, Kansas City, Mo.\n\n_The special Committee of Three met\n\nin Chicago October 25 and 26,\n\n1895, and, after consultation, divided the entire committee into four sub-\n\ncommittees, and assigned certain topics to each for investigation and\nreport.\nThese subcommittees were constituted and the work assigned\nto each in accordance with the following schedules:\nI. School Maintenance.\nWes outton,.o- 1. Black\n\nSubcommittee:\n\nB. A. Hinsdale,\n\nChairman;\n\nThis branch of the subject was divided for convenience into three\nsubheads:\n1. Revenues.—Permanent school funds ; taxation, general and local,\nembracing state, county, township, and district taxes; miscellaneous\nsources of school income, such as fines, licenses, gifts, etc.\n2. Expenditures.— Machinery and methods of distribution, general\nand local. The main points to be considered are the channels through\nwhich the funds reach the schools, and the rules and methods governing\ntheir distribution and application.\n\n3. Organization of Business Administrative Machinery.—The county,\ndistrict, and township-unit systems; the consolidation of schools; the\ntransportation of pupils; county, township, and district high schools;\nthe relation of rural schools to city schools. Inquiry should be made\ninto the main social, industrial, and economical factors that conditiom\nrural education, as density of population, wealth, means of communication, etc.\n\n"}
{"page": 398, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n388\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nL. B. Evans, Chairman; C. R. Skin-\n\nII. Supervision.\nner, Henry Sabin.\n\nSubcommittee:\n\n1. The manner\nor township.\n\nof electing the superintendent, state, county, district,\n\n2. Minimum qualifications required of each, and term of office.\n3. The relation of the superintendent, state, county, district, or town-\n\nship, to the teachers and pupils as officer and adviser.\n4. The relation of the superintendent, state, county, district, or township, to school officers, and their duties.\n\n5. The relation of the state superintendent to the county and\nship superintendent.\n\ntown-\n\n6. The relation of the superintendent to the public at large, as creating and shaping public opinion in rural districts.\n\n7. The relation of the superintendent to school\nture, sanitation, and hygienic conditions.\nIII. Supply of Teachers.\nJ: Hi Phillips; D> Le Kichle.\n\nSubcommittee:\n\nbuildings, architec-\n\nC. C. Rounds, Chairman ;\n\n1. An inquiry into the assistance rendered rural. schools by the following facilities for preparation:\n\n(2) Normal schools.\n{4) Training schools in high schools and academies.\n(c) Summer training schools.\n(d) Institutes.\n2. An inquiry into the means provided for the improvement of teachers already in the service.\n\n(2) Teachers’ meetings and associations.\n(4) Reading circles.\n(¢) Libraries and current literature.\n3- An inquiry into the manner\nteachers.\n\nof electing, employing, and paying\n\n--a.\n~~\n\n(2) By what authority examined and certificated.\n(4) By what authority employed.\n\n(c) Terms of engagement, certificates, and salaries paid.\nIV. Instruction and Discipline.\nman;\n\nSubcommittee:\n\nW. T. Harris, Chair- ,\n\nA. B. Poland, L. E. Wolfe.\n\n1. Methods\nschools.\n\nof teaching and government peculiarly affecting rural\n\na\na\n\n"}
{"page": 399, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF THE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n389\n\n2. Courses of study, text-books, and other appliances.\n3. Working programmes.\n\n4. Gradation and classification of pupils.\n5. The relations of rural schools to their environments;\n\nas to farm\n\nlife, mining life, etc.\n\nIt was also provided that the investigation of the several subdivisions\nof the general subject should follow two main lines:\n1. The condition of rural schools now existing.\n2. Changes to be recommended;\n\nwhatis, and what should be.\n\nIt was not thought necessary that the committee should go into history or development farther than to make the conditions that now exist,\nand the reforms that are recommended, intelligible.\nIt was also recom. mended that changes to be made, or reforms to be proposed, should have\nrespect to existing facts; that they should be practical in the rational\nsense of that word.\nIt was further left to the several subcommittees to determine the methods to be employed in carrying on their work, and to exercise the greatest\nfreedom in enlisting aid from every possible source.\nEach subcommittee was thus left free to formulate such questions as\nseemed best designed to elicit the desired information in the most definite\nform.\nThe committee met at Jacksonville, Fla., February 18 and 19, 1896, for\nconsultation and comparison of results.\nAn informal meeting was held\nduring the sessions of the National Educational Association at Buffalo in\nJuly, 1896, at which time it was determined to hold a meeting of the full\ncommittee at Chicago November 18 to 21,1896.\nThe chairman of each\nsubcommittee was also directed to have such preliminary matter ready at\nthat time as would embrace all the essential points necessary to a fair\nunderstanding of the scope of the final report to be made to the Council\nin July. It was also voted to ask certain experts in rural-school matters\nto meet with\n\nthe committee,\n\nin order\n\nthat it might\n\nhave\n\nthe benefit of\n\ntheir experience.\nThe committee met at the Auditorium in Chicago, as determined.\nThe entire committee was present at each session, with the exception of\nD. L. Kiehle, who for satisfactory reasons was not present until Thursday\nmorning.\nThe following gentlemen were present upon invitation of\nthe chairman :\nJohn MacDonald, editor of the Western School Journal, Topeka, Kan.;\nW. W. Stetson, State Superintendent of Maine; J. L. Pickard, of lowa\nCity, Ia.; O. T. Bright, County Superintendent of Cook county, Ill.;\n\nAlbert G. Lane, City Superintendent of Chicago; D. E. McClure, County\n\n"}
{"page": 400, "printed_page": null, "text": "399\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nSuperintendent of Oceana county, Mich.; W. H. Chandler, of Madison,\nWis.; President F. W. Parker, of the Chicago Normal School; G. R.\nShawhan, County Superintendent of Champaign county, Ill.; John\nTrainer, of Decatur, Ill.; T. C. Chamberlin, of The University of Chicago;\n\nJ. J. Schobinger,\n\nChicago Normal School;\n\nof Morgan\n\nPark, Ill.; W.\n\nS. Jackman,\n\nof the\n\nA. W. Edson, State Agent, Boston, Mass.\n\nWednesday and Thursday were devoted to general discussion, one\nhalf day being allotted to each of the four subcommittees in the following\norder: School Maintenance, Supervision, Supply of Teachers, and Instruction and Discipline. Friday and Saturday were devoted to the consideration of the preliminary reports submitted by the chairmen of the respective\nsubcommittees.\nThe sessions were held from 9 a.M. to 12 M. and from 3\nto 6 p.m.\nIn order to facilitate discussion printed or typewritten copies\nof the main propositions in each report were placed in the hands of those\npresent.\nDuring Friday and Saturday the reports were read section by\nsection, and, after alterations and amendments as suggested by various\nmembers of the committee, they were adopted.\n\nIt was further ordered that the reports of the different subcommittees\nshould appear in the printed volume in the following order:\n1. School\n\nMaintenance.\n\n2. Supervision.\n\n3. Supply of Teachers.\n4. Instruction and Discipline.\nOn motion, the entire matter of printing the report, when completed,\nwas intrusted to the charge of the chairman of the committee, with the\nsuggestion that he confer with the United States Commissioner of Education in regard to securing the co-operation of the national bureau for\npublication purposes.\n\nT. C. Chamberlin, of The University of Chicago;\nthe Chicago\n\nNormal\n\nSchool,\n\nand\n\nF. H. King,\n\nW. S. Jackman, of\n\nof Madison,\n\nWis., were\n\nrequested to prepare a discussion of the possibilities of a course of study\nespecially adapted to agricultural environments.\nThis discussion constitutes Appendix G of this report.\n\nAppendix A, consisting of a paper read by B. A. Hinsdale before the\nDepartment of Superintendence at Jacksonville, is published by order of\nthe committee.\nThe course of study for rural schools and the paper by\nDr. White, designated as Appendix J, and the paper by F. W. Parker,\nAppendix H, are inserted by the same authority.\nThe other matter in\nthe appendix has been placed there in accordance with a vote of the\ncommittee, leaving the selection to the choice of the chairman of each\nsubcommittee and of the general committee.\n\n"}
{"page": 401, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nRURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n391\n\nThe date for publication of the report was fixed at from four to six\nweeks before the meeting of the National Educational Council at MilAfter determining that the chairman of each subcommittee\nwaukee.\nshould send a typewritten or printed copy of his report to each member\nof the committee before publication for suggestions or amendments, the\ncommittee adjourned.\nIn the foregoing historical statement no attempt has been made to\nfollow the exact order of proceedings, but only to gather from the Secretary’s records such main points as will give the Council exact information\nof the methods adopted by the committee.\nAs soon as possible after the adjournment of the committee the\nchairman of each subcommittee prepared his report, and printed or typewritten copies were sent to other members, and also in all cases to persons\nwho were supposed to be able to point out omissions or to suggest alterations.\nAs aresult these reports represent the combined experience of\nmany competent persons besides members of the committee.\nThis\nmethod led to much correspondence on the part of the chairmen, but\nit has undoubtedly aided them very materially in making a broader and\nmuch more comprehensive report.\nThe committee found itself confronted from the beginning with the fact that the environments of schools\ndiffer so much in various sections of the country that it is impossible to\nmake other than very general suggestions.\nConditions vary so much\nbetween Maine\n\nand California, or Minnesota and Texas, that what would\n\nbe an excellent system in one would possibly fail in the other.\nSCHOOL\n\nMAINTENANCE,\n\nThose who read the following reports will find that several recommendations are made by more than one subcommittee.\nThus in the\nmatter of organization the necessity of adopting a larger unit than the\ndistrict, as the township or the county, is very strenuously insisted upon\nby two or more subcommittees.\nIt is a fact of such great importance\nthat other essential points hinge upon this. The arguments are very fully\nstated in the report of the Subcommittee on School Maintenance, but the\ngeneral committee is fully agreed upon the desirability of effecting this\nchange wherever the district system at present prevails.\nIt would conduce to effectiveness and simplicity of organization; to economy in the\nuse and distribution of funds; to the equalization of the burdens of taxation, and to a system of supervision which would produce better results\nfrom the instruction given in the rural schools.\nAgain, all the subcommittees are strongly in favor of the consolidation\nof schools which are too small to employ profitably the time of one teacher\ninto larger schools, when practicable, in order that better instruction may\nbe provided than is possible under the present system. This involves\n\n"}
{"page": 402, "printed_page": null, "text": "392\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nalso paying for the transportation of pupils to some central school at\nThe different subcommittees have reached this conthe public expense.\nThe inferences drawn from facts\nclusion, each from its own standpoint.\nThe conclusions\nand figures are too obvious to need any argument.\narrived at in the discussion of the two points, organization and consolidation, are very broad, and would seem to be applicable to some\nsection of nearly every state in the Union.\nThe manner of raising and distributing the revenues has been carefully investigated, and the subcommittee having that subject in charge\nseems to have reached very wise and just conclusions.\nThe township, or\nspecial district, in which the parents of the pupils reside should contribute\nEvery interest\nto the school funds, as should the county and the state.\nconcerned in the education of children should bear a proportionate share\nof the burden of taxation.\n\nIn the distribution of school\n\nfunds, because\n\nof the community of interests involved in popular education, the strong\nand wealthy must contribute to the support of schools in weak and impoverished districts. It may not be possible to provide equal school facilities\nin every part of the state, but every district in which a school is established should be assured beyond all doubt of a sufficient sum of money\nto employ a competent teacher for the minimum number of months or\ndays fixed by the law. The duty of providing for the pupils of the rural\nschools the means whereby they can have the benefit of high schools in\ntheir neighborhood has not been overlooked.\nIt is not necessary to discuss fully these points. Attention is invited to them as set forth in the\nreport of the Subcommittee on School Maintenance.\nSUPERVISION.\n\nThe subject of school supervision is discussed under the general divisions of state, county, township, and district. The task assigned this subcommittee is difficult because, as far as rural schools are concerned, there\n\nare no well-defined lines of work upon which there is a general agreement.\nThere is great need of supervision which is intelligent and which\ncarries with it some degree of authority.\nAs a general thing, the officer\nknown as state superintendent has only advisory authority.\nHe can\nmake suggestions, but they carry with them no more force than there is\nin the character and influence of the officer who makes them.\nHe is too\nfar removed from the rural schools, and is too much engaged in other\nmatters connected with his office, to come into close touch with them and\ntheir present interests.\nNo one questions that supervision should be compulsory.\nIn fact,\n\nsuch is the case in most states today. The great question connected with\nit is how to make it effective. A supervisor who has charge of a hundred schools or more, scattered\n\nover an entire county, finds it impossible\n\n"}
{"page": 403, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nREPORT OF THE COMMITTEE\n\nON RURAL SCHOOLS\n\n303\n\nto control and direct them in accordance with well-devised plans. Accordingly the subcommittee urges township or district supervision where it is\npracticable, or that each supervisor should have such deputies or assistants\nas will enable him to reach every part of his field. Again, if supervision\nAs\nis to be effective it must be the product of skill and intelligence.\nwell put an ordinary seaman, selected from the crew by lot, in charge of\nan ocean steamer, with its precious cargo of lives and wealth, as to place a\nraw, uncultivated man or woman, selected by the chances of a political\nconvention, in charge of the schools in which our youth are being trained\nfor citizenship.\nThe subcommittee is of the opinion that certain qualifications, moral\n\nand mental, with\n\nsome\n\nexperience in teaching, should\n\nbe\n\nexacted from everyone who aspires to the duties of a supervisory office.\nThe duties which are incumbent upon a supervisor of schools have been\nso minutely discussed that it is not necessary to restate them here.\nIt is\nsufficient to say that knowledge and skill, enthusiasm and patience, sympathy and forbearance, firmness and justice, are requisite in one who would\ndischarge his duties conscientiously and with due regard to the highest\ngood of all concerned.\nThe importance of bringing the school into touch with the farm\n‘and the home has been dwelt upon at some length (Appendix O). To\nthis end the supervisor should make himself thoroughly acquainted with\npeculiar conditions of life in his supervisory district.\nIt is not enough\nthat he visit the school and consult with the teacher.\nHe must: meet\nschool officers and parents, awaken their sympathy and arouse their\ninterest, if he would do his whole duty. He must have a controlling\ninfluence in the selection of teachers, in the erection of school buildings,\nespecially as concerns sanitation and hygiene, in teachers’ meetings, and\nin general school work throughout his entire territory.\nA wise supervisor cannot fail to observe carefully the environments of\nthe school, which exert a powerful, though unconscious, influence upon the\ncharacter of the pupils.\nThe bearings of the esthetical upon the ethical side of the child’s nature, the relations of music and art as determin-\n\ning the development of the child along right lines, should be observed\nand guarded as well in the rural as in the city schools.\nSUPPLY\n\nOF\n\nTEACHERS.\n\nThe question of the support afforded teachers is one great hindrance\nin the way of improving the rural school. The following table, showing\nthe average monthly salaries paid teachers in rural schools, has been comIt is\npiled from answers to circulars sent out to state superintendents.\nbetween\ndistinction\nno\nmake\nstatistics\nthe\nstates\nmost\nin\nthat\nunfortunate\nConsequently many of the returns are\ncity and rural school-teachers.\n\n"}
{"page": 404, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n394\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n[National\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nThey are valuable, however, for purposes of comparison and\nestimated.\ngeneral information.\nMales |Females\n\nA labamanir\n\nne eee\nMissouritiec\n\nMales\n\n|Females\n\n$40\n\n$34\n\n60\n35\n85\n\n45\n30\n60\n30\nyi\n29\n33\n\nae season\ncapaie ete\n\n$25\n\n$20\n\neoeeiueepees, ©\nArian Sasi nman\nGaliiorntaysicmacceterie siertonste =<\nene\nColorado 2tees nace\n\n33\n67\n50\n\n201i\n56~\n45\n\nMontatiaec.c.1-1etece\nsiete\nNebraska erraceure aera\nNevada Saes.cne scree aa ene\n\nConne€tticut a asics\nos says «is\nWDOLA WATE saency acevo\ncciele cs a\nMLITINOIS ee ctok stsaae + shatstes aids\nINGA oo eesas apse) sine cscs\n\n30\n35\n30\n40\n\n30\n33\n25\n35\n\nNew Hampshire .........New York4 7. acters.\nk\neites eetcmreerats\nOhio see\nPennsylvania5.........---\n\nLOKETS ci Scie ec aeetns eee\n\n35\n\n30\" ||| Rhodesislandsy\n\n30\n37\n35\n42\n\nscsetsa ace\n\n40\n\n36\n\nne ee\nne cicero\nIGanTiSAS™ dig Macrale\nee\nReemtuclaynwit\nexcuse osteeie\na\nTFOUISIANA,erect\nfe crore cenere ore\n\n40\n36\n40\n\n32\nSouthi@arolisia.ereters te\nBA Wi south sDalkcotaaseiteairteeteae\ne\nen eeet\n33\naus\nVitali eon suoee\n\n30\n36\n53\n\n27\n31\n37\n\nMiaIN€ Peecttenas aiqetaeie aici.\nWiekavenelncceg sbomoncc Game\nMassachusetts.s:. sre cmccre vice\necs\ncele\nsale\nMichigans: .ciseteci\n\n35\n29\n32\n29\n\n22\n29\n26\n25\n\nWiErMlOnl Ae se ueiele slayer ete tare\n\\Nieiyeaten abe boc can tous es\nWrest Virginia ....-...«-+WaASCOMSIM sce alenerenel uerateter ere\n\n39\n28\n36\n46\n\n27\n25\n36\n30\n\nWOTTON)\n\n40\n\n31\n\nAmon\n\n45\n\n40\n\nooade\ncas6\nC565\n\nySue\nooocc\nocd coe\n\nIn connection with above table we must take into account that in\nonly a few states is the average length of the school over eight months.\nThis includes\n\ncities and\n\ntowns, as well as rural districts, so that it is fair\n\nto conclude that in general the country teacher finds employment not to\nexceed seven months in a year, and often not more than five or six.\nThe subcommittee regrets that so few are able to apprehend the qualities essential to a good teacher.\nProfessional fitness is ignored in nearly\nevery case.\nThe smaller the unit of organization, the greater is the disposition to engage teachers for short periods of time.\nAll engagements\nshould be for one year at least, and frequent changes of teachers should\nbe discouraged.\nPerhaps the most important subject intrusted to this subcommittee has\nreference to the training and preparation of teachers.\nThere is no doubt\nthat the normal school in most states does not reach down and take hold\nof the common district school.\n\nThere is room, as indicated in the report,\n\nfor a series of normal training classes with a course of one year, or at\nmost two years, not modeled after a state normal school, but suited in all\nrespects to the needs of a class of young people from whom we draw\nnearly all our rural school-teachers.\nInstruction for one year in such a\nschool could be made to so inspire students with a desire for knowledge,\n‘Includes schools of not more than two teachers.\n* Includes the schools in the agricultural sections only.\n5 Based on fifty-two male teachers and 143 female teachers in towns under $500,000\nvaluation.\n4 $9.26 a week, counting thirty-three and one-third weeks in a year.\n\n5 Not including the city of Philadelphia,\n\n"}
{"page": 405, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF THE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n395\n\nto so fill them with the teaching spirit, as to work a most beneficent\nchange in the schools coming under their charge.\nThe proposition to\nestablish continuous sessions in normal schools, as set forth in the subcommittee’s report, is full of promise for the improvement of rural\nschool-teachers without withdrawing them from active service.\nThe\nterms\n\nand\n\ncourses\n\ncould, under\n\nthe\n\nplan, be so\n\nadjusted\n\nas\n\nto enable\n\nthem to attend a normal school for work in regular courses of study\nduring that large part of the year not occupied in teaching.\nA course\nIf extended to two years, the extension\nfor one year is indicated below.\nshould consist not so much in the introduction of new branches as in\ndoing something more than elementary work in the branches already in\nthe curriculum.\nCOURSE\n\nOF\n\nGeneral Divisions\n\nLanguage.\n>\nMathematics.\n\nSTUDY\n\nFOR\n\nONE\n\nYEAR\n\nOF\n\nFORTY\n\nFirst Term\n\nWEEKS.\n\nSecond Term\n\nReading and Literature.| Grammar.\nElements of Rhetoric.\nArithmetic.\nAlgebra.\n\nGeometry.\n\nNatural and Physical Science. ;Geography.\nBotany.\nElements of Chemistry. |Elementary Physics.\nHistory.\nProfessional\n\nU.S. History.\nCivil Government.\nStudies.\n\nGeneral History.\nBiography.\n\nSchool Economy.\nPhysiology with special reference\nElementary Psychology}\nto hygienic conditions.\nPractice Teaching.\nPractice Teaching.\n\nThe number of lessons in each branch per week must be determined\nby the conditions and necessities of the class. Singing and drawing\nshould have such a place as their importance demands.\nAt least two\nlessons per week for each of them should be insisted upon.\nThe course of study to be completed in one year is arranged according\nto relation of subjects and not according to order of study. It embraces,\nso far as elements are concerned, those subjects which are necessary in\norder to enable a teacher to deal with organic and inorganic nature, with\nhistory and civil government, with literature and language, and with so\nmuch of music and art as the conditions of the school will admit. While\nprovision is made for professional training, the success of such a course\nas this as a means for preparing teachers for their work will depend\nalmost entirely upon the good judgment and skill of those who are\nThe tendency to overload\nintrusted with the management of the school.\n\n"}
{"page": 406, "printed_page": null, "text": "396\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nsuch a course, to crowd two years’ work into one, will have to be very\nThe entire course is intended to be only elecarefully guarded against.\nmentary, and is for the benefit of a large class of teachers who have but\nlittle preparation, and are not able from various reasons to devote more\nThe advanthan one year’s time to attendance upon a normal school.\ntages of a school of this nature would be greatly enlarged by the possession\nof a carefully selected library, and of sufficient apparatus for purposes of\nillustration and experiment. If the students could be taught to make this\napparatus, with maps, charts, etc., for use in rural schools, it would add to\ntheir usefulness as teachers.\nVery great advantage would accrue to the\npupils from coming in contact with disciplined minds in the persons of\nBut few rural teachers know how to study or how to\ntheir instructors.\nget the most out of the books which fall into their hands.\nSummer schools, reading circles, and institutes have received their share\nof attention.\nThe whole ground has been well covered and wil] repay a\ncareful perusal.\nThe scheme for the examination and certification of teachers has been\nthoroughly digested. There will be some who may not agree with the\nsubcommittee in all particulars, but no one will dispute the fact that too\nmany teachers in the rural schools are contented with the lowest grade of\ncertificate which will answer the purpose of the law.\nThere is a great\nnecessity for some scheme such as is here recommended, whereby teachers\ncan rise step by step in their calling, if they earnestly desire to improve.\nOn the other hand, this scheme furnishes a reasonable excuse for not afford-\n\ning further professional recognition of any kind to those who show no\ndisposition or no ability to do anything better in the line of preparation\nfor their work.\nINSTRUCTION\n\nAND\n\nDISCIPLINE.\n\nThe report under this head will be found to embrace several important\nrecommendations.\nSome of these will provoke discussion, but most of\nthem are of such a nature as to commend themselves to every thoughtful\nperson.\n‘The report opens a broad field of inquiry, which must of necessity receive more attention as the wants and necessities of rural schools\nare better considered.\nThe evils of attempting to grade the rural school as the city school is\ngraded are very clearly set forth, accompanied by the suggestion that those\nnormal schools which as part of their work train teachers for rural schools\nshould carefully impress upon such teachers the necessity of considering\nthe size of the school in determining the uses and abuses of grading and\nclassifying pupils. This suggestion is all the more pertinent in view\nof the movement in many states to require some previous professional\ntraining as a prerequisite for entering any public school as a teacher.\n\n"}
{"page": 407, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n397\n\nConsidering that the course of study for the rural school need not\ndiffer in any material point from that provided for the city school, it is urged\nthat the aim of such a course is to enable the pupil to recognize the conditions of inorganic and organic nature, and to pursue the studies of\nliterature, language, and history, as they are necessary for his entrance\nupon civilization.\nThe difference in courses of study for rural or city\nschools is found to be in those collateral branches which relate to the environment of the pupil or to the neighborhood in which he dwells.\nThe\nreport upon this point is very full and will repay a careful study of its\ndetails.\nThe subcommittee calls especial attention to the relation of the\ncourse of study to the system of grading and classification.\nThe suggestions made are of great practical value in any discussion which endeavors to\ndetermine the method of adapting a course of study to the wants and conditions of rural schools.\nIt cannot but be very helpful to be told that the\ncourse of study is the measuring rod used only to determine at what point\nin his work the pupil has arrived, and not a Procrustean bed used to\ngive the work the lifeless beauty of a dead uniformity.\nThe consolidation of those schools which have become so reduced in\nnumbers as to render it unprofitable to maintain them separately, the transportation of pupils at public expense to other schools than their own, and\nthe concentration of higher-grade pupils at a central point, are urged as\nmeans of lessening many of the evils from which rural schools are suffering. This provision, having been grafted into the law of several states,\nbids fair to prove of great benefit.\nWherever it has been tried it has\ncommended\n\nitself\n\nas\n\neconomical,\n\nand\n\nas a means\n\nof affording\n\nbetter\n\nteachers and consequently better schools.\nThe matter of improved\nroads enters incidentally into this discussion, as having great bearing\nupon the question of transporting children to central points for school\npurposes.\nIn connection with school exercises at the town or county center, once\n\nor twice a year, competitive examinations are not recommended, unless\nthey are very carefully guarded.\nThe feature of social intercourse, the\nstimulus which comes from meeting with his mates, have advantages\nwhich ought not to be overlooked or neglected.\nHome reading, with what is termed school extension, is dwelt upon\nat such length as its prominence demands (Afpendix O). To carry\ngood reading material, whether of science, literature, or fiction, prose\nor poetry, into the schools and homes of the rural districts must be a\npart of any educational scheme which has for its object making country\nlife more endurable or more attractive. The various recommendations\nof this part of the report are worthy of careful consideration at the hands\na\nof those even who may not wholly agree with them.\n\n"}
{"page": 408, "printed_page": null, "text": "398\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nCONCLUSION.\n\nYour committee has called in the aid of a number of persons whose\ntime and thought have been largely given to matters connected with the\nmanagement and instruction best suited to the wants of rural schools.\nIt was found impossible to embrace the entire matter placed at our disWe have, therefore, printed much of it\nposal in the body of the report.\nin the form of an appendix, believing that it will add largely to the\nIt is not to be supposed that every point has been\nvalue of this report.\ncovered, or that the entire subject has been\n\nexhausted.\n\nThe committee\n\nhas endeavored diligently and to the best of its ability to throw some light\nupon what may possibly be regarded as a collection of subjects embracing\navery large field. While there are many points worthy of especial attention, I have gathered up the following as a brief summary of those which\nmay be considered of most pressing importance:\nSUMMARY.\n\n1. For purposes of organization, maintenance, or supervision, nothing should be recognized as the unit smaller than the township or the\ncounty ; the school district is the most undesirable unit possible.\n2. Every community should be required to raise a certain sum for the\nsupport of its schools as a prerequisite for receiving its share of public\nmoney. A certain definite sum should be appropriated to each school\nout of the state funds, and the remainder should be divided in accordance\n\nwith some fixed and established rule, a discrimination being made in favor\nof townships most willing to tax themselves for school purposes.\n3- One of the great hindrances to the improvement of the rural school\nlies in its isolation, and its inability to furnish to the pupil that stimulative influence which comes from contact with others of his own age\nand advancement.\nThe committee, therefore, recommends collecting\npupils from small schools into larger and paying from the public funds\nfor their transportation, believing that in this way better teachers can be\nprovided, more rational methods of instruction adopted, and at the same\ntime the expense of the schools can be materially lessened.\n4. There is a tendency to fill the rural schools with untrained, imma-\n\nture teachers. The establishment of normal training schools, under\ncompetent instructors, with short courses, each year of which shall be\ncomplete in itself, would do much to remedy this evil. The extension\nand adjustment of the courses and terms of the state normal schools so\nas to constitute a continuous session would enable them to contribute\nmore directly than now to the improvement of the teachers of rural\nschools (Agpendix S). The state would then be justified in demanding\nsome degree of professional training from every teacher in the rural as\nwell as in the city schools.\n\nte\n\n"}
{"page": 409, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nRURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n399\n\n5. The establishment of libraries, the prosecution of the work of\nschool extension by lectures and other means, the introduction of such\nstudies as will have a tendency to connect the school and the home,\nespecially those having a direct bearing upon the everyday life of the\ncommunity, and the necessity of applying the laws of sanitation to the\nconstruction of rural schoolhouses,\n\ndemand\n\nimmediate attention.\n\n6. The rural schools are suffering from the want of official and intelligent supervision.\nIn every state some standard of qualifications, moral\nand intellectual, with some amount of actual experience, should be\ndemanded by law from those who aspire to fill the office of superintendent\nor supervisor of schools.\n7. Good morals and good manners constitute an assential part of an\neducational equipment. The inculcation of patriotism, of respect for law\nand order, of whatever tends to make a good citizen, is of as much impor-\n\ntance in asmall asina larger school. Regularity, punctuality, obedience,\nindustry, self-control, are as necessary in the country as in the city school.\nCountry school-teachers should call to their aid the beautiful things in\nnature, that with reverential spirit they may lead the children to reverence\nHim who hath made all things good in their season.\nHENRY\n\nSABIN,\n\nChairman.\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE SUBCOMMITTEE\nMAINTENANCE.\n\nON SCHOOL\n\nThe maintenance of an efficient state system of public instruction\ninvolves numerous sociological factors of an important character.\nThis is\nparticularly true in a democratic state, where public opinion gives the\nfinal sanction to all public activities.\nMoreover, there is good reason to\nthink that it is even more important to consider such factors carefully\nwhen providing rural schools than when providing urban schools. The\nbearing of the wealth of the state, both in the aggregate and in relation\nto population; the density of population and the ratio of rural to urban\npopulation; the ratio of the adult or wealth-producing population to the\npopulation of legal school age; the facilities for travel and the character\nof the people in respect to race elements—the value of such factors as\nthese in the problem is almost too plain for argument (Appendix A).\nThe organization and administration of the powers of government\nmust also be considered. The government of the United States stands to\nall the members of the Union in the same relation; that is, within the states\n\nit has no proper educational function whatever.\nhowever, is a constant factor:\n\nThe state government,\n\nit exercises the central state authority.\n\nBut\n\n"}
{"page": 410, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n400\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nwhen we take the next step we are at once confronted by contradiction\nFirst, we find in New England the town system of local\nand confusion.\nHere nearly all the local governmental functions are pergovernment.\nformed by the town; the county exists, but it is more a judicial than a\npolitical unit, and in Rhode Island it is wholly judicial. The town is\nSecondly, the county system, which exists\nmuch, the county little.\nthroughout the South and in several of the western states, more than\nreverses these conditions.\nThe county is the organ of local government, and the township does not commonly exist.\nThe county is\ndivided into districts for the purpose of defining the jurisdiction of\njustices of the peace, into election precincts, and sometimes into school\ntownships.\nHere the county is everything, the town nothing.\nThirdly,\nthe old middle states and most of the western states have what is called\nthe mixed or compromise system.\nIn these states the township is less\nthan in New England and the county more, the county less than in\nthe South\n\nand\n\nthe township\n\nmore;\n\nin other words, both township\n\nand\n\ncounty are employed in something like equal measure. Again, two types\nof the mixed system are found in different states.\nIn New York and\nthe states that have imitated her the county legislative and executive\nboard is composed of supervisors elected by the several townships, while\nin Pennsylvania and the states that have followed her example this board\nis composed of commissioners elected by the county at large.\nThe\ncounty is, therefore,\n\na governmental organ in all the states, while the town-\n\nship is found only in two groups of states.\nMoreover, in those states\nwhere the town or township is found it varies considerably in powers in\ncomparison with the county. These elementary governmental facts it is\nnecessary to remember, because they directly affect the matter in hand.\nManifestly, the people will not be apt to create local organs of government\nfor any one single purpose unless they deem it absolutely necessary; on\nthe other hand, they will manifestly use for any such purpose, as far as\nconsistent, the same organs that they use for other local purposes. This is\njust as true of schools and education as of other publicinterests.\nExcept\nthat Vermont has a county examiner of teachers, no mention is made\nof the county in any New England school law;* no mention is made of\nthe town or township in any southern state; while the states that have\nthe compromise system use both the county and the township as organs\nfor carrying on their schools.\nIt will be seen that no account is here\ntaken of the city or municipality, because this is common to all the states\nand does not relate to rural schools.\n*Vermont, Maine, and New Hampshire once enacted laws creating the county superintendency, but these laws did not remain long on the statute books. No state is likely\nto use the county for an administrative school purpose unless it uses it for other administrative purposes.\n\n"}
{"page": 411, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n401\n\nAn ambiguity in the use of the term /own is also to be mentioned.\nThe ¢ownship of the middle and western states corresponds in general\nto the New England own; while in these states the /own is a village,\nhamlet, or even city. All the recommendations made in this report will\nrecognize distinctly the facts now stated.\nStill another preliminary explanation is called for. The term district,\nas used in school legislation and in educational discussions, is very misleading.\nThe two leading senses of the word must be sharply discriminated.\nThis can be done by describing the two principal forms of local\nschool organization.\n1. Zhe Town- or Township-unit System.—This is something wholly\ndifferent or separate from the town system of local government described\nabove.\nThe two systems may exist together, but not of necessity so; the\ntown- or township-unit system, called also the sown-district system, is\nfound in connection with both the town and the compromise systems of\nlocal government; it could not exist with the county system, as a matter\nof course.\nThe town system of local government relates to local affairs\ngenerally; the town- or township-district system to schools only. The\nname fownship-untt system means only that the town or township is the\nultimate unit of school organization and administration.\nThis unit, with\nsuch assistance as it receives from the state or county, provides and carries\non its own schools independent of any other unit.\nIt raises funds by\ntaxation and expends them, subject only to the law of the state. It is\nthe organized town’or township, a body corporate and politic, under its\neducational aspect. The local authority is sometimes a school committee,\nas in Massachusetts; sometimes a board of education, as in Ohio, and\nagain a township trustee, as in Indiana.\nAgain, the township-unit system does not necessarily involve the consolidation of rural schools. The\nschool children within the unit may all be brought together in one central school at some advantageous point, or they may attend a plurality\nof schools scattered through the township.\nIn the second case, the limits\nor boundaries of the several schools must be marked off for the regulation\nof school attendance, unless indeed pupils are permitted to attend such\n\nschools as they please, and these areas are commonly called dstricts or\nschool districts. In Ohio they are known as suddistricts, and they serve\nalso as units of representation\n\nin the township\n\nboard.*\n\nHere, then, are\n\n*The explanation of the Ohio law on this point is historical.\nPrevious to 1892 the\ntownship was the school district proper, but this was divided into subdistricts. The township board of education raised all the local funds by a tax\n\nlevied on the taxable\n\nproperty\n\nof the township, and apportioned them among the subdistricts; the subdistrict boards of\ndirectors employed the teachers and carried on the schools. The voters of the subdistrict,\nin annual school meeting, elected the three directors, one every year, for three years, and\n\nthese again elected one of their number clerk, who represented his subdistrict in the\ntownship board. Under the Workman Law of 1892 all the old powers of the directors\n\n"}
{"page": 412, "printed_page": null, "text": "402\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\ntwo clear uses of the term ds¢rict: one is the town or township, and the\nother a part of the town or township defined primarily for the regulation\nof school attendance, but also sometimes serving as a unit of representation.\n2. The District System.—Here district is used in quite another sense.\nGeographically, the school district is now commonly a subdivision of a\ntown, as in Connecticut, or of a township, as in Michigan, or of a county,\nOrdinarily it is a body politic and corpoas in the county-system states.\nrate, and is the ultimate unit of school organization and administration.\nIt has its own school committee or-board elected by the voters of the district, in school meeting, and, with such help as it receives from\n\nthe state\n\nor county, it builds its own schoolhouse and provides and carries on its own\nIt is, therefore, a taxing as well as an administrative\nschool or schools.\nunit. Under this system the district is the controlling factor of school\nNot only is it the most democratic form of school organiorganization.\nzation, but it has been called “‘ probably the most communistic as well as\ndemocratic feature of our political institutions, and is certainly the smallest minor civil division of our system.”’*\nStill other districts are mentioned in the laws and reports, as special\ndistricts, city districts, borough districts, joint districts, and the like; but\nthese names do not present any new features of an essential character.\nThese explanations premised, the subcommittee will divide this\nreport into three grand divisions, vzz., Revenue, Distribution, and Organization. The last topic, however, will be considered ‘only so far as relates\nto school maintenance.\nBy school maintenance is meant the provision\nand support of public schools.\nREVENUE.\n\nThe subcommittee submits that the first essential to the material\nimprovement of the rural schools of the country is the provision of\nrevenue sufficient for their adequate support.\nAccordingly, this is the\nfirst subject to be considered.\nThe educational items in the budgets of all progressive countries\nThe\nhave assumed great proportions, and are all the time growing.\nCommissioner of Education reports the expenditure for common schools\nin the states of our Union for the year 1894-95, not including payments\non bonds, at $178,215,556.\nSeven states expended more than $5,000,000\nand less than $10,000,000 each, and five more\n\nthan $10,000,000 and less\n\nwere transferred to the township board, but the subdistrict was left for the regulation of\nschool attendance and to serve as a unit of representation in the township board.\n*Mr. Wellford Addis, specialist\nthe Report for 1894-95, “The\nStates.”\n\nSocial\n\nin the Bureau\n\nof Education.\n\nUnit in the\n\nPublic\n\nSchool\n\nSee chap. xxxiv. of\nSystem of the United\n\n"}
{"page": 413, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n403\n\nthan $20,000,000 each.\nNew York alone stood above $20,000,000.\nIn\n1888-89 the total for the country was $132,129,000, and in 1883-84 only\n$103,909,528.\nButy unfortunately, we have no statistics showing the\n\ndivision of these vast sums between the rural districts and\ncities.\n\nA czty, in the dictionary of the National\n\nthe towns and\n\nCensus Office, is a con-\n\ncentration of population containing 8,000 people or more of all ages, and\nin 1894-95 there were 574 cities in the country.\nThe Commissioner of\nEducation reports for the year 1894-95 that 3,302,841 children were\nenrolled in the schools of these cities, to 10,894,911 enrolled in other\n\nschools.\n\nHe reports further that the maintenance\n\nof these city schools\n\ncost $74,721,332, of the others $102,876,359.\nBut this is no proper\ndivision of rural and urban schools, since the educational conditions existing in many centers of population containing less than 8,000 people are\nthe same as those existing in the 574 cities.\nAt present it costs much\nmore to school 1,000, 10,000, or I00,000 children in the cities than in\n\nthe country, but this is mainly due to the fact that the education furnished\nis so much greater in quantity and so much better in quality.\nIt is not\nimprobable that, if rural schools were brought as near as possible to the\nlevel of urban schools, they would be quite as costly. At least, it is evi_ dent that the first condition of good rural schools is a sufficiency of funds\nwith which to provide and maintain them.\nHow shall these funds be\nprovided?\nI. A century ago the American people began to take an interest in\nthe creation of permanent school funds or endowments.\n‘This interest\nwas originally stimulated, if not created, by the policy that Congress\nforeshadowed in 1785, and subsequently firmly established, to endow the\ncommon schools in the public-land states with liberal grants of public\nlands.\nIn every state in which Congress has exploited the wild lands\neither one-thirty-sixth or one-eighteenth part of such lands has been\ndedicated to the public schools.\nBeginning with Connecticut in 1795,\nnearly all the non-public-land states have also created such endowments\nout of their own resources..\nSeveral of them devoted the United States\ndeposit fund of 1837 to this purpose.\nAt the beginning of the century\nno one dreamed to what proportions public education would grow in one\nhundred years; and men thought, not unnaturally, that permanent\nendowments would greatly ease the burden of taxation for school purposes, and would keep the educational machinery of the state constantly\nrunning and well regulated.\nIt will not be denied that, relatively, these\nfunds have come far short of meeting the expectations of those who laid\ntheir foundations.\n\nThere can be little doubt that, in many of the states,\n\nand particularly when such states were new and poor, they have hastened\neducational development; but it is quite certain that they have often\ndone great harm, causing the people to rely upon the feeble income\n\n"}
{"page": 414, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n404\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nthe only adequate\n\nderived from them, and to turn their faces away from\nsource of school\n\n[National\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nTexas\n\nmaintenance, that is, public taxation.\n\nhas been\n\ngazetted as having the most magnificent possibilities of any state in the\nway of a permanent school fund, but some citizens of that state are now\nquestioning whether these possibilities may not prove other than an\nunmixed blessing (Agpendix B). The fact is, public schools in the United\nIn\nStates have far outgrown all present or prospective endowments.\n$132,of\n1888-89 the income from such funds was $9,825,000 in a total\n125,111; in 1894-95 the corresponding figures were $8,336,612 and $177,New\n597,691; that is, the per cent. fell.from 7.4 to 4.7 in six years.\nYork and Ohio derive less than $300,000 each of their great school reve-\n\nnues from permanent funds, and Pennsylvania derives nothing from such\nasource.\n\nIn fact, it would require a permanent fund of $400,000,000\n\nto\n\ncarry on, at the present scale of expenditure, the common schools of\nThe subcommittee submits, thereeither New York or Pennsylvania.\nfore, that\n\nall permanent\n\nschool\n\nfunds, either\n\nstate\n\nor\n\nlocal, should\n\nbe\n\ncarefully husbanded and wisely administered ; that they should be preserved intact, and the income be scrupulously applied to the support of\nschools; that, under special conditions, it may be wise to augment old\nfunds or create new ones, as when certain miscellaneous revenues can be\n\ndevoted to that purpose; but that such funds must necessarily play a\nconstantly diminishing part in popular education.\nMassachusetts is committed to the policy of adding to her fund $100,000 a year, raised by\ntaxation, until\n\na total of $5,000,000\n\nshall be reached,\n\nand\n\nNew\n\nJersey\n\nto the policy of similarly dedicating the proceeds of certain riparian\nrights that belong to the state; and to this there is no objection;\nbut for these states, or any others, to lean heavily upon such funds\nfor school maintenance would be a most fatuous policy. Public education is, or at least should be, a recognized function or service of the\nstate; the public schools of the country are civil schools, created and\ncarried on by the civic authority, and they must rest ultimately, upon the\nsame general means of support as the other functions or services of government.\nAs well, therefore, endow any other branch or function of the\nstate government, such as the asylums and hospitals, the judiciary, the\ncivil service, or the militia, as the state schools!\n\nII. Gifts to popular education should be sedulously encouraged.\nEducation has long been a favorite object with public benefactors, as the\nannals of every progressive country show, and none more convincingly\nthan our own.\nNo doubt when the public mind is aroused to the advantages of popular education, and school taxes are abundant, such persons\nwho choose an educational object for their beneficence will rather be\ninclined to seek some other form\n\nor kind\n\nof education.\n\nstitution or laws of nearly every state, if not indeed\n\nevery\n\nStill, the con-\n\none, provide\n\n"}
{"page": 415, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n405\n\nfor the acceptance and use of private gifts for school purposes, and there\nare generous persons who are peculiarly interested in the common\nScattered over the country are many local public-school-endowschools.\nments that had a private origin, and such gifts have not come to an end.\nThe subcommittee is not aware that there are any statistics showing how\nfar private benevolence contributes to public education, but it is apprised\nthat the contribution is by no means contemptible, and it believes that it\nmight be made considerably larger than it is. The favorite forms of\nsuch\n\ncontributions,\n\nunder\n\nexisting\n\nconditions,\n\nare\n\nmost\n\nlikely\n\nto\n\nbe\n\nland for building sites, and apparatus and libraries for schools; and\nthe subcommittee is of the firm opinion that much more could be done\nthan at present in all these directions, and particularly in the way of procuring apparatus and books for the schools in communities where the\npublic funds that are available for these purposes are meager or insufficient.\nIll. The great resource of the public school zs, and must continue to\nde, some form or forms of public taxation.\nThe ratio of the total school\nrevenues derived from taxes to those derived from permanent funds is all\nthe time growing, and it will continue to grow.\nAt two periods separated by six years the sources of the common-school revenues expressed ir\nper cents. were as follows:\nYear\n\n1888-89..... ifie\n1894-95....- pein\n\naes:\n\nTaxes\n\nPermanent\n\n85.9\n85.7\n\n7-4\n4.7\n\nfunds\n\nOther sources\n\n6.7\n9.6\n\nManifestly such areas or units of taxation should be created, or continued if already in existence, as will fully develop the sound American\nprinciple, that she whole wealth of the state shall be made available for educating all the youth of the state. This is both right and necessary, for it\nmnust be remembered that, in the United States, education is a civil, or\nstate, function, to be supported like other similar functions.\nWhat shall\nthese units of taxation be?\nThe subcommittee names those following as\ncoming under the principle just stated:\n1. The State—A liberal provision of funds from the state treasury, to\nbe distributed according to some rational method, is indispensable, as a\nrule, to the maintenance of a good system of state schools.\nFormerly\nthe burden was mainly or wholly thrown upon the local units. The old\nMassachusetts plan was to throw upon the towns the whole burden of\nmaintaining their own schools.\nBut the greatly increased cost of schools,\ngrowing out of enhanced salaries, longer terms, and improved material\nequipment, long ago demonstrated that this plan must be materially\n\n"}
{"page": 416, "printed_page": null, "text": "406\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nMany local taxing units are too poor to carry such a load,\nmodified.\nand they must either abandon all hope of good schools, or they must\nThis fact began to gain\nreceive assistance from the state or social whole.\nWhen the constiturecognition as early as the middle of the century.\ntion of Ohio, adopted in 1851, provided that the legislature should make\nsuch provisions, by taxation or otherwise, as, with the interest arising\nfrom the permanent school fund, would secure a thorough and efficient\nsystem of common schools throughout the state, the law-making power\nhastened to levy upon all the property of the state, as rated by the assessors,\n\na state school\n\ntax of two mills-on\n\nthe dollar, to be distributed\n\non\n\nthe basis of the school enumeration.\nTaking the country together, the\ncost of public education is divided between two or more taxing units.\nStill the fact remains that the part which falls to the local unit is often\ndisproportionate.\nIn 1888-89 the per cent. of the total amount of school\nrevenues raised by local taxation was 66.8 to 19.1 per cent. raised by\nIn 1894-95 the corresponding per cents. were 67 and 18.7.\n\nstate taxation.\n\nThe ratio of the two elements is variable in different divisions of the\nUnion and in different states of the same division.\nThe per cents. raised\nby state tax, as reported, range all the way from zero to a maximum of\n83.2, found in North Carolina.\nWe should naturally expect the southern\nstates, since local government is there less fully developed than at the\nNorth, to rely relatively much less on local taxation and much more on\nstate taxation, and such is the fact. But political habit is not the only\nfactor that enters into the problem; economical conditions also assert\nthemselves.\n\nIna\n\nstate where\n\nwealth\n\nabounds, and\n\nis somewhat\n\nevenly\n\ndistributed throughout its limits, as where manufacturing and commercial towns are frequent, there is not the same necessity for the state, as a\nunit, to assume a large proportion of the whole burden that there is in a\nstate where wealth is meager, and where such wealth as exists is largely\nfound in a few concentrations of population, leaving large areas thinly\npopulated and poor. These remarks will throw light on the per cents. of\nschool moneys raised by state taxation and local taxation in the five\ndivisions of states that the Census Office recognizes. The date is 1894-95.\n(See also Appendix B.) No account is here taken of income from other\n\nsources than taxation.\n\nDivisions\n\nNorth; AtlantictsStates.....\n\nes eesenee:\n\nSouthvAtlantien states.\ndien emer\nSouth) Centralestatess lee\naot nees\nNorth CentraliStates) capes\neerie\nWestern Division........ Sarsteneld teianstenees\n\nState taxes\n\nLocal taxes\n\n19.4\n\n68.2\n\n38.1\n48.4\n9.9\n23.0\n\n53\nS127)\n75-4\n61.3\n\n"}
{"page": 417, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nREPORT\n\nIn some\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nof the states, as will be shown\n\nON RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nhereafter, local\n\ntaxation\n\n407\n\nmust\n\nbe more fully developed than in the past or present; in others, and these\nprincipal states too, the same may be said of state taxation.\n2. In all states where, for other local\n\nunit\n\nof taxation, a liberal\n\ncounty tax\n\npurposes, the county is the sole\nshould be levied for the schools.\n\nThis proposition applies especially to those states where the county sysIn states where, for such purposes, the\ntem of local government prevails.\ncounty is a large unit of taxation, it may be wise to levy a county school\nThis remark applies to the\ntax; that circumstances must determine.\nstates having the mixed system of local government.\nUnder the town\nsystem county taxation for schools would be out of harmony with the\nsocial and political traditions of the people, and could be accomplished\nFor the\nonly through a change of habit; perhaps this end is attainable.\nyear 1894-95 the Commissioner of Education shows that 67 per cent. of\nthe total school revenues of the country came from local taxes.\nThe\nscale ran from 1.7 per cent. in North Carolina to 98.2 in Massachusetts.\nUnfortunately we have no statistics showing from what sources the local\ntaxes come;\n\nhow\n\nmuch\n\nfrom districts, towns, and\n\ncounties respectively.\n\nThe point must, however, be strongly pressed that local supply for public\neducation should be forthcoming as well as state supply.\nIt is a great\nmistake to teach the people to look altogether, or mainly, to the state\ntreasury for school maintenance.\nThey should rather be taught to\nIt is the confident opinion of\ndepend in due measure upon themselves.\nthe subcommittee that some states are now committing this mistake. Many\nstates having the county system of local government have in the counties\na resource for school maintenance upon which they have never adequately\ndrawn.\n3. In those states where the town or township is a large taxing unit\nfor other local purposes it should also be made to contribute liberally to\npublic education.\nThis recommendation it would be idle to urge in most\nof the southern and in some of the western states, because the civil town or\n\ntownship does not exist, and it would be vain to urge its creation for school\npurposes exclusively.\nBut in those states where the town and mixed systems of local government exist a township school tax would be congruous with the general social and political habits of the people.\nThe desirability of local taxation for school purposes was urged under the last head.\nSuch taxation develops self-reliance and local character, and tends to\nawaken and keep alive the interest of the people in the schools. The\ntown was the sole school-taxing unit in old New England, and it is still\na prominent, Sometimes almost an exclusive, one throughout the northThe local school taxes of New England are town and district\nern states.\ntaxes, and, taken together, they range from the minimum of 69.2 per\nIt can hardly be\ncent. of the whole in Maine to 98.2 in Massachusetts.\n\n"}
{"page": 418, "printed_page": null, "text": "[National\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION eee\n408\neS\noa\n\ndoubted that the New England states, as well as some\n\nothers, now throw\n\nthe burden too heavily upon the towns and districts, and that they will\nfind it advantageous considerably to raise the ratio which state taxation\nThe other New England states will probably folbears to local taxation.\nlow, sooner or later, the example of Maine, which raises nearly one-third of\n\nIn some states, no doubt, the townher school money by state taxation.\nships should carry a heavier weight than at present, at least as compared\nwith districts; at all events, the township should bear a reasonable part\nof the cost of its own education.\n4. Special districts, as incorporated villages, towns, and cities, the sub-\n\ncommittee considers not only proper but necessary units of school taxation. Such districts are the concentrations, large or small, of population\nand wealth ; they are the industrial and social centers of the country.\nWe have\n\nalready seen\n\nthat, in\n\n1893-94,\n\n$69,886,413\n\nschool purposes in the 443 cities ofthe Union.\n\nwas\n\nexpended\n\nfor\n\nIn Massachusetts $7,088,-\n\nooo was expended in cities; in New York, $12,723,000; in Pennsylvania,\n$7,745,000; in Ohio, $5,097,000; in Illinois, $8,110,000.\nIf we had the\n\nfigures for the smaller\n\ncities and the incorporated towns, the aggregate\n\nwould be much increased.\n\nNow, not only do\n\nthe cities, taken together,\n\nraise by taxation nearly all of the school money that is expended in them,\nbut, as will be shown in another place, any of them contribute largely to\nthe support of rural schools.\nAgain, they must in the future, collectively\nas before, contribute still more largely to this end. Special districts, then,\nare essential as taxing units, care being taken to secure approximately a\nfair distribution of the public burdens.\nAs a rule, dwellers in cities are\nmuch better able to pay heavy taxes than dwellers in the country, but\nthere is great reason to fear that they do not always do so.\nThe school district, in the commonly accepted sense of that term, is\nnot a desirable taxing unit, but the contrary.\nIt is now such a unit in a\nmajority of states, and the subcommittee is decidedly of the opinion that\nit should either be made much less prominent than it is or be abolished\naltogether. Asa rule, the second course is to be preferred (except in special\ndistricts already mentioned).\nThe town or township is the smallest area\nthat should be employed for this purpose.\nEven this may be overweighted, as can easily be shown.\nThe unanswerable objections to district taxation are the inequality in burdens that results, and the inability\nof many districts to carry the load that good schools would necessarily\nimpose upon them.\nA few statistics will inake both propositions per-’\nfectly clear.\nIn\n\n1871\n\nSuperintendent\n\nFallows,\n\nof Wisconsin,\n\npublished\n\na table\n\nshowing the amount of property assessed per scholar, in the school districts\nof a certain township, which he believed to bea type of the state of things\ngenerally existing throughout that state. The maximum was $2,860; the\n\n"}
{"page": 419, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council |\n\nREPORT\n\nminimum,\n\n$784;\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nthe average, $1,378.\n\nON RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n409\n\nIn 1878 Superintendent Graham,\n\nof the same state, published a table for the whole state, showing\n\nthat the\n\nvaluation of property per district varied from $2,300 to $1,979,708.\nDistricts with less than $3,000 and districts with $40,000 were found in the\n\nBut the poor districts were required by law to maintain\nsame township.\na school six months in the year, just as the rich ones were.\nThe ratio of\ndistrict taxation ranged from half a mill to fifty-five mills on the dollar.\nSuperintendent Wells, of Wisconsin, published similar facts in 1893 for a\nnumber of states.\nHe showed that in Rhode Island some districts were\ntaxed fourteen times as heavily as others, and in Connecticut a similar\nIn New York the ratio of tax raised in two coundisproportion existed.\nOne\nties varied from .oor2 per cent. in one district to .o431 in another.\ntownship presented the extremes .ooog and .oo07o, and still another one\nTwo districts in one township paid respectively $5.66\n.0048 and .0371.\nand $58.11 per capita ; two in another one, $5.43 and $60.37; two in a\n‘‘Thatis tosay,” says Mr. Wells, “the rate of\nthird, $11.25 and $181.85.\n\ntaxation is seven times as great in one district as in another in the same\ntown, and the per-capita cost of educating a child is eleven times as\ngreat.”* But the first of these New York comparisons presents a ratio of\nalmost forty to one.\nStatistics such as these could be collected almost without limit. The\nmost instructive way to study the subject is, so to speak, on the ground.\nIf a man unfamiliar with it, who lives under the independent district system, will only take the trouble to collect the facts relating to his own\ncounty he may easily be astonished at the result. And yet, as a rule, the\nlaw lays upon the districts, rich and poor alike, the same burdens in\nrespect to school maintenance.\nIt is hard to see how or why the people have so long borne such inequalities—inequalities so contrary\nto the cherished American principle that the property of the state\nshould educate the youth of the state;\n\nor, rather, it would be hard to see\n\nwhy they have borne them, if we did not know the extent of the public\nignorance on the subject, and the strength of conservative habit, and did\nnot see also how the district as a taxing unit is bound upin men’s minds\nwith the district as a unit of administration.\nBut the two are not inseparable. The legislature of Ohio abolished the district as a taxing unit\ntwenty-five years or more before it abolished the district as an administrative unit.\n\nIn Connecticut,\n\ntoo, town\n\ntaxes\n\nand\n\ndistrict\n\nmanagement\n\nare both met with in the same towns.\nBefore dismissing units of school taxation, a single point calls for\nThis is raised by the question: What is the advantage\ncloser attention.\nof looking to large units for supply rather than small ones ?\nThe answer to this question rests upon the fundamental assumption\n«Township System of School Government.”\n\nMadison, Wis., 1894.\n\n"}
{"page": 420, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n410\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n[National\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nthat public education is a state function, and that the whole state is\nNow, if the\nresponsible for the education of all the youth of the state.\nthe people\nof\nability\nthe\nto\nratio\nsame\nthe\nbore\ncost of public education\nnearly the\nis\nwhat\nor,\nstate,\nthe\nof\ncommunities\nto bear this cost in all the\nequal,\nwere\ncommunities\nthe\nall\nof\ncapita\nper\nsame thing, if the wealth\nthen, as a matter of course, it would make no difference whether the school\n\ntax were levied upon large areas or small ones.\nBut this is far from being\nthe case. The cities are indeed concentrations of both absolute population and school population, as well as of wealth; but their wealth tends\nto increase much more rapidly than-either the absolute or the school population.\nThe fortunes of the country are either made in the cities or else\ntend to flow into the cities. The last report of the Census Office shows\nthe per-capita wealth of the Union, of the states severally, and of the five\ngroups of states, but it does not show the per-capita wealth of the cities\nand of the rural districts separately.\nThe nearest approach to it is the\ntables showing the per-capita value of real estate with improvements, by\nstates and counties.\nThese averages throw important light upon the subject, and some examples will be given.\nIllinois: state average, $860.88; highest county average, $1,311.90;\nlowest county average, $164.64.\n\nMassachusetts:\n$1,564.10;\n\nstate\n\naverage,\n\nlowest county average,\n\n$848.01;\n\nhighest\n\ncounty\n\n$466.65.\n\naverage,\n5\n\nNew York: state average, $969.66; highest county average, $1,733.35;\nlowest county average, $305.80.\n;\nOhio: state average, $689.01 ; highest county average, $1,562.56; lowest county average, $265.99.\n\nPennsylvania:\n\nstate\n\naverage,\n\n$719.13;\n\nhighest\n\ncounty\n\naverage,\n\n$1,049.88 ; lowest county average, $187.26.\n\nIf personal property were included, the extremes per capita would be\nstill more widely separated than they are at present.\nFormal argument\nis not needed to show that the rich counties are much more able to contribute to the.expense of government, education included, than the poor\nones, and the proposition that a due proportion of such expense should\nbe thrown upon these units rests upon this fact. The tendency would\nbe to remove inequalities in bearing the common burden.\nLevying the\nlocal school tax upon the township instead of the districts that compose\nit, Or upon the county instead of the townships, would work in this\ndirection.\nIt is very true that townships are unequal in per-capita\nwealth as well as districts, and counties as well as townships; still the\nfact remains that large units are less unequal than small ones.\nEvery\nstep towards the highest taxing unit tends to distribute the burden more\nequally. In fact, the argument for removing a portion of the burden\nfrom the small taxing units to the large ones is the same that justifies us\n\n"}
{"page": 421, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nRURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n‘\n\n411\n\nin calling upon society to educate individuals or families that are too\npoor to provide for their own education.\nWhy do we impose a public\ntax for educational purposes at all? Simply because education is a common\n\ninterest, while some\n\nthemselves.\n\nindividuals\n\nor\n\nfamilies\n\nare\n\nunable\n\nto educate\n\n:\n\nIt may be said that the line of reasoning which has been followed\nwould lead to placing the whole burden of state education at the door of\nthe state treasury.\nWhy should not the state defray the cost of the common schools, just as it defrays the cost of the reform schools for boys and\ngirls, and of the asylums and hospitals?\nIt must be confessed that this\nwould be strict logic.\nHowever, we are to remember that governments\nare never carried on according to strict logic, and cannot be from the\nvery nature of the case.\nWhat is more, there are the best of reasons, as\nshown above, for making education, to a reasonable degree, a local charge\n—reasons that do not apply to some other public services.\nThe people\nare more likely to be vitally interested in the schools if a portion of\ntheir cost is derived from local taxes.\nIn no country of the world, so\nfar as the subcommittee is aware, is elementary education made an\nexclusive general charge.\nIt is not desirable that it should be. The\npresent contention is for a reasonable distribution among the several taxing units.\nAt the same time, it may be worth observing that in some\ncountries there is a strong tendency, as in England and France, to rely\nmore than formerly upon general rather than local supply.\nThe appropriations for schools that states make from the common\ntreasury differ greatly in form as well as in amount.\nMassachusetts levies\nno state school tax, but the legislature nevertheless votes various specific\nappropriations, as for the salaries and expenses of state agents, aid to\npupils of normal schools, compensation of local superintendents, the payment of high-school tuition for pupils living in towns whose valuation of\nproperty does not exceed $500,000 and that do not maintain a high school.\nConnecticut raises annually a state school tax equal in amount to $1.50\nmultiplied by the number of persons in the state between the ages of four\nand sixteen, as enumerated annually.\nRhode Island, while not levying ~\na state school\n\ntax, so-called, votes enough money out of the state treasury, each year, to make, with the income of the permanent fund, a\ntotal of $120,000.\nNew York raises annually, by taxation based on the\n\nreal and personal property of the state, such sum for the support of\nschools as the legislature shall determine.\nNew Jersey assesses and collects a total state tax amounting to $5 for each person in the state\nbetween the ages of five and eighteen years. It is this tax that places\nNew Jersey at the head of the column of northern states in respect to the\nper cent. of school revenue derived from a state tax. The constitution\nof Pennsylvania provides that the state legislature shall appropriate every\n\n"}
{"page": 422, "printed_page": null, "text": ".\n\n412\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\nPNationsl\n\nyear $1,000,000 from the state treasury for the use of schools, but the\nOhio levies a tax of one mill on\npresent appropriation is $5,500,000.\n\nIndiana raises eleven\nthe dollar of the grand tax duplicate of the state.\nof taxable property.\n$100\neach\ncents, and Kentucky twenty-two cents, on\nto levy a\ntownship\nevery\nof\nThe Michigan law directs the supervisor\nbut\ntownship,\nthe\nwithin\nschools\nschool tax of one mill on the dollar for\nas the proceeds are kept within the districts where they are raised, this is\nonly a compulsory local tax; still it stimulates further local taxation for\nthe grand object. The legislature of Michigan also levies a specific tax\non\n\ncertain\n\ncorporations, as railroads, etc., which\n\nis first applied\n\nto the\n\npayment of the interest on the various educational funds that the state\nhas borrowed, as the university, agricultural college, and commonschool funds, and then to the support of the common schools.\nNebraska\nmakes an annual Jevy and assessment not exceeding one and a half mills\non each dollar’s valuation on the grand list of taxable property.\nThe\nCalifornia\n\nsystem\n\nof school\n\nfinance\n\nwill be mentioned\n\nunder\n\ndistribu-\n\ntion and in an appendix.\n‘These are a few of the states; still others will\nbe dealt with in connection with distribution.\nThe basis of school taxation, or the ultimate sources of school supply,\nis an important subject. Whether more money can be had for the\nschools often depends upon the manner in which it is proposed to levy\nthe tax. In general, taxation for schools will conform more or less\nclosely to the character of the state taxing system as a whole.\nWhile\nadmitting the great importance of the subject, the subcommittee does\nnot feel called upon to discuss it beyond offering brief remarks on two\nor three points.\nPennsylvania meets her annual state school appropriation, in whole\nor part, by laying a tax of four mills on the dollar on all moneys loaned\nby citizens of the state.\nSome states levy poll taxes, and some “ occupation” taxes, for their schools.\nQuite miscellaneous sources of school\nrevenue are met with in the state constitutions and laws. We find specific\ntaxes on dogs, and on banks, railroads, and other corporations.\nEscheats\n‘and forfeitures are often, or commonly, devoted to the schools.\nThe\nconstitution of Nebraska prescribes that all fines, penalties, and licenses\narising under the general laws of the state shall belong, and be paid\nover, to the counties where such fines, etc., may be levied or imposed;\nalso that all fines, penalties, and licenses arising under the rules, by-laws,\nor ordinances of cities, villages, towns, precincts, or other municipal\n\ndivisions less than a county, shall be paid over to the same respectively ;\nand further, that all these moneys shall be appropriated exclusively to the\nuse and support of common schools in the respective divisions where the\nsame may accrue.\nNor is Nebraska peculiar in so dedicating such\nfunds.\nIt has been suggested to the subcommittee that an inheritance\n\n"}
{"page": 423, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\ntax would\nsupply.\n\nREPORT\n\nprove\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\na popular, as well\n\nON RURAL\n\nas an\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nabundant,\n\nsource\n\n413\n\nof school\n\nDISTRIBUTION.\nThe subject of distribution is only less important than that of income.\nIt-is easy so to distribute school funds as, first, either to defeat, in whole\n\nor part, the very end sought in taxing the larger units for-the benefit. of\nthe small ones ; or, secondly, materially to weaken local enterprise and liberality, or wholly to destroy it. The subject will be considered under both\nthese aspects.\n1. The assistance that the large political and social units render to the\nsmall ones, as the state to counties, townships, and districts ; or the county\n\nto townships and districts ;or the township to districts, should be made\ncontingent, in part at least, upon what the small units do for themselves.\nNo community, it is believed, is so poor that it cannot do something\ntowards educating its youth. Again, a state educational system should be\nso\n\norganized\n\nand\n\nadministered\n\nas\n\nto stimulate,\n\nand\n\nnot\n\nrepress,\n\nlocal\n\nspirit and effort.\nIt is a great mistake to remove the burdens of public\neducation so far from the people that they forget, or tend to forget, their\nexistence.\nThe principle here involved is a vital one.\nHistory shows\nconclusively that popular education has flourished most in those states of\nour Union where government is most democratic.\nIt is difficult, or rather\n\nimpossible,\n\nto\n\nlay down a general\n\nrule that\n\nshall govern the division of taxation between the state and the local communities.\nTwo things are to be considered.\nOne is the political\ninstitutions that exist in the state.\nIf government is largely centralized at state capitals and county seats—/ha¢ is one thing; if it is\nlargely decentralized, as where the principle of local self-government is\nfully developed—‘¢ha¢ is quite another.\nFor example, it would be idle\nto expect that the same results would obtain in the southern states that\nare found in New England, or even in that great group of states where the\nmixed system of local government prevails. The governmental machinery and the traditions of the people w// assert themselves in such matters.\nThe other factors to be considered are social, and particularly economical\nconditions.\nAs remarked early in this report, where wealth is abundant\nand its distribution general and somewhat equal in different communities,\nschool burdens may be thrown, and should be thrown, much more heavily\n\nupon localities than where the opposite conditions prevail. Density of\npopulation, relation of urban to rural population, average wealth per\ncapita, ratio of wealth-producing population to the population of legal\nschool age, the expenditure for education per pupil and per capita, and\nthe per cent. of school revenue derived from state taxes and local taxes in\nthe different states—are peculiarly interesting when studied together\n\n"}
{"page": 424, "printed_page": null, "text": "EDUCATIONAL\n\n[National\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n414\n\nNATIONAL\n\n(Appendix A).\n\nNorth Carolina shows the largest per cent. of state school\n\ntax (that is, of the whole tax) of any state in the Union, while the average\n\npopulation per square mile and the average wealth per capita are also\nMaine surpasses all the other New England states in these particsmall.\nulars. The proportionally high ratio of state taxation in the South is due\nto the two facts stated —- political institutions and economical conditions.\nBut there\n\nmanner\n\nbe no\n\ncan\n\nthat, as the cities\n\nof doubt\n\nof the\n\nSouth\n\ngrow, towns multiply, and concentrations of population increase in number and in the value of property, local school taxation will materially\nincrease.\nLegislatures could hardly prevent it if they should try, and it\nwould be most unwise for them to try to do so.\n2. Funds raised by the large taxing units should be distributed in\nsuch a manner as to bring the support of the rich and strong to the poor\nand weak.\nThe only reason for taxing these units at all for general\npurposes is to secure this end.\nOn no other principle can a state school\ntax, or even\n\na county\n\nor township\n\ntax, be defended,\n\nunless\n\nindeed\n\nthe\n\ncounty or township is a single school district.\nThe practical question is:\nHow shall such funds be distributed so as not to defeat the end in view?\nA historical account of the leading methods actually pursued will help\non the inquiry.\nThe public-land states may be divided into two classes.\nFrom the\nadmission of Ohio to that of Arkansas (1803-36) Congress gave to the\ncongressional townships of such states, severally, 640 acres of land each\nfor the perpetual use of schools, and vested the title in the state legislatures.\nAccordingly, in these states every township has its own independent permanent school fund,* which is sometimes managed by local\nauthorities and is sometimes in the keeping of the state.\nGenerally\nspeaking, the sum of the township funds makes the so-called state school\n\nfund, so far as itis derived from public lands.\nIf the township-unit system\nprevails, the ultimate distribution of income has been made in advance;\nif the district system, then the township distributes to the districts. From\nthe admission of Michigan to that of Utah (1837-95) Congress gave\nthe common-school lands to the states as units rather than to townships,\n\nwhich\nThe\n\nresulted\nannual\n\nin the establishment\n\nincome\n\nfrom\n\nthese\n\nof consolidated state school funds.\n\nfunds,\n\nso far as\n\nthe subcommittee\n\nis\n\ninformed, is uniformly distributed to the local school organizations on the\nbasis of the youth of legal school age as enumerated every year.\nThe\nages vary, but the principle does not change.\nIt should be added that\nsince\n\nthe admission\n\nof California,\n\n1850, 1,280\n\nacres\n\nof common-school\n\nlands have been given to every congressional township.\nThe rule of apportionment just explained is followed far more generally than any other.\n\nThus, Maine distributes her state funds, from whatever\n\n* Ohio and possibly other states offer some minor exceptions.\n\n"}
{"page": 425, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nRURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n415\n\nsource derived, to the towns according to the number of children between\nthe ages of four and twenty-one.\nConnecticut distributes the annual\nincome of her permanent fund, and the proceeds of the tax of $1.50\nfor every child between the ages of four and sixteen, according to the\nnumber of children between those ages.\nPennsylvania apportions her\nstate tax\n\nof $5,500,000 annually, Ohio the proceeds of her one-mill\n\ntax,\n\nMichigan so much of her specific tax as goes to schools, and Indiana and\nKentucky the proceeds of their state school taxes, according to the same\ngeneral rule.\nBut other rules are followed.\nVermont apportions her state tax to the\ntowns, cities, and unorganized districts according to the number of legal\nschools maintained during the preceding school year.\nNew Hampshire\ndistributes her state funds to the towns according to the number of pupils\nreturned as attending school not less than two weeks in the year. So much\nof the Massachusetts permanent fund as goes directly to the schools is\napportioned to the towns of the state that have a property valuation of less\nthan $3,000,000, towns ranking\n\nabove that line receiving nothing.\n\nFur-\n\nthermore, the scale is so adjusted that the poorer the town, the larger the\namount that it receives.\nTowns whose valuation does not exceed $500,000\nreceive $275 each; those exceeding $500,000 and not exceeding $1,000,000\n“receive $200; those exceeding $1,000,000 and not exceeding $2,000,000,\n$100, and\n\nthose\n\nabove\n\nthe\n\nlast\n\namount\n\nand not above $3,000,000, $50.\n\nAgain, a portion of the state fund is divided among the towns that are\neligible on the basis of the ratio that the town’s school tax bears to the\nwhole town tax; the larger the ratio the more help it receives.\nRhode\nIsland distributes her annual\n\nstate\n\ncontribution\n\nof $120,000\n\nas follows:\n\nfirst, $100 is assigned to every school, not exceeding fifteen in number, in\na township ; then the remainder is distributed to the towns proportionally\nto the number of children from five to fifteen years of age, inclusive.\nThe state school moneys of New York are apportioned in a complicated manner.\n‘The state superintendent first sets aside the annual salaries\nof the school commissioners (district superintendents). Next he sets apart\nto every city, incorporated village having a population of 5,000 and\nupwards, and every union free-school district having a like population,\nwhich employ a competent superintendent of schools, $800; and to cities\nhaving more than one member of assembly in the state legislature, $500\n\nfor each additional member, to be expended according to law for the support of the public schools.\nHe then sets apart any money that may have\nbeen appropriated by the legislature for library purposes, and $6,000 for\nacontingent fund.\nNext he sets aside to the Indians on reservations, for\ntheir schools, a sum equal to their proportion of the state school money,\n\n-on the basis of distribution established by law. These sums set aside, the\nremainder of the state moneys is divided into two equal parts. The super-\n\n"}
{"page": 426, "printed_page": null, "text": "416\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nintendent now apportions to every district in the state $100 (called a ‘‘distributive portion” or “district quota”), provided it has maintained a\nschool, taught by a single qualified teacher or succession of such teachers\nfor the legal term of the preceding school year; and the same sum for\n‘\nevery additional qualified teacher or succession of such teachers, not\nThe school year is 160 days, not including holidays\ncounting monitors.\nThis apportionment made, the\nthat occur during the time, or Saturdays.\nsuperintendent divides the remainder of the school moneys among the\ncounties according to their respective population as determined by the\nlast preceding United States census, excluding Indians on reservations.\nBut cities that have special school laws receive their due share separate\nand apart from the remainder of the counties in which they are situated.\nThe New Jersey state school tax, equal to $5 for each child in the\nstate between the ages of five and eighteen, is raised by the several counties according to their amounts of taxable property respectively, as shown\nby the tax rolls of the townships and wards of the counties. Ten per cent.\nof this tax, when it is paid into the treasury, is known as a reserve fund,\nand is apportioned among the counties by the state board of education\n“equitably and justly, according to their own discretion.”\nThe go per\ncent. remaining is then divided among the counties in the proportion\nthat they have contributed to the tax. When the state school moneys\nreach the counties they, together with all other school funds in the custody of the county, are distributed to the townships and cities on the\n\nfollowing basis:\n\n(1) $200 for each teacher employed in the public schools\n\nfor the full term for which the schools are maintained during the year\nnext preceding (nine months) ; (2) the remainder according to the last published school census (children from five to eighteen years of age), provided.\nthat no district shall receive less than $275, and that districts with fifty\nfive children or more shall not receive less than $375.\nIf these funds are\n\nnot sufficient to maintain a free school nine months in the year, then the\ninhabitants may raise by a district tax such additional amount as is needed\nfor that purpose.\nThe local one-mill tax levied by Minnesota is expended within the\nIt is, therefore, only a compulsory district tax,\ndistricts where it is raised.\nthe same as in Michigan.\nThe current school fund of the same state,\nwhich includes the income of the permanent fund, is distributed on the\nbasis of the number of pupils who have attended school forty days or\nmore in districts that have had school for five months or more during the\nyear. In addition to the above apportionment, graded schools having\nnot less than three departments, which come up to certain requirements,\nreceive aid from the state to the amount\n\nof $200\n\neach.\n\nBesides, there\n\nare eighty-five high schools that receive state aid to the amount of $400\neach. The grants to these graded schools and high schools are paid from\n\n"}
{"page": 427, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council}\n\npermanent\n\nREPORT\n\nOF THE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nRURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n417\n\nappropriations that are met by general taxation, and are appor-\n\ntioned by the state high-school board, on evidence that the schools are\ncomplying with the requirements.\nMinnesota also gives the sum of $500\nannually to state high schools providing elementary normal instruction\nof a kind that satisfies the high-school board.\nWisconsin also has an\n‘approved high-school list, one-half the cost of maintaining these schools\nbeing paid from the state treasury.\nMoreover, Wisconsin pays $250 each\nto certain approved high schools in which manual training is taught.\nThe California system of school finance is a unique system.\nThe\nstate superintendent apportions to the counties the state school fund\naccording to their respective numbers of school-census children (from\nfive to seventeen, certain classes being excluded).\nEach county superintendent first ascertains the number of teachers every district in the\ncounty is entitled to on the basis of one teacher for every seventy\nschool-census children, or fraction thereof not less than twenty, as\nshown by the next preceding school census, and then the number to\nwhich the county is entitled by adding these district numbers together.\nHe then calculates the amount of money to be raised at the legal rate\nof $500 a teacher.\nFrom this amount he deducts the quota of the\nstate fund assigned to the county, and the remainder is the minimum\namount of the county school fund to be raised by taxation for the ensuing year, provided: that the minimum of such fund shall not be less\nthan $6 for every census child.\nThe county fund thus made up is\nthen distributed to the districts\n\nin accordance\n\nwith\n\nthis rule, wvzz., $500\n\nfor every teacher, except (1) that to districts having less than twenty\ncensus children only $400 is assigned, and (2) that to districts having\nmore than seventy census children $20 additional for every such child\nless than twenty in number shall be allowed.\nAll school moneys remaining in the treasury after this apportionment has been made are then divided\namong the districts of the county in proportion to the average daily attendance upon each district during the preceding school year.\nDistrict taxes\nmay also be raised, subject to certain legal conditions (Appendix C).\nThe subcommittee does not feel called upon to deal with all the\nstates, or even with all the peculiar modes of distributing school moneys.\nIt believes that the enumeration of particulars now made is ample for the\npresent purpose.\nSome remarks upon the leading rules or methods of\ndistribution are, however, called for.\n\n1. Distribution according to the school census or enumeration is open\nto a serious objection, vzz., it does not carry the money where it is most\nFor example, two districts lie side by side, one having twenty\nneeded.\nforty youths of school age; the second district draws twice\nother\nthe\nand\nas the other, but the cost of keeping up the two schools\nmoney\nas much\nThe same would be true of two township units,\nsame.\nthe\nis practically\n\n"}
{"page": 428, "printed_page": null, "text": "418\n\n[National\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\nThe result is that the district or\nunless the schools were consolidated.\nThe rule is simple\ntownship that needs the most help receives the least.\nand easily worked, but it tends partially to defeat the end of state or\ncounty aid.\n2. The same objection holds against rules based on the school enroll-_\nment or on attendance, only with somewhat\n\ndiminished\n\nforce.\n\nAgain, if\n\nthe enrollment is followed, or attendance for a brief time, there is danger\nthat some children will go to school long enough to be counted, and then\ndrop out.\nBesides, such rules of distribution work in favor of the graded\nschools and against the rural schools, on account of their larger enrollment\nand more regular attendance.\n3. Taking everything into account, the subcommittee is inclined to\nthink that a fixed sum or sums, based on an arbitrary unit or units, is\nmost equitable.\nExamples of such rules are furnished by the states of\nMassachusetts,\n\nRhode\n\nIsland,\n\nNew\n\nYork,\n\nNew\n\nJersey,\n\nand\n\nCalifornia.\n\nThe most serious objection to such rules is that they are necessarily complicated ; some of those given above are quite complicated.\nThen, if the\nfixed sum is so much a teacher, as in New York, or so much a district, as\n\nin Rhode Island and New Jersey, there is a temptation to the undue multiplication of schools or teachers.\nBut this point can be safeguarded by\nfixing statutory limitations, as in California.\n\nNo rule can be devised that\n\nwill not be open to objection.\nThe subcommittee does not believe it\npossible to invent any rule of distribution that will well accomplish the\npurpose of taxing large units for the benefit of small ones, unléss it rests\non the school or the teacher as a unit, with the necessary qualifications.\nThe Massachusetts rule is open to the objection that the school needs of\ntowns cannot always be measured by low valuations of property assessed\nfor taxation, as the number of pupils to be educated is also a factor.\nIf\nthe method of distribution now recommended is objected to as an\nexclusive one, then it may be supplemented by basing a part of the\nappropriation on the school census, enrollment, or attendance.\nThe\nresort to the United States census is most Objectionable, as great changes\nof population occur in the course of ten years.\nThe difference in the working of the school-census method and the\nfixed-sum method of distribution is well shown by comparing the statistics of two states.\nFor the fiscal year ending November rs, 1895, the\nmill tax of Ohio produced $1,720,922.\nOf the eighty-eight counties\nforty paid More into the fund than they received from it, while forty-eight\npaid less than they received.\nSome of the major counties of the state\nreceived more from the fund than they paid into it, while minor counties\npaid more than they received.\nFor the year 1896 the city of Cleveland\nactually received $2,616.67 more from the state than it paid to the state.\nAssuredly, a rule that makes the agricultural counties of Ohio, or many of\n\n"}
{"page": 429, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nRURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nAIg\n\nthem, contribute to the education of Cleveland, the most populous city in\nthe state, is a travesty of common sense.\nBut the same year Cincinnati\npaid in round numbers $70,000 more than it received.\n\nThis is hardly bet-\n\nter than repealing the mill tax outright, and letting the burden of education fall directly upon the cities and townships.\nOn the other hand, the\nstate of New York, in 1896, paid a total general school tax of $4,062,903,\n$3,500,000 was immediately distributed to the counties again.\n\nof which\n\nFifty-four of the sixty counties received more from this tax than they conErie\ntributed to it; only six counties paid more than they received.\ncounty paid $241,597 and received $185,460; while the corresponding\nfigures for Kings and New York counties were $503,603 and $387,879,\nand\n\n$1,884,584\n\nand\n\n$636,133,\n\nrespectively.\n\nThe\n\nNew\n\nYork\n\nrule does\n\nbring the strong to the help of the weak.\nA question arises in respect to separate funds for buildings, the payment of teachers, and incidental expenses.\nIn the opinion of the subcommittee such division is desirable.\nThe need of providing new\nbuildings is often made an excuse by boards of education for keeping\ndown the salaries of teachers.\nThe triple fund would not indeed prevent such injustice, which makes teachers as such contribute to buildings,\nbut it would Zevd in that direction.\nIt is often stipulated in school laws\nthat state funds apportioned to communities shall be wholly applied to\nthe payment of teachers.\nThis is a wholesome regulation.\nThe cost of\ngrounds, buildings, and incidental expenses should be met by local taxes\nor other local funds.\nTouching the division of the cost of public education, State Superintendent Stetson of Maine, in a private communication,\nthus defines the prospective policy of that state: ‘‘ Local communities\nshall provide school lots and school buildings, and keep the same in\nrepair. Two-thirds of the money raised for maintaining schools shall\ncome\n\nfrom\n\nthe state, and\n\none-third\n\nfrom\n\nthe local communities.\n\nThe\n\napportionment of the money to the several municipalities shall be upon\nthe basis of average attendance.\nWe shall also try to get a law prohibiting towns from receiving state aid, if they maintain schools having less\nthan a certain average attendance.”\nSuch a law as this would serve to\nprevent the undue multiplication\ncertain measure of consolidation.\n\nof districts, and\n\nwould\n\neven\n\nwork\n\na\n\nThe distribution of taxes levied on railroads, telegraphs, long-distance\ntelephone lines, express companies, and the like, is an important question.\n\nIn some states, as New York, Texas, and Ohio, school taxes levied\n\non railroads inure to the exclusive benefit of the districts or townships\nthrough which the tracks run, excluding any state tax that may be levied\nThis rule the subcommittee regards as unjust. The\non such property.\nlocation of railroads is determined largely by physical conditions, and\nthe mere fact that a line happens to run through its territory, where\n\n"}
{"page": 430, "printed_page": null, "text": "420\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nprobably not a dollar of the stock or bonds is owned, is no reason why a\ndistrict or township should profit thereby to the exclusion of other and\nIn Pennsylvania the taxes on\nless fortunate districts or townships.\nand are distributed by the\ntreasury\nstate\nthe\ninto\npaid\nare\nrailroads\nlegislature along with other revenues, the public schools, normal\n\nschools,\n\nand colleges being included among the objects of the appropriation.\nCalifornia has a similar provision.\nThe mode of distributing the\nMichigan specific tax has already been described.\nIt is believed that\nsuch revenues as the foregoing should inure to the common benefit of\nthe\n\nstate;\n\nbut what\n\nis here\n\nsaid, let it be remarked,\n\nin\n\nno\n\nway\n\nrelates\n\nto pending controversies about the taxation of railroads or other similar\nproperty.\n\nThe Nebraska law contains one excellent feature that is worthy of\nmention.\nAll public high schools in the state that, as determined by the\nState Department of Education, have a proper equipment of teachers,\nappliances, and course of study, are open to attendance by any person of\nschool age residing outside the district who is a resident of the state and\nwhose education cannot be profitably carried on in the public school of\nthe district of his residence.\nSuch pupil must have a certificate, signed\nby the county superintendent, that he has completed the common-school\ncourse prescribed by the state department for work below the high school.\nHe must attend at the high school nearest to his residence or at a high\nschool of approved grade in the county of his residence.\nAny school\nboard that furnishes high-school instruction to such pupil is authorized\nto charge fifty cents a week for the time that he has been in attendance,\nand it is made the duty of the county board to pay all such bills out of the\ncounty school fund.\nMassachusetts and Ohio, and perhaps other states\nalso, provide for educating qualified pupils in high schools in other places\nthan those where they reside, provided there are no home schools for\nthem to attend, and this without cost to themselves.\n\nAs Massachusetts\n\nis\n\nthe only state that makes the provision of high schools compulsory under\nany circumstances, it may be well to mention the principal features of the\nstate law in regard to that subject.\nEvery town having a population of\n4,000 persons or 500 families is obliged to maintain a high school, the\ngrade of the school depending somewhat upon the fact whether it has the\nlarger or the smaller population.\nPupils living in towns that are not\nrequired to maintain a high school can attend any neighboring high\nschool that will receive them.\nIn such cases the state pays the tuition of\nthe pupil, provided the valuation of the town in which he resides does\nnot exceed $500,000;\n\nif the valuation does exceed that amount, the town\n\npays the tuition.\nHigh-school tuition is, therefore, wholly free to every\nqualified pupil in the state.\n\n"}
{"page": 431, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF THE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n421\n\n‘\nORGANIZATION.\nThe subcommittee is not here interested in the subject of school organization further than it relates to school maintenance.\nIts relations to\nteaching, supervision, and studies are topics belonging to other divisions\nof the general report.\nThe statement and enforcement of two propositions will answer the present purpose.\nI. The\n\nfirst proposition\n\nrior to the district\n\nis that the township-unit system is far supe-\n\nsystem, and\n\nshould\n\nbe substituted, if practicable, for\n\nThe superiority of the town or township\nthat system wherever it exists.\nas an administrative unit is as great as its superiority as a taxing unit.\nThe principal advantages are the following:\n1. If the schools of a township are under a single board elected from\nthe township at large, schoolhouses will far more likely be built where\nthey are needed than under the other system.\n2. Equality of school provision will be much more fully secured in\nrespect to schoolhouses and grounds, length of school terms, and the ability and character of teachers.\n3. The tendency will not be to multiply schools unduly, but to restrict\ntheir number, bringing together more scholars, and thus making better\nclassification, grading, and teaching possible, and increasing the interest\nand enthusiasm of the pupils.\n4. Better supervision can be secured. The county superintendent can\ndeal more effectively and easily with one board in a township than with\nsix, ten, or twelve;\n\nwhile\n\ntownship\n\nand township-union\n\nsupervision\n\nwill\n\nbe greatly promoted.\n5. Simplicity and economy of administration will be facilitated, and\nthe sense of official responsibility be enhanced.\n6. The tendency will be to employ teachers for longer terms, and\nthereby to restrict, in a considerable degree, the evils that flow from frequent changes.\nOn this point the statistics of Mr. Gass, presented in\nthis report, may be mentioned.\n7. The strifes and contentions between districts that are now not\ninfrequent will be prevented.\n8. Transfers-of pupils from school to school will be made more easy.\n'g. The reason last to be mentioned is perhaps the strongest of all.\nThe relations of the township-unit system to school consolidation have\nalready been suggested. The township system does not necessitate such\nconsolidation, although it is likely to work that way ; but consolidation\n\nis\n\nalmost wholly dependent upon that system: schools zwz// not be consolidated in great numbers if a plurality of district school boards have to\ndo the work.\nThe subcommittee has stated that the adoption of the township-unit\nIt is not,\nsystem 77// de followed by the reforms that have been mentioned.\n\n"}
{"page": 432, "printed_page": null, "text": "422\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nindeed, meant that such will be the unvarying result ;there will be exceptions— perhaps many exceptions — when the whole country is considered ;\nbut the tendency wd/ de strong in the directions named, or such well be\nNot only is this the suggestion of\nthe general character of the result.\nexperience as well (Appendix £).\nof\nteaching\nthe\nis\nit\nbut\ncommon sense,\nancient system of New England.\nthe\nwas\nsystem\nschool\nThe town-unit\nCourt of Massachusetts in\nGeneral\nthe\nby\nenacted\nlaw\nThe classic school\non their reaching a cerschools\nfound\nshould\ntowns\nthe\nthat\n1648 ordered\neither by the parents\npaid\nbe\nto\n,\nteachers\nthe\nhouseholders\ntain number of\nof such children as resorted to them for instruction or by the inhabitants\nin general by way of supply, as those who ordered the prudentials of the\ntown should appoint. The word “township” is also used in the law. Con-_\nnecticut followed the example of Massachusetts. The original New England town, which was a small concentration of population, was well\nadapted to this system.\nBut ‘‘as the population of each little nucleus of\nsettlement spread itself out from the center of the original ‘ plantation,’ it\nearly became\n\nconvenient, in Massachusetts\n\nand\n\nConnecticut\n\nat least, to\n\nallow neighboring families at a distance from the local concentration, or\nThe original church\nnucleus, to form themselves into a school district.”\nparishes were divided in the same way.\nIf these districts had been\nfounded merely for the purpose of school supply, or to regulate attendance, there would have been, under the conditions\n\nexisting, no objection\n\nUnfortunately, however, these new\nto their formation, but the contrary.\ndistricts also became units of school maintenance, bodies corporate and\npolitic. These districts appear at first to have existed by sufferance merely,\nbut the celebrated school law of 1789 legalized them, thus paving the way\nfor the general introduction of the new system.\nHorace Mann declared\nin his Tenth Annual Report: “I consider the law of 1730.2<3. 5 @ “autners\nizing towns to divide themselves into districts the most unfortunate law\non the subject of common schools ever enacted in the state.’\nStill this\n“act was not repealed until manufacturing had restored those concentrations of population which in the early colonies had invited township\ncontrol of school affairs.” This was finally done. Mr. Mann in the same\nreport (p. 37) bore this testimony to the superiority of the town system:\n“As a general fact, the schools of undistricted towns are greatly superior to those in districted towns—and for obvious reasons.\nThe first\nclass of towns—the undistricted—provide all the schoolhouses, and,\nthrough the agency of the school committee, employ all the teachers.\nIf\none good schoolhouse is provided for any section of the town, all the\nother sections, having contributed their respective portions of the expense\nto erect the good\n\nhouse, will demand\n\none\n\nequally good\n\nfor themselves;\n\nand the equity of such a demand is so obvious that it cannot\n\nbe resisted.\n\nIf, on the other hand, each section were a separate district, and bound for\n\n"}
{"page": 433, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nRURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n423\n\nthe whole expense of a new house if it should erect one, it would be\ntempted to continue an old house long after it had ceased to be comfortable, and, indeed, as experience has too often sadly proved, long after it has\nceased\n\nto be tenantable.\n\nSo, too, in undistricted towns we\n\nnever see the\n\npainful, anti-republican contrast of one school, in one section, kept all the\nyear round by a teacher who receives $100 a month, while, in another sec-\n\ntion of the same town, the school is kept on the minimumprinciple, both\nas to time and price, and, of course, yielding only a minimum amount of\nbenefit—to say nothing of probable and irremediable evils that it may\nIn regard to supervision, also, if the school committee is responinflict.\nsible for the condition of all the schools, it is constrained to visit all\nalike, to care for all alike, and, as far as possible, to aim in all at the pro-\n\nduction of equal results; because any partiality or favoritism will be\nrebuked at the ballot box.\nIn undistricted towns, therefore, three grand\nconditions of a prosperous school, vzz., a good house, a good teacher, and\nvigilant superintendence, are secured by motives which do not operate,\nUnder the nonor operate to a very limited extent, in districted towns.\ndistricting system it is obvious that each section of a town will demand at\nleast an equal degree of accommodation in the house, of talent in the\nteacher, and of attention in the committee; and should any selfish feelings be indulged, it is some consolation to reflect that they, too, will be\nharnessed to the car of improvement.”\nThe district system was at one time universal, and it exists in some\nform in a great majority of the states today.\nIn Maine, New Hampshire,\nMassachusetts, and New Jersey it has been wholly swept away.\nIn Connecticut and Rhode Island the town system is permissive, and exists side\nby side with the district system.\nThe township system exists in Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Indiana.\nIt is permissive in the upper peninsula of\nMichigan, in Wisconsin, and in Minnesota, and doubtless in other states.\n\nIt varies somewhat in the organization of the local authority.\nThe\nMassachusetts school committee consists of three members or a mul; tiple of three, elected from the town at large. In New Jersey the board\nconsists\n\nof three,\n\nfive, or nine\n\nmembers,\n\nas the town\n\nmay\n\nelect.\n\nThe\n\nOhio board consists of delegates or representatives elected by the subdistricts, one each.\nA single trustee elected by the people manages\nthe schools of a township in Indiana, except that he is assisted by a\ndirector in each attendance district who looks after incidental local\nmatters.\n\n:\n\nConsidering the great superiority of the township system over the district system, it is not a little strange that its introduction in the room of\nits competitor should have been so steadily resisted as it has been. This .\nopposition is due in part to the power of conservative habit, in part to the\nbelief that the district system is more democratic, and in part to the.\n\n"}
{"page": 434, "printed_page": null, "text": "424\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\npopular fondness for office holding, all conjoined with much misconcepIt has.\ntion and ignorance in respect to the merits of the two systems.\nbest\nthe\nis\nalso been urged in favor of the district, by politicians, that it\nCertainly it cannot\nunit for canvassing the states for political purposes.\nbe objected to the township system, in its pure form, that it is not suffiIn 1875 there were 15,087 teachers employed in\nciently democratic.\nteaching the common schools of Ohio, and there were in the state at the\nsame time more than 35,000 school directors and members of boards of\neducation charged with the administration of the schools.\n‘This, assuredly, is an excess of democracy.\nThe “community” system is much worse than the district system, and\nfortunately it is confined to a single state.\nThe Texas law permits parents, guardians, or other persons having control of children of scholastic\nage, residing in any one of the so-called “community” counties (thirty-five\nin number out of a total of 250), to unite and organize themselves into a\nfree-school community entitled to the benefits of the available school\nfund belonging to the county, upon complying with certain prescribed\n‘conditions.\nThe persons so uniting and organizing first address a petition to the county judge, who is ex-officio county superintendent of\nschools, duly signed by the petitioners, setting forth that the community\nis white or black, as the case may be, giving an alphabetical list of the\nnames of children of scholastic age within the limits proposed, describing\nthe capacity of the schoolhouse and the character of the other conveniences that the petitioners have to offer, naming persons to act as trustees,\netc. The matter then passes into the hands of the judge, who has no\ndiscretionary power in the premises.\nHe may not even throw aside such\na petition either because it is signed by few persons or because the alpha-\n\nbetical list carries few names.\nThe law does not fix any minimum number in either case.\nIf the people of a neighborhood desire a school, no\nmatter how few they may be, a school the judge must grant them.\nThe\n“community” is a voluntary district in the strict sense of the term, having\nlegal existence for one year only, and having no authority to levy a local\nschool tax, and the evils that attend it are far greater than those that\ncall so loudly for the abolition of the district system wherever that is\npracticable.\nThe people of Texas can, however, congratulate themselves that the ‘“community” school, which plainly originated in pioneer\nsociety, has lost ground in later years.\nIn the South, and in those western states that have the county system\nof local government, the only practical alternative to the district system\nof school organization is a county system.\nIt must be remembered that\nin these states the town or township does not exist. Fortunately, such a\nsystem is not altogether unknown.\nIn a few counties of Georgia it has\nbeen in successful operation for a number of years. These are the prin-\n\n"}
{"page": 435, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nRURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n425\n\ncipal features of the system as it exists in Richmond county, in which\nthe city of Augusta is situated:\nThe county is the unit area of organization, and the rural parts and\n_the urban parts of the county district, as far as practicable, are treated\njust alike. A board of education, composed of representatives elected by\nthe people of the county for the term of three years, one-third retiring each\nyear, manages all the schools.\nThe school tax is levied ata uniform rate\nupon all the property of the county, without revision by any other authority and without any limit as to rate or amount.\nThe county and state\nfunds are distributed to the schools according to the number of children\nto be educatéd.\n‘here is no district tax. The same qualifications are\nrequired for country and for city teachers.\nThe teachers are treated as\nnearly alike as the conditions admit, and they are paid about the same\nsalaries.\nThe schools are in session the same length of time in a year,\nnine\n\ncalendar\n\nmonths.\n\nThe\n\ncountry schoolhouses, on\n\nthe average, are\n\nsituated four miles apart, and no child is out of walking distance of a\nschool open nine months in the year, and taught by a good teacher. One\nsuperintendent has charge of all the schools.\nAugusta has nine-tenths of\nthe taxable property of the county, but only three-fourths of the school\npopulation.\nIn other words, the rural parts of the county pay one-tenth\nof the school tax and receive the benefit of one-fourth of it. For the\nmost part, these are excellent provisions.\nThe county would seem to be\nthe natural area unit for popular schools under the county system of local\ngovernment.\nThe subcommittee confidently believes that this mode of\nschool organization has a great future before it in the United States\n(Appendix D).\nII. In those parts of the country where existing physical and social\nconditions render it practicable there should be such a consolidation of\nrural schools as will diminish the existing number of schools, schoolhouses, and teachers, and bring together, at advantageous points, the\npupils who are now divided and scattered among the isolated schools of\nthe township or other similar district.\nThis step should be taken in the\ninterest of good education as well as of public economy.\nTo make this\nreform possible the children, as far as may be necessary or practicable,\nmust be conveyed to and from the schoolhouses at public expense.\nHow absolutely fatal to good schools the existing conditions are in\nmany parts of the country statistics show most conclusively.\nState Superintendent Wells of Wisconsin reported in 1894 that his state had 183\ndistricts whose average attendance the previous year was not more than\nfive each ; that 858 others were not above ten each ; while 2,481 more did not\nexceed twenty each.\n\n“In other words,” he said, “3,522 country districts,\n\nabout three-fifths of the total number, have an average attendance not\nexceeding twenty, and about two-fifths above that average, with the great\n,\n\n"}
{"page": 436, "printed_page": null, "text": "4\n\nNATIONAL\n\n426\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nMr. H. R. Gass, of Michigan, citing\nmajority near the lower margin.”*\nin a published paper that in 1886\nstates\nauthority,\nhis\nfor\nreport\nthe state\nthat state required 158 teachers,\nin\ncounty\nCalhoun\nof\nschools\nthe country\nin the course of the year. |\nones\ndifferent\n342\nemployed\nthey\nand that\nwas 8.4 months, while\ndistrict\nthe\nin\nschool\nthe\nof\nlength\nThe average\nwas but 3.8 months.\nemployed\nwere\nteachers\nthe\nwhich\nfor\nterm\nthe average\nthen observes ;\nand\nstatistics,\nlike\npresents\nthat\ncounty\nsecond\na\nHe cites\n“The ratio of the number [of teachers] required to the number employed\nis about the same as this throughout the state, the tenure being longer in\nthe newer than in the older counties.”\nThis state of things Mr. Gass\nHe refers to Massaattributes to the prevalence of the district system.\nchusetts and Indiana, where changes of teachers are much less frequent\nand teachers’ tenures much longer than in Michigan.\nWhile two teachers\non an average were employed in Michigan for a school every year, but few\nschools in the other states employed more than one. In the same state, at\nthe present time, there\n\ntwenty-five\n\nare\n\n468 districts that enumerate\n\n1,000 districts\n\nthat enumerate\n\nless than\n\nage each, while\n\nseventy counties\n\ncontain\n\nover\n\nchildren of school\n\nless than fifteen each.\n\nThe statistics at hand\n\ndo not show the actual-size of the schools.\n-Nor are the small schools\nfound in the newer and poorer parts of the state only; the oldest and\nrichest counties have.their fair'share of them.\nIn fact, the newer parts of\na state often have the largest and best schools. -Not only so, the oldest\nand most densely populated states frequently make a very poor showing.\nIn 1894-95 there were 7,529 school districts in New York, in each of\nwhich the average attendance upon school during the year varied from one\nto twenty pupils, while the average daily attendance in each of 2,983 districts was less than ten pupils (Appendix 7). In 1893 Vermont had 153\nIn 1892 State Superintendent Luce of\nschools of six pupils or less each.\nMaine reported that the average enrollment in the schools of that state for\nthe previous year was less than twenty-five pupils to a school, and that the\nnumber of districts having less than twenty-five was larger than the number having more.\nHe declared that there were probably between 1,000\nand 1,200 existing schools in the state whose enrollment was twelve or less,\n\nand that 600 or 800 schools then existing could be abolished without\nTwenty-five years ago a large number of schools on the\ndetriment.?\nWestern Reserve, Ohio, long famed for schools, had dwindled to the most\n\ninsignificant size. Still other statistics of similar import will be found in\nthe report of the Subcommittee on Instruction and Discipline.\nAttention is drawn particularly to those relating to Rhode Island and Massachusetts.\n*“The Township System of School Government.”\n\n*Quoted by Mr. Gass.\ntion, 1887.”\n\nMadison, 1894.\n\nSee “Transactions of the Michigan State Teachers’ Associa-\n\n"}
{"page": 437, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n427\n\nBut it is needless to multiply statistics, or to insist at length that\nthousands of rural schools furnish their pupils with a miserable preparation for the duties of life. When we consider the various elements that\nenter into good education, and especially training for social activities, it\nis not too much to say that a very small school is almost necessarily a\nHitherto it has been supThe facts are notorious.\nvery poor school.\nposed that, although the cities and towns surpassed the rural districts in\nhigher education, the rural districts contained a smaller proportion of\nilliterate persons.\nThis has been the prevailing view in the northern\nstates, and probably it was once in accord with the facts. The cities have\nbeen considered the great hives of illiteracy. But there is now grave\nCertainly\nreason to question whether the fact is not often the other way.\nit is so in the only state where, so far as the subcommittee\n\nis informed,\n\nthe subject has been statistically investigated.*\nBut however this may be,\na remedy for the unsatisfactory state of the rural schools is one of the\nOne thing that can be\npressing needs of the day. What can be done?\ndone is to consolidate many of the small schools by carrying back and\nforth such pupils as need to be carried, and thus, by one stroke, create\nseveral of the conditions of good schools.\n‘The interest that this subject\nis beginning to awaken is one of the hopeful signs of the times.\nIt was Massachusetts that led the way in developing the district system, and it is Massachusetts that is leading the way in consolidation.\nAn\nact that dates from 1869 authorizes any town in the commonwealth to\nraise money by taxation to enable the school committee, in its discretion,\n\nto provide for the conveyance of pupils to and from the public schools at\npublic cost.\nThe towns were already empowered to build schoolhouses\nwherever they were really needed.\nAvailing themselves of these powers,\nt The state referred to is Michigan.\n\nAccording to the state census of 1894 the ratios\n\nof the foreign-born persons in the cities of the state, ten years of age or more, unable to\nread and write, and in the state at large, were practically the same, eighty-four in 1,000.\nBut the ratios of the native-born in the cities, in the state at large, and therefore in the\ncountry districts, were quite different.\nIn the cities it was fourteen in 1,000; in the state\nat large, twenty-one\n\nin 1,000;\n\nin the country, twenty-four in 1,000.\n\nFor every fourteen\n\npersons ten years of age or upwards in the cities unable to read and write there were\ntwenty-four in the country; that is, the ratio in the country is 70 per cent. greater than\nthat in the cities. If the country rate of illiteracy could be reduced to the city rate, the\nnumber of illiterates of the native-born population ten years of age and upwards unable\nto read and write would be reduced\n\nabout 8,000.\n\nSeveral facts, no doubt, enter into the\n\nexplanation of the greater illiteracy of the country districts, but the most important of\nthem is the inferiority of the country schools. It does not explain matters to say that\nMichigan is comparatively a new state, that much of it is thinly settled, that it contains\nlarge lumbering and mining districts, etc. The fact is that in the oldest and wealthiest parts\nof Michigan the cities, as a rule, surpass the counties in which they are situated in respect to\nThe city of Detroit ranks distinctly higher than Wayne county,\npopular intelligence.\nand the same may be said of the cities of Grand Rapids and Ann Arbor as compared with\nThe counties named contain the cities mentioned.\n‘Kent and Washtenaw counties.\n\n"}
{"page": 438, "printed_page": null, "text": "428\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nmany towns have entered upon the work of consolidating their schools.\nHow the work goes on is shown by the following table exhibiting the\nsums of money paid for public-school transportation for a series of\nyears.\nYear\n\nAmount\n\nYear\n\nESO\nOH SO others erancoamedsta\nCeasar fs 8's $22,118.38 ||| TSO2—O3iac\nes «aie vt\nOts Ge:\nTS SO—O Ont crcretere relent etstare stats\nDATA GSUD: | TSO\n=O Aosta eee ele eletetts atelers\nESQO=OT sorte\naie ons CMe oistiyarar\nohohe\n30:648;68) ||| TSO4=OSera eise roe ete ie eee\nES OOO ae eee vaieite, sisomclsues s/6re 28.726.07 jl 105 —GOraaee sects ie aietal sierenete\n\nAmount\n\n$50,590.41\n63,617.68\n76,608.29\n91,136.11\n\nThe movement has extended beyond Massachusetts and reached every\none of the New England states. In these states many hundreds of schools\nhave been consolidated, and with the most gratifying results.\nOccasionally an unsuccessful experiment is reported, but the great stream of testimony runs strongly the other way.\nLonger school terms, better teachers,\nbetter grading, better instruction, more interest in the pupils, greater\nphysical comfort on the part of the children, better supervision— these\nare the claims that are made for the new departure (Appendices EF and F).\nOther things being equal, the new way is never more expensive than the\nold one, and often it is less expensive.\n‘The movement has spread beyond New England.\nIn 1894 a law was\nenacted in New Jersey providing for the transportation of pupils at public expense in order that rural schools might be consolidated with city\nones.\nA most interesting experiment in consolidation is being tried in\nnortheastern Ohio, where some schools had already died out, and many\nmore were lingering on the verge of death.\nPermissive legislation has\nbeen obtained in several counties, and already many townships are working the plan successfully, while many others are looking on expectantly\nand are apparently on the point of making the new departure.\nThe newspapers are quick to note the innovation, and it is already attracting attention beyond the borders of the state (Appendix F).\nThe distinct pedagogical advantages of consolidation are much more\nfully set forth in the reports on supply of teachers and instruction and discipline than here.\nIn this report the topic is dealt with mainly as it is\nrelated to organization and administration. The fact is, however, the several aspects of consolidation are inseparably connected. As arule, whatever\npromotes simplicity and ease of administration promotes good instruction,\nand wice versa.\nNo one of the subcommittees that handle the subject\nfor a moment supposes that there is any charm in the word “consolidation” to cast all the evil spirits out of the rural school, but they all\nbelieve, after giving the subject mature consideration, that great possibilities of improvement lie in that direction.\nIt is perfectly true that the\nconsolidation remedy cannot be universally applied, because physical and\n\n"}
{"page": 439, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nREPORT\n\nsocial conditions\n\nOF\n\noften\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nforbid.\n\nThe\n\nON RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n429\n\nfact is thata large proportion\n\nthe children of the land will be schooled in little schools—rural\n\nof\n\nschools,\n\nungraded schools—or they will not be schooled at all. Suggestions\nlooking to the improvement of these schools will be found in the\nreports of all the subcommittees; but insistence is here placed upon\nthe fact that the consolidation remedy can be applied on a grand\nscale, with the largest promise of success.\nIn most states some new\nlegislation will be necessary to that end, but not in all. Wherever the\ntownship-unit system exists, the first step, and the long step, has\nalready been taken.\nIn such states it should not be difficult to secure\nthe needed legislation in relation to transportation.\nState Superintendent Emery of Wisconsin has already notified the people of his state\nthat the laws contain all the provisions that are necessary to enable them\nto move at once in the direction of school consolidation.\nIt is important that the consolidation reform shall not be misunderstood.\nIt does not necessarily mean that there shall be only one school\nin a town or township.\nIt does not mean either that parts of different\ntownships or counties sHall not be comprised in one school. These\nquestions are merely matters of detail, and their adjustment will depend\nupon such factors as the size of townships, the distribution of villages or\nother local centers, the\n\ndirection\n\nand\n\ncondition\n\nof roads,\n\nstreams, and\n\nbridges, the distribution of population, and the physical configuration of\nthe township and the adjacent parts of the country.\n;\nIt is noteworthy how the different phases of educational reform all\ntend to hold together.\nIn the northern states the cause of school consolidation depends intimately upon the adoption of the township-unit\nsystem.\nA certain amount of consolidation can be effected by the abolition of small districts; it may be possible, also, for several independent\ndistricts to merge their schools into one, for the time at least, and still\npreserve their independence; but it is manifest that the first plan will not\nprove effectual, and that the second one will be infrequent and precarious.\nThe subcommittee believes confidently, therefore, that the fortune of effec-\n\ntual consolidation is closely bound up with the fortune of the townshipunit system.\nIt is also noteworthy, let it be remarked again, how different social\nelements tend to attract one another and so to coalesce. School consolidation, especially its practicability, turns largely upon means of cheap, safe,\nand easy communication throughout the school area.\nHere we touch a\nquestion intimately relating to social progress that has been receiving\nincreasing attention the last few years.\nReference is made to the\nimprovement of roads.\nThose who have been promoting this movement\nhave not probably regarded it as a measure of educational reform; but\nsuch it is. Perhaps there is no rural interest of a social nature that\n\n"}
{"page": 440, "printed_page": null, "text": "430\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nwould be more decidedly enhanced by good roads than the educational\nThe people of some of the towns of Ohio, where the new plan\ninterest.\nis being tried, claim this as a decided advantage that the drivers of the\nomnibuses serve as carriers for the mails between the farmhouses and the\npost offices, thus promoting the diffusion of intelligence in still another\nway.\n\nOnly a single point remains to be pressed, but it must be pressed\nstrongly.\nThis is the necessity of lengthening materially the time that\nthe country schools, on the average, are in session each year, and the\nsecuring of a more regular attendance of the pupils.\nThe legal years\nnow vary widely in different states, and the practical, or real, years\nstill more widely.\nSome communities always surpass the legal minimum\nof time, others as regularly fall below it. In the thickly settled states of\nthe East the rural schools are in session eight, nine, or ten months in\nthe year;\n\nbut often in the South, and\n\nsometimes\n\nin the West, one-half\n\nthe shortest of these terms is not reached.\nThe legal year is frequently\nabsurdly short.\nUntil two years ago the Michigan year was but three\nmonths, and now it is but five months.\nIt is quite unnecessary to argue\nthat short schools are, even relatively, poor schools.\nIn order to have a\ngood school, it is necessary not only to bring pupils together in considerable numbers, but also to hold them to the work\n\na certain\n\nnumber\n\nof\n\nhours each day, and a certain number of days each year. There must\nbe a concentration of effgrt as of pupils.\nIt is as wasteful a method of\neducation to send children to school seventy or eighty days in the year\nas it is to send them two or three hours in the day. Persons interested\nin popular education, and particularly in rural education, should not rest,\ntherefore, in their efforts until they have made the legal school year in\nevery state at least 160 or 180 days.\nBut it will not be enough for the state simply to fix aminimum school\nyear: it must see to the enforcement of the law. The law should hold\ncommunities to a rigid accountability in respect to maintaining schools\nof legal grade for the full legal period, to employing none but certificated teachers, and making all the required reports to the state educational\ndepartment.\nMost school laws contain such provisions as these, but it is\nfeared that they are not always enforced.\nThe only practicable mode of\nenforcement is absolutely to withhold from the local organizations all aid\nfrom the superior taxing units, as the state, until they first observe the\nlaw.\nAnd again, it will not suffice for the state to see\n\nthat\n\nthe\n\nprescribed\n\nquality of instruction is actually furnished.\nIt might, perhaps, be\nthought that if the state only provided local schools, and made them\nfree, the people would be only too glad to avail themselves of them to the\nfull ; but sad experience shows that this is not always the case.\nThe\n\n"}
{"page": 441, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n431\n\nindifference, ignorance, and selfishness of some parents come between\ntheir children and the schools.\nIn communities where the school attendance is compulsory some parents are in an almost constant battle with\nthe authorities, to keep their children out of the school as much as possible. It is possible that such extreme indifference or selfishness as this\nis more common in cities than in the country; and yet it is true, as a\ntule, that the country child’s labor, especially the farm boy’s labor, has a\n\ngreater money value than the city child’s labor, and that the farmer is,\ntherefore, under a special temptation to keep his boys out of school. On\nthe whole, there is quite as much need of an efficient compulsory-attendance law in the country as in the city, and perhaps more.\nThe subcommittee has not taken space to discuss, in general, the\ncommon education that the American states are now furnishing the\nAmerican people.\nThat is a large subject, and for the most part lies outside the field of the present inquiry.\nIt will suffice to say, on this large\nquestion, that the people had better pay what they do pay for what they\nget than to go without it, or even twice, thrice, or four times the sum;\nbut, at the same time,\n\nthey might\n\nreceive, and\n\nshould\n\nreceive, a great\n\ndeal more for their money than at present.\nThis is particularly true of\nthe rural schools.\nNo doubt there are many excellent schools in the\ncountry; but, on the whole, it may well be doubted whether any money\nthat is expended in the people’s interest is expended more wastefully than\nwhat goes to the country schools.\nNo doubt the country school has\npoints of advantage over the city school, as the freer communion with\nnature, but, on the whole, it is inferior.\nThe typical “little red schoolhouse,” so invested with sentiment, is a costly and unsatisfactory institution of education.\nOwing to social changes, in many parts of the country it is much less efficient and useful, at least relatively, than once it was,\n\nand a new organization is imperatively called for. Something should be\ndone to stop the wasteful expenditure of the public money.\nState Superintendent Stetson, speaking for his state, puts the case thus in a communication to the subcommittee:\n\n“JT have devoted quite a number of pages in my report [1895] to showing the people of Maine that we are wasting an enormous sum of\nmoney in this state because of the unbusinesslike methods which are\nused in the expenditure of its school funds.\nThis waste is made in every\ndirection in which money is spent. We pay more than we need to for\nschool lots, the erection of school buildings, the furnishing of school\nappliances, text-books, fuel, making repairs, etc., etc. The waste along\nthese lines aggregates more than one-third of a million of dollars each\nyear. I have shown in the report that the money which we spend for\ncommon schoolsis sufficient to maintain schools taught by professionally\ntrained teachers, and superintended by competent superintendents; that,\n\n"}
{"page": 442, "printed_page": null, "text": "432\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nin addition to doing these two important things, we would have money\nenough left to supply them with the appliances necessary for a successful\nschool, and also furnish the needed apparatus, library books, and make\nI feel that I have demonstrated\nall the needed repairs and additions.\nthis point so that there will be no further question about it in the state\nof Maine.\nThe whole matter turns upon the simple point that we are.\nalarmingly wasteful in our expenditure of school money.\n“Personally I am in favor of local communities being responsible for\nproviding school buildings.\nI think two-thirds of the funds required for\nthe maintenance of the common schools should be furnished by the state,\nand that the other third should be raised by local taxation; that the\nstate should examine all teachers and issue all licenses to teach; that\ntowns thus receiving state aid must employ teachers who hold such certificates.\nThe state should inspect the school accounts of the towns receiving state aid.”\nThe subcommittee deems it advisable, now that the whole ground\nhas been covered, to restate the fundamental propositions that have been\n\nurged in this report. These all start from the one central postulate that\na provision of funds sufficient for their adequate support is essential to\nthe existence and life of good schools.\nThe threefold division of the\nsubject will be preserved in the summary.\nI.\n\nREVENUE.\n\n1, The great resource of the public schools is, avd must continue to be,\nsome form or forms of public taxation.\n2. Such areas or units of taxation should be created, or continued if\nalready in existence, as will fully develop the sound American principle\nthat the whole wealth of the state shall be made available for educating\nall the youth of the state.\n3. To accomplish this end, resort must be had to the larger units\nof taxation, especially where population is sparse and wealth meager.\n\nThe following recommendations must be specifically urged: (1) a liberal\nprovision of funds from the state treasury; (2) a county tax in at least all\nthe county-system states; (3) a town or township tax in the states where\nthis civil division exists; (4) taxes in special districts, that is, in cities and\n\nvillages. The school district, in the commonly accepted sense of that\nterm, is not a desirable taxing unit, but quite the cone, and should be\nabolished as such unit.\nII.\n\nDISTRIBUTION.\n\n1. Funds raised by the large political or social units for general\nschool purposes should be distributed in such a way as to bring the rich\nand the strong to the help of the poor and the weak.\n2. Such rules of distribution should be adopted as will accomplish\n\n"}
{"page": 443, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n433\n\nthis end.\nIn order to do this, distribution must be based, to a certain\nextent at least, upon fixed or arbitrary units; that is, so much money must\n\nbe given to the school or to the teacher.\n3. The large taxing units should render assistance to the small ones\nonly upon the condition that the small ones first do something for\nthemselves.\nIII.\n\nORGANIZATION.\n\n1. In the states where the town or mixed system of local government\nexists, the town- or township-school\n\nsystem\n\nshould, as far as practicable,\n\nbe substituted for the district system; in the county-system states the\ncounty-school system is the natural alternative to the district system.\n2. In those parts of the country where existing physical and social\nconditions render it practicable there should be such a consolidation of\nrural schools as will diminish the existing number of schools, schoolhouses, and teachers, and bring together, at advantageous points, the\npupils who are now divided and scattered among the isolated schools of\nthe township or other similar districts.\n3. There is urgent need of lengthening materially the time that the\ncountry schools, on the average, are in session each year. The ideal\nshould be a minimum school year in every state of at least 160 or 180\ndays.\nThe subcommittee\n\ndoes not expect\n\nto see, and does not desire to see,\n\nthe school systems of the country all brought to one uniform pattern.\nIt is too well aware of the great diversity of conditions that exist to think\nsuch a thing is possible.\nEven more, a certain variety, and so conflict, of\nsystems is conducive to life, activity, and improvement.\nNeither is the\nsubcommittee under any illusions as to what is possible, or probable, in a\n\nfield of education so vast as that offered by the United States, with the\ngreat number of authorities, state and local. At the same time there are\ncertain general laws governing successful school systems and schools that\ncannot be ignored.\nSome of the principal of these laws have been set\nforth above; and it is believed that their general recognition will be\nfollowed by a marked improvement of the common schools, and so of\nthe popular education, of the country.\nSome persons may ask, ‘‘ How shall the principles laid down in this\nreport be made practical?” ‘How shall they be established in communities or states where they do not exist, or exist only in part?”\nTo these\nquestions only a general answer is needed.\nThe state legislature, the\nlaw-making authority, is the only source of power in relation to education,\nas well as in relation to all other branches of the state government.\nAccordingly, if the school law is defective and weak, the legislature must\nbe called upon to repair and strengthen it. No progress can be made with-\n\n"}
{"page": 444, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n434\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n[National\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nBut how shall the\nout an efficient law and efficient school authorities.\nIn precisely the same way\nlegislature be induced to act in the premises?\nFacts, arguments, persuasion,\nthat it is induced to act in other matters.\nmust be addressed to the members of the legislature. Above all it is important that the public mind shall be informed as fully as possible upon all\nIf the people generally knew how much better\nbranches of the subject.\nschools they might have than those that they do now have, and for no\nmore cost, it is impossible to believe that they would not bestir themThe subcommittee marks out what it believes to\nselves to effect reforms.\nit enforces its views, as far as\nbe broad lines of educational progress.\nBut it must necessarily leave the\npossible, with appropriate arguments.\napplication of these views and arguments to the exigencies existing in\nparticular communities or states to such persons, belonging to these communities or states, as are\n\ninterested\n\nin the subject and\n\nare familiar with\n\nall the local facts and conditions.\n\nB. A. HINSDALE,\nW. S. SuTTON,\nSale AG:\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nSUBCOMMITTEE\n\nChairman,\n\nON SUPERVISION.\n\nThe Subcommittee on Supervision of Rural Schools has taken into\ncareful consideration the’ various topics submitted for investigation.\nIts\ninquiries have extended into all the states and territories except Indian\nTerritory and Alaska, and the facts are based on returns more or less full\n\nfrom all parts of the country.\nProfessional supervision is today regarded as an essential factor in\nour school system.\nIt has been observed that the schools that are\nclosely supervised by men who thoroughly know their business at once\nrespond: to the influence of this supervision.\nExpert supervision has\nresulted\n\nin systematic,\n\norderly, and well-directed\n\nmatter of remark that the most competent\nschools,\n\nand\n\nthat cities noted\n\ninstruction.\n\nIt is a\n\nsuperintendents have the best\n\nfor their excellence\n\nin school\n\nwork\n\nhave\n\nattained this pre-eminence through the medium of intelligent supervision. ‘This is also true of those counties which have come under the\nsame influence.\n“There is no other agency in our school system that has done so\nmuch for the improvement of our schools in organization, and in methods\nof instruction and discipline, as the superintendency.”’\nThe\n\nattention\n\nof the profession,\n\nhowever,\n\nhas been\n\nmainly directed\n\ntoward expert supervision in city schools, and but little heed has been\npaid to the demand for such work in rural districts.\nIt is quite time\n\n"}
{"page": 445, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nREPORT OF THE COMMITTEE\n\nON RURAL SCHOOLS\n\n435\n\nthat our inquiries should be directed toward the character of the superIf supervision through a comvision demanded by the country school.\npetent superintendent is a good thing for city schools, there is every\nreason why it would be a good thing for rural schools.\nSTATE\n\nSUPERINTENDENT.\n\nAlthough the state superintendent stands at the head of the publicschool system of the state, his work is more closely related to rural than\nto city schools.\nAs this report has reference only to the conditions of\nrural schools, your subcommittee will consider the duties of this officer\nas bearing upon that part alone of the general school system.\nNo officer\nconnected with the administration of state affairs requires higher or more\nessential qualifications than that of superintendent of public instruction.\nHe should be a man of high moral character, well acquainted with\napproved methods and with the history and condition of education in his\nstate.\nHe should be in close touch with the educational spirit of the\ntimes, and should be one whom the profession regards as authority in all\nthat constitutes excellence in school matters.\nIt is also agreed that he\nshould be an experienced teacher, of broad and thorough scholarship,\nand a good public speaker.\nWith these qualifications there should be\ncombined a large share of good common sense, and sufficient executive\nability to manage the details of his office.\nThe legal term of office in Massachusetts and Rhode Island is one\nyear.\nIn Connecticut it is at the pleasure of the state board.\nIn twenty\nstates the term of office is two years;\n\nin four states, three years ; in seven-\n\nteen states, four years; but in no state does it exceed four years. The\naverage length of term of the state superintendent is two years and ten\nmonths. The lowest salary paid is $1,000 and the highest $5,000 per year.\nThe average salary is $2,475 per year.\nIn answer to the question as to\nhow much time the state superintendent devotes to supervision of schools,\nwe had definite answers from thirty-seven states, in which we find that\nnineteen of these superintendents devote more than half of their time to\nvisiting schools and traveling in the interest of education, and eighteen\ndevote less than half their time.\nQuite a number of the state superintendents report that they divide their time equally between the office\nwork and supervision.\nIn only a few of the states does the state superin-,\ntendent exercise no supervision, and in several the supervision is carried\non through deputies or agents.\nThe state superintendent under present arrangements has but little\nThe superintendents in\ntime for personal inspection of school work.\nfourteen states visit each county once a year and in eight states once\nFrom the other states no definite information could be\nevery two years.\nMany superintendents say, as often as practicable; in some\nobtained.\n\n"}
{"page": 446, "printed_page": null, "text": "436\n\nNATIONAL\n\ninstances, not at all.\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nOur information\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nis to the effect that most of the\n\nstate superintendents devote as much time to supervision as they can\nspare, but that it is generally considered secondary to work of a clerical\nThere are undoubtedly in some states sections which have never\nnature.\nbeen visited by the state superintendent or his deputy.\nBy some means the influence of the state superintendent should be\nIn all possible\nextended until it reaches every rural school in the state.\nofficers.\nschool\nand\nteachers\nthe\nto\nways the office should be made useful\nthan\neven\nmore\ninfluence\nhelpful\nThe rural schools need this stimulating,\nthose of the city. While in moststates the office has but little more than\nadvisory powers, yet, through lectures at associations and through the\ninspection of institutes, the state superintendent ought to be able to convince the teachers of rural schools that he is in close sympathy with their\nwork.\nThe work of the state superintendent ought to be made more effective\nby so increasing his clerical force as to enable him to spend more time in\ndirect contact with the schools and school officials of the state. The\ncareful compilation of statistics is very important, but it can be intrusted\nto a skillful statistician, while much\n\nof the routine work of the office\n\ncan\n\nbe well done by clerks. The higher and by far the more important work\nof directing educational movements, of instructing the people, and of\ncreating public opinion and arousing public interest devolves upon the\nstate superintendent.\nThere is a general demand for more assistance in\nhis office, longer tenure of service, and more liberal financial support.\nHis work should be so related to that of the superintendents in the various subdivisions of the state for school purposes that the whole may be\nproperly articulated, and the county or town superintendents be under\nhis direction and control.\nHe should come in frequent contact with them\nby conventions held for the purpose of instructing them in their particular duties, and should\n\nsend them\n\nsuch\n\ncirculars and\n\nletters as may be\n\nnecessary to aid and direct them in their work.\nThe state superintendent should have the power to withhold the state\nappropriation from all counties or school districts not complying with the\nlaw in every particular, because he would then hold the key to the situation\nand could enforce his orders.\nThe main duties of the state superintendent are not only to organize\nand direct educational influence and laws already existing, but also to go\namong the people in the spirit of Horace Mann, and, by public addresses,\nby the liberal use of the press, and by securing the assistance of the leading men of the state, to arouse and keep alive an interest in the cause of\npopular education.\nIn connection with the rural schools especially the\nstate superintendent not only has great possibilities for a wise supervisory\ninfluence, but also great opportunities to arouse and instruct the people.\n\n"}
{"page": 447, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council |\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n437\n\nIn a majority of the states the most needful legislation is that which\n_ bears upon the organization and maintenance of rural schools, and a supply of competent teachers for the same. The state superintendent, therefore, should be a man able to secure the co-operation of the legislature\nThis can be done only by one who\nfor the enactment of proper statutes.\nsees clearly the great needs of the school system, and who is able to go\nbefore the people and the legislature and unite all influences to obtain\nthe necessary legislation.\nWhile putting into this high office any person\nsolely through his political affiliations is to be deprecated, the state superintendent should be a man who knows how to approach the leaders of all\nparties and convince them of the justice and soundness of his plans,\nviewed from the high vantage ground of the general good.\nCOUNTY,\n\nTOWNSHIP,\n\nOR\n\nDISTRICT,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT.\n\nA still more important question opened for discussion is the character and degree of supervision below that of the state superintendent.’\nThirty-eight states, mainly in the South and West, have county superintendents, whose duty it is to visit the schools and exercise the duties\nusually belonging to their office. The New England states generally have\nwhat is known as township or district supervision, which arises in large\npart from their political organization.\nIn New England the town is the\ndominant political unit, while in the South and West it is the county.\nThe simplicity and effectiveness of supervision are promoted when the units\nof political organization and of school administration are identical. This\ncondition has its limitations, however,\n\nin the amount\n\nof territory to be\n\ncovered and in the density of population, which is a varying quantity.\nThe main point is to bring every rural school of the country as far as possible under the watchful care of a competent supervising officer. Responsibility is a strong stimulant.\nIt is one of the weak points in our present\nsystem that too often the rural school-teacher is responsible to no one.\nIn regard to the operation of the two principal methods of supervision\nthere is no reason why any section should abandon the practice which\nhas been found best adapted to its peculiar conditions.\nIt must be conceded, however, that a single township, containing\n\non an average ten or\n\ntwelve schools, is too small a territory to engage profitably the entire\nattention of one person.\nIn such a case one of two things must necessarily happen: either the schools are supervised to the point of interference, or the supervision becomes uncertain, feeble, and unsatisfactory. In\na general way, the rural township is too small a supervisory unit. Wherever it has been tried the supervisor has generally had some other busitIn this report the term supervisor is used to include also county superintendent,\ncommissioner, or any other term by which the supervising officer of a county or super:\nvisory district is usually designated.\n\n"}
{"page": 448, "printed_page": null, "text": "438\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nness to attend to, and thus his work has been found wanting in those\nIn order that the work of overseeing\nresults which are most desirable.\nand directing may be effective, it must engage the entire time and the\nbest thought of the supervisory officer.\nA proper remedy for this is the combination of towns for supervisory\nThree, four, or five towns could be united in one supervisory\npurposes.\ndistrict, until a sufficient number of schools have been secured to engage\nthe entire attention of one good man.\n‘The burden of his salary could\nbe borne by these towns in the proportion of the number of schools they\nThis plan is in operation in Massachusetts, and\ncontribute to his work.\nA complete exposition of the Massachusetts plan\nhas been satisfactory.\nof supervision of township schools is found in A. W. Edson’s monograph,\n“Supervision of Schools in Massachusetts” (Boston, 1895).\nIn that state 253 of the towns are supervised by 155 supervisors.\nWhile some of the large towns can alone support a supervisor, several of\nthe smaller ones must unite to secure the services of an efficient officer.\nIn addition to what the towns do for themselves the state grants to those\nof low valuation, when they combine into a supervisory district, the sum\nof $750 to pay for a supervisor.\nThese towns, however, are required to\nraise an additional sum equal to that furnished by the state, thus insuring\na sufficient sum for the employment of an expert school man.\nBy these\nmeans 93 per cent. of the children of Massachusetts have been brought\nunder close supervision. The salary paid to a supervisor is at least $1,500\na year, and he is enabled to devote all his time to the work and to inspect\n\neach school once a month.\nIt is true that there are still about 100 towns\nin Massachusetts without supervision, yet the feasibility of co-operative\nsupervision with aid from the state is proven beyond all doubt.\n“The state aid to a district amounts at present to $1,250— $750\ntowards the superintendent’s salary and $500 towards the salaries of the\nteachers.\nThe remainder of the superintendent’s salary, $750, must be\nraised by the towns of the district.\nThey are at liberty, of course, to raise\nmore than $750 for the purpose, if they desire to do so” (Massachusetts\nState Report, 1895).\nWhat has been said regarding the combination of towns for supervisory purposes can be repeated with equal emphasis as to other small\ndivisions of territory termed ‘school districts.”\nThe same principle\napplies here as elsewhere, that the interests of the schools included in a\ngiven territory should be sufficient to warrant the employment of a thoroughly competent person, at such a salary as would justify devoting his\nentire time to his work.\n\nAfter all has been done, there will still be vast\n\nsections of country, especially in the West and Southwest, without any\nmeans of efficient supervision. No present remedy can be devised to aid\nthem.\n\nIt can be safely left for the several states, as population increases,\n\n"}
{"page": 449, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council |\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON. RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n439\n\nto look after the interests of the schools in the light of the experience\nof older communities about them.\nThe worth of the county superintendency is acknowledged, but in many\ncases the county is too large an area and contains too many teachers for\none man to properly supervise.\nThe county is as much too large a unit for\nsupervisory purposes as the township is too small.\nThis remark, however,\ndoes not apply to every county nor to any.one state.\nIn counties where\nthe number of teachers is too large for one man to supervise the county\nsuperintendent should have one or more assistants or deputies to aid him\nThey should be directly responsible to him forthe kind and\nin his work.\ncharacter of their work, and should be charged solely with supervisory\nduties.\nThe importance of having one superintendent for the county or\ndistrict to whom other supervisors are responsible must be emphasized, as\nit would be an error and a fruitful source of strife if in any territory there\nshould be two or more supervisors having concurrent jurisdiction.\nTHE\n\nCOUNTY\n\nUNIT.\n\nSince this report is a symposium of suggestions. for supervising rural\nschools, it may not be amiss to discuss a plan of supervisory organization\nthat has found favor in some few counties that contain large cities as well\nas arural population. We mention it here because it has valuable features\nfor supervising the rural schools.\n‘There is but one school board for the\nentire county.\n\nOne set of men legislates for the whole area, and it is their\n\nduty to relate the urban and suburban and rural schools into a sympathetic system.\nThis is based upon the idea that every city is bound to\nrespect the people that immediately environ it. It is to the interest of a\nlarge city to have good roads leading to it, good crops in the fields\naround it, and good schools to which the farmers may send their children.\nWith this as a foundation principle there is but one school fund for\nthe entire county, raised by taxation upon all property in the county,\nwhether it be in or out of the city. This makes the general school fund,\nwhich is distributed upon the basis of school population and according to\nthe needs of the city wards and the rural communities.\nThe same qualification for teachers is required whether they teach in a city graded school\nor in a country ungraded school, and the same salary is paid to them and\nin the same way, and for just as long aterm.\nIn this system one superintendent is in charge of the whole area.\nHe looks after a city graded\nschool one day and the next day may be twenty miles away inspecting a\ncountry school.\nExpert supervision by a superintendent and his assistants is thus extended into the rural districts, and both city and country\nschool receive the benefit of what there may be in each that is of real\nvalue.\n\n"}
{"page": 450, "printed_page": null, "text": "oe\n\n440\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n[National\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nUpon this plan, as a matter of course, a large portion of the school\nfund raised by taxation on city property is annually distributed to the\nThe city is really made to assist in supporting the rural\ncountry schools.\nAnd who shall say it is not a good thing for the city\nit.\nschools around\nagricultural sections, in which the education, liberal\nin\nto do, especially\nchild is the probable salvation of the farming\nfarmer’s\nthe\nof\nand special,\nshould not lose sight of the truth that the\nWe\ncountry.\nthe\nof\ninterests\nuseful citizen, not only content to stay in\na\nmade\nbe\nto\nis\nfarmer’s child\nthe home\n\nin which\n\nhe was born and\n\nreared, if that is best, but fitted to\n\nTo do this\nfill honorably any station in life to which he may be called.\nhe must have all the opportunities of education and culture that the city\naffords.\nThis can be brought about in no other way than at the city’s\nThe expert\nexpense, for wealth is massed in our populous centers.\nsupervision, the well-trained teacher, the long term, the modern textbook, the good schoolhouse, can be placed at the farmer’s door by the\n\nagencies of the neighboring\n(Appendix D).\nTRAINED\n\nTEACHERS\n\ncity, that owes\n\nNEEDED\n\nIN\n\nhim this and\n\nCOUNTRY\n\nmuch\n\nmore\n\nSCHOOLS.\n\nSupervision is one of the vital needs of the rural schools, since most\nof their teachers are inexperienced.\nThe number of normal-school\ngraduates in rural schools is lamentably small.\nThe reason is that the\nnormal-school graduate can obtain a better salary by teaching in a larger\nfield. The demand for this class of teachers makes their salaries so high\n\nthat the country schools cannot afford to employ them.\nAs soon as\nteachers become proficient by reason of experience acquired in rural\nschools, the probabilities are that they will be induced to seek better positions in cities, where their experience and abilities will command higher\nsalaries.\nAdd to this the other fact that many young men begin to teach asa\nstepping stone to some other profession, and while they are teaching a\ncountry school are studying law or medicine, and their hearts are with\nthat rather than with teaching ; and also add that many young girls teach\nuntil they marry, or as long as they are compelled to teach, and no longer,\nthat they have no real love for their work and\n\nno wish to stay in it, and\n\nwe see how the problems multiply.\nRural schools suffer from lack of trained teachers. In them, as a general thing, are young graduates from the village high school, or some\nfavorite among neighborhood families, or a type of ancient teacher whose\nplacid life is not disturbed by the vexing problems of his profession.\nThis raw material must be developed, made shapely, orderly, and systematic, if time is to be saved to the children, and schools properly supported.\nA bright and live supervisor will bring order out of confusion, harmony\n\n"}
{"page": 451, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n441\n\nout of discord, and will give life and beauty to that which before was inert\nand ungainly.\nTeaching isa great art, based on a profound science.\nThe supervisor is\nthe expert who has given this art and science his careful attention, and\nwhose business it is both to know how to teach and to show others the\nway of teaching.\nHe can in some measure compensate for the lack of\nskilled work in the school by closely supervising and guiding inexperienced teachers and showing them what to do. An expert is one who\npossesses skill gained by practice.\nA supervisor who claims to be an\nexpert should have experimental knowledge of “the how to teach.”\nHe is\nsupposed to have given careful attention to those things which characterize a good school.\nNot only must he know how to teach, but he must\nknow how to instruct others in the art and science of teaching.\nHe must\nbe a skilled teacher of teachers.\nWithout this directing spirit, schools\nmust necessarily suffer until teachers happen upon some better way. It\nis a great misfortune for schools to wait for wisdom in teaching until the\nmany mistakes of teachers have pointed out better methods.\nThe presence of skilled supervision has been the salvation of many schools.\nIt is one province of supervision in the country school to bring teachers into contact with each other, to illustrate better ways of teaching, to\nbreak up the isolation and monotony of rural school life, and to take to\nthe doors and homes of people and teachers alike the life and freshness\nwhich have been the result of research and study on the part of the best\nminds in the profession.\n‘The province of supervision in rural schools\nfalls far short of its legitimate purposes when it begins and ends in the\nschoolroom.\nThis point is not sufficiently well appreciated by those who have the\noversight and care of schools scattered over a large tract of territory.\nCountry schools have an environment of their own which should neither\nbe forgotten nor ignored.\nThe best supervisory work is that which brings\ninto the rural school everything in farm and rural life which is strong and\npure and wholesome.\nIt is possible for the supervising officer so to exert\nhis influence as to give grace and dignity to each individual school, and\nmake it the rallying point for every good influence, a blessing to the entire\ncommunity in which it is situated.\nAttention is here called to the fact that in general but little care\nis taken in the selection of officers chosen to look after the interests of\nthe rural schools.\nIn the majority of states the county superintendents\nare elected by the people of the county without any regard to the\nVery few\npreparation or qualifications they may have for the work.\nstates require the superintendents to have any special qualifications, and\nin many instances supervisors are put in charge of teachers who know\nmore about teaching than they do, and are required to hold examina-\n\n"}
{"page": 452, "printed_page": null, "text": "442\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n[National\n\nASSOCIATION\n\ntions that they themselves could not pass. Add to this the fact that the\nsuperintendents are generally paid very small salaries (average $828 for\nthe whole country) or a meager per diem, and that many engage in other\nbusiness and regard supervision of schools as an incidental matter, and\nit becomes apparent that professional\ntion rather than the rule.\nWORK\n\nOF\n\nsupervision is too often the excep-\n\nSUPERVISORS.\n\nWe need everywhere trained superintendents of schools.\n‘Supervision\nof schools should rank next in importance to the instruction in schools;\nindeed, so necessary to successful instruction is competent supervision\nthat the two should receive together the watchful oversight of the state”\n(New Jersey State Report, 1894). Supervisors should know as much of\nteaching as the teachers under them, and should be able instinctively\nto distinguish good teachers by their manners, dress, speech, disposition,\nand character.\nThe best work of a supervisor is his skill in selecting\nteachers.\nNot by the results of examination alone, for some learned people\nmake poor instructors; not by yielding to the pressure of family or political influence, for this will ruin any system of schools; not by selecting his\nown friends or favorites, for this is unworthy of his office; but by following the knowledge that comes to him through study, by long experience,\nby careful\n\nobservation,\n\nand\n\nby conscientious\n\nconviction,\n\nwhich\n\nenables\n\nhim to know a teacher when he meets one, though he may not be able to\ntell why.\nTeaching is a matter of both disposition and knowledge.\nThe former\ncannot be examined, but it ought to be recognized; careful supervision\nwill aid in developing it. Skill in doing this is an essential characteristic\nof a good supervising officer, especially in connection with rural schools.\nIf the cry is raised (and it is) that there is not enough money to pay for\nprofessional supervision, the reply is that it would be wiser to have fewer\nteachers in order that those employed might be better qualified. A supervisor who is an expert can so arrange and organize the system that a less\nnumber of teachers can do the work and do it better, because each one is\n\nthoroughly competent.\n‘A good superintendent earns many times his\nsalary; a poor superintendent is too dear at any price. The work of\nsupervision may be unsatisfactory either because the number of schools is\ntoo large for the oversight of one person, or because the supervising officer\nlacks the talent for moulding, inspiring, and directing the work of others”\n(Pennsylvania State Report, 1895). Underpaid supervision is often\nunskilled and inefficient, and against this we raise our decided protest.\nSuch supervision is of no value whatever to the schools—a penny-wise\npolicy that economizes in the wrong place. A supervisor should have no\nother business than to care for the schools.\nHe should not be a mer-\n\n"}
{"page": 453, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council}\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nchant, nor a lawyer, nor\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\na farmer, nor\n\nan\n\nON\n\nRURAL\n\nactive\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nteacher.\n\nHis\n\n443\n\nbusiness\n\nshould be to supervise the schools of his county, or township, or district,\nor whatever his area be called.\nWith a given sum of money for school purposes, to devote a part of it\nto skilled supervision will bring more children under enrollment, better\nteachers in the community, better instruction in the schools, and more\nsatisfaction to the people, than if all the money were spent in paying\nthe salaries of teachers.\nIn twenty-eight states the supervisors are required by law to visit each\nschool twice a year, in the other states they are allowed to visit the schools as\noften as practicable.\nIn one or two states the supervisors visit the schools\nvery seldom.\nThe length of time the supervisor spends in each school\nvaries from fifteen minutes to one-half day. The time seems to depend very\nlargely upon circumstances, the number of pupils, the character of the\nteacher, the efficiency and the pay of the supervisor. A skilled supervisor\ninspecting an intelligent teacher can do more service in fifteen minutes\nthan an unskilled supervisor visiting a poor teacher can do in a whole day.\nThe average time spent in the ordinary rural school by the school supervisor is about one hour every year.\nIn twelve states the supervisors devote all their time to the work.\nIn\nthese states the average salary is $1,002 a year.\nIn fourteen states the\nsupervisors devote only a part of their time to supervision, with an average annual salary of $408.\nSixteen states report that in some counties\nthe supervisors devote all their time to supervision, while in other counties\nthe supervisors devote but a small part of their time to that work.\nIn\nthese states the salaries paid supervisors vary from $100 to $2,000 or\n$3,000 a year. Where good salaries are paid they devote all their time to\nsupervision.\nWhere small salaries are paid they devote but little time to\nthis special work.\nAll states have some supervision, though it varies\ngreatly in amount and in efficiency.\nIn many sections of the country a supervisor not capable of suggesting to teachers better methods of teaching and not able to detect false\nmethods pays only a perfunctory visit to the schools.\nHe merely sees\nwhether the building is clean, whether the children look bright and interesting, whether the enrollment is good, such facts as would be noticed\nToo often the contact of the\nby any person of ordinary common sense.\naverage supervisor and the teacher of the rural schools is nothing more\nthan a mechanical business performance, with such elements of aid and\nencouragement as any intelligent visitor may give the school. Although\nthis is not without advantage, it falls far below the standard of profes-\n\nsional supervision.\nHow many teachers a supervisor can direct cannot be discussed except\nin a general way. Schools are more widely separated in some localities\n\n"}
{"page": 454, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nthan in others, roads are better, teachers are better, and\n\nsupervisors vary\n\n444\n\nAs a general rule, however,\ngreatly in the rapidity with which they work.\nonce in two months.\nleast\nat\nevery rural school ought to be visited\nless than that, and it\nany\ndoes\nSupervision cannot be called close that\nwould be better if the schools could be visited once every month.\nNo accurate information can be gained concerning the conditions of\nthe school, nor can the proper influence be exerted over teacher and\npupils, unless the supervisor has time at his disposal to make a reasonably\nSometimes,\nthorough examination of the school and its surroundings.\nwith an inexperienced teacher, he may find it necessary to spend the entire\nday in the school, while in other cases he may be able to visit two or\nmore schools in one day. The point is that he must not feel compelled\nto shorten his visit, or to leave his work half done, in order to meet other\n\nengagements. To make his visits effective in the highest degree requires time\nand patience.\nThe length of his visit must depend upon the necessities\nof the school, and of these he must be his own judge. An ideal system\nof supervision would give one supervisor from fifty to seventy-five teachWhere the number of teachers is greater some will be\ners to supervise.\nneglected, for a supervisor generally has many interruptions in his work,\nsuch as rainy days, holidays, and the demand upon his time for office\nwork, board meetings, committee meetings, public addresses, etc., so that\n\nit is impossible to put in every day in supervision.\nAllowance must be\nmade for other important duties.\nAttention is also called to the power which the supervisor can exert\nthrough rightly conducted teachers’ meetings, institutes, associations,\nand round tables.\nHere he may meet the teachers under his direction,\nand make use of the information which he has gathered in visiting their\nschools.\nFrom free and open discussions by the teachers he will get\nan insight into their habits of thought and their methods of expression.\nSuch meetings help break up the unsocial character of rural teachers by\nbringing them into contact, so that each learns something from the experience of all the others.\nIn this way teachers and supervisors become\nbetter acquainted, gather fresh courage and new inspiration, and go home\nfeeling that they have much in common, and that, if they will, they can in\nmany ways be mutually helpful. The most deadening influence about\nthe country school is its isolation.\nNothing is more potent in overcoming this than frequent gatherings in which teachers, school officers,\n\nand parents\n\nfreely discuss matters\n\nof common\n\ninterest.\n\nTo encourage\n\nsuch meetings is one of the duties incumbent upon the supervisor.\nWithout being too prominent, he may still be the inspiring spirit, guiding, directing, and stimulating the tone and energies of all who participate in the proceedings (Appendix P).\n\n"}
{"page": 455, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nREPORT\n\nLEGAL\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\nAND\n\nON RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n445\n\nQUALIFICATIONS.\n\nThe necessity of establishing some qualifications to be required of\nthose who are to occupy the position of supervising officer is emphatically\ninsisted upon.\n“Tf it is desirable to insist upon a certain degree of qualification for a\nschool-teacher in the humblest district of the state (this proposition has\npassed beyond the realm of discussion), it would seem that there is no\nquestion that the superior officer clothed by statute with such extended\npowers as a school commissioner ought to be a person possessing some\nfixed qualification for the performance of the duties of his office. The\nschools of the state will never reach that degree of efficiency which the\nstate has a right to demand, and which is expected from the generous\nprovision made for their support by the people, until this evil is corrected.\nSome standard of qualification should be insisted upon, and the power of\nremoval in case of the election of a person not possessing these qualifications should be vested in the state superintendent” (New York State\nReport, 1895 ).\nIn only seventeen states are there any qualifications, beyond that of\nbeing a resident and a voter.\nIn some states a first-grade license is\nrequired, in others a normal or university course, and again in others he\nmust be an experienced teacher.\nIn a majority of the states, however,\nthe electors are allowed to choose any person without regard to educational qualifications.\nIn answer to circulars of inquiry\nobtained regarding supervisors:\nWisconsin— By the\n\nlaw\n\nof 1895,\n\nthe following\nmust\n\nhold\n\ninformation\n\na university,\n\nwas\n\nnormal,\n\nstate, or special superintendent certificate.\nNew York —No standard of qualification.\nPennsylvania—\nMust hold a college diploma, or a state or local certificate; must have at least three years’ experience in teaching.\nMichigan— Must be a graduate of a reputable college, university, or\nstate normal college, or must hold a state or first-grade certificate.\nMississippi — Must hold a first-grade certificate.\nTexas— Must be a person of educational attainments and hold a.firstgrade teacher’s certificate.\nTennessee—Can be appointed only from applicants who pass an\nexamination on questions sent out by state board.\nGeorgia— Must pass a satisfactory examination.\nLouisiana—Must have a common-school education.\nMontana— Must hold a first-grade certificate and have one year’s\nexperience as teacher.\nSouth Carolina —Must be able to conduct a teachers’ institute.\n\n"}
{"page": 456, "printed_page": null, "text": "446\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nMust be able to obtain a first-class teacher’s certificate,\n—ky\nKentuc\nhold a state diploma, or state certificate.\nArkansas—Must have a first-grade certificate.\n— The county school board may require applicants to be\nMaryland\nexamined by the state superintendent.\nUtah — Must have a valid certificate not lower than the grammar grade.\nWest Virginia— Must be skilled in the art of teaching.\n— First-class certificate, good for two years, a state certificate, or\nIowa\n\na life diploma.\nIt is unquestionably true that a supervisor should be as well and as\nHe should be a\nhighly educated as the better teachers he supervises.\nman\n\nof broad and generous culture, a lover of good\n\nbooks, versed in the\n\nbest literature of the day, one whose presence is an influence for good, and\nTo require him to be in every case a\nwhose words are an inspiration.\ngraduate of some higher school would be unreasonable, perhaps, but he\nHe\nshould be a friend of higher education in every sense of the word.\nmust for a long time continue to be one from whom will come the influence which will lead the pupils in the rural district to strive for the highHis influence should be\nest education possible under the circumstances.\ngiven to the establishment of rural or township high schools wherever the\npopulation will permit it. These schools should include in their courses\nwhatever is required, on the one hand, for entrance:to the school of the\nnext higher grade, or, on the other, those studies, a knowledge of which\ncan be made so to change life on the farm, in its various forms, that it\nwill become more attractive and more profitable.\nIn the establishment\nand conduct of such schools the influence of the supervisor should be a\nvery prominent factor.\nA supervisor should have a thorough knowledge of school work.\nHe\nshould know what a teacher ought to do in managing a class of pupils of\nany age on any subject. This is one of the things he is paid to know.\nHe should be an expert to whom teachers may go for advice and direction.\nIf the advice is good and the direction wise, teachers will have\nconfidence in the administration of the schools, and rely more and\nmore upon the supervisor.\nThe system is thus reduced to uniformity\nand becomes a source of strength.\nThe supervisor should be able to direct\nteachers in their professional reading, and select wisely a library of\nteachers’ books, and place them where they are most needed.\nHe should\nknow about school periodicals and be able to form his teachers into reading clubs and circles, and direct their studies.\nHe should be able to\narrange teachers’ meetings so that time will not be wasted, and that\nteachers will come with pleasure and stay with profit. He ought to be\nable to aid in selecting a library suited to the wants and tastes‘of an agricultural community (Appendix Z). In school extension he should be a\n\n"}
{"page": 457, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n447\n\nleader, for he can thus make his influence felt in every part of his territory.\nIn directing the home reading of the pupils and the people he may, if he will,\nfind an immense field of usefulness. He can thus create and foster an interest in the welfare of the farm and the home as adjuncts to the rural schools.\nHe can understand and sympathize with teachers better if he has an\nexperimental knowledge of their work.\nNo supervisor is so good as he\nwho climbed from the lowest rounds and knows all the steps. That this\nis indispensable we are not prepared to state. There are some very excellent supervisors who have but little experience in teaching, but who have\nseen enough and studied enough to know how it ought to be done.\nExperience would have been helpful, however, in understanding the limi-\n\ntations of their work.\nFirst and foremost a supervisor should be able to instruct his teachers\nin the methods of organization and management of schools.\nThis is particularly the case in rural schools, where so few teachers have acquired\nskill in teaching.\nBut instruction with a teacher is like instruction with\nachild.\nThere must be an awakening, an arousing, a hungering after\ninstruction.\nThe conditions of “being filled” are that we must “hunger\nand thirst.”\nThe supervisor must inspire his teachers with a desire for\nbetter things.\nHe should lead them to see that time is precious, and that\nthe children in school this year may be on the farms next year and no more\nin school forever.\nThey must know what to do and doit.\n‘The supervisor should be a source of inspiration.\nHis corps of teachers must be\nalive, and eager, and studious.\n\nThe thing most to be abhorred in school\n\nwork is the teacher dead to advancement in professional studies.\nThe\nsupervisor must rouse teachers to work out for themselves plans and methods for building up their schools, and must set forth the principles which\nshould control them in their work.\nThe county superintendent, or the supervisor of schools in any rural\ncommunity, should have had recent experience in the schools which he is\nto supervise.\nIn cases where this is not possible he should make a careful study of the peculiar surroundings of the schools of which he is to\ntake charge.\nIf the new departure which seems to be at hand in rural\nschool education is to be a success, it must be carefully conducted in\nreference to those environments which are peculiar to each section.\nThe\nsupervisor who is to have a controlling influence in choice of text-books,\nin courses of study, in the selection and use of libraries, should be thor-\n\noughly conversant with the physical characteristics\nthe interests of the people, with their sources\n\nof his district, with\n\nof wealth\n\nand\n\nliving, and\n\nwith the home life of the children (Appendix O). Whether it be a mining\nor a grazing region, whether agriculture or horticulture predominates as\nan interest, he should make himself at home in that domain of science or\n\nknowledge which will increase his usefulness as a school officer.\n\n"}
{"page": 458, "printed_page": null, "text": "448\n\nNATIONAL\nTHE\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nHOME\n\nSCHOOL.\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\n[National\n\nThe parents of children need instruction as well as the children\nThe home influence and the school influence should be\nthemselves.\nharmonious, or confusion and uncertainty will arise in the child’s mind\nas to what he should do. The people must be reminded that the school\nis an integral part of the community, and not a separate affair which the\nlaw compels them to support, and which takes their children away when\ntheir assistance on the farm is most valuable (Appendix O).\nIn establishing the true relations between the home and the school,\nbetween the necessities of physical and those of intellectual education,\nIn\nthe supervisor of rural schools finds an unlimited field of usefulness.\nrural districts parents are often ignorant of the advancement education\nhas made since the days when they went to school, and they are often too\nThe supervisor must gain their confiready to criticise anything new.\ndence, so that they will yield their ideas to his, and allow the teacher in\ntheir school to follow his directions without any hindrance from them.\nThe supervisor can exert a wonderful influence in bringing the fireside\nto the support of the teacher.\nTo do this he must be able to educate\nthe people concerning their relation to the school, as to sending the children regularly, as to providing necessary material, such as books, etc., as\n\nto allowing every teacher to pursue those methods of teaching which his\nskill and experience suggest as best suited to the wants of the school.\nAt meetings of agricultural clubs, at town rallies, at educational “ barbecues,”\n\nat commencements, at spring festivals, at farmers’ institutes, he should\nembrace every opportunity of saying a word for the schools, in order to\narouse the people and interest them in the whole system of education.\nThe columns of the country paper afford the supervisor a very ready\nmeans of reaching the people.\nAlmost every farmer takes the county\npaper that comes weekly to his fireside, which gives the news of the outside world and the doings of his neighbors.\nSchool news is an important item and should never be omitted.\nEvery week the paper should\ncontain something of educational interest from the pen of the supervisor,\nthough not always over his signature—suggestions for improvement,\nstatistics of enrollment and attendance, new and better ways of teaching,\nplans for schoolhouse construction and decoration.\nThe press is valuable to every teacher and helpful to the system of education by bringing\nfarmers into sympathy with the great educational movements of the\nworld.\n‘The press gives a larger audience, though it enforces a shorter\naddress.\nBut a little every week, full of variety and interest, will eventually build up a healthy sentiment in the county and educate parents as\nwell as children.\nThe supervisor should have a direct or indirect control of the selection\nof teachers.\nThe crisis in the history of schools is when teachers are to\nc\n\n"}
{"page": 459, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF THE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nRURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n449\n\nbe chosen.\nNo one is so well qualified to choose them wisely as a faithful supervisor, and no one is more likely to do so conscientiously, since\nhe knows the value of efficient teachers.\nThis control can be given him\ndirectly or indirectly.\nIf he does not wish to have the direct choice in\nindividual instances, the same may be accomplished by giving him the\nNo\npower to examine and license teachers for his supervisory district.\none, then, can be selected\n\nby the board of directors except\n\nsuch\n\nas are\n\nHe prepares an eligible list, to which the board is\napproved by him.\nIf the superintendent is conscientious and\nlimited in making its choice.\ncourageous in the preparation of this list, he can safely leave the responsibility of the individual appointments to the board.\nIn many cases the questions for such examination are prepared at the\nstate office. In some instances the county board conducts the examinations, and in a few the answer papers are sent to the state office for final\nexamination and approval or rejection.\nThe supervisor should be slow to condemn a teacher who is honestly\nstriving to succeed, but if, after faithful and earnest effort, teachers clearly\n\nprove that school teaching is not their vocation, or, after repeated warnings, teachers will not try to do the right kind of work, it is clearly the\nduty of the supervisor to report the facts to the directors, and his report\nshould be given great weight by them.\nThe power to revoke the certificate is usually in the hands of the supervisory officer.\nIt should be\nexercised with great caution and deliberation, but fearlessly whenever\nthere is sufficient reason for it.\nSince the supervisor is responsible for school methods and for results\nin teaching, the arrangement of the course of study and the selecting of\nthe text-books should be largely, if not entirely, left to his direction.\nIt\nis his particular business to know books as well as to know teachers.\nIt\nis not to be expected that the men who constitute the ordinary ‘‘committee on text-books,’’ and whose daily business has no relation whatever\nto school texts and their use, can decide what book\n\nis best for use in the\n\nschoolroom.\nIt is very well to have a committee on text-books composed of the members of the board, to prevent possible abuse, but the\nadvice of the supervisor should have much influence in determining the\ncharacter of the books used in the schools.\nSCHOOL.\n\nDIRECTORS.\n\nIt is important that the relations between the supervisor and the\nThe directors* stand much\nschool officers should be clearly defined.\nnearer the people and have an immediate interest in the welfare of the\nschools.\n\nThey contract with the teachers, care for the financial affairs of\n\nt Director includes whatever term is used to designate\nany state —as\n\nthe local school\n\ndirector, commissioner, school committee, trustee, etc.\n\nofficers in\n\n"}
{"page": 460, "printed_page": null, "text": "450\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nthe district, purchase supplies, and are charged with the general business\n‘The success of the school depends very largely upon the\nmanagement.\nIn the rural districts especially\nkind of men who are elected to that office.\nHe should\nthe duties of the director are mainly of a supervisory nature.\ninspect frequently the schoolhouse and school premises; he should see\nto it that everything is provided which is necessary for the comfort and\nconvenience of both teacher and pupils, that the outbuildings are in a\ndecent condition, and that the supplies are used with due regard to a\nIn the discipline of the school he should give a strong\nwise economy.\nmoral support to the teacher, and his influence should at all times be on\nthe side of order and obedience.\nThe board of directors should make\nsuch rules and regulations for all the schools under its control as it\ndeems necessary for the preservation of school property, for securing\npunctuality and regularity, and for the general welfare of all concerned,\nand it should support the teachers in their rigid enforcement.\nIt\nshould be in constant correspondence with the supervisor, so as to keep\nhim informed respecting the progress of the school, and in case a teacher\nis derelict in his duties, or if for any reason the school needs a special\nvisitation, it should\n\ninform\n\nhim\n\nat once.\n\nOn\n\nthe other hand, it should\n\nbe the aim of the supervisor to establish the most cordial and intimate\n‘The supervisor should magnify the\nrelations with the local directors.\noffice of the director.\n\nWhenever he visits the school he should, if possible,\n\ninduce the director to go with him.\nIf at such visits they inspect the\ncondition of the outbuildings and the premises, the supervisor can often\npropose plans for the improvement of the buildings which the director\nwill more readily appreciate and approve.\nThe inspection of a school by a competent supervisor is an object\nlesson of importance to the director.\nHe is able to see at what\npoints the supervisor is aiming, and he learns something of his ideas and\nplans.\nHe will thus be better able to counsel and advise the teacher in\nthe frequent visits which he makes to the school, and make more intelligent and specific reports to the supervisor.\nThe practice on the part of\nthe supervisor of calling the directors together at stated times for mutual\nconference is very commendable.\nThese officers are often ignorant of\ntheir duties, but in a large majority of cases they are willing and anxious\nto learn. There is no more effective way of improving the rural schools\nthan that of instructing and informing the men who have them in their\nimmediate charge. No doubt large sums are lost to the various funds\nthrough carelessness on the part of treasurers and secretaries in the rural\ndistricts in keeping their accounts.\nThe supervisor should make it his\nduty to audit these books at least once each year, with a view to accuracy\nof statistics and economy in expenditures, and this should be one of his\nduties under the law.\n\n"}
{"page": 461, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\nVISITATION\n\nOF\n\nON RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n451\n\nSCHOOLS.\n\nThe supervisor’s method of visiting schools may be considered briefly.\nFirst, he visits schools to see how and what the teachers teach, whether\ntheir manner is composed, their method clear and concise, their style\n\ninteresting ; whether they are teaching valuable facts, or wasting time on\ntrifles; whether they are teaching what is right or what is wrong.\nSecond, he goes to find out what the pupils know.\nThis is a test of the\npast work of teachers, which is shown by the general manner of recitation, the promptness with which pupils reply, the amount of information\nthey have, the degree of skill they manifest, or the power of original\nthinking they have developed.\nThird, he inspects the physical conditions of the school building and grounds.\nHe should note the conditions of the outbuildings, and, if he finds them unsuitable in any\nrespect, he should\n\nsay so frankly\n\nto teachers\n\nand\n\ndirectors, and\n\ninsist\n\n-upon a change at once.\nThe supervisor must know whether good light,\ngood seats, proper temperature and ventilation, and thorough drainage\nare secured.\nThe supervisor should carefully observe the moral atmosphere which surrounds the school, whether it is on the side of order\nand obedience, of modesty, and of all those virtues which make the\ncharacter of the typical American citizen.\nAll these are demanded in\norder that good teaching may be made possible, and good health and\npublic morals may be preserved.\nSuch being the purpose of the visit, the supervisor should put himself in easy and cordial relations with the teacher and the pupils, that\nhe may have a true understanding of what each can do. The teacher\nmay conduct one or more recitations in the various subjects of study, in\norder that the supervisor may see the usual methods of instruction.\nThe\nsupervisor can then suggest improvements if needed, and can even take\nthe class in hand and demonstrate them.\n‘That he should ask for a class\nin any particular study and give the pupils a rigid oral, or even written,\nreview, while the teacher may be attending to some other duty, is proper,\nfor by this means he can find out how much instruction has been given\nsince his last visit and how thoroughly the course of study is being\nadhered\n\nto.\n\nIt is, however, often best to allow the teacher to pursue the\n\nusual routine of exercises, in order that the supervisor may see the school\nat its everyday work.\nAn inspection of the teacher’s register should not be forgotten.\nSuch a register in every rural school should show the name and age of\neach pupil, the studies pursued, where each class commenced and its\nprogress during the term, so that a new teacher can at a glance understand at what point the study of each branch to be taught is to be taken\nup. The supervisor should insist that such a register be a\nkept\nby every teacher under his control.\n\n"}
{"page": 462, "printed_page": null, "text": "452\n\nNATIONAL\n\nA private record\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nof his own,\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nin which\n\nnames,\n\ndates,\n\n[Nationa\n\nclasses\n\nheard,\n\nconditions of rooms and premises, material needed, and general observaHe can by this means trace the\ntions, are kept, will aid the supervisor.\nmore readily observe whether\ncan\nand\ndevelopment of any one school\nit progresses or retrogrades.\nSCHOOLHOUSES\n\nAND\n\nFURNITURE.\n\nBefore closing, your subcommittee desires to emphasize the proposition that the supervisor should have a controlling voice in the erection of the rural schoolhouse, as respects all its sanitary conditions.\nBefore the contract for a new building can be legally let, the written\napproval of the supervisor should be necessary, certifying that as concerns heating, lighting, ventilation, and everything which conduces to\nthe health and physical growth of the pupils, the requirements of hygienic rules and sanitary science have been carefully and fully complied\nwith. The rural schoolhouse should be built in accordance with the\n\nlaws\n\nof sanitation and\n\nmodern\n\ncivilization\n\n(Appendix MZ).\n\nIt never\n\nwill be until the state, speaking through the supervisor, compels it as a\nprerequisite for receiving a share of the public funds.\nThe supervisor should not be blind to the small things which minister to the comforts of the pupils.\nOften the rural school-teacher has\nreceived no instruction upon these points.\nIf the supervisor finds pupils\nfacing a strong light, he should call attention to the evils likely to ensue,\nand suggest\naremedy.\n‘The same is true as regards unsuitable desks or\nseats. The necessity of proper ventilation and proper temperature\nshould be constantly dwelt upon.\nWithout a thermometer, with no\nmeans of ventilation except the door and windows, the rural schoolteacher needs and appreciates all the suggestions an intelligent supervisor\nmay make.\nAkin to this is the suggestion that the supervisor should insist that\nthe schoolroom be kept clean and neat for sanitary reasons.\nThe floors\nshould\n\nbe scoured as often as they are soiled; the wood, trash, and ashes\n\nshould be carefully kept away from around the stove. The walls should\nbe swept free of dust, the chalk racks kept clean, and the window panes\npolished. Pupils also should be required to keep their desks in order\nand their books clean. It is stimulating to the little ones and helpful\nto teachers for the supervisor to have them show their books, and to take\noccasion to comment\n\nkept.\n\non the care or on the untidiness with which they are\n\n‘\n\nNo better educational influence can surround the children than awellarranged schoolroom, whose floors and windows are clean, whose walls\n\nare free from dust and decorated with pictures, whose school grounds are\nwell-ordered and shaded by trees and adorned with flowers, and the\n\n"}
{"page": 463, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n453\n\nschool presided over by a qualified teacher who is the personification of\nneatness and good cheer.\nUnder such conditions the child is selfrestrained and respects himself because his surroundings are respectable.\nThe child naturally puts himself in harmony with his environment.\nIf\nthe teacher is neat and the schoolhouse is in proper order, the pupil will\ncopy the example.\nDay by day beautiful, comfortable, and clean surroundings will have their ethical influence upon his development, until\nhe comes\n\nin time\n\nto abhor anything that is not beautiful, well-ordered,\n\n‘and clean.\nThis point is too often overlooked in plans for supervision.\nThe reverse of this feature is also true. The rural schoolhouse, generally\nspeaking, in its character and surroundings is depressing and degrading.\nThere is nothing about it calculated to cultivate a taste for the beautiful\nin art or nature.\nIf, under the influence of intelligent supervision, this\ncan be changed, it will be a work over which coming generations will\nEp Tejoice.\n“There is scarcely a sounder principle in pedagogy than that care\nbegets care;\n\norder, order;\n\ncleanliness,\n\ncleanliness;\n\nand beauty, beauty.\n\nThings conspicuously good command the respect of children, invite their\nimitation,\n\nand\n\nin ways\n\nreal, though\n\nobscure,\n\nsink into their souls and\n\nmold their being. The power of good example in men and'‘women no\none disputes, but there is power akin to it in things, provided they\nembody the better thoughts of men and women—a power of which more\nshould be made in school management than is made at present” (Massachusetts State Report, 1895).\nIf children are daily surrounded by those influences that elevate them,\nthat make\n\nthem clean\n\nand\n\nwell-ordered,\n\nthat make\n\nthem\n\nlove\n\nflowers,\n\nand pictures, and proper decorations, they at last reach that degree of\nculture where nothing else will please them.\nWhen they grow up and\nhave\n\nhomes\n\nof their own, they must\n\nhave\n\nthem\n\nclean, neat, bright with\n\npictures, and fringed with shade trees and flowers, for they have been\nbrought up to be happy in no other environment.\nThe true test of our\ncivilization and culture is the kind of home we are content to live in,\nand the influences of our schools should help to form a disposition for\nthose things that make home life happy and healthy.\nIf the farmer’s\nboy can be taught to love books when he is at school, he will have a\nlibrary in his home when he becomes a man; if the farmer’s girl can be\ntaught decoration at school, she will want pictures and flowers and\nembroidery when she becomes a woman.\nWe appeal also for the influence of classical art in our schools. If we\nhave pictures, why not have reprints of those that have moved the hearts\nWhy not have the best looking down from our school walls ?\nof men?\n\nThey are within the reach of any purse. One reprint from the great\nmasters is an uplifting influence for all time. Cheap and gaudy adver-\n\n"}
{"page": 464, "printed_page": null, "text": "454\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\ntisements, glaring and painful chromos, depress the true spirit of art and\nperpetuate the crudeness we seek to overcome.\nIf we are to sing songs, why not\nThe same can be said of music.\nThey have sung many for children, beautising the songs of masters?\nful far beyond the rude compositions that fret our ears everywhere.\nWhy not read the simple classics written’ for the\nAlso with literature.\nWhy not in all\nlittle ones, and the greater classics for the older ones?\nthings get the noblest and best that the world has given, and use them to\nhelp our children onward and upward?\nThe silent influence of clean surroundings, of cheerful teachings, of\nclassical pictures and music and literature, the presence of flowers and\ntheir care, the planting of shade trees and studies of their growth, will be\na supervision so constant and so searching that no child can escape it.\nUnder its potent warmth, like the steady, quiet shining of the sun, the\nchild plant grows into all the marvelous possibility of flower and fruit.\nSUMMARY.\n\n1. As to the character of the supervisor who is brought in contact with\nthe rural school-teacher in the discharge of his official duties :\n\n(1) He should be selected with special regard to his peculiar fitness\nfor that office. Whether his office is elective or appointive, his qualifications, in order that he may be eligible, should be such as to enable him\nto challenge the respect of those whose work he is required to supervise.\n(2) In regard to his scholarship, it should breathe that essential spirit\nof learning necessary to making good, strong schools.\nThe position of\nsupervisor should be made professional with a view of meeting the demand\nfor the best education which the rural school can possibly afford. This\nrequires a scholarship which is above that of the ordinary man.\nThe\ntendency to put persons in the supervisory position who have no mental\nattainments worthy of mention is earnestly deprecated.\n(3) In regard to moral character, the supervisor should be a living,\ninspiring example of such a life as alone is worthy the Christian civilization of our times. He should carry with him a spirit of sincerity in his\nwork, so that people, teachers, and pupils may look to him with hearty\nrespect, and with entire confidence in the integrity of his purposes.\n\n(4) In regard to his professional spirit, he should be in touch with the\nbest educational thought of the times, carrying with him to the country\nschool-teacher, and to the people of a rural community, the freshness’and\nlife which come from reading and studying whatever bears upon the questions he is called upon to aid in solving.\nHe should be a leader,\nendowed by nature with strong native sense, and at the same time able to\nimpart enthusiasm and energy to all with whom he comes in contact.\n2. As to the purposes of rural school supervision:\n\n"}
{"page": 465, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n455\n\n(1) It should serve to inspire and stimulate the rural school-teacher.\nIf the supervisor is alive to his opportunities, every teacher within the\nsphere of his influence will be quickened and lifted up to higher\nefforts for the good of the school.\nThe teachers should learn to look\nupon him as a friend, and not as a critic; as a wise counsellor, and not as\n\na mere fault-finder.\n(2) It should be the means of awakening and stimulating the pupils\nas well as the teacher.\nThey should look for the visits of the supervisor\nwith pleasure, and profit by his talks and advice.\nBy instituting a system\nof central examinations for the rural schools, he may quicken and encourage the brighter pupils to obtain the best education within their means.\nThe influence of a scholarly supervisor over the pupils is a very desirable\nthing in the rural school.\n(3) The improved condition of the rural schoolhouse is a sure index\nof the work of a competent supervisor.\nThe present lamentable condition of these buildings is due largely to ignorance and neglect. Competent supervision in skillful hands can work a marvelous change.\nThe\ncultivation of a spirit of order and neatness which leads to the ornamentation of the school grounds and to a watchful care over all the environments of the schoolhouse, is one of the purposes of supervision.\n\n(4) Supervision does not accomplish its legitimate purpose\n\nwhen it\n\nfails to cultivate a strong, healthy public opinion in favor of everything\nwhich tends to make a good school.\nHence, the supervisor who contents\nhimself with a perfunctory visit to the school only is not a supervisor in\nthe broad sense of that word.\nA large share of the work of the supervisor is away from the school and among the people.\n3. As to the results to be expected from intelligent supervision:\n(1) In regard to the school, it unites teachers for a common purpose,\nand, by teachers’ meetings and by the visitations of the supervisor, it breaks\n\nup the monotony and isolation of the country school. Under its influence better teachers find their way into the schools, better methods of\ninstruction prevail, and the tone and spirit of the school are greatly\nimproved.\n\n(2) In regard to the community at large, supervision is just beginning\nto do its legitimate work.\nIn the establishment of school libraries, in\nthe relation of the supervisor to the directors, in an improved school\narchitecture in which due regard is had to sanitary conditions, in the\nornamentation and care of the school grounds, in school extension, in\nthe introduction of studies which will add to the attractiveness and profit\nof life on the farm, in the consolidation of small districts into larger and\n\nstronger schools, in awakening a public interest in rural education, there\nis a field large enough to occupy the time and thought of the most proIt is here we are to look in the\ngressive and most intelligent supervisor.\n\n"}
{"page": 466, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n456\n\nnear\n\nfuture\n\nfor\n\nthe best\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nresults of supervision\n\nschools of the country.\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nas concerns\n\n[National\n\nthe rural\n\nLawton B. Evans, Chatrman,\nCHARLES R. SKINNER,\nHENRY SABIN.\n\nSUBCOMMITTEE\nTEACHERS.\n\nON SUPPLY\n\nOF\n\nThe Subcommittee on Supply of Teachers has distributed a large\nnumber of circular letters of inquiry, designed to elicit information in\nregard to the agencies now existing for the preparation of teachers for\nrural schools, and for the improvement of teachers already in the service,\n\nand also in regard to certain conditions, as to the manner of certificating,\nemploying, and paying teachers, which affect the supply.\nIn connection\nwith this inquiry the attempt has been made to gather information as to\nthe defects and excellencies of existing systems, together with suggestions\nTo these a sufficient number of replies has been\nfor improvement.\nreceived to justify the belief that they give a fair average statement of the\nconditions which this report has to meet.\nWithout attempting to summarize the returns, your committee would state the results of the inquiry\nupon the problem presented, and mark out the lines which must be followed, and to what end, in order that the child in the country school may\nreceive the education which is his due.\nIn some state systems progress\nalong these lines is much\n\nmore\n\nadvanced\n\nthan\n\nin others, and in some\n\nindividual cases the desired end has been attained; but this is true, as\nregards the entire country, in so small a degree that it is unnecessary,\neven if it were possible, to particularize.\nWith but few exceptions the\nrecommendations made could be justified by reference to various states\nor communities in our own country, and there are none which do not\n\nrest upon successful experiences at home or abroad.\nIt will be found\nquite impossible to treat the rural school in any of its aspects without\ntouching in some degree upon ground common to all classes of schools,\nand this is especially true as regards that branch of the problem assigned\nto this subcommittee.\nCertain conditions now very general must be changed in order that\nthe rural school may be supplied with better teachers.\nTEACHERS.\n\nThere must be in rural communities a clearer appreciation of the\nqualities essential to a good teacher.\nIt is too often the case that no distinction is made between a teacher of superior scholarship, of proved\n\n"}
{"page": 467, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n457\n\nability in instruction and discipline, of long experience, and one far\ninferior in all the qualities essential to success.\nThe teacher must be engaged for the school year.\nIn many cases the\nengagement is from term to term, and these frequent changes are without\nexception classed among the most potent causes of failure in the rural\nschool.\nIt is widely true that the school is in session less than half the\nyear; it is often true that in this short school year two teachers are\nemployed, and seldom does a teacher remain a second year.\nEngagements should be for a longer term than one year, or continuous, and\nterminated only for cause, as is the case in many cities.\nOne of the most important points to be considered in a system of\nschools is that of the authorities employing teachers and assigning them\nto their work.\nIn cases in which the county or township is the unit of\nschool administration, the problem is solved; in case the district system\nprevails, the district containing one school, it is evident that the employment and assignment of teachers should be transferred to the authorities\nof the larger school unit, in order that in the assignment advantage may\nbe taken of peculiar abilities and aptitudes.\nThe authority which examines should not employ.\nClosely allied to this question is one of great interest in the southern\nstates, namely, that of assignment of teachers to negro schools.\nFora\nfull treatment of this subject see Appendix/.\nSCHOOL\n\nYEAR.\n\nThe school year must be lengthened to a full school year of nine or\nten months. .In many states a minimum length is prescribed by statute,\nbut in few cases is this sufficient.\nWhatever efforts may be made forsthe\nimprovement of the rural school, until there can be offered a “year’s\nwork and a year’s wage,” it will be difficult and often impossible to retain\naccomplished teachers for continuous service ;with this, many such teachers would\n\nchoose\n\nthis service, from\n\nfamily and social connections, and\n\nfrom a natural preference for rural life.\nIn countries in which people are accustomed to the action of centralized authority, prescription settles the matter, as in France, where the\nschool year is more than forty weeks; in England, where, as conditions\n\nof receiving the government grant, the principal teacher at least must\nhold the government certificate of qualification, the school premises must\nbe in good sanitary condition, the staff, furniture, and apparatus must be\n\nsufficient, and she school must have met 400 times (200 days) in the year.\nIn countries like our own, in which popular initiative in political\nmatters has been the rule, success must usually come by other methods,\nIn Canand in this respect we have much to learn from our neighbors.\nmainly\nyear\nschool\nfull\na\nto\nlengthened\nbeen\nada the schools have\nAME\n\no\n_——\n\n"}
{"page": 468, "printed_page": null, "text": "458\n\nNATIONAL\n\nunder\n\nthe stimulus\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\ngiven by the mode\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nof distributing the government\n\ngrants.\n\nLetters and reports have been received from the different provinces.\nBy these it appears that the average length of the school year was in\nOntario 212 days; in New Brunswick, 216 days; in Nova Scotia, 198.7\ndays, the full school year being 216 days, and some schools exceeding\nthis limit.\n\nA report\n\nfrom Regina, in the province of Assiniboia, states\n\nthat the full school\n\nyear is considered\n\nto be twelve months less the\n\nholidays, amounting\n\nto seven\n\nthis limit\n\nweeks, but\n\ncannot\n\nbe attained\n\nwhere the sparseness of the population obliges the pupils to travel long\ndistances, on account of the severity of the winters.’\nAdding to our plan of requiring a minimum school year the Canadian plan, already in a degree recognized in some recent school legislation, of making the amount of government grant depend in a large degree\nupon the length of the school year and the average attendance, consolidating schools wherever practicable, and giving from the larger units of\nschool administration to aid the smaller and weaker, the obstacle of the\nshort term and insufficient compensation can be removed.\nSUPERVISION.\n\nIncompetent supervision forms one obstacle to a supply of better\nteachers.\nThis obstacle may be removed by securing professional supervision, as is provided by the plan of district supervision so successfully\napplied in Massachusetts, and just enacted in Maine. The Subcommittee\non Supervision treats this subject fully.\nIt is necessary that more definite tests of professional fitness for the\nwork of supervision be instituted.\nThe extension of pedagogical instruction in colleges and universities in recent years is gradually elevating the\nwork of supervision to a higher pedagogical plane, yet the point has not\nbeen reached of demanding professional preparation as an essential condition.\nFor examples of the requirements of more definite tests of fit-\n\n(\ne\nO\n\nness see Ontario and France (Appendix lV).\nIt is not unreasonable to hope that in the not distant future the popular\nstandard of education may be so raised that on all educational boards of\ncontrol, from the state board down to the county or township school board,\nso much of pedagogical fitness, from the professional point of view, may\nbe demanded as to insure the intelligent consideration of such questions\npertaining to the profession as may come before them.\n*The\n\nsubcommittee\n\nis under obligation to more\n\nUnited States, for information.\nauthorities of Nova\n\nScotia, New\n\nthan it can name, throughout the\n\nFor aid in its inquiries received from the provincial school\nBrunswick, Quebec,\n\nMrs. Etta F. Grover, of Regina, Assiniboia, and\nschool in Regina, it would here express its thanks.\n\nOntario, and Manitoba,\n\nMr. Chisholm,\n\nand from\n\nPrincipal of the high\n\ne\n\n"}
{"page": 469, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nREPORT\n\nThere\nteachers.\n\nare\n\nOF THE\n\nvarious\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nrecognized\n\nON RURAL\n\nagencies\n\nfor\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nthe improvement\n\n459\n\nof\n\nASSOCIATIONS.\nThe state associations are mainly in the control of teachers representing systems of schools; in but few states are rural school-teachers much\nin evidence at these meetings.\nThe fact that in some states the opposite\n\ncondition holds shows that the state association may be made a powerful\nmeans of uplifting for the rural schools.\nIn many of the states vigorous county associations are found, although\nthis is by no means universal.\nIn these the rural school receives more\nrecognition, but not often\n\nall which is its due.\n\nWhen\n\nthe\n\ncounty\n\nasso-\n\nciation holds frequent sessions, and makes the interests of the rural\nschools prominent, it proves one of the most efficient agencies.\nSome of the states report local associations of rural school-teachers\n- which are very efficient. Generally the success of these is largely dependent upon the spirit of the local or county superintendent.\nWith good\nprofessional supervision in township and county, the wants of rural\nschools and their teachers can find due consideration in local and county\nassociations ; and by proper organization of rural school sections in the\nstate associations there may be secured such an affiliation of state, county,\nand local associations as will insure in time a full recognition of the peculiar needs of the rural schools.\nIt is desirable that the affiliation between these associations be such as\nto secure in part the working together, along the same lines of thought,\nduring the same years, by the local, county, and state associations, under\n\nthe inspiration of the state department of education.\nSUMMER\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nOF\n\nSEVERAL\n\nWEEKS’\n\nDURATION.\n\nIn some cases summer schools are apparently conducted for the purpose of enabling those attending to pass examinations for certain certificates.\nThe tendency is necessarily toward cramming for the examinations, and so far they cease to be educative in any proper sense of that\nterm.\n\nThere\n\nis another\n\nclass of summer\n\nschools, often held in connection\n\nwith colleges and universities, conducted by able teachers, specialists in\ntheir departments, for the purpose of advancing education along true\nlines. Among these, the Agassiz School at Penekese, many years ago,\nwas a revelation and an inspiration to the teachers of the United States.\nThese schools have multiplied in number and enlarged in scope throughout the land, and have proved of great advantage to thousands, not only\nby increasing their knowledge, but also and much more by bringing\nthem under the personal influence of leaders of thought and masters in\nteaching.\n\n"}
{"page": 470, "printed_page": null, "text": "460\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nA third class, with professional courses in psychology, pedagogy, and\nmethods, often\n\ncombining\n\nthe character\n\nof the second class, preceding,\n\n‘There should be\noffers great advantages for professional improvement.\nin every county one of these for the especial benefit of teachers of the\ncommon schools; they should be free of tuition, organized and conducted\nunder the supervision of the state department of education, continuing\nfrom four to ten weeks. There should be provision for practice teaching,\nand\n\nthe\n\ninstructors should be familiar with rural schools, their condition\n\nand needs.\n\nINSTITUTES.\n\nThe normal institutes, so-called, organized in some states, especially\nin the West, are essentially the same as the third class of summer schools,\ndescribed above.\nCounty institutes of one week or more, held during the school year,\nmay exert a great influence in the improvement of teachers.\nWhen they\nare conducted under efficient supervision, with a body of instructors capable of increasing the range of thought of teachers, and are organized under\nsuch laws as will secure the attendance of the teachers of the county, they\nprove a powerful means of educational advance.\n\nFor the description of such an organization of institutes and results\nsee Appendix P.\nTeachers’ conventions or institutes of one day, as conferences between\nteachers, or with superintendents, will prove effective to a greater or less\ndegree according to the purpose, plan, and mode of conducting.\nIn\norder to-secure the best results, they should be held at intervals so frequent that the effect may be continuous.\nREADING\n\nCIRCLES.\n\nThe success of the Chautauqua movement, of various organizations\nfor home study, and of teachers’ reading circles, in some cases, proves\nthat these may be made generally efficient.\nThere will be no lack of\ninterest on the part of the teachers, if the organization and direction be\nwise.\nThe problem is apparently not a difficult one in the larger places,\nwith systems of schools, where numbers of members are readily brought\ntogether, but the case is quite different in the case of rural schools. The\nresults reported clearly indicate certain elements essential to success.\nTo\nsecure the advantage of organization there must be a central board of\ncontrol. This may be a state board with auxiliary boards in counties\nand towns.\nNot only are books for reading to be selected, but a plan of\nwork should be carefully drawn up and widely circulated among teachers.\nThe central board should keep in touch with the members of the circles,\n\n"}
{"page": 471, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF THE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n461\n\npapers based upon the books read should be written and carefully\nexamined, and the results attained should in some way be passed to the\nteacher’s credit; thus, for a certain number of certificates indicating the\ncompletion of a course, a diploma may be granted.\nThe plan of organization is perhaps best formed by the teachers of\nthe state acting through their associations, and the courses of reading can\nbest be made out by committees chosen by the teachers for this purpose;\nthe work may be directed by a committee, but, from comparison of\nresults reported, the varying degrees of success, and the many failures,\nyour committee believes it desirable that there should be in the state\ndepartment of education a bureau of teachers’ reading circles, with\nsufficient force to keep in touch with the local circles, to conduct and\nencourage correspondence with them, and in every way to promote their\n\ninterest and efficiency.\nEffective study demands the use of books for consultation and reference.\nHence the reading circles should be conducted in conjunction\nwith the lending libraries hereafter mentioned.\nThe reading circles must be considered as a means of improvement,\nespecially for teachers already in the service.\nNo other agency can\n- really take the place of personal instruction\n\nof a teacher for his work.\n\nin the original\n\npreparation\n\n(See Appendix Q.)\nLIBRARIES.\n\nThe\n\ncountry town\n\nhas\n\nsuffered, and\n\nstill suffers,\n\nfrom\n\nthe\n\nlack\n\nof\n\nbooks.\nIn many states there is now a movement toward the extension of\nfree library privileges, and wherever there is a town library every school\nshould be made a branch.\nThis system of library extension, becoming\nuniversal in cities, can be extended to country as well. By frequent\nexchange of books, under the immediate direction of the teacher as branch\nlibrarian, every teacher and pupil will have the use of a larger library in\naddition to the special library which should be found in every school.\nSome books should be added to the library for the special benefit of\nteachers.\nThe library belonging to the school is a necessity. Books lent for a\ntime serve their purpose, but a love for good books and the ability to use\nFrom the\nthem aright come most surely from daily companionship.\nlibrary center, the school can be carried into the home.\n\nA more valuable\n\n“work can hardly be done by the rural school-teacher than this, of\ndeveloping a love for good reading.\nIn addition to these there should be established in the county, or the\nstate, or both, a professional library for the use of teachers. This might\nwell be a state library with county branches, and the management of it\nmight well be under the bureau of reading circles which has been men-\n\n"}
{"page": 472, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n462\n\nSuch a state school\ntioned.\n(Appendix L).\n\n[National\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nYork\n\nlibrary has been established in New\n\nTEACHERS’\n\nTRAINING\n\nCLASSES.\n\nThe agencies thus far treated tend to the improvement of teachers\nalready in the service, none of them furnish a first supply for rural\nschools, and there is a lack of special agencies designed for that end.\nThe investigations of your subcommittee show that the existing normal\nschools in general do comparatively little in this direction, except by the\nteaching of their undergraduates. Although originally established for the\nbenefit of the common school, they have naturally tended to keep step\nwith the development of systems of schools in cities and large villages;\nthe majority of rural teachers, often a vast majority, are now without any\nThe tendency is strikingly shown in\nprofessional preparation whatever.\nreturns\n\nfrom\n\nthe Oswego, N. Y., Normal\n\nSchool:\n\n“Nine-tenths\n\nof our\n\npupils come from the country ; not one-tenth ever teach in rural schools.”\nIn one of the older states, after many years’ existence of normal schools,\nof more than 12,000 teachers in the public schools of all classes less than\n5,000 have ever attended normal\n\nschools, less than 4,000 have graduated\n\nfrom normal schools. Over 1,500 vacancies occur annually in the schools\nof the state; the normal schools of the state graduate about 300 annually, nearly all of whom become teachers in graded schools.\nOne of the leading states of the Union, with a well-organized school\nsystem and a grand equipment of normal schools aiming directly to train\nteachers for the rural schools, reports that a majority of its teachers have\nhad professional training.\nMany other states report a much smaller\nproportion of trained teachers; one, 8 per cent.; another, with one of the\nbest school systems, 30 per cent.\n\nAs a contrast, an answer to the inquiry\n\nof your committee, from Manitoba, states: ‘‘Sixty-six per cent. of the\nteachers employed in the province in 1895 were trained.\nAfter this year\n\nall will have training.”\n\n(See Appendix NV.)\n\nThe cause for such a contrast appears later in this report.\nThe normal-school system was first devised especially for the benefit of\nthe rural schools, and in obedience to a tendency which had become\nincreasingly strong for some years previous to the time of their establishment.\nSome brief passages of educational history bearing upon this subject are here cited:\nIn 1823 Samuel Reed Hall opened a normal school\n\nin Concord,\n\nVt.,\n\na school for the academic and professional education of common-school\nteachers, with a school for practice in teaching.\nHere Mr. Hall’s lectures\non school keeping were delivered to his class. These were afterwards\npublished.\nThe character of his work led to his being called to the principalship of the English department of Phillips Academy at Andover,\n\nxt\n\nihe\nbea\n\nes\n\na\n\n"}
{"page": 473, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\nMass.\n\nREPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON RURAL SCHOOLS\nHe\n\nwas\n\nafterwards\n\n463\n\ninvited to take charge of Holmes’ Academy,\n\nPlymouth, N. H., and consented on condition that the school\n\nshould\n\nbe\n\ncalled a teachers’ seminary.\nHe opened this teachers’ seminary in 1837\nand continued it two years.\nIn this school there was a classical department and no practice school, but the course, as printed in Appendix K,\nshows the pedagogical character of the institution and the provision\nmade for its students to gain experience in teaching.\nIn 1829 a training school for teachers of the common schools was\nopened in the town of Effingham, N. H., by Hon. J. W. Bradbury,\nex-United\n\nStates\n\nSenator\n\nfrom\n\nMaine, now\n\nliving, at more than ninety\n\nyears of age, in Augusta, Me.\nBy request, Hon. W. W. Stetson, State\nSuperintendent of Maine, recently visited him to ascertain the facts in\nregard to this school, and the interview is annexed to this report as\nAppendix K.\nThe sole purpose of Horace Mann in the establishment of the first\nstate normal school in Massachusetts, a purpose zealously carried out by\nthe principal, Cyrus Peirce, was to elevate the common schools of the\ncountry. The course of study of the normal school was for one year. In\nthe first year of the school a model school was organized, in which normalschool students had daily practice in teaching. Mr. Peirce himself taught\nin the model school, as he felt that upon its success the success of the\nnormal school very largely depended. Almost all the pupils at first came\nfrom country towns, almost all returned to teach in country schools.\nThere was not then the difference between the rural school and the city\nschool which now exists.\nIn 1847 John D. Philbrick began the experiment of modern grading in Boston, and, with the full development of\nthis system, later, the contrast between the school of the country and the\nschool of the town became more and more marked, and the rural-school\n\nproblem appeared. The normal-school course, at first simple and adapted\nto the conditions it was designed to meet, developed to keep pace with\nthe developing school system, and gradually drew away from the rural\nschools.\nThe normal school is often removed still further from those who\nwould teach in rural schools by the tendency to raise the standard of\nadmission to the requirements of a high-school course.\nThe fact that\nmost of the towns of the state have a high school is no proof that all those\nwho will teach rural schools can go through a high-school course of\nthree or four years, and then a normal-school course of two or three\nGreat care should be taken that the normal school does not get\nyears.\ntoo far from those whom it was especially set to serve. There is needed\na more careful determination of the qualities and attainments requisite\nThese are\nfor entrance upon the work of preparation for teaching.\nresponsibilities\nsometimes given in larger measure by the experiences and\n\n"}
{"page": 474, "printed_page": null, "text": "404\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nof country life than by the graded city high school, and with these every\nadded step in education is great gain. So far as raising the standard of\nadmission is in response to a claim that all academic studies should be\ntaken out of the normal-school course, it may be said that the claim is not\nuniversally recognized as valid by those who have had most experience of\nwork at home, and\n\ncan find but little warrant abroad.\nIn the normal\nschools of Prussia, Austria, Switzerland, and France, for example, a larger\n\nproportion of time is given to,academic studies than in many of the normal schools of the United States,t but with directions, certainly in France,\n\nthat in all the course the professional aim shall be constantly kept in\nview.\nIt is evident that for the fitting preparation of teachers for the rural\nschool some agency is needed intermediate between the brief convention\nor institute and the normal\n\nschool, with its two\n\nor four-years’\n\ncourse, so\n\nfar beyond the reach of the majority of rural school-teachers.\nWhat shall\nit be?\nSeveral facts must be kept in mind in the solution of the problem:\n(1) A large proportion of the teachers of rural schools cannot afford the\ntime and expense of a two-years’ course in a normal school.\n(2) The\nreceipts from employment in the rural school under present conditions\ndo not remunerate one for the expense of a normal-school course.\n‘This\nis a simple matter.of business, and sentiment will not change the facts.\n(3) Other conditions remaining the same, attendance at a school is in an\ninverse ratio to the distance between school and home.\nThis is especially\ntrue for a short course.\nTo meet these conditions there is needed a normal training school\nwith a short course of study. The place—a village which will give over\nits schools to this normal training school for practice schools.\nThese\npractice schools, organized as primary schools in one room and as grammar\n\nschools\n\nin another, will show what can\n\nbe done with schools in the\n\nsimplest form of gradation.\nFor a part of the course all the grades\nshould be brought together to illustrate the work of the one-teacher\nschool, such work as should be done in the ungraded school. A faculty\nof five or six good teachers, including practice-school teachers, would\nsuffice for such a school.\nThis the general organization—what the work?\n‘Treatment of matter essential to good teaching would be grounded on simple fundamental\nprinciples.\nDeficiencies in education would be supplemented by sound\nteaching; principles of teaching and of school management would be\ntaught and illustrated.\nMany might learn to do well what they had never\ndone at all; most would learn to do better what they had done poorly.\n*See Report of Committee on Normal Education, Proceedings of National Council of\nEducation, 1892.\n\n"}
{"page": 475, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n465\n\nFrom these schools would come many students for fuller courses of training and a still wider usefulness.\nThis plan in its development would give a system of district training\nschools, analogous to the county model schools of Ontario, and the train-\n\ning schools of Quebec and Manitoba, with a course of study and\ntraining of one year, the first half of which should be mainly academic, for those who need this preparation, the second half mainly professional, the work so planned that those of more advanced scholarship\nneed take only the course of the second half year. Of these schools\nthere should be at least one in every county of the state (Appendix NV).\nThe practice in teaching should be thoroughly organized.\nEvery\nteacher in the school should be, in a certain sense, a training teacher;\n\nhe\n\nshould be responsible for the methods of teaching in his own subjects,\nand should direct lessons given by members of his classes to children from\n_ the model training schools.\n\nBesides such lessons, illustrative of methods\n\nof teaching, the pupil-teacher should\nwork\n\nin the schoolrooms,\n\nunder\n\nbe trained in conducting\n\nconditions\n\nsimilar\n\nto those\n\nschool\n\nwhich\n\nshe\n\nwill find in her own school. While teaching in the practice school under\nthe direction of a teacher in charge, she should be left more and more\nto her own judgment; she should be held responsible for the control\nand direction of the school, and for the teaching of a class, not merely\nof a group.\nThe membership of the class for training should be limited to such\nnumbers as will give the full advantage of the training course, or, with a\npractice school of the size presupposed, to about twenty-five.\nA large\nclass necessitates the teaching of groups, not of full classes with the control of aschool.\nThe French law limits the number of students in each\nnormal school to three classes of twenty-five each.\nThe practice schools should be under the exclusive instruction and\ncontrol of their regular teachers a sufficient proportion of the time to keep\nthem up to the standard of veritable model schools as well.\nThe completion of this course should give a teachers’ certificate of\nelementary grade, which would also give admission to the state normal\nschool with due credit on the normal-school course for work already\naccomplished.\nThere should be a summer term for rural school-teachers in every\nnormal school in the United States. The plant of the normal school has\ncost thousands, in some cases hundreds of thousands, of dollars, and for\n\ntwo or three months in the summer this investment remains entirely\nThe success of the summer term in The University of\nunproductive.\nand the Winona plan, adopted this year in all the\nsignificant,\nis\nChicago\nMinnesota, sets the example for the nation\nof\nschools\nstate normal\nschools the work of the first year—or the first\nnormal\nIn\n(Appendix S).\n\n"}
{"page": 476, "printed_page": null, "text": "jaongd\n+\n\n466\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\npart of the course—should be so planned as to have a unity in itself as a\npreparation for rural school-teachers, and the results accomplished in\nthe summer term should count on this course, so as to encourage subThe summer term should not\nsequent attendance at the normal school.\nbe an institute nor a summer\n\nschool, in the usual sense, but should com-\n\nbine the elements of the other terms of the year; the attendance of\nchildren in the training school could be secured easily for two or three\nhours a day.\nThere should be organized in all states a system of normal-school\nextension analogous to the university extension.\nWherever a class of\nsufficient size can be formed, a teacher should be provided.\nThe work\nshould be so organized and conducted as to lead to definite results\nwhich can be credited to the members of the class.\nThere are two possible’ agencies in the preparation of teachers for\nrural schools that have not been mentioned :\n1. City Training Schools.—In large cities it is not to be expected that\nthe city training school will prepare teachers for rural schools; all their\ngraduates usually find employment at home.\nBut cities in this country\nwith a population of more than 50,000 are comparatively very few, and\nit is reasonable to suppose that training schools in cities of less than\n50,000 will prepare more teachers than can be provided with employment in those cities. The surplus will naturally seek positions in the\nvillage and country schools.\n\ned\n\nBirmingham, Ala., a city of about 50,000, has had a training school for\n\neight years.\nDuring that time 25 per cent. of the graduates of this\nschool have found employment in the ungraded schools of the county and\nstate. If the training school is encouraged, it can be made an important factor in the preparation of teachers for rural schools.\nA part of the\ncourse in these\n\nschools should, therefore, deal with the conditions of the\n\nungraded schools of the county, and the instruction should be specifically\nadapted to meet those conditions.\n2. Agricultural Colleges—Many pupils in agricultural schools and\ncolleges teach during their course.\nIn some cases the agricultural college\nThus in\nis brought nearer the people by the establishment.of branches.\nAlabama there has been established in each congressional district a\nbranch agricultural school, closely related to the agricultural and\nmechanical college of the state.\nCannot such schools accomplish much\nin the specific preparation of teachers for the work of the rural schools ?\n3. High Schools.—\nAn effective auxiliary in the training of elementary\nteachers may be found in high schools.\nIn 1894-95 there were in New\nYork\n\n247 such classes, with\n\n2,482 students.\n\nThe\n\nregulations\n\nprescribe\n\nthe professional qualifications of the teachers who are to instruct these ~\nclasses, and the equipment and the opportunities for observation and.\n\ne\n\n"}
{"page": 477, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n467\n\npractice to be furnished.\nThe course of study, extending through one\nyear, covers the ground of common-school studies, including with subject-matter the treatment of methods of teaching, the history of education,\n\nschool management,\n\nand school law.\n\nThe school\n\nis to furnish each day\n\nthe opportunity for the class, or some members of it, to observe methods\n\nof teaching in the several grades of common-school work, and, when\npracticable, the opportunity to teach in such grades under proper criticism and direction.\nA system similar to this is in operation in the province of Quebec.\nAlthough these training classes cannot take the place nor do the work\nof special training schools, yet they offer a ready means for effecting some\nimmediate improvement in the teaching force of the state, and for the\nselection of those who have such fitness for teaching as will justify their\npursuing a special professional course.\nThe teachers of such classes\n-must themselves have received thorough pedagogical instruction, else the\nresult must be a failure; hence the necessity is apparent for pedagogical\ncourses in all colleges.\nAccording to the generalizations of the superintendent of the last\ncensus, Over an area of our country of 1,688,827 square miles, containing\n\na population of two to forty-five to the square mile, the occupation of the\npeople is mainly agriculture; of this territory 1,096,790 square miles are\noccupied by a people mainly engaged in systematic agriculture, leaving\nabout 260,000 square miles, with a population of forty-five and upwards\nto the square mile, in which the leading interests are commerce and manufactures, and in which professional and personal service are in large\ndemand.\nThe numbers engaged in the principal occupations in the\nUnited States, according to the latest United States census, were as\nfollows:\nFarm and garden,\nAll the professions,\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n=\n\nDomestic and personal service,\n\nTrade and transportation,\n\n-\n\n-\n\n=\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\nManufacturing and mechanical industries,\n\n=\n\n2\n\n8,375,979\n\n*\n-\n\n-\n\n$\n-\n\n>\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n944,323\n4,360,506\n\n3,325,962\n\n5,091,669\n\nIn behalf of all these occupations, except the professions and agriculture, the claim has been made and has been allowed that special instruction in their interests be made an important part of the school curriculum\n—in commercial courses;\n\nin cooking; in manual training, on which such\n\nvast sums have been expended.\nIndeed, for many of the professions\nmuch of the school instruction is a direct preparation.\nMuch is said of the necessity for considering the environment of the\nchild; for bringing into his school life the thoughts and interests of his\nhome life, that the school may not prove to him a thing remote and\nforeign; of making the school a recognition of his past and a prepara-\n\n"}
{"page": 478, "printed_page": null, "text": "468\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\ntion for his future. Little sign of this can be found in the ordinary rural\nschool.\nThe courses of study in normal schools of all grades should recognize more fully than they do the environment and probable future life of\nthe children in the schools, or rather, they should recognize the lines along\nwhich lives of most probable future happiness would lie. As has been\nshown, much the.largest class of the workers of this country is engaged\nin agriculture.\nThe environments of their children are rural.\nThe rural\nschool should aim especially to make country life more attractive and\nbeautiful, and should pay more attention to rural industries.\nEvery\nnormal school should have as a means of instruction a school garden,\nplanned and conducted not merely to teach the pure science of botany,\nbut also the simple principles of the applied science of agriculture and\ngardening ; and every rural school should also have its garden, through\nThis\nwhich the training of the normal school may reach the home.\nelement of industrial training should be especially emphasized in the\ncolored normal schools and rural schools of the South.\nOther countries lead us. A farm has been set apart for this line\nof instruction at the Provincial Normal School at Truro, Nova Scotia.\nThe school garden is common in the countries of Europe most advanced\nin popular education.\nThe school garden and the nursery of fruit trees\nare a feature of the normal schools of France; there is a course of agriculture in the normal schools for men, of horticulture in the normal schools\nfor women.\nThe course in agriculture treats of preparation of the soil, special\nculture of trees and shrubs, of fruit trees, grafting, and the vegetable\ngarden.\n\nve\n\nve,\n\nThe course in horticulture in the normal schools for women treats of\nthe garden in its general arrangements—the fruit garden, the vegetable\ngarden, the flower garden.\nEach garden has a space reserved as a botanic garden for instruction\nin the science of botany.\nThe instruction received in the normal school is applied in the school\ngarden of the rural school.*\n\na\n\n* The school garden in the New Hampshire State Normal and Training School has\nproved a source of interest and of instruction to pupils of all grades in the training\nschools and in the normal schools, such as nothing else can replace.\nIn this garden all\nthe grains and vegetables grown in the region were cultivated, together with a great\nvariety of flowers. Each class in school had assigned to it a plot, for which it was responsible.\n\nIn the George Putnam\n\nSchool, in Boston, a part of the school yard was turned\n\ninto a garden, which has received several prizes from the Massachusetts Horticultural\nSociety. On certain days the Jardin des Plantes in Paris is used as a place for botanical\nstudy by the school children. I found once on the roof of a London schoolhouse, which\nwas used as the girls’ play ground, a large and beautiful collection of plants. And yet\n\n‘\n\nSE\ne\n—\n\n"}
{"page": 479, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF THE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n469\n\nA French report says that the French farmer is at first opposed to\nbook farming; but when he sees that the products of the teacher’s garden\nare superior to his own, he is glad to learn.\nM. Boutan, an inspector general of public instruction, says in a\nreport: ‘We can cite several departments in which, thanks to the initiative of the teachers, the wealth of the country has increased from year to\nyear, and from which the exportation of fine fruit has become the source\nof considerable profit.”\nThere can be no doubt that great improvements in agriculture might\nresult from the general diffusion of such instruction through school gardens, under the direction of qualified teachers. Is there any other means\nfor such improvement in sight of this generation?\nAnd a still higher\ngood for the country life might come from thus blending its utilities and\nits beauties in the thought of the child.\nYour subcommittee would also emphasize the importance of two other\n‘lines of work already developed in the graded schools, and of a third,\nwhich must be made prominent in all schools—language, elements of\nscience\n\nor\n\nnature study, and morals.\n\nWhatever\n\ngoes\n\ninto\n\nthe common\n\nschool must go into the normal school.\nHence, even in the brief course\nof normal-school training, the instruction in the English language,\ninstruction in the essential elements of its beauty and strength, instruction\nleading toward such command of its best forms as will tend to make it\na transparent medium for the expression of thought, must be held of\nfundamental importance.\nThere mus be such training in elementary\nscience and in manipulation as will give the teacher essential knowledge\nand skill in this line of teaching, and there must be such instruction in\nelementary psychology and ethics as is necessary for the comprehension of general principles of method, and of the scope and methods of\ninstruction in morals; and as the result of all the preparation which can\nbe given there should be a clear comprehension of the essential aims of\neducation. Would that all our teachers could have constantly in mind and\nat hand such a statement as is found on the desks of the common-school\n\nteachers of France (Appendix R).\nEXAMINATION\n\nAND\n\nCERTIFICATION\n\nOF\n\nTEACHERS.\n\nWere teaching a profession in the sense in which law and medicine are\nprofessions, teachers themselves would formulate the terms of professional\nrecognition ; but evidently the time for that is not yet. What the public\nschool is.immediately to aim for is uniformity in state\n\nwe have\n\nto consider\n\nexaminations, and\n\nthe agencies, the standards, the methods\n\nfor these\n\nthe rural school almost utterly ignores its only possible laboratory, the out-of-doors, the\ngarden laboratory, right at hand.\n\nschool.—C. C. Rounps. ]\n\nHere lies a duty, not a choice merely, for the normal\n\n"}
{"page": 480, "printed_page": null, "text": "470\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nThe agency may be the state superintendent of public\nexaminations.\ninstruction, a special examining board, or a state board of education\nTimes and places for examination should\nwhen such board exists.\nbe announced frequent enough and numerous enough to meet all\nThe scope and character of the examinations\nreasonable demand.\nshould be announced long enough beforehand to enable candidates\nto consider the matter deliberately, as is now done in regard to examinations for admission to college and for the civil service.\nInformation as\nEach\nto books for use and as to modes of preparation should be given.\nexamination should be conducted by an expert, and the papers should be\ncritically examined.\nCertificates granted should be graded as to the range of the examination, not as to length of validity, unless the certificate be a provisional\none.\nA one-year’s physician would receive little credit; why should a\none-year’s teacher receive more ?\nExaminations should cover the range of work required of the teacher,\nand\n\nshould\n\nbe written, oral, and\n\npractical.\n\nThe\n\nwritten\n\nexaminations\n\nshould be planned not merely to test the candidate’s range of acquirement, but rather his accuracy, his general style of thought and expression. The oral examination should test the range of attainment, the personality of the candidate, and\n\nhis readiness\n\nin resource.\n\ne\n\nThese two are\n\ngenerally combined in one—the written form, but there are great advantages in the separation whenever it is practicable.\nThe examination for the elementary certificate should cover the ground\nof common-school studies, with so much of the elements of natural science\n\nas is demanded for the intelligent teaching of the nature lessons in the\ncommon-school course. The questions should be few, but comprehensive,\nand such as will fairly test the reflective power of the candidate.\nThe professional examination for the elementary grade of certificate\nshould not be severe, but should require clear general statements regarding methods of conducting recitations and the organization and management of a school.\nThe practical examination, or the test of skill, for the elementary\ngrade of certificate, should include some test of the candidate’s ability to\nplan a lesson and an examination paper in some common-school subject,\nand to conduct a recitation.\nIf the candidate has been a member of a\nclass in training, a record of this practical work might be brought over\nfrom the work in that class.\nSo much ability as is implied by this examination is necessary to the\n\ngood teaching of any school. Wherever this ability cannot be secured\nnow for the rural school, a clear public appreciation of the need will lead\nto a supply. of the means.\nThe examination for the advanced certificate should in general cover\n\nDOF\nA\nal\nli\nte\nai\nsa\nyS\n\n—\n\n"}
{"page": 481, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF THE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n471t\n\nthe ground of an English high-school course of at least three years, or fair\nequivalents for such a course.\nA special certificate might be given for a\nforeign language.\nThis examination should include psychology and\nethics, drawing, and the elements of vocal music.\n\nThe professional examination for the advanced certificate should\ninclude history of education, methods of teaching, general principles of\npedagogy, and the organization and management of schools.\nThe practical examination should include the preparation of plans of\nlessons and of examinations ; judging the character of a lesson and a written\npaper; teaching, including an oral lesson on some subject in nature\nstudy, elements of science, language, or morals.\nAs in the examination for the elementary certificate, if the candidate\nis a member of any training class, the practical examination can be taken\nin that class.\nFormulating the preceding statements, teachers’ certificates should be\ngraded in two general classes—elementary and advanced—and in each\nclass three grades.\nELEMENTARY.\n\n(1) Elementary scholastic certificate, Grade 3.\n(2) Elementary professional certificate, Grade 2.\n(3) Elementary certificate of skill, Grade 1.\nADVANCED.\n\n(1) Advanced scholastic certificate, Grade 3.\n(2) Advanced professional certificate, Grade 2.\n(3) Advanced certificate of skill, Grade tr.\n\nA life certificate of either class and honorable recognition in the profession should be granted after a certain period of successful teaching to\nthose holding the first-grade certificate of that class.\nIn each class the higher certificate presupposes the lower; thus Grade\n1 cannot be obtained without 3 and 2.\nMany, if not most, of the examinations of teachers for rural schools in\n\nthe United States today do not go beyond the range of the elementary certificate, Grade 3, as here given; the elementary certificate, Grade 2, could\nbe obtained by attendance upon a teachers’ training class in a high school.\nA course in a district training school organized as described in this\nreport, or a partial course of one year in a state normal school, should\ngive the complete elementary certificate. In many cases thoughtful and\nsuccessful teachers in the rural school, by their own study and the help\nafforded by .a well-conducted reading circle and a normal extension\ncourse, could\n\nrise from\n\nthe elementary\n\nplete elementary certificate.\n\ncertificate, Grade 3, to the com-\n\nA high-school course would\n\ncertificate, Grade 3, and, with the course in a high-school\n\ngive advanced\nteachers’\n\ntrain-\n\n"}
{"page": 482, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n472\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nThe complete\ning class, might give advanced certificate, Grade 2.\nadvanced certificate could be obtained by a two-years’ course in a normal\nschool.\nThis gradation of examinations and certificates will utilize to the\nutmost the existing educational agencies, will point out to teachers a way\nin which they may rise step by step, and will thus encourage their advance,\nand will secure to the rural school the benefit of their improvement.\nA question will arise as to the interval between the elementary and\n(For a wider interval established in Manitoba\nthe advanced certificate.\nsee Appendix NV.) In many cases it may be best to lower the standard\nof the advanced certificate and make it intermediate between the elementary certificate and the normal-school diploma attesting the comOn this question your subcommittee propletion of a two-years’ course.\nnounces no opinion.\nIt would point out a way by which the teachers\nof the rural school as it now is may be taken as they are and induced to\nenter upon a course of advanced study, and by which the school may derive\nall possible benefit from the advance; and your subcommittee believes\nthat, by such a course, standards will gradually be raised all along the line.\n\nYour Subcommittee on the Supply of Teachers for Rural Schools,\nin closing its report, would call attention to some of the main points\nin this discussion.\nIt appears that there are numerous agencies which may be made available for the improvement of rural school-teachers already in the service.\nWith these the only question is that of more perfect organization.\nAlthough there is in general an increase in interest in educational\nquestions, and an elevation of standards of teaching, yet the large majority of rural school-teachers now enter upon their work with no professional\npreparation; the improvement in the character of rural schools, where\nthere has been any improvement, has been slow; large sections of the\ncountry report no advance, some report a decline.\nThe\n\ncauses\n\nfor this condition, and the changes needed, are not far to\n\nseek:\n1, The school year must be lengthened to a full school year of nine\nor ten months, in order that skilled teachers may be retained.\nThis\nresult can be secured, as it has been secured elsewhere when its absolute\n\nnecessity has been recognized.\nThe state, among other conditions for\nBement from the school fund, may prescribe a full school year, which\nis gone in England, as logically as six, or seven, or eight months, now\ndone mesome of our states, or it may secure this result, as it has been\nowes in Canada, by making the length of the school so prominent a\ncondition in the distribution of the school fund as to insure the co-operation of the county and the town to this end.\n2. The existing agencies for the supply of teachers for rural schools\n\ni\n“\n\n"}
{"page": 483, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council }\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n473\n\ndo not suffice.\nThere must be modifications in these, and the provision\nof others.\n3. There must be some definite standard for the certification of teachers, coming within reach of the teacher of the rural school, and encouraging advance to such higher degrees of attainment and skill as will give\n: full professional recognition.\nAnd your committee believes that some\n_ provision should be made to secure inter-state recognition.\nThe question of finance does not lie within the province of this subcommittee, but it does not believe that the financial difficulty need prevent the necessary reform.\nWhen there is once full recognition by the\nstate of its final responsibility for the education of every child within its\nborders, there will be possible such an adjustment of expenses between it\nand the lower educational units as will be burdensome to none and just\nto all.\nYour subcommittee has sought to ascertain accurately what the rural\nschool now is; in all its suggestions it has had in view the rural school as\nit ought to be. It believes that this nation can have such a system of\nschools for all its people as may challenge comparison with any other,\nand that it will have such a system when it clearly perceives the injustice\n_ and the peril of the present condition, and the way in which safety lies.\n\n=\n\nCHARLES C. RouNDs,\nDavip L. KIEHLE,\nJoun H. PHILLIPS.\n\nREPORT\n\nOF THE\n\nChairman,\n\nSUBCOMMITTEE\nON INSTRUCTION\nDISCIPLINE.\n\nAND\n\nYour Subcommittee on Course of Study, Methods of Instruction, and\nDiscipline in Rural Schools begs leave to report herewith that it has carefully considered the conditions which prevail in thinly settled districts\nwith the intent to discover the evils that exist in the schools as a consequence of those conditions, such, for example, as (1) the want of classifi-\n\ncation and (2) the impossibility of thorough instruction on the part of the\nteacher, as well as (3) the lack of that stimulus which comes to the pupil\nfrom working\ncommittee\n\nat reasonable\nhereinafter\n\nhas\n\ntasks in company with\ndescribed\n\nand\n\ndiscussed\n\nhis equals.\nvarious\n\nYour\n\nremedies,\n\nwhich it believes will have useful results in practice.\nAbout one-half of all the teachers in the United States‘teach what are\nThey receive in one room pupils of all ages and\ncalled ungraded schools.\nall degrees of advancement, from ABC’s upward, sometimes even to algeIn extreme cases each pupil is a class by himself in all\nbra and Latin.\nbranches, except perhaps reading, writing, and spelling. It quite often\n‘\n\n"}
{"page": 484, "printed_page": null, "text": "arae\n=\n\n474\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nhappens that there is no uniformity of text-books, each pupil having a\ndifferent edition or different author; the teacher is often obliged to borrow the pupil’s book when he hears him recite.\nAccording to Mr. Hinsdale’s studies of the United States census (see\nAppendix A) the sparsely settled region of the country includes, first,\none-third of the whole domain entirely uninhabited or containing fewer\nthan two inhabitants per, square mile; secondly, an area of 1,688,827\nmiles with from two to forty-five inhabitants per square mile, leaving only\n260,000 square miles containing more than forty-five to the square mile,\nand the 443 cities with an aggregate of nearly 19,000,000 people.\nIt happens that ungraded rural schools with a very small attendance\nare to be found even in the most thickly peopled states and often in\nproximity to cities.\n\nRhode Island in\n\n1895 reports\n\n158 out\n\nof its 263\n\nschools as ungraded and sixty-four of them as containing fewer than ten\npupils each.; three towns have in the aggregate thirty-nine schools averaging fewer than ten pupils. Vermont in 1893 reported 153 schools with\nsix pupils or less each. Massachusetts in 1893-94 reported sixteen towns\nwith an aggregate of nearly 100 schools with an average of eleven pupils.\nNew York in 1894-95 reported 2,983 schools with fewer than ten pupils\neach and 7,529 with less than twenty.\nOther examples are mentioned in\nthe report of the Subcommittee on Maintenance.\nA school with ten pupils of ages from five to fifteen years, of different\ndegrees of advancement, some beginning to learn their letters, others\nadvanced from one to eight or nine years in the course of study, cannot\nbe graded or classified to advantage, but must for the most part be taught\nindividually.\nThe beginner who does not yet know a letter should not\n\nbe placed in a class with another who began last year and can now read\nlessons in the middle of the primer.\nIt will not do to place in the same\nclass a boy beginning numeration and another one who has already mastered the multiplication table. The beginner in grammar has not yet\nlearned the technique, and is confused and discouraged by the instruction\ngiven to another pupil in his class who has already learned the declensions and conjugations.\nAny attempt, in short, to instruct two or more pupils in a class, when\nthere is a difference\n\nof a year’s work\n\nin their advancement,\n\nresults\n\nin\n\nhumiliating and discouraging the less advanced and in making the\nmaturer pupils conceited.\nHigher learning in the possession of a fellowman seems to an illiterate person as something magical, or bordering on\nthe miraculous: he can make combinations of thought which surprise\nthose who are unused to them. The case is worse with the child in school.\nTo him the elevation given by a year’s study seems an endowment of\nnature and not a result of industry. Permanent injury to the pupils is\nvery often occasioned by wrong classification. For not only does the\n\ns\n\n"}
{"page": 485, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n475\n\nlower suffer from discouragement, but the higher pupil is necessarily\ninjured by not being held to his best. The teacher is perforce obliged to\nadapt the lesson to the average of the class. This does not give enough\nwork for the advanced pupil, although it gives too much for those below\nThere is not enough demand upon the first to continue the\nthe average.\nincrease of his powers ; he becomes indolent and stops growing.\nFor these reasons classification as above described ought not to be\nexpected in the rural school; it must remain ungraded, and as a result\nthe teacher must resort to individual instruction wherever there are intervals of a year or more. in degrees of advancement between pupils, and this\nis the actual practice in perhaps the majority of such schools. The older\npupils at least should have separate grammar, history, and arithmetic\nlessons.\nIt is understood\n\nby your subcommittee, as a matter\n\nof course, that\n\n_ even in asmall school of six to ten pupils there may be two or more pupils\nof sufficiently near stages of progress to form one class—for example, two\nbeginners in arithmetic, grammar, geography, or history. It may be that\na dull pupil has already been studying arithmetic, grammar, or history\nfor a quarter or a half year, and that a bright pupil just commencing the\nstudy would be able to keep up with him on a review from the beginning\nof the book; but it would not do to place a dull pupil commencing a\nstudy with a bright one who had already a half year’s start in it. It often\nhappens that pupils placed in the same class at the beginning of the year\nseparate widely in power to learn new lessons before the middle of the\nyear. In such cases a class should be broken up to prevent the twofold\ninjury, namely, to the bright pupil by assigning him too short lessons,\nand to the dull pupil by assigning him more than he can well accomplish.\nThe\n\nteacher,\n\neven\n\nafter\n\nforming\n\nclasses\n\nin\n\nwriting,\n\nreading,\n\nand\n\nspelling, has twelve to fifteen lessons to hear in a forenoon and nearly\nas many more for the afternoon.\nThere is an average of less than ten\nminutes for each recitation.\nThe ideal of the recitation or class exercise is that the teacher probe to the bottom the pupil’s preparation of his\nlesson, and correct bad habits of study. If the pupil fails to master by\nsufficient industry the details—the facts and external items—the teacher\ncounsels and reproves, requiring more work on the same lesson.\nIf he\nfinds that the details are mastered the teacher next tests the combinations, the thoughts that the pupil has used in connecting one fact with\nanother and in seeing relations.\nFacts are connected so as to form a\nscience when each one is made to throw light on every other fact, and all\nSo a lesson is learned properly when the pupil can place\nexplain each.\nHe must understand\neach item in its systematic relation to the whole.\nthe bearings of all; he must think out the interrelations.\n\n"}
{"page": 486, "printed_page": null, "text": "476\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nHence it happens that the good teacher is not satisfied with a memoriter recitation of the details of the lesson—still less with a word-forNot the mere words of the book, nor\nword rendition of the text-book.\neven the disconnected facts or details which the words indicate, but to\n\nbring out the thought which unites these details and explains them, is the\nBut such a recitation requires time.\nmain object of the good recitation.\nThe teacher cannot probe the pupil’s knowledge in five minutes and corIn the necessarily\nrect his bad habits of study—nor in ten minutes.\nbrief recitation of the ungraded school there is barely time to test the\npupil’s mastery of the external details of the lesson, the mere facts and\ntechnical words.\n\nIt is for this reason, more especially, that the rural school\n\n— parrot memohas been the parent of poor methods of instructionof\nrizing and of learning words instead of things.\nAt the beginning of this century only one-thirtieth of the inhabitants\nof the United States lived in towns of 8,o00 people or upwards, .\nand more than go per cent. of all the public schools were ungraded\nschools.\nThe question has often been asked how it is that so many able\nmen who became scholars and statesmen and professional men of eminence could have come from schools as poor as the rural school is said to\nbe. Such eminent men as were produced in those times came from the\nrural school; there were few graduates from graded schools to compete\nwith them.\nOf the men now living, past the middle age of life, nearly\nall received their early education in the rural ungraded school, because\neven as late as 1850 at least 80 per cent. of all the public schools were\nungraded, there being only 12% per cent. of the population resident in\ncities. The rural school threw on the pupil the burden of his education.\nHe was obliged to get his knowledge from books, such books as he could\ncome to possess.\nBright pupils do pretty well by themselves if given\ngood books and taught how to read and to understand the technique\nused in the elementary books of mathematics, grammar, and the other\nliberal arts. Any country boy who acquires a love for books, who has\naccess to the best ones, and studies them with energy, will by middle age\nbecome a learned man.\nIn the ideal classified school the teacher has two classes of pupils,\neach class containing within it pupils substantially at the same stage of\nadvancement.\nThe pupils of a given class recite together in all the\nbranches, and the teacher has a half hour for a lesson and can go into the\ndynamics or causal relations of the facts and events treated.\nEach pupil in a class learns as much from his fellow pupils as from\nthe teacher\n\ndirect;\n\nfor the teacher\n\ndraws\n\nout of the class its store\n\nof\n\nobservations and reflections on the topic of the lesson. He shows up the\none-sidedness of the preparation of the individual pupil ; some have neglected this point and some that other point. Each has probably neglected\n\n"}
{"page": 487, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF THE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n477\n\nsomething. But, on the other hand, each of the diligent ones has brought\nforward something new that is valuable to his fellows.\nEach pupil finds\nthrough the recitation of the others that they have seen some things that\nhad escaped his notice, although he supposed that he understood\nthoroughly the book presentation of the subject.\nHis teacher suggests\nmany new ideas and criticises the one-sidedness of the views of the pupils\nand also, it may be, of the text-book.\nAll the statements ofthe book are\nbrought to the test of verification—either through the child’s experience\nThe child thus learns the method of\nor through other authorities.\nstudy.\n:\nThe ideal classified school can teach, and does teach, proper methods\nof study; the rural school cannot do this effectively in its five- or tenminute recitations.\nIt is because of this that wise directors of education\nhave desired the consolidation of small schools into large schools wher_ ever practicable.\nTwo schools of ten each furnish on an average onehalf as many recitations if united as they do when separate, owing to the\npossibility of pairing or classifying pupils of the same degree of advancement. Ten such schools united into one will give 100 pupils, with a possibility of classes of ten each, which can be more efficiently taught than\nbefore, because the pupil can learn more in a class than by himself. The\n-class in the hands of a good teacher is a potent instrument for reaching\nall sides of the pupil’s observation and reflection.\nAgain, it is evident\nthat five teachers can teach the roo pupils united in one school far better\nthan the ten teachers were able to teach them in the ten separate schools.\nIf still further consolidation were possible and 400 pupils were united in\none school, the classification might be improved to such a degree that\na teacher could easily take the charge of two classes of twenty pupils,\nand ten teachers could do far better work for each pupil than was done\nby the forty teachers in the forty small rural schools before consolidation.\nHence, economy becomes a great item in what are called “ Union\nSchools.”\nYour subcommittee, in this discussion of the advantages of classifying\nand the corresponding disadvantages of the want of classifying, has\nassumed that as good teachers are supplied to the rural schools as to the\nschools of villages and cities—teachers of experience and skill, teachers\nof thorough academic and professional training in normal schools.\nIt is\nthese\nin\nsalaries\ngood\nfor\nprovision\nmade\nhave\nstates\nthat\nassumed\nungraded schools, and that the license to teach requires professional\ntraining.\nIt is admitted as a fact, however, that the average rural school-teacher\n\nreceives a small salary—not more than one-half that of the teacher in\nthe city or large village. It is true, as reported by the Subcommittee on\nMaintenance of Schools, that some states, notably California, New Jersey,\n\n"}
{"page": 488, "printed_page": null, "text": "478\n\nNATIONAL\n\nMassachusetts, Rhode\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nIsland, and others\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nto a greater or less degree, are\n\nproviding, by a wise distribution of school money, to secure skillful\nBut the evils above described\nteachers for these small, ungraded schools.\nas appertaining to instruction in ungraded schools are of such a character as not to yield to ordinary remedies.\nYour subcommittee would call special attention at this point to the\nevil results that come from the attempt to remedy the defects of the rural\nschool by forcing on it the system of classification found in cities. It is\nassumed that some of the benefits of the close grading possible in cities\nwill be gained for the rural schools if they can roughly group the whole\nschool into three or four classes.\nA rural school of thirty pupils comprising children from six to sixteen years of age, and covering different\ndegrees of progress from beginners up to those of eight or nine years of\nschooling, are grouped, let us suppose, into four classes or grades— thus\nleaving intervals of two or more years of school work between a given\ngroup and the next one above it.\nYour subcommittee has already pointed out the evils of classifying\npupils in such a way as to bring together pupils differing in degree of\nadvancement by intervals of two years. In fact, it has been found in\ncity schools that one year’s interval between classes is too much.\nThe\ngreatest danger of the graded school system in cities comes from holding\nback bright pupils for the sake of the slower and duller pupils.\nNext to\nthis is the evil to the dull ones who are dragged forward at an unnatural\nrate of progress to keep up to the average rate of the class. ‘The best\npupils are engaged in “marking time,” while the slowest are constantly\nspurred forward by teachers and parents to keep with their class, and their\nschool years rendered miserable.\nTheir self-respect is undermined by a\nfalse standard, that of mere speed in learning.\nThe “marking time”\ninjures the bright pupil by developing lax habits of study, while the\nforced marches of the slow pupil tend to destroy his poise of character.\nIt has been found desirable, therefore, in city schools to make the intervals between classes as small as possible, so as to favor frequent transfers,\n\nnamely, on the one hand, of bright pupils who are becoming capable of a\ngreater\n\namount\n\nof work\n\ninto a higher\n\nclass, and, if necessary, of those\n\nwho are falling behind the average of the class into the next one below.\nIntervals of a half year are, therefore, adopted in a majority of the progressive city school systems, and many prefer intervals of a quarter of a\nyear where it is practicable to make them, that is, where a large number\nof pupils makes possible the assignment of a requisite quota for each\nclass.\n\nAt the request of the subcommittee, Dr. E. E. White, an eminent\n\nauthority on all that relates to school management, has furnished a statement of his views of classification in the rural school, illustrating them by\na programme, which allows twenty-five minutes for each recitation.\nBut\n\n-\n\noe\n\ne\n\n—\n\n"}
{"page": 489, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF THE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nA79\n\nthe intervals between the classes amount to two years’ work, and inasmuch\nas he expressly provides for capable pupils, letting them “work ahead of\ntheir classes,” he leaves the question where it is left by the subcommittee,\nunless the pupils are supposed to do their “advance work” without the\nteacher’s supervision (Appendix J).\nYour subcommittee would respectfully call attention to the danger of\nattempting to classify the rural school in imitation of the city school as\npeculiarly liable to happen in those schools where professionally educated\nteachers are employed.\nThe state and city normal schools have very properly laid stress on grading and classification, and on the methods of instruction by classes, and\nhave ignored individual instruction.\nTheir graduates have mostly sought\nand obtained places in the graded schools of cities and villages. In fact,\nthe graded schools have outbid the rural schools for teachers having professional training.\nBut, with the new movement to secure better teachers\n‘for rural schools by larger appropriations from the state, it has happened\nthat many experiments of classification are attempted which result disastrously in the manner described, namely, by demoralizing, or destroying\n\nthe courage and ambition of the exceptionally bright and the exceptionally dull pupils. The charge has been made that such rural schools as\nadopt a partial grading system are apt to become stiflers of talent by\nplacing a premium on the average scholars, and holding back the\npromising youth of the district.\nIt is obvious from this that where state normal schools furnish teachers\nfor the rural districts there should be conducted a special inquiry into the\ninfluence of the size of the school in determining the uses and the\ndangers of grading and classifying pupils.\nThere\n\nis no\n\ndoubt, moreover, that\n\nthe abuse\n\nof classification\n\nis the\n\ncrying evil of the schools of villages and small cities.\nFor the average\npupil these village graded schools are uniformly good, but they often\nwork injury to the exceptional pupils and are in this respect sometimes\ninferior to the ungraded schools in sparsely settled districts.\nYour subcommittee would here explain that the technical terms “ ‘grading” and “classification” are often used, as above, to signify the same\nthing, namely, the dividing of the pupils of a school into groups or classes,\neach containing children of the same, or substantially the same, degree of\nadvancement.\nBut another meaning is often given to one of these terms.\nThe work of the year, more or less, is also called the work of a grade, and\nthe work of the elementary school, consisting of the first eight years’ work,\nis divided into eight grades. It will be readily understood in this second\nuse of the word “grade” as covering a year’s work that a school may be\ngraded, that is to say, its work may be arranged upon a programme of\neight grades, each one of which requires a certain modicum of reading,\n\n"}
{"page": 490, "printed_page": null, "text": "480\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nwriting, arithmetic, geography, grammar, etc., for a year’s work, and yet\nhave only ten or twenty pupils, and perhaps these representing only three\nBy a graded school, as applied to sucha\nor four of the eight grades.\nstate of things, is meant simply a school whose programme requires a\nregular sequence of studies and a full quota of studies for each pupil. If\na pupil is at a certain degree of advancement in his arithmetic the programme of the graded system would place him also in a class correspondBut the\ningly advanced in geography, history, reading, or other studies.\nsmall rural school has been called “ungraded” because it contains or may\ncontain pupils of all grades, from the lowest to the highest, and consequently obliges the teacher to scatter his teaching force over a wide range\nof topics. The large school permits specializing by dividing the school\nin such a way that the pupils of one grade, or perhaps two grades, are\ntaught by one teacher, the next one or two grades by another teacher,\netc., permitting each teacher to specialize his work by giving him fewer\ntopics to teach, and consequently insuring longer recitation periods and\nconstant improvement in skill.\nIt is to be supposed that all schools will be graded in the sense that\nthey will have a course of study, and that pupils will take up their branches\nof study in due order, and that these studies will\n\nbe associated, so that a\n\ngiven degree of advancement in one study implies a given degree of\nadvancement in another.\nWhat is properly called the correlation of\nstudies presupposes that a certain degree of advancement in arithmetic\ncorresponds to a certain degree of advancement in geography, reading,\ngrammar, and other studies, all of these being determined within limits\nby the pupil’sage.\nThe word “grading,” as a synonym for classification,\nis freely used by your subcommittee in this report, but it has discussed the\ntopic indicated in the other and less frequent use of the word “grading”\nin that part of its report which follows, relating to the course of study.\nTHE\n\nCOURSE\n\nOF\n\nSTUDY.\n\nYour subcommittee has assumed that the course of study in the rural\nschools should be substantially the same as that of the city schools.\nThe\ndifferences\n\nshould\n\nconcern\n\nonly minor\n\ndetails.\n\nIt would,\n\ntherefore,\n\nrefer here to the report of the Committee of Fifteen for fuller details, and\nfor the discussion of the grounds for selecting the several branches of the\ncourse of study. The course of study of the elementary school, whether\nurban or rural, should contain those branches which give the child an\ninsight into the physical world and the means of conquering it for human\nuses, and also an insight into human nature and the motives that control\nthe actions of men. The child should above all be taught how to combine\n- with his fellows to secure reasonable ends. The windows of the soul are\nto be opened by the five branches of the course of study, thus enabling the\n\n"}
{"page": 491, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nRURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n481\n\nyouth to see (1) the conditions of inorganic nature by arithmetic and the\nelements of physics and chemistry ; (2) the conditions of organic nature\nby studying\n\nplants\n\nand\n\nanimals, the\n\nland, water,\n\nand\n\nair, and,\n\nbesides\n\nthese, the means that man invents and uses to connect each place with\nthe rest of the world —these things belonging to geography.\nThese two\n“windows” look out upon nature.\nThe three others enable us to see\nman ; (3) literature and art as revealing human nature, arousing pure and\nhigh aspirations in the youth, and freeing him from narrow and mean\nviews of life; (4) the study of the structure of language, as found in the\nseveral subdivisions of grammar and rhetoric; (5) history, which treats of\nthe greater self— of man as a social whole.\nThese five branches belong to all schools, for they relate to the substance of humanity and are necessary for entrance upon civilization.\nBesides arithmetic, geography, literature, grammar, and history, there are\ncollateral branches that each school should include —some of them infor‘mation studies, such as oral courses in the sciences, in history, and in the\narts —others of the nature of disciplines, or -arts of skill, such as vocal\n\nmusic, gymnastics, manual training, the art of cooking, and some special\nattention to the elementary principles of the useful arts practiced in the\nneighborhood of the school, namely, farming, horticulture, grazing,\nmining, manufacturing, or the like (Appendices G and ZZ).\nIn general these collateral branches should relate to the pupil’s environment and help him understand the natural features of that environment, as well as the occupations of his fellow-men in the neighborhood.\nThere are two things to understand in this matter of the geography of\nthe environment.\n\nFirst, what it is and\n\nhow it came to be— its land and\n\nwater, its mountains and river valleys, its climate and soil, its productions, mineral, vegetable, and animal, and their peculiarities, how they\ndiffer from the productions of the rest of the world.\nSecond, the means\nby which man procures from nature what is useful for himself and others,\nmanufactures it and uses it, or exchanges it with his fellow-men so as to\nshare in the productions of all climes and places, no matter how far distant. If a comparison must be made, this second topic of elementary\ngeography is more important than the study of the natural features of\nthe environment, because it is more immediately useful to the pupil and\nto the community in which he lives.\nLet the pupil beginning the subject of geography commence with\nwhat is nearest to his personal and social interests, namely, with the prod-\n\nLet his studies go out from these\nucts of the industries of his section.\nproducts in two directions: first, to the natural conditions which make\nthese products possible and which furnish in general the raw material;\nsecondly, in the direction of the purpose of this, the uses made of it, the\nthings produced, the needs and wants of his fellow-men near and far ;\n\n"}
{"page": 492, "printed_page": null, "text": "482\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nand the productions of the other parts of the world which are needed\nin his section to complete the supply of articles for food, clothing, shelThese items, including natural producter, protection, and culture.\ntion and the human occupations of manufacture and exchange, may be\nsaid to be the chief theme of geography as it should be taught in the eleBut the home environment is also to be kept in mind\nmentary schools.\nArithmetic should gain\nby the teacher throughout the entire course.\nconcreteness of application by its use in dealing with home problems.\nLiterature should be pointed and applied, so far as may be without\nbecoming provincial, to the pupil’s environment; and so the other\nbranches— history, and even grammar—should be brought home to the\npupil’s knowledge or experience in the same way.\nThe pupil should\nhave prepared for his study a list of the chief provincialisms of speech to\nwhich his section is addicted, and to the peculiarities of pronunciation in\nwhich his neighborhood departs from the national or international standard of usage.\nThe Committee of Fifteen has already advanced the opinion that the\nindustrial and commercial idea is the central idea in the study of geography in the elementary schools.\nIt leads directly to the natural elements\nof difference in climate, soil, productions, races of men, religion, political\n\nstatus, and occupation of the inhabitants, and it explains how these differences have arisen in some measure through cosmic and geological influences.\nIt should be the teacher’s object to make the pupil understand,\njust as early as his growing capacity admits, the peculiarities of his habitat,\nleading him to study the land and water formations in his neighborhood,\nand giving him power to recognize in the visible landscape about him the\ninvisible forces that worked in the past, and still are at work in the present, molding these shapes and forms.\nOn the basis of this knowledge\nof the elements of difference produced by nature in soil, climate, and configuration of the landscape, he should explain the grounds and reasons\nfor the counter process of civilization which struggles to overcome these\ndifferences by bridging the rivers and tunneling the mountains\n— by using\nsteamboat and railroad so as to unite each particular habitat with the rest\nof the world.\nHe should see how man adapts to his needs the climate of\neach place by creating for himself a comfortable temperature, using for this\npurpose clothing and shelter, as well as fuels of wood and coal or derived\nfrom oils and gases, to protect from cold, and on the other hand utilizing\nice or power fans, and creating easy access to summer dwellings on the\nheights of mountains, or at the seashore, to mitigate the heat.\nHe turns\nthe soil into a laboratory, correcting its lacks and deficiencies by adding\nwhat is necessary to produce the crop which he desires.\nHe naturalizes\nthe useful plants and animals of all climes in his own habitat. It is evident\nthat the details of the process by which differences of soil, climate, and\n\nor\n\n"}
{"page": 493, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n483\n\nproduction arise, important as these are, should not be allowed to\noccupy so much of the pupil’s time that he neglects to study the\ncounter-process of industry and commerce by which man unites all parts\nof the earth to his habitat, and progressively overcomes the obstacles to\ncivilization by making climate and soil to suit himself wherever he\nwishes.\nTo restate this important point in a word, it is true that the deeper\ninquiry into the process of continent formation, the physical struggle\nbetween the process of the upheaving or upbuilding of continents, and\nthat of their obliteration by air and water; the explanation of the mountains, valleys and plains, islands, volcanic\n\naction, the winds, the rain dis-\n\ntribution, is indispensable to a comprehension\nment.\n\nof the physical environ-\n\nBut the study of the cities, their location, the purposes they serve\n\nas collecting, manufacturing, and distributing centers, leads most directly\nto the immediate purpose of geography in the elementary school, for it is\nthe study of that civilization in which the pupil lives and moves and has\nhis being.\nKeeping this human standpoint in view all the time as a permanent\ninterest, the inquiry into causes and conditions should proceed concentrically from the pupil’s use of food and clothing to the sources of the\nraw materials, the methods of their production, and the climatic, geologic,\n\nand other reasons that explain their location and their growth.\nIt is\nimportant in this as in all matters of school instruction to avoid onesidedness.\nAlthough the human factor should receive the most emphasis,\nspecial care should be exercised lest the nature factor should be neglected.\nYour subcommittee would refer to the discussion of this subject\nunder the head of ‘“Geography”’ in the report of the Committee of\nFifteen for further illustration.\nThere is not much use in requiring instruction in branches not yet\nreduced to pedagogic form.\nIt is necessary that matters taught should\nbe so systematized for school use as to admit of arrangement in a progressive series of lessons, the first of which alone would be useful if no\nsecond lesson followed, and the subsequent lessons each useful if the pupil\nstudied none of the following.\nEach lesson when arranged in a pedagogic form leads up to the following lesson and makes it easy to grasp, just as each stair makes the next\none easy to climb.\nFor example, the first lesson in cookery is an\nexercise in accurate measurement by spoonfuls and cupfuls, etc., and calculated not only to aid in the next lesson and make it possible, but also\nto be of use through life in the kitchen.\nConcerted efforts are being\nmade in agricultural colleges'to reduce to pedagogic form the arts of the:\n\nfarm, the garden, and the forest.\n\n"}
{"page": 494, "printed_page": null, "text": "484\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\nTHE\n\nPROGRAMME\n\nOF\n\n(National\n\n\"hime\ncate\n«f\n\nSTUDIES.\n\nYour subcommittee deems it important to call attention again in this\nplace to the prevalence of a misconception in regard to the relation of the\ncourse of study to the system of grading and classification. Every school,\nwhether ungraded or graded, should have a course of study minutely\narranged so as to show the average or reasonable rate of progress of the\npupil of a given age and advancement in the work of the school; but, as\nhas already been shown, it is not required that the school shall contain\nclasses in each and all of these grades, nor indeed classes at any given\nstage of progress in the course of study as laid down for any particular\nquarter or term of the year. Above all it must be understood that in laying down the quarters or other divisions of a grade or year’s work it is\nmot to be expected or desired that the pupils entering school at the beginming of the school year in the fall should commence at the beginning of\n-any grade’s work. Ifa class consisting of two or more individuals (or of\n-one individual only) left off the previous year in the third quarter’s work\nof the fourth grade, it should begin its work after vacation at the point\nwhere it left off, unless there are special reasons which require a review\n‘of some portions of the work.\nThe course of study is the measuring rod or scale which is used to\ndetermine at what point in the eight years’ work of the elementary\ncourse a pupil has arrived.\nIt should not be used as the Procrustean bed on which to stretch the work of the school in order to give it\nuniformity.\nIt has happened not infrequently in the past that upon\n\nthe first adoption of the graded system the superintendent of city schools\nheld annual examinations on the completion of the work of the grade,\nand for this purpose insisted upon the unreasonable requirement that all\nof the pupils in the school should have begun the work of a grade on the\nfirst day of the year and should be expected to finish the grade work in\nthe fourth quarter of the year.\nThis was said to be for convenience of\npromotion—all pupils leaving the work of one grade and passing to the\nnext were said to be promoted.\nThis fiction has effected serious injuries\nin city schools.\nThe apparent reason for such a system was the convenience of the superintendent who desired to make only one set of questions for each grade, and hold his examinations all at one time. If he had\nadopted a plan of preparing an examination for any class of pupils at the\ntime when they should have completed the work of the grade (whether\nin\nthe first, second, third, or fourth quarter), such\n\na system\n\nso\nell\n4\nPII\nPt\nAR\nit\nc\n\nneed not have\n\nexisted.\nThe false idea of promotion has also been the source of great\nevils.\nWhen a pupil has finished the work laid down in the course of study\nfor any grade, he should begin the work of the succeeding grade at once,\nand it is not necessary to have any special examination. The class teacher\n.is supposed to examine her pupils from day to day, for each recitation is\n\n_—\n\n"}
{"page": 495, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n485\n\nan examination revealing the pupil’s understanding not only of the day’s\nwork but of his previous lessons; and the principal of the school is\nsupposed to be well acquainted with the progress of his pupils. It is not\nnecessary, therefore, to hold a general\n\nexamination\n\ngrade if the class teacher and the supervising\n\non\n\nthe\n\nprincipal\n\nwork\n\nhave\n\nof the\n\nperformed\n\ntheir duty. It is understood, too, that there should\n\nbe much written work in the\n\nschool, but that it should not as a rule take the form of competitive examinations.\nThere is no other exercise in the school more valuable than\nthat of written expression, but this should be limited chiefly to the review\nwork of the pupil. The teacher, for illustration, should prepare questions\nat the close of the week, on the previous five or six days’ work, such questions as bring out the most essential points and the principles which connect the details that have been studied.\nThe pupil should be permitted\n_to sit down by himself with plenty of time before him to write out his\nanswers to these probing questions.\nBy this means he learns gradually\nto collect his thoughts, and will do more thinking in connection with his\nwritten examination than in any other test or study in his school course.\nThe written examination should not be postponed till the end of the year\nor to the\n\nend of the quarter, but should\n\nbe a matter of at least weekly\n\noccurrence.\nIt should be written work of a review character rather than\nexamination of a competitive character.\nWhile the course of study for the elementary school will cover eight\nyears and be subdivided so as to show quarterly, semi-annual, or other\nstated progress, as already said, it will not be expected that the rural school,\nwith its ten or twenty pupils, will have each and every grade represented ;\nperhaps, for instance, there will be three pupils in the first grade, two in\nthe second grade, one in the third grade, none in the fourth grade, two\nin the fifth grade, none in the sixth and seventh, and two in the eighth\ngrade.\nYour subcommittee assumes likewise that the discipline of the rural\nschool should be strict though mild, like that of the city school. The\nfundamental school virtues of regularity, punctuality, and industry are\nauxiliary to moral virtues and form together a training of the will which\nItmust not\nis of great importance in producing the future good citizen.\nbe thought that, because a school is small, therefore the discipline is of less\nThe formation of habits of order, and of respect for the\nimportance.\nrights\n\nof the social whole, is necessary for the good\n\ncitizen, whether of\n\ncountry or town.\n\nREMEDIES\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nEVILS\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nRURAL\n\nSCHOOL.\n\nYour subcommittee would here point out that some of the evils of the\nrural school are due to its non-social character, its inability to furnish to\n\n"}
{"page": 496, "printed_page": null, "text": "486\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\neach of its pupils that educative influence that comes from association\nwith numbers of the same age and the same degree of advancement. The\nrural school furnishes only a few companions to the youth, and those\nThe\neither above him or below him in grade of progress in studies.\nremedy for the evils of the ungraded school are suggested by this very\nRadical remedies in this case must all contain\nfeature or characteristic.\nsome device to bring together pupils of different districts and bring into\nwholesome competition with one another the pupils of the same grade of\nadvancement.\nTransportation to Central Schools.— The collection of pupils into\nlarger units than the district school furnishes may be accomplished under\nfavorable circumstances by transporting at state or local expense all the\npupils of the small rural districts to a central graded school and abolishing the small ungraded school.\nThis is the radical and effective measure\nwhich is to do great good in many sections of each state. As shown\nalready by the Subcommittee on the Maintenance of Schools, Massachusetts,in which the plan began under the town superintendent of Concord,\nMr. John B. Tileston (about the year 1878 in Concord, or even earlier in\nthe town of Quincy, see Appendix F), paid in 1894-95 the sum of $76,608\nfor the transportation of children from small rural schools to central\ngraded schools— 213 towns out of a total of 353 towns and cities using\nthis plan to a greater or less extent, and securing the two-fold result of\neconomy in money and the substitution of graded for ungraded schools.\nThe spread of this plan to Maine, Vermont, New Hampshire, Connecticut,\nRhode Island, New Jersey, Ohio, and some other states (see Report\nof Bureau of Education for 1894-95, pp. 1469-82) demonstrates its\n\npracticability.\nExperiments with this plan have already suggested\nimprovements, as in the Kingsville experiment in Ohio, where the transportation reached in all cases the homes of the pupils and yet reduced\nthe cost of tuition from $22.75 to $12.25 a year for each of the fifty pupils\n\nbrought to the central school from the outlying districts.\nImprovement of Roads.—Wherever this plan of abolishing the small\nungraded school is practicable it is by far the best remedy to be applied.\nBut there will remain large numbers of small ungraded rural schools\nin which the plan of transportation is not feasible by reason of great distances and poor roads. The Agricultural Department is seconding the\nefforts of many states to improve roads in rural districts.\nIn many\nplaces road improvement is a necessary condition previous to the betterment of rural schools.\nSpecial Appropriations for Small Rural Schools.—The device of securing skilled and professionally trained teachers by providing, as in California, a sufficient salary for each district, no matter how few its pupils (see\nAppendix C), has already been described by another subcommittee (that\n\n'.\na\n\n"}
{"page": 497, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n487\n\non maintenance). It is undoubtedly a wise measure, provided it does not\nhinder the consolidation of districts through the adoption of the Massachusetts plan.\nIf it works to preserve the small ungraded school in\nplaces where consolidation is feasible it will in the end be an injury to\nthe cause of rural schools.\n\nYour subcommittee, therefore, ventures to call\n\nattention to the importance\nCalifornia,\n\nNew\n\nJersey,\n\nof adopting\n\nMassachusetts,\n\nsuch laws as are operative\nand\n\nNew\n\nYork,\n\nfor\n\nthe\n\nin\n\nbetter\n\nremuneration of rural school-teachers, but with a proviso that makes it a\npecuniary advantage to a town to abolish its outlying ungraded schools\nand furnish transportation to a central school.\nConcentration of the Higher Grades of Pupils—Where transportation\nof the whole schoolis not feasible it sometimes happens that the teaching\nmay be very much improved by the transfer of two or three of the pupils\nof the higher grades who consume very much of the teacher’s time. By\ntransportation of these two or three pupils to the central school the\nteacher thus relieved may find time for much better instruction of the\npupils in the lower grades who remain under his charge.\nSchool Exercises at the Town or County Centers—For the small\n_ ungraded schools that cannot be abolished, perhaps one-third of. all the\nschools in the United States at the present time, your subcommittee suggests the provision of occasional meetings at town centers or county\ncenters, perhaps twice a year or oftener, under the direction of township,\nunion township, or county superintendents, as the case may be. The\nmeeting should have as its primary purpose the bringing together of\nadvanced pupils-—say sixth to ninth years’ work for examination and\ncomparison, the examinations to be chiefly written.\nCertificates should\nbe given to those who complete the elementary course of eight years as a\nwhole or in any one of its branches, permitting a pupil who passes in one\nbranch this year, say in grammar or history, to pass in another branch at\na subsequent examination whenever he presents himself.\nThese examinations have been in operation in several counties of New Jersey for nearly\ntwenty years.\n\nThis plan has an interesting and profitable illustration of many of its\nfeatures in the operation of the Boxwell law in Ohio (State School ComIt was also carried out years ago in\nmissioner Corson, Report 1895-96).\nmany particulars by Superintendent Wade in West Virginia.\nThe Proper Use of Competitive Examinations.—It is understood by\nyour subcommittee that the prejudice against competitive examinations is\nwell grounded. ‘It often happens that schools are subjected to mere\nmechanical drill in order to secure a higher per cent. in this sort of examination. High per cents. cannot be obtained by entire classes upon work\nwhich requires not only a knowledge of details, but a knowledge of the\nYour subcommittee desires to say\ncausal relations underlying them.\n\n"}
{"page": 498, "printed_page": null, "text": "488\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n>\n\nthat it does not recommend indiscriminate competitive examinations,\nbut that it recommends written work and examinations which test the\nthinking ability of the pupil and lead him to considerate inquiries and\nHigh per cents. on anything except mechanical\naccurate statements.\nwork, such as spelling, the multiplication table, the tables of weights and\nmeasures, and paradigms, are not desirable.\nThe plan of township and county union exercises of rural schools\nabove described obviously includes the good feature of social interconnection, each pupil of the remote districts working consciously in combination with many others towards a common end, and all the pupils\nstimulated both in school and out of it by this social motive.\nPromotion of Home Reading.-—The excellence of the Chautauquan plan\nfor the promotion of home study lies in the same feature.\nEach reader\nis stimulated and encouraged by the consciousness that he is working on\na task common to the endeavors of a vast multitude.\nThe task is dignified and ennobled by such social participation.\n‘The youth in the rural\ndistrict is by this plan to be made a home student, and his education is\nthus to be extended beyond the school.\nHe may have obtained his first\nrecognition in the township examination while he was a member of a\nrural school.\nHe is an object of semi-annual inquiry on the part of\nthe township or county superintendent for years afterwards.\nEach new\nteacher that comes to the rural school is charged by the superintendent\nwith the duty of looking up the young men and young women who made\na record in the central examinations, and inquiry is made after their continued reading and study. This in itself will be a powerful influence to\ncause young people to continue self-culture by studying a prescribed\nseries of books in years subsequent to the school period.\nIt will add\ndignity and self-respect to the rural school-teacher who is charged with\nthe work of making friendly inquiry into this school extension, and of\noffering help in case of application from any of the parties interested.\nReviewing Studies.—'The rural school with its five-minute or ten-minute recitations cannot do much in the way of reviewing previous lessons.\n\nThe good teacher in a graded school carries on from day to day a review\nof previous lessons.\nHe gathers up and connects with the lesson of the\nday all the essential threads that bind it to what has gone before.\nIt is\nthis work of reviewing that will be assisted by the occasional examinations at the township center.\nMoreover, the old evil of the rural school, that of having all pupils\nbegin at the beginning of the book at the commencement of each annual\nterm, will be removed.\nFor the superintendent will have a record of the\n\nstanding of the advanced pupils and will require a report from the new\nteacher as to their programme of study.\nThis plan also points to the utility of more written work in the rural\n\ntea\ntprs\n.\n\n"}
{"page": 499, "printed_page": null, "text": "~ Council]\n\nWRN\n\nschool.\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n489\n\nA set of questions prepared beforehand and given to a pupil at\n\nthe close of the week, as above recommended, will test not only his knowl-\n\nedge of the superficial details of his week’s work, but also of his understanding of their deeper connections and principles, as no oral recitation\ncould be made to do.\nSchool Extension—In this connection another branch of what is\ncalled “school extension” or ‘university extension” is practicable.\nHome reading can be managed from the same center, namely, the rural »\nschool.\nEverything that adds social importance to the rural teacher may\nbe of service.\nIt is evident that those pupils who have graduated from\nthe public school and have entered upon the business of life may profitably carry on useful courses of reading in the various departments of\nliterature and art, science, and history. The township or union township\nsuperintendent, in conjunction with the county superintendent or state\nsuperintendent, should set into operation as far as possible courses of\nhome reading, employing the aid of the rural school-teachers to carry this\ninto effect.\nA record containing the names of the persons who have\nundertaken home reading, the names of the books completed, and the\ndates of such completion, will form an interesting record.\nThis home\nreading, moreover, should have its social gatherings in which there are\ndiscussions of the contents of particular books that are read.\nFor this\npurpose the township superintendent or the county superintendent may\nselect specially well-fitted persons who shall present analyses of the books\nand discussions of their contents.\nIt is desirable that the course of home\nreading shall not be one-sided, but shall move in each of the three directions: literature, including poetry and prose; science, looking towards\nthe organic and inorganic kingdoms of nature, the plant, the animal, and\nthe details of matter and force; and towards archeology, ethnology, and\nsociology, and politics, history, biography, and art. One must not be\naltogether dissatisfied if it is found that the novel is the chief book in\ndemand, especially in the first five years of the home reading circle. In\nour day the novel discusses every question of history, politics, sociology,\nand natural science.\nThe old-fashioned novel which describes manners\nhas its great use, too, in the fact that it gives to the people of whom we\nare speaking, the people of the rural districts, a ready knowledge of manners and customs of polite society. In this respect it is sometimes more\nuseful than books of science and history.\nLancastertan or Monitorial Plan.— The topic of written work dugbeats\na further topic of great importance in the rural schools, namely that of\nthe occasional employment of older pupils in the work of supervising the\nexercises of less advanced pupils—a committee of two or three pupils to\nexamine and mark the papers written by those studying geography; a\nmonitor assigned for some hour in the day to inquire into the work of a\n\n"}
{"page": 500, "printed_page": null, "text": "490\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nbackward or dull pupil who has reached a difficult place in arithmetic; a\nsimilar assignment of a pupil to help another in a grammar lesson or a\nhistory lesson; these are cases where the monitorial or Lancasterian system may have greater or less utility. It cultivates directive power and\nBut the\nself-respect in a pupil to be called to the aid of the teacher.\ndangers of it are well known.\nNo weak disciplinarian should try the\nmonitorial system. On the other hand, every strong disciplinarian in the\nungraded school can use some features of it to advantage.\nThe bane of the Lancasterian system was its use to furnish cheap\nassistant ‘teachers in graded schools.\nIt resulted in bringing into the\nschools a class of so-called ‘“pupil-teachers,” educational novices in the\nplace of experienced and professionally trained teachers who ought to be\neverywhere, employed in graded schools.\nLimited entirely to ungraded\nschools and to teachers with disciplinary power, the older pupils may\nprofitably be employed to help in the work of the school.\nBut they\nshould not take up any work continuously\n—it should all be occasional,\ninasmuch as every thread of the school work must come under the eye of\nthe schoolmaster frequently —daily, or nearly as often.\nIf he has asked\nan older pupil to explain a point in arithmetic to a dull pupil, the\nlatter will show the degree of efficiency of that help, in the first recitation\nafter it.\nAnother rule for the guidance of the teacher is: never to employ a\nmonitor unless such assignment of work is useful both to the pupils taught\nand to the pupil-teacher.\nA teacher may gain time needed for assistance of the advanced pupils\nin some important study by requiring in advance the assistance of these ~\npupils in some of the following forms:\n(1) Marking examination papers.\n(2) Helping pupils over some difficulty in arithmetic, grammar, or\nother branch having strict logical sequence in its topics.\n(3) In explaining the thought of a reading lesson to a backward pupil.\nThe effort of one pupil to explain to another a difficult passage of\nliterature is one of the most profitable of all school exercises.\nThere will\nundoubtedly be crudities in the explanation, but this will all come out\nunder the teacher’s subsequent tests, and the exercises will increase in\nprofit through the final explanation given by the teacher.\n(4) In assisting to test mere memory work on the part of a pupil, as\nin the case of the spelling of difficult words, the learning of paradigms in\ngrammar, the learning of the required tables of weights and measures,\nthe multiplication table, etc., or in any other necessary data that have to\n\nbe fixed in the memory.\nIn general, what is nearest to mechanical work\nmay be supervised at times by monitors, and monitors may be useful in\nassisting in the preparation of thought lessons that are to come later\n\n"}
{"page": 501, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nRURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n491\n\nbefore the schoolmaster, as, in the example given, the getting-out of the\nthought of a reading lesson—\nor even of a history lesson.\nIn conclusion, your subcommittee would lay chief stress on the function of school extension, above sketched in outline, as the most profitable\n\nline of work for the improvement\nteachers.\n\nof the rural school—both pupils and\nWiLLiAM\nADDISON\n\nLioyp\n\nT. Harris, Chairman,\nB, POLAND,\n\nE. WOLFE.\n\nMr. Poland, while concurring in most particulars, desires to add the\nfollowing statement :\nWhile I concur most heartily in nearly all of the recommendations\nmade by the Subcommittee on Course of Study, etc., I feel compelled to\nstate that, in my opinion, the report somewhat exaggerates the difficulties\nand dangers of attempting to classify pupils in rural schools.\nIt fails to\ndiscriminate between rural schools of ten pupils each and schools of a\nlarger number, say thirty to sixty pupils each.\nThe general argument is based upon conditions that exist in a\n“school with ten pupils of ages from five to fifteen years;” and the conclusion drawn is that “for these\n\nreasons, classification\n\nas above described\n\nought not to be expected in the (any) rural schools.”\nThe conclusion, it seems to me, is altogether too general.\nMy own\nobservation of rural schools in the states of Massachusetts, New York, and\n\nNew\n\nJersey has led me\n\nto believe that their efficiency as a rule is in\n\ndirect ratio to their wise and careful\ngraded schools are the most efficient.\n\ngradation; that, in fact, the bestI am speaking, of course, of rural\n\nschools containing twenty-five pupils and upwards, where partial grading,\nat least, is generally believed to be practicable.\nGrant all the cases of\nindividual hardship that the report truly affirms of misgraded pupils, yet\nthe total loss of efficiency is immeasurably less than where no grading is\nattempted.\nEconomy of teacher’s time, longer recitation period, class\nemulation, etc., more than offset the disadvantage, often only theoretic, of\n\na pupil’s working in advance of his point of ‘“‘maximum efficiency.”\nI am not, therefore, in full harmony with the report, in so far as it\nmay have the effect to discourage teachers from attempting to classify\npupils, whenever and wherever practicable.\nA. B. POLAND.\n\nMr. Wolfe, while agreeing in many points with Mr. Harris, desires to\nmake the following statement:\nPerhaps my opinion may be characterized as explanatory or suppleBelieving with Dr. Harris that the chief\nmentary rather than dissenting.\n\n"}
{"page": 502, "printed_page": null, "text": "492\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n|National\n\naim of the report of the Committee of Twelve is to provoke thought, I\nComplete unanimity no more exists\nmake this contribution to that end.\namong the members of this committee than among the great army of\nteachers for whom the report is prepared; nor is such unanimity desirable. The subject will be treated under the following heads:\n(1) Zhe present condition and trend of rural-school grading and classification in the states of the Union; (2) Dr. Harris’ plea for individual instruction\nrather than the instruction (in the same class) of pupils who are more than one\nyear apartin their advancement; (3) the underlying pedagogic principles that\nseem to justify Dr. Harris in opposing the doctrine of his report to a body of\nopinion on classification and grading which is gathering volume and momentum with each decade;\n\n(4) objections to the doctrine of the report.\n\n1. Recent decades have witnessed a strong movement in many of the\nstates of the Union to model the rural school course of study, grading, and\nclassification after the ideal of the city graded school. Several states prepare, publish, and distribute state courses\n\nof study for rural schools, and\n\nsend out, at stated times, uniform examination questions prepared with reference to the course of study and the system of grading and classification\nset forth therein.\nIn other states, the county school authorities issue the\nrural school course of study. In still other states, the school journals and\nassociations hold up the grading and classification of rural schools as an\nideal to be obtained in the near future.\n2. The burden of Dr. Harris’ report is: ‘‘Be ye not unequally yoked\ntogether.”’ Just here a word of explanation of the expression “the ideal\nof the city graded school.” Thisideal is a course of study divided into at\nleast eight yearly divisions, or grades of work, the pupils of the school\nbeing divided into eight corresponding divisions, or grades.\nA school is\ngraded when the pupils of a certain year, or grade, are pursuing the work\nof a corresponding year, or grade, in allthe branches.\nIt is, therefore, evident that the word “grade” has two meanings—a grade of work and a\ngrade of pupils. All pupils who are graded are classified, unless there be\nbut one pupil to the grade.\nBut all pupils who are classified are not\nnecessarily graded. A pupil without classmates is graded when he pursues\nall the work of the corresponding grade, and yet he cannot be said to be\nclassified.\nPupils may be grouped in classes, and thus be classified, and\nyet not be graded, because they may be pursuing work of different grades.\nDr. Harris is not opposed to a course of study for rural schools, nor to\ndividing that course of study into eight divisions, or grades of work, nor\nyet to grouping pupils into classes, or grades, provided classmates are not\nmore than a year apart in their advancement.\nBut most rural school\ncourses of study necessitate the grouping of the pupils of the fifth and\nsixth years of advancement into one grade; also, the grouping of the pupils\nof the seventh and eighth years into another grade.\nIt thus happens that\n’\n\n"}
{"page": 503, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nREPORT OF THE COMMITTEE\n\nON RURAL SCHOOLS\n\n493\n\nnot only are pupils two years apart in their advancement yoked together in\nthe same class and grade, but that, on alternate years, they are obliged to\n\nstudy the sixth year’s work before the fifth, and the eighth before the seventh. It will thus readily be seén that the main thought of Dr. Harris’\nreport is a standing protest against the grading and classification of pupils\nin the rural school as now practiced in many of the states.\n3. We are now to inquire what pedagogic principles can be invoked\nto justify Dr. Harris in throwing the whole weight of his influence against\nthe evolution of the ungraded country school into the graded school.\nAnd first, we must bear in mind that the subject of the report of Dr.\nHarris is “Instruction and Discipline in the Rural Schools.”\nFirst,\nefficient instruction must be adapted to the capacity of the learner, otherwise tt\ncannot be grasped and assimilated. Second, other things being equal, instruction is more efficient when given to pupils associated tn classes than when given\nto individual pupils. Not only does a pupil gain much information from\nhis classmates during a recitation, but the recitation gives him an insight\ninto the individual capacities and peculiarities of those among whom he\nis to succeed or fail in professional or business life.\nThird, effictent\ninstruction requires a reasonable length of time for a class exercise. In a city\ngraded school, with at least one teacher for each grade of work, the three\nprinciples—adaptation of instruction to the capacity of the learner,\ngrouping of pupils into classes, and a reasonable time for recitation—\ncan be conserved.\n\nBut, in a rural\n\nschool\n\nwith\n\none\n\nteacher, to maintain\n\none of these principles is to sacrifice another. The principle of the adaptation of instruction to capacity can be adhered to by dividing the pupils\ninto eight grades of advancement; but such division gives a minimum\ntime for recitation and a minimum association of pupils.\nIf, however,\npupils of the third and fourth, fifth and sixth, seventh and eighth years\nof advancement be grouped into three corresponding grades, we secure\na longer time for recitation and a larger measure of association, but we\nviolate the principle of adaptation of instruction to capacity, thus associating, in the same grade and class, pupils two years apart in their advancement.\nIt thus appears that the problem of the most efficient instruction\nin a rural school with one teacher is one of maxima and minima.\nThe\nprinciple of adaptation of instruction to capacity forever antagonizes the\nother two. A maximum adherence to it means a minimum adherence to\nthe other two, and vice versa.\nPerfect adaptation of instruction to capacity would necessitate a grade for each pupil. Dr. Harris’ report shows\nthat he feels that, when pupils one year apart in advancement have been\ngrouped in the same grade, this great principle of adaptation of instruction to capacity has been strained to its utmost limit, and that any sacrifice\nHis\nthereafter must come from other antagonistic and minor principles.\nreport throughout shows that he considers adaptation of intruction to\n\n"}
{"page": 504, "printed_page": null, "text": "494\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\ncapacity the paramount and controlling principle; and the fact that he\nhas made this the burden of his report shows with what trained acumen\nhe has brushed aside the trivial and subsidiary, and has laid grasp upon\nthe vital and fundamental. A still more universal principle underlies this\nIt is this: that the success of an institution of any kind\nvaluable report.\n— political, religious, economic, educational— depends upon its adaptation to its environment. A republic is, no doubt, abstractly the best form\nof government; but equally true is it that, under certain environment,\nan aristocracy or a monarchy is better than a republic.\nI take it, then,\nthat Dr. Harris has been a spectator of this evolution of the rural school,\nwith its peculiar environment, into the city graded school, with a very\ndifferent environment,\n\ntill he has said to himself:\n\n‘‘This is a forced and\n\nartificial evolution.”\nHaving arrived at the conviction that the rural\nschool with one teacher cannot, without injury, be metamorphosed into a\ngraded school, Dr. Harris addresses himself to the problem of changing\nthe present rural school conditions, (1) through transportation of pupils\nand (2) through pupil-teachers.\nNow this goes to the very heart of the\nquestion.\nFor, through the transportation of pupils to central schools,\nthe rural school conditions are transformed into city school conditions,\nand instruction can then proceed in harmony with the three principles\nabove discussed.\nOr, if pupil-teachers are employed, or if the pupils of\nthe higher grades\n— fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth, or seventh and eighth\nonly —be transported, the rural school condition will be in a measure\nremoved, and instruction can proceed more in harmony with these principles.\nIt is true that transportation of pupils now seems practicable only\nin a small portion of the territory of the United States, and that pupilteaching meets with but little favor among rural school-teachers and\npupils; but a careful study of the report of Dr. Harris will, no doubt, lead\nto a larger use of pupil-teachers and a much wider extension of pupil\ntransportation, especially in the upper grammar grades. . During the last\nfew decades there has been in operation in many of the western states a\nstrong evolutionary force, which has eliminated most of the high-school\nbranches from the majority of the country schools.\nIn such cases, the\npupils who have completed the eight years’ work of the country school are\nexpected to find high-school instruction elsewhere at their own expense\nof tuition and transportation.\nMay not this same evolutionary force, in\nits own due time, similarly eliminate from the rural schools the work\nof Grades 7 and 8? Whether such rejected pupils will be transported\nor not will depend upon the sentiment of the community.\nIn favor\nof the ultimate transportation of not only Grades 7 and 8, but of\nhigher grades, is that great socialistic force that has given birth to our\nfree-school system, our postal system, and our asylums for physical, moral,\nand mental delinquents.\nHaving addressed himself to the modification\n\n"}
{"page": 505, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nRURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n495\n\nof rura] school environment through pupil transportation and pupil-teachers, the Doctor finds himself face to face with a great body of rural school\nconditions which are unmodified and at present unmodifiable.\nIt is here\nthat he makes his plea for individual instruction rather than the instruction, in the same class, of pupils who are more than a year apart in their\nadvancement.\n4. The branches of the eight-years’ course of the rural schoolare: writing,\ndrawing,\n\nmusic;\n\nphysiology, grammar,\n\ncivil government;\n\nspelling, lan-\n\nguage, geography, history; reading; arithmetic.\nWe shall be able to get\na better understanding of the subject if we suppose a city school of eight\ngrades, four rooms, and four teachers to be suddenly reduced to one-fourth\nits former number of pupils, rooms, and teachers.\nThere will then remain\none teacher, one room, eight grades of pupils and eight grades of work,\nand, say, forty pupils;\n\nthat is substantially rural school conditions.\n\nThis\n\none teacher now finds that, while he has no more pupils to instruct than\nhe had before, these pupils are scattered among the eight grades.\nIf he\nadheres strictly to the former graded structure of the school, keeping each\ngrade of pupils distinct in all the branches (allowing six recitations a day\n- to each grade), he will have eight times six, or forty-eight, classes. This\ngives him an average of about five minutes for a recitation period.\nThe\ninadequacy of this time for the development of a subject needs no comment.\nHe must group these scattered pupils into classes, largely ignoring grades,\nand many of these classes will contain pupils from different grades. By\nalmost unanimous consent it is agreed that the pupils of the eight grades\ncan be grouped, for general exercises, in writing, drawing, and music,\nrequiring but one recitation period for each branch.\nOne recitation period\nwill answer for each branch in grammar, physiology, and civil government ;\ntwo recitation periods each in spelling, language, geography, and history;\nfour in reading; five in elementary numbers and arithmetic.\nThis gives\ntwenty-three recitations, ranging from ten minutes in the lowest grades to\ntwenty in the highest.\nIt will be observed that I state above that many\nof these classes will contain pupils from different grades.\nHere appears\nthe significance of my definitions of c/ass and grade in the beginning of\nthis discussion—definitions on which the teachers of this country are far\nfrom being a unit. The fundamental principle underlying grading is\nsymmetrical development; the fundamental principle underlying ¢c/assifying is harmonious development.\nSymmetrical development aims to\nadvance the pupil with equal pace in all the branches ; harmonious development aims to advance him in harmony with his individual capabilities.\nMany of the pupils of our best graded schools are classified in violation\nof the principle of harmonious development.\nThis statement takes no note\nof mistakes in grading, by which pupils are assigned to the wrong grades.\n\nThe\n\ngrading of schools in accordance with the principle of symmetrical\n\n"}
{"page": 506, "printed_page": null, "text": "496\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\ndevelopment necessitates a violation of the principle of harmonious developI have reference to those pupils who are assigned to the right grade\nment.\n\nin a majority of the branches they pursue, but who, in one or more branches,\nIt,\nbelong to grades above or below the one to which they are assigned.\ntransforming\nupon\nconsequent\nreorganization\nthe\nthat\nfollows\ntherefore,\nthe four-teacher school into the one-teacher school would bring some\npupils into classes better suited to their abilities than the classes to which\nthe graded system had assigned them, thus bringing about a classification\nmore in harmony with the principle of adaptation of instruction to the\ncapacity of the learner.\nClassification and its correlative principle of\nharmonious development are the corner stone of the rural school; grading and its correlative principle of symmetrical development are equally\nfundamental to the city school.\nIn a graded school the pupil is assigned\nto classes belonging to one grade only; in the country school he is\nassigned to classes adapted to his capacity, regardless of the number of\nI institute no comparison here as to\ngrades represented by these classes.\nthe relative merits of the principles—harmonious development and sym— simply state the fact of their relations respecmetrical developmentbut\ntively to the city and rural schools.\nIf practical adaptation of instruction to the capacity of the pupil were\nreally attainable in the graded school, I should hesitate to recommend a\nclassification that would group, in one class, pupils more than a year apart\nin theiradvancement.\nBut such adaptation is largely ideal and theoretical.\nHowever well the school be graded, the strongest pupils and the weakest\nare separated by a long distance in the character, or grade, of their work.\nWhether in the primary, the grammar, the high school, the college, or the\nuniversity, a certain per cent. of the students do most of the highest order\nof work.\n‘These strongest pupils discover and develop the deepest\nrelations.\nThe weaker pupils soon learn to repeat the stereotyped\nexpressions of these relations, and to store them away in their memories\nto be fished forth at stated intervals by the written test. The apostle\nPaul, that he might not offend his brother, would eat no more flesh while\nthe world stood; but a large per cent. of the students of all grades, not\nfrom fear of offending their brother, but from their very mental constitutions, abstain, with equal fidelity, from the strongest mental diet. I can\nselect, at random, one-half the pupils from Grades 6 and 7 of a city\nschool, and put them to studying, indifferently, North America, South\nAmerica, Europe, or Asia, and the former leaders in Grades 6 and 7\n\nrespectively will still lead. What is true of geography is true of history,\ncivil government, physiology, spelling and reading, and, in a measure, of\ngrammar and arithmetic.\nCertain pupils are mentally built for accuracy,\nclearness, depth, and power; others, for relative inaccuracy, obscurity,\nshallowness, and weakness.\nA rule requiring, as acondition of promotion,\n\n"}
{"page": 507, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n497\n\nthat all pupils, of any certain grade, should do as high an order of work as\nis being done by some of the pupils of that grade, would virtually stop the\nwheels of promotion.\nMany of the pupils would never reach a higher\ngrade; many others would do so only after repeated attempts and failures.\nThe gist of Dr. Harris’ objection to grouping pupils who are more\nthan a year apart in their advancement is that the more advanced pupils\nwill be kept marking time, while the less advanced will be dragged along\nat an unnatural rate.\nMy answer is that the stronger pupils will do the\nhigher order of thinking, just as they always do, while the weaker pupils\nwill do the lower order of thinking, as they always do, getting some knowledge from the books, some from the teacher, and some from their stronger\nclassmates.\nThe rural school has the advantage over the city school in\nthat its pupils learn much from the recitation of classes to which they\ndo not belong.\nIna\ngraded school, the walls of the schoolroom shut\npupils out from what is being recited in other grades.\nIn a rural school,\nthe pupil can listen to the recitation of any grade.\nYou tell me that this\nis absorption, that the pupil gets this outside knowledge at the expense\nof the preparation of his own lessons, and that the practice of listening to\n- other recitations militates against the principle that a great aim in education is to learn to master the printed page; but it is nevertheless the\ntestimony of many of our greatest educators that the knowledge thus\nobtained by them in the country school was invaluable.\nThe mind has\nstrange and subtle methods of threading its way to knowledge, not always\nin harmony with the pedagogue’s theory.\nWhat teacher in arithmetic\n(who has had the courage, temporarily at least, to lay aside his cut-anddried solution-formulz) has not been surprised and delighted at the\ningenious methods different pupils have of solving problems?\nWhat\nmaster of the topical method in history, civil government, orliterature has\nnot marveled at the rich relations revealed by pupils when left free to\ntake their own initiative?\nA nation does not postpone its entrance upon\n- a career of republican government till all its members are ready for selfgovernment.\nThe members of a church are not of equal intellectual or\nspiritual caliber, nor are the members of a family; yet they are associated\nin one class—the\n\nstate, the church, the family.\n\nIn actual\n\nlife, persons\n\nof all degrees of advancement behold alike the same procession of the\nheavens, the same succession of seasons, the same world-happenings ; but\nall do not get the same kind and amount of information from the marshaling of the constellations, the budding and fruiting of spring and\nsummer, and the drama of events daily unfolding.\nI grant that the\nexamples above given are not identical with the thing to be exemplified;\nbut they présent important elements of similarity. Finally, I am fully convinced that the rural school conditions necessitate a departure from the\ndoctrine so ably laid down by Dr. Harris, and I believe principles can be\n\n"}
{"page": 508, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n498\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n[National\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nWhether or not I have found these\nfound to justify such departure.\nprinciples and set them forth in this supplementary report is another\nL. E, WOLFE.\nquestion.\n\nAPPENDIX\nSOME\n\nSOCIOLOGICAL\n\nFACTORS\n\nA.\nIN RURAL\n\nEDUCATION.\n\n[From a paper read before the Department of Superintendence of the N. E. A., at\nJacksonville, Fla., February, 1896, by B. A. Hinsdale, Professor of the Science and the\n\nArt of Teaching in the University of Michigan.\n(See “Journal of Proceedings and\nAddresses of the Thirty-fifth Annual Meeting, held at Buffalo, July, 1896,” pp. 261-9.)\nA discussion\n\non the same\n\nlines, but much\n\nfuller, will be found in Dr. Hinsdale’s\n\nentitled “Studies in Education,” pp. 313-38.]\nFirst we will give our attention to density of population.\nelement in the rural-school problem becomes\nfewer\n\nobyious\n\nThe importance\n\nat a glance.\n\nwork,\n\nof this\n\nIn populous districts\n\nschools and districts relatively are called for, while, at the same time, owing to the\n\nlarger numbers and the more varied attainments of the pupils, the system can be more\nfully developed.\nThe school and the home, under the present system, cannot be far\napart; otherwise children will attend the school with difficulty, or not at all. Once more,\nthe interest and enthusiasm of pupils and teachers depend directly upon the number and\n\nthe ability of the pupils present. For the majority of children individual instruction, or anything closely approaching it, isnot to be commended,\nAristotle condemned such instruction on political grounds. It may also be condemned on pedagogical grounds. Children\nneed the inspiration of numbers.\n\nBesides, numbers contain ethical value.\n\nAs a rule, you\n\ncan no more make a good school out of a half dozen pupils than you can make a powerful\ngalvanic battery with one or two pairs of plates. Then, again, the question of cost is\ndirectly involved. Where pupils are scattered and the schools are small education is necessarily very expensive, provided it is at the same time good. Generally, however, it is bad.\nTo illustrate: Some twenty years ago I investigated one of the old townships in\nnorthern Ohio with respect to its school condition, and with these results: Schools, 7 in\nnumber; youth of school age enumerated, 191; pupils enrolled in schools, 103; average\ndaily attendance, 71; average size of schools, 10 pupils; largest enumeration in any district, 85; smallest, 12; largest enrollment, 37; smallest, 3; largest daily attendance, 25;\nsmallest, 3; largest cost per pupil in any district, $42.60; smallest, $18.56.\nThe average\ncost per pupil the same year in the state was $13.36.\nArgument is not needed to show\n\nthat this was an inefficient and wasteful township system of education.\nHow much better\nit would have been if the seven schools could have been consolidated, thus putting all the\npupils under two or three teachers! I remember a school in Ohio, within sight of my own\nhome, that was kept in session a whole summer with but two pupils in attendance, and\nthose two were all there were in the district. My father, who was a man of close observation, was in the habit of remarking in my boyhood that a farm of 1,000 acres situated\nall in one school district would, as a rule, spoil the school, by reducing\nchildren, and I have often seen confirmation of his statement.\n\nthe number\n\nof\n\nThe Census Office at Washington considers those parts of the country that have a\npopulation of less than two to the square mile unsettled. These parts amount to a little\nmore than one-third of the whole, not including Alaska.\nOnce more, in constructing its.\ntables and maps to show density of population, the Census Office excludes the cities, or\nthose centers of population containing 8,000 persons or more.\nIn 1890 the second of the\ntwo rules excluded\n\n443 centers of population,\n\ninhabitants, or 29.12 per cent. of the whole.\n\ncontaining\n\nan\n\naggregate\n\nof 18,835,670\n\n"}
{"page": 509, "printed_page": null, "text": "oe.\n\nCouncil]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n499\n\nThe whole country, less the parts excluded by the first rule, the Census Office has\ndivided with reference to certain maxima and minima of population, as follows:\n2 to\n\n6 to a square mile,\n\n6to1s\n\n-\n\nLO todas.\n\n“\n\na\n\nic\n\n>\n\n45togo0\n\n“\n\n7\n\n=\n\nTotal,\n\n-\n\ngo and above\n\ney\n\n-\n\n-\n\n:\n=\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n:\n\n-\n\n592,037 square miles.\n\n-\n\nes\n-\n\n394,943\n\n701,847\n\n3\n\n2355148\n\na\n\n1,947,287\n\nMY\n\n24,312\n\n-\n\nGe\n\nThe superintendent of the census makes some interesting remarks upon the economical significations of these statistics, as follows:\n“These limits define in a general way the extent and prevalence of various classes of\nindustries.\nThe first group, two to six to a square mile, indicates a population mainly\noccupied with the grazing industry, or a widely scattered farming population.\nThe\nsecond group, six to eighteen, indicates a farming population with systematic cultivation\n\nof the soil, but this either in an early stage of settlement or upon more or less rugged\nsoil. The third group, eighteen to forty-five to a square mile, almost invariably indicates\na highly successful agriculture, while in some localities the beginnings of manufactures\nhave raised into this group a difficult farming region. Speaking generally, agriculture in\nthis country is not carried on with such care and refinement as yet to afford employment\nand support to a population in excess of forty-five to a square mile. Consequently the\nlast two groups, forty-five to ninety and ninety and above to a square mile, appear only\n-as commerce and manufactures arise, and. personal and professional services are in\ndemand.”\nHe might have introduced education with equal propriety. The statistics given\nthrow a direct light upon school material, and an indirect one upon school resources.\nMuch the same may be said of churches and the intellectual and moral instruments of\nsociety generally.\nThere is, therefore, cause for deep regret that such large areas of\ncountry are falling off in population.\nFrom 1880 to 1890 more than 400 counties, or\nabout five times as many as there are in the state of Ohio, suffered in this way.\nBut, secondly, the character of the population must be considered as well as its\nnumber.\nIt is evident that a certain homogeneity is very conducive to public education.\nThe children of such a community can be educated together, and hence more cheaply and\nmore effectively. One system of schools suffices for all classes,\nBut if the children must\nbe segregated in different schools according to non-educational tests, one of two things\nwill certainly happen: either public education will become expensive, or it will become\ninferior in quality. Looking at the subject from this point of view merely, it is unfortunate that in large portions of the United States popular education should be embarrassed\nby the race question.\nIn 1890 the per cents. of white and colored population, respectively, were distributed in the five great divisions that the Census Office recognizes in the\nfollowing manner:\nNorth Atlantic States,\nSouth\na\nNorth Central States,\nSouth\n4\ns\nWestern States,\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\nae\n\n-\n\n-\n\nNei\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n=\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n98.4\nORs2\n08.019)\n68.3\n94.8\n\n1.6\n36.8\n2.0\nByieyp\n5.2\n\nIf per cents. for the states severally were given the contrasts would be still more\nstriking. The per cent. of colored people in New Hampshire, for example, was .18, while\nin South Garolina it was 59.87. Now there is little probability that the educational value\nof such statistics as these will be exaggerated.\nThe presence of a large colored population in any state or other community tends to affect popular education unfavorably in\n\nthree ways: to increase its cost, to make its quality inferior, and to lower both the intellectual and moral level of society and its money-earning capacity.\n\n"}
{"page": 510, "printed_page": null, "text": "500\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nIn one respect the rural parts of the country are better off, upon the whole, than the\nReligious differences do not disturb popular education to the same extent.\ncities.\nRelatively, parochial schools are much fewer in number.\nIn the third place, the wealth of society is a very important factor in education, and\nNaturally the per-capita wealth of the several divisions\nparticularly in rural education.\nof the country varies greatly. In 1890 these were the averages:\n\nNorth Atlantic States,\nSouth Atlantic States,\nNorth Central States,\nSouth Central States,\nWestern States,\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n:\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n$1,132 per capita.\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n.\n\nEyer\nL120\nhopete\noe\n2-25 On\n\nIn the North Atlantic states the maximum was in Rhode Island, $1,459 per capita;\nthe minimum in Maine, $740.\nIn the South Atlantic states the maximum was in Mary-\n\njand (excluding the Federal District), $1,043 per capita; the minimum in South Carolina,\n\n$348.\nNow it is perfectly well understood that a good modern system of state education can\ntbe supported only at great public cost. Still more, the cost is all the time increasing.\nOur total expenditures for this purpose the last twenty years have been mounting upward\n‘by leaps and bounds. At present the money expended by the states together is $175,000,000 annually, which is more than twice the cost of supporting the national government before the Civil War.\nEducation has come to be a great item in the budget of every\nhighly civilized country in the world.\nFourthly, the character of the population in respect to its money-earning power must\ntbe taken into the account.\nThe size of the average family and the relative number of\ntaxpayers, or the adult males, and their productiveness as economical\n\nagents, all become\n\neducational factors of much importance.\nIf families are large, the number of children to\nbe schooled is proportionally great; which, under some conditions, would add to the\nefficiency of the schools, and under other conditions would increase their cost. Then the\ndarger the relative number of adult males, and the greater their producing power, the\nhigher their intelligence and educational needs, and the greater their ability to provide\nthe sinews for educational warfare.\n\nithe family and its material\n\nWe need not enter into the correlation of the size of\n\ncondition.\n\nIt still remains\n\ntrue, however, as in the time of\n\nSolomon, that the destruction of the poor is their poverty.\nIn respect to educational possibilities there is the greatest difference between a community having a high ratio of adult\nmale population of large wealth-producing power and a community having a small ratio\nof such population with small wealth-producing power.\nThe country taken together in\n1890-91 showed surprising variations in this respect.\n\nThere were 91.4 taxpayers for each\n\n100 children six to eighteen years of age; but in different sections the ratio varied from 65.9\n‘to 100 in the South Central states to 156.7 to 100 in the western states.\nIn South Carolina\n‘there were but fifty-five adult males to earn the money with which to school 100 children,\nthirty-two of whom were colored men.\nComparing the taxpayer factor with the per-capita\n‘tax for education, some very striking results are obtained.\nDr. Harris has shown? that\nin Montana\n\na contribution\n\nof $5.85 per taxpayer\n\nfurnished\n\nin 1890-91 $16.02 for each\n\nchild of school age, while in Texas a contribution of $6.55 per taxpayer produced a result\nof only $4.48 for each child. Mississippi, after raising per taxpayer about half what\nNevada raised, had only about one-eighth as much as the latter state for each child of\nschool age. The causes that affect the ratio of school children to the adult population are\nHeside the present inquiry. But it is perfectly obvious that this is an educational factor of\nauch yalue.\nLittle logical’ acumen is required to see either the educational value or the social\ncongruence of such factors as the wealth per capita of the country or of any state in it,\n*Report of the Commissioner of Education, 1890-91, p- 24.\n\n"}
{"page": 511, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n5Or\n\nthe expenditure per capita for public education, the expenditure for the same purpose per\npupil in the schools, and the per cent. of illiteracy, taking the population ten years old\nand more into the account.\nThese items are shown in the following table:\nNorth Atlantic States,\nSouth Atlantic States, North Central States,\nSouth Central States, Western States,\nIt must\n\nbe remembered,\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n$1,132\n579\n1,129\n583\n2,250\n\n$2.06\n.96\n2.81\n.98\n3.55\n\n$23.65\n8.25\n19.96\n7.59\n34.03\n\n6.2\n40.1\n6.7\n39.5\n11.6\n\nhowever, that these statistics are, in part, now several years=\n\nold.\n\nPerhaps I should observe that statistics may be taken too seriously. We need not:\nnow examine the arguments by which Mr. Buckle and others like him have sought toshow that man has no free agency, but that society is governed in all its movements by\n» laws as fixed as those of material nature.\nIt answers the present purpose to say that thehighest state of education is not always found in the most populous, the richest, or themost homogeneous states.\nFrance is much richer than Germany, but she is inferior in=\neducation.\nEngland*is far richer than Scotland, and has been behind her in schools of<\n\npopular education since the time of John Knox.\n\nRelatively, Rhode\n\nIsland is the richest:\n\nand most populous of the American states, but she has never led the American common—\nschool column.\nThere are other factors than those that are distinctly social which enter=\n\ninto the problem.\nEducational traditions and ideas, public spirit, and force of character\nall tell. At the same time it would be the sheerest folly to exclude or belittle the mate\nrial factors that enter into public education and all similar social interests.\n\nAPPENDIX\nPERMANENT\n\nSCHOOL\n\nB.\nFUNDS.\n\nI. CONNECTICUT.\n\nIt began to be noticed as early as 1824 that the Connecticut common-school fund’\nwas not working altogether as it had been expected to work.\n(See James G. Carter’s“Letters to the Honorable William Prescott, LL.D., on the Free Schools of New England, with Remarks upon the Principles of Instruction,’ Boston, 1824.) Connecticut,.\nhowever, made the fatal mistake of distributing the income of the fund to the towns and!\ndistricts without\n\nrequiring them to raise by taxation an equal amount, or, indeed, any cer-\n\ntain amount, for the support of their schools.\nIn 1853 Conneeticut was expending on»\nher schools only one-third as much per pupil as the neighboring states were expending,\nwhile she was raising by taxation only one-tenth or one-twentieth part as much as they\nwere raising per pupil. Dr. Henry Barnard says: “Taxation for school purposés had\nnot only ceased to be a cheerful habit of the people, but was regarded as something:\nforeign and anti-democratic.\nThe supervision of the schools had become in most societies a mere formality, and the whole system seemed struck with paralysis.” And yet the\ngovernor of the state had sounded the alarm as early as 1826, while prominent citizens:\nhad counseled other states not to repeat the mistake that Connecticut had made.\n(See &\nvaluable article on the Connecticut School Report, subhead, ‘‘The School Fund and Its\nEffects,” in Zhe American Journal of Education and School Review, edited by Absalom\nPeters and Henry Barnard, Vol. I. (1856), pp. 590-9.)\nII. TEXAS.\n\nMr. C. Lombardi, member of the school board of Houston, Tex., contributed to\nThe Business Record of that city, November, 1896, the following article, entitled “ Our\nSchool Fund”:\n\n"}
{"page": 512, "printed_page": null, "text": "502\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nWhile we have been boasting of our\n“First of all comes the question of revenues.\nprincely educational fund, consisting of millions of acres of land, we have forgotten to\nIt was long taken for\ninquire into the location, character, and value of this land.\nIt was\ngranted that any kind of wild land would increase in value as time passes.\nargued that as the amount of land in any country is a fixed quantity, and as population\ntends to increase steadily, land could not but increase in value as population increases.\nBut a rude shock awaited these plausible theories when suddenly land values began to\ndecline, not only here, but everywhere,\n\nin other states as well\n\nas in Texas, in Europe\n\nas\n\nwell as in America, along with the depreciation of agricultural products.\nMany circumstances led to this result, chief of which is the long interval of peace among civilized\nnations, thus liberating and increasing an immense productive force, formerly largely\ndevoted\n\nto the destruction of both life and the means\n\nof life; the facilities and\n\ncheap-\n\nness of transportation, and the opening up of immense tracts of land in other portions\nof the world, made accessible to cheap labor. It was found that the most abundant\ncommodity in the universe is raw, untilled land.\n“Then as to the character of the land set aside for our school fund. Time was when\nany kind of land was supposed to have some value, if only for pasturage or mining purposes.\nHere again a revolution has taken place, making wild grazing lands almost\nvalueless, and mining lands in this state quite so. The demand for range cattle has been\ntransferred to the domestic-fed cattle raised on small farms, and our great cattle industry\nof the past has practically passed away.\n‘As for mining lands containing iron, copper, and coal, the great abundance of all\nthese found nearer to market and closer to lines of transportation, together with the\ngreater facilities for working old mines afforded by modern invention, and the agitation\n\nfor a lower tariff policy throughout the South, has put a quietus to any thought of developments or investments in Texas for some time to come.\n“Hence, while our school fund derived from the sale and lease of land has not\nincreased in value, the scholastic population has largely increased, and the financial\ndemands for public education are increasing every day. They are increasing, not only\nby reason of the natural increase of the scholastic population, but also by reason of the\nvery progress achieved in educational methods and the higher ideal attained.\nNot only\nhas this higher ideal induced more people to send children to school, but it is demanding a higher standard of ability and character in the teachers, and this costs more\n\nmoney.\n“What is the remedy?\nObviously special taxation as a supplement to our revenue\nfrom the school fund. Either that or a curtailing of our school facilities, and this last is\nnot to be thought of. But here again we labor under a singular disadvantage from the\nfact that we have a school fund, that we have exaggerated its importance and value, and\nindulged in extravagant boasts about it. Our people have become too much accustomed\nto rely on this great school fund, and will be unwilling to entertain the idea of raising a\nschool revenue by taxation.\nHad we never had a school fund, or never talked about it,\nour people would probably not hesitate to tax themselves heavily for the benefit of the\nschools, as do the people of Colorado, for example. But it will be difficult to reconcile\nthe glory of our great school fund, which has been dinned into the taxpayer’s ears, with\nthe necessity of going deep into his pockets to supply the educational deficit.\n“Tt is just as well that we should begin to consider this matter and bring it before\n\nthe people. It is bound to become an issue sooner or later, and the sooner the better.\nWe must not wait until we are confronted with a deficit so great as to paralyze\nour schools\nand destroy their efficiency. Other things demand the attention of the friends of popular\neducation, but this is fundamental.”\n\n"}
{"page": 513, "printed_page": null, "text": "593\nSCHOOLS\nRURAL\nON\n\n1bg‘ghS\n\nLo6‘SvPr\n\nvLe‘oor\n\ngoe‘Se\n\n(‘¥oS *d uo saj}0u 92S)\nzzb‘og\n\n| zSo'ziz\n\nPro OIG)\n\nOO\n\nSos\n\noS\n\nST\n\noi) aici slate\n\ncht seat\n\nbSieiso ce mri\n\nCae\n\nelmore\n\ntememeet\n\nCCl\n\n(7G Ce\n\neplop yy\n\nYynNos\n\net tO Oe)\n\nOLE@)\n\nSpatvrels vsliepeyece ve (¥6-£6g1)\n\nke\n\nern\nSede\n\nSpi‘Lev\n\nzSLigoo'r\nfe)\n\ngr6‘ss\n\nZOL‘6gE\n\nGON\nDo ceeese res sser tere cesss (Y6-€61) BUlpoIeD:\nISOM\nBIUIBILA\n\n190‘E1S\n\nTC ULELTOMS) JO\n\nPSb'Q6E'T\n\nOd\n\n69S‘z99\n\nfo)\n\ncig Mela lelleuels\n\nore\n\nozo‘'se\n\nebS‘gr9\n\nPe1sse\n\nSe) 8\n\neC\n\nieee\n\n610‘r9\nCoe CL\ngoS‘grt\n\nYogev\n\nselayamshenebeusasie (a)woaeredous SUsiemia oie\n\n1g0‘gvS\n\nL61°6Q0‘1\ngbS‘of6\n\nfe)\n\nween cee e eres esse sees teses ssp (06-69gT) sIeMelad\n\nA\n\nSzS‘blo‘r\n99°69\nGz0‘S0g\n\nfe)\n\n000‘09\n\nEzesss\n\nEgv‘OEO'I\n\ngie‘hgrss\n\noS1°SS6\n\nQQzVzR‘I\n\nTQO'QS9°TI\n\nbog‘gS\n\noor 611'z\n\nplzgsvz\n\nbro‘gl\n\nzg1‘ss\n\nSoz‘Egt\n\ngt 1vLs\n\nggf6gr‘or\n\npSS‘zgQe'r\n\n661‘901‘Z\n\n060'S9z‘I\n\ngl1‘6zL\n\n0gS‘ogg\n\nggt‘6gr‘or\n\nozL‘egr‘t\n\ngi f‘0S gr\n\ngoz‘ Le Liz\n\ng6g‘g1S\n\nL19‘98\n\n9SS‘E6\n\nfo}\n\nPEQQII\n\nEggssz\n\nua Ack diel mame\nToy\n\n1z7S‘69S‘b\n\nz6L‘6EL\n\novo‘gr\n\nESLVI\n\nSo1‘6\n\noLg‘gq1\n\nwee\n\nSpm\n\n186\n\nieee\n\nrc\n\nJOLSIq.\n\npuvpAreyy\n\n961859 laren s is\n\nOr\n\nAON\n\neNE)INE\n\nMON\n\neTUeAASUUSG)\n\n:WOISIAIG IU YW YMOS\n\nRELIES:\n\nUSconageyy\n\nHoel\n\ntes\n\n6)'ece 610 16hs © 1s)6 e)aie sense) is sie\n\nSFL\n\nSoot\n\nFOTO\n\nRoman\n\n260\n\nBDI OID DDI\n\ntee\n\nOs\n\nDEO\n\nss\n\nOLAS\n\nAraya\n\nDINO\n\nORI\n\nASS\n\nSpOyy\n\nGhareheoneyiN.\n\n> “Dues\n\nOLDS 1) ayia iaRiG))\nMICROCODE\n\ner see\n\nGHO\n\nSho\n\neum 18\n\not Cr\na)\n\ngales Foes\n\noon\n\nece\n\nGO\n\nILOCOS\n\ncdo\n\nODDS\n\nbroeslig\n\nOCICUIDD DSO\ne79‘Qb\n\noo\n\n8\n\n6 ye 0,0 ere .o) 60ele\n\nsale\n\nSep\n\nNels\n\nShe Gr\n\n: UOISIAIC, OUR VWYON\n\nsrere ce)stessaee\n\nMON\neur es Siege aga OS SS (+6-€6gr) sarysdwep]\n“aso OUTS INIT\n\nSerle\n\nJOU\n\nfe) (aGwlel sv She.l0) 0) virscele?\n\nSTONE\n\nOT\n\nSLdI Goda\n\nOGG\n\nONCE\n\nonurepy\n\nYON\n\nyynos\n\nUNGGT DERE) EHIME,\nSAECO\n\nsel1e * UOISTALC]\n\nENA)\n\nsoli)\n\nODEON Gy onurpty\n\nS DSS\n\neae\n\nie\n\nreve\n\nSSB\n\nSSS\n\nip\n\nODO\n\ne@0@NulSishele,\n\nGC OSC\n\nTS\n\nDT COTS TAT Gy TOI SON\nlenele)\nisi\n= fa)eigiele) wiviei@) seo): crelejebersle\nYOTSTATC] [BI]U9D), {ION\nsees\neee\npee etree ee cesses\n\nPe\n\nES\nZQQ‘0Z9\n\nGORD\nggt‘ceS‘z1\n\nere\nPriLevivv\n\npv\n\n«<u\n\nDOU\n\ntee ee eee\n\nODO\n\nOORT\n\ndoubs\n\ntees\n\nat me\n\nBeka) ¥ wleld (eje..dcerse76ls\n\n1zg‘gve'r\nSz7‘Q9\n\nggL{1gL‘t\n\n€66°ST8\n\ngro‘gto‘Z,\n\n619'Ibb\n\nnee\n\nOT\nCakes\n\nwo\n\nbee\nO\n\nBring ado\n\n9S£‘199‘01\n\n£96‘09\n\n€zb‘ogz'L\n\nLob‘zeet‘g\n\neG\nDea\n\n€36'068\n\nfe)\n\nL6b‘900'RS\n\nobe‘zfo'v\n\nEC\nZISO€\n\ngfz‘Lz1\n\n60L‘16g\nIET‘QIO‘OI\n\niS eS ev\nzg0‘9L9‘9S\n\n€gL‘6gS‘o1\n\nA\n\n€1z‘A11\nCols\n\n$S1°CS6\n\n000‘9 7\n\npLo‘egs\n\n6LO‘LLL\nELSSSELST\n\nTSoOShS\n\n€1S‘19z‘z\n\nQz3‘LZQ‘I1\n\nQQz‘QzI'I\n\nS11‘Sz9°SQ\n\nQeeser's\n\nzgQ‘t1V‘L\n\nZIQ‘QLE\n\nAO\n\nVIULBIT\n\ngb9‘961\n\nSS1°eS6\n\n000‘60z\n\nLLE‘cvEi Lt\n\n069°SgQ‘EI\n\n(shel eusne)\nSheltts) elle? isiiolie ejfa ie(ens: she lie),eliehe\n\noO\n\n000‘S 1z\n\nSz0*QEo'~\n\nEL6‘ogEv\n\nLov't\n\nCSz‘cri\n\nb69%z7zL‘L1\n\nLIO‘VYV\n\n(a)\nLSS*SSHE\n\nPT\n\n000‘S Lz\n\n4\n\n£09‘SEzz\n\nPELSL6L‘oz\n\nIVIELy‘s\n\nSgS‘101\n\nLIZ‘QQQ‘II\n\n¢10°660‘L\n\ngl9‘Lov‘6\n\n616°Sgv‘ol\n\nQe\n\nLbi‘gzz‘1z\n\npLL‘600v\n\n1S9‘E1 ELL\n9gh0g9\n\n£o0L‘999\n\neee\n\nozb‘L60‘E1\ngzg‘o1L‘vg\n\n1b6‘zSz‘ecg\n\nUCDO\npe6‘610611¢\n\nOden\nCzO6‘zlzzS ig\n\nASO\n\npS 1‘°Qg6‘91¢\n\n(2\n\ngg\n\n169‘L6S‘LL1¢\n\n14\n\nspuny yuo\n\n“eulted UOT\n\n%\nar auton\n\nz\nS\n\nsaxey\naye}s WO\n\n9\n\nL\n\npe\n\nSoxey\neso] Woy\n\n(sates puoq jo\nspaac0id pue\n\naetaies moe\n\nPiaAeppnpss) |LM? MOLT\n\nTOOHDOS\n\nJo JouUOIsstuIWOD 94} JO yroday ay} wor |\n\n‘SAANOW\n\n[°S6-P6gi ‘uolvonpy\n\nWoIyeXe} WOIY\n\nUO0exey\nWO} [BIOT,\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\nOF\nREPORT\nCouncil}\n\n"}
{"page": 514, "printed_page": null, "text": "iddissrssrpyrites\n\nCACY\n\nseeders\nee\nttre\n\neuUloYe[AO (F6-€681)\n5\ncc\nOG\n\nspcuesry\n\nYo\n\nejoxVq\n\nBjoyeq\n\nBJOSOUUTY\n*\ner a\n\"BMOT\nLINOSSTJ\n*\n\nYON\n\nsees teeePr\n\n(b6-£6gT)\neens eee ee\n\n(PO-€6gr)\n+\n\"+7\"\n\n**+(P6-€6Q1)\n\"7\n\nee\n\nuTsMODST *(VO-€6gI)\n\nUBSIYOTI,\n\nsoorxapy\n+\neles tees\n\n9}v}9\n\nOzz‘QrI\n6z0‘Lof\nLorvSh\n\n6EE‘gER\n\nzLi‘gib\n\n)\n\nfo)\nCgP‘gor\nfo)\noLL‘S\n\nobz‘S16‘t\ngzz‘ov\n000‘000‘I\nCri‘bes\ncrSicen\n(o) VLI‘Sgg\n) LeosSor\n)\n\nzL9‘z6z‘°z\n\nL99‘zS1\n\n.\n\nnedees\n**(b6-€6g1)\n+\nete(bo-€6g1)\n\n.\n\neee\n\nstews ha\neee\n\n“5+\n\ncians\n\nSuryse\neuoziy\nes epeaay\n\nyo,\n\ngpa oyepy\n\ny1oday\n\n9b6g*z\n\njon\n\ng60‘Ezg‘E\nS1S*IEED\noS Lor‘ogz‘s\noL6‘Eo0£‘z\n896900‘\n6gL*bzS\nQgL‘IQI\n6o01‘zgv‘t\noOoVer\nbot‘bos\nS1L‘vz6\n1v9‘Eo0F\n\nOSE‘Qge‘z\n\na\n\nbot‘gg\n\n6L6‘Ez9g\n\n699981\n\nS1L*es\n\n114‘S6\n1V9‘E0E\nS1L‘vz6\nLOE‘brl\nIf0‘1\n\n66b‘ogZ\n\nOglibzs\nQOL‘IQI\n6or1‘zoPr‘t\n€49‘611\n\n€£0‘1g9\nLoo‘6or‘z\nzoO‘Loe'p\noLS*611\n\n896900‘\n\nzlo‘ozh's\ng6z‘Egl\n\n‘gja[duioour\n\npayzodar\n{ v\nyred\nst\n\n9%\n\nv008‘661\n\nSoz‘1SL\nESzsL6L‘1\n\nes1'S\n\nQgL6‘QLo‘I\n\nTSS‘QZS\nCOE‘QzO°E\nLor‘ogz‘d\nglo‘cbr6\n\nZ19‘OSP\n10z‘b60'b\n\nogl*6ro'r1\n\n6g0'Lbg\n66R°EE0'S\n\neSS*ecpi1\nQEE*QESSS\n\nSzo‘Lr1\n\nEvrveos\n\nLz9‘S6L\n\ngz1‘oV\n\noLL‘Eg\nv\n£49611\nLOE‘brl\n\ngL4z‘06\nIEE‘VI\ngro6‘zor\n) 70036\n\n000‘09z\nv\n\nuoryerstdordde\ns0j\npai0jod *s[ooyds Pp\n\np\n\n$06‘gfo\noo00'z1t\n\ngoe‘oSz‘1\n\n9S\nL‘660'1\n\ncOe‘Sba‘e\neS CCE\nSES*SS9\n\n9I19‘9FzQress\nv6L‘z vor‘ori\nOQO'T\nIbD960‘z9\n\npapnpour\nUI\n\nLzLv\n\n“+++\neee *(P6—-€6gT)\n\n‘Ajayeutxoiddy\nsapnyouy\nxe} uo\n‘sSop‘oJ2\n\nFeeees\n\nSEIT\n\n2\niene\n\ngzi‘bSt\n\nEgg‘Sez\n\nv\n000061\nv\n\nSS\n\n69S‘1Sz\nIEL‘E\n1fb‘ofg\nvzl‘zg0'6 ggo‘orS‘e\ngorse zoo‘LSey\nogZ‘6bo‘e1 py\n\nMONT\n\nRITA\n\n=TOgT(ZO\n)kOpetOlOay\n\nCITE\n10g\n0.500\n\npyserqany\nsees sees sere\nFreese\nsesueyy eersteseer sees teeePo\nU19}S9\\\\ UOISIAIG,\n:\nguequopy\ncress nese tere\nFetes\n\nAA\n\n(p6-€6g1)\n\"++\n\ngrounty\nhates seeee\n\neuerpuy\n\nYON\n[BJUAD WOISIAIG]\n:\noTes etee sees\nseeeset\nPrete\n\n***\n\ngueismo7y tosses\nsexay,\n(P6-€6g1)\n\nSorsiescheyela\n\nvp\nbgt‘zol\nv\n\nT1v‘S6S‘¢\nQOr‘167'I\n\nSob‘ro9S\n\n096‘Lo0'S\n\nggL‘oze\n9gz‘6z0'I1\n6bL‘Lbo'r\n\nS6S‘zbg\n€6L‘b61\n\nC6h‘ogt\nEze PSL\n66L‘So1\n119‘Soz\n\nI9Y}O,,\n\nzs\n\ngoreee'T\n\n€S6‘og/\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nv\n¢\n\nUOISIAIG\n:\n\nashleeeices Bina) ncaa!\n\n7,\naassouua (P6-€6g1)\n*(b6-€6gI)\neuregely\n\nAON\n\n[ejUa_g\n\n‘1\n\nShot f6h\n\n.\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n690‘LS hE\n\nKa\n\ngoL‘by\n\n9S Q*6SET\n\nONT\nIU\n\ngo6‘IgI\n1£S‘6 bo6‘ztc\n) zbrcor\n0\n\nGLE‘SzE‘9\n\nZOQ‘EPI\ngross\nLig‘bhi\nLgg‘S1r\nSgt‘ab\n00g)\n19€‘6LE°1\n‘ve\n\nSecseacul\n\nyynos\n\nLLz°9gS‘t\n\n6€1'166\n\n5\n\nNATIONAL\n\ngbLgsh‘g\ngI1‘Szo‘b\nCIQVELY\n646‘z61‘9\nbog‘z16'SI\noz6‘gr6‘Z\n\n000‘16 »\n$z0‘9S v\n000098 got‘g6£\n619‘69z‘I\noSS‘€1z\n00S ‘Ez6\nvLo‘e1S\n\n—SKANOW PenuyUuey)\n\nL\ngee ‘Szp‘cr\n\nTOOHOS\n\n60106‘\n\ngLi*zST\n\n€\n\ngtr LoL tr\n\nSLdIlHOua\nAO\n\n504\n.S99INOS\n\n[National\n\n€6cb16z6‘99\n\nS\n\nPitterte ©\n\ntwee\n\neres\nerate\n\njy\n\n“***(p6-€6gI)\nuose09\nevrur0zI[V_D\n**(P6-E€6gI)\n\n"}
{"page": 515, "printed_page": null, "text": "he\nDrone)\n\nCouncil]\n\nREPORT\n\nTHE\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCALIFORNIA\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nAPPENDIX\n\nC.\n\nSYSTEM\n\nRURAL\n\nOF SCHOOL\n\nEvery portion of this state is embraced\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n505\n\nMAINTENANCE.\n\nin the 3,243 school districts into which\n\nCal-\n\nifornia is at present (1896) divided. Under our law every city and incorporated town\nconstitutes a separate school district, unless subdivided by the legislative authority thereof.\nOnly two cities of the state are subdivided into separate school districts.\nSOURCES\n\nOF REVENUE.\n\nSTATE —\n\n(1) Permanent Fund.—The permanent school fund of the state consists of the receipts\nfrom the sales of school lands (Sections 16 and 36 of each township), and now amounts to\n$4,000,000.\n\nThe interest on this fund, together with the interest on school land, yields an\n\nannual income amounting to $260,000, or more.\n\n(2) Poll Tax.—There is a state school poll tax of $2 levied on each male inhabitant,\nbetween the ages of twenty-one and sixty years. From this source the state school fund\nreceives nearly $370,000 annually.\n(3) Collateral Inheritance Tax.—There\n\nis a tax of 5 per cent. on collateral\n\ntances, which is paid into the school fund of the state.\nsource, of course, varies from year to year.\n\ninheri-\n\nThe amount received from this\n\n(4) State School Tax.—The statutes require that there be levied on all property in the\nstate an ad-valorem tax sufficient to raise the sum of $7 yearly for each census\n\nchild.\n\nOn\n\naccount of the allowance made in levying the tax for possible delinquencies, the actual\nsum realized is somewhat in excess of $7 per child.\n\nThe revenue derived from these four sources for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1896,\n\nwas:\n(1) From Permanent School Fund,\n(2) From State Poll Tax,\n(3) From Collateral Inheritance Tax, etc,\n\n(4) From State School Tax (ad valorem),\n\n-\n\n-\n\n=\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\nfrom all state sources\n\n$264,429.00\n362,794.12\n102,688.45\n\n=\n\n25320;270:08\n\n-\n\n-\n\nTotal State Moneys,\n\nThe school census for the year was 323,130.\n\n-\n\n$3,050,181.65\n\nThe average, therefore, per census child\n\nwas $9.43.\n\nCounty —\nEach county is required by law to levy a county school tax, the maximum rate of\nwhich shall not exceed 50 cents on each $100 of taxable property, nor the minimum rate\nbe less than sufficient to raise $6 for each census child in the county.\n\nDISEFRICT —\nThe charters of cities having boards of education provide for the levying of school\ntaxes within the corporate limits, in addition to the state and county schoo! taxes.\nSchool districts governed by boards of school trustees may, by vote of the people,\nlevy additional taxes for school purposes, the maximum rate being fixed at 30 cents on\neach $100 of taxable property. They may also, in any year, levy a tax of 70 cents per\n$100 for building purposes.\n\nBonDs —\nAny school district in the state may, by a two-thirds vote, bond itself for the purchase\nlots, erection of buildings, etc.\n\nThe constitution and law of the state require that all property shall be assessed at\n\n"}
{"page": 516, "printed_page": null, "text": "506\n\nNATIONAL\n\nits “full\n\ncash value.”\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nThe word\n\n“property,”\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nas -defined\n\n“moneys, credits, bonds, stocks, dues, franchises, and\n\n[National\n\nin the constitution, includes\n\nall other\n\nmatters\n\nand\n\nthings real,\n\npersonal, and mixed, capable of private ownership.”\nDISTRIBUTION\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOL\n\nFUNDS.\n\nFor the purpose of fixing a primary base for the distribution of school funds, there is\ntaken, during\n\nthe month\n\nof April, each\n\nyear, a census of all the children\n\nbetween the ages of five and-seventeen years.\n\nin the state\n\nThe term “census children” must not be\n\nconfounded with the term “children of school age,” as the latter embraces all children\nbetween the ages of six and twenty-one years.\nThe method of distribution is unique, combining, as it does, the enumeration and average daily attendance methods.\nIts strong point is the marked recognition it gives to the\nprinciple\n\nthat the\n\nstate, as a whole, is interested in the education of all its citizens.\n\nTo\n\nthat end the rich and populous centers are made to contribute to the poor and sparsely\nAt the same time the local and county taxes imposed are a constant\nsettled districts.\nreminder that each locality must share with the state the responsibility of educating its\nyouth.\nAll state school moneys are apportioned by the superintendent of public instruction\nto the several counties in proportion to the number of school-census children, as shown\nby the returns of the school-census marshals of the preceding school year, and the moneys\nso apportioned are distributed to the several county treasurers by the state treasurer, on\nthe order of the state superintendent.\nThe county school funds are collected by the county tax collector, and turned over by\nhim through the county auditor to the county treasurer, who is the custodian of all school\nfunds. Itis the duty of each county auditor to notify the county superintendent of schools\nof all school moneys received\n— both state and county.\nThe entire revenueis distributed by\nthe county superintendent of schools to the various school districts (including cities) on the\nbasis of the number of teachers to which each district is entitled.\nThis number is determined by calculating one teacher for every seventy census children, or fraction thereof of\nnot less than twenty census children, in the district.\nHe then apportions to each district\n$500 for every teacher assigned to it. Should a district have less than twenty and more\nthan nine census children, he must apportion to it only $400.\nDistricts having less than\nten census children lapse, unless supported by voluntary contribution.\nSuch districts\nusually lapse, their territory being absorbed by adjoining districts.. This provision of the\nlaw is not intended to govern the number of teachers actually employed by a district; it\nsimply furnishes a basis for determining the amount of money to which a school district\nis annually entitled from the public funds.\nAll school money remaining on hand after distributing $500 (or $400, as the case may\nbe) per teacher is apportioned to the several districts in proportion to the average daily\nattendance in each district during the preceding school year.\nThe amount varies in the\ndifferent counties, ranging from $2 or $3 per child in average daily attendance ina few\nsparsely settled counties to $10 or $12 in the more densely populated.\nThe average for\nthe entire state is not far from $8 for every child in average daily attendance.\nIn distributing the school money the county superintendent considers each city in the\ncounty, no matter how large, simply as a school district, which it is under the law; and\nfor this purpose each city superintendent must report school statistics to the county superintendent, just as does the teacher in the most insignificant district in the county.\n\nAs an illustration of the method of distribution, suppose district “A” has a census\nroll of 1,000 children, and an average daily attendance of 600 for the preceding school year.\nThe county superintendent discovers from the school statistics in his office, after apportioning $500 for each teacher in the county, that the amount per child in average daily attendance is $8.\n\nDividing 1,000 by 70, we find that “A” is a “fifteen-teacher district.”\n\nive\n\n"}
{"page": 517, "printed_page": null, "text": "©\nrw.\n\nCouncil] -\n\nREPORT\n\nhundred dollars\n\nOF\n\nmultiplied\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON RURAL\n\nby 15, plus $8 multiplied\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n507\n\nby 600, equals $12,300, the amount\n\nthat “A” receives in a year from the state and county school funds.\nAs before remarked, the treasurer of each county is the custodian of all school funds;\nall orders on said funds drawn by the local district or city authorities must pass through\nthe hands of, and be approved by, the county superintendent before they can be paid by\nthe treasurer.\nIt might be urged that such a system, while it guards the educational rights of children in the poorer districts, may overstimulate a desire for the creation of new school\ndistricts.\nIt has that tendency, but the state has thrown some safeguards around it\n(although perhaps not yet sufficient) by imposing certain restrictions upon the creation of\nnew districts in the way of distance from the nearest schoolhouse and the minimum number of census children required.\nUnder the law the schools of the state are enabled to\nmaintain an average of eight and seven-tenths months per year.\nSAMUEL T. BLACK.\nSacramento,\n\nCal.\n\nAPPENDIX\nTHE\n\nCOUNTY\n\nAS\n\nTHE\n\nUNIT\n\nD.\n\nOF SCHOOL\n\nORGANIZATION.\n\nThe following paragraphs are from an article by Mr. Lawton B. Evans, Superintendent of Schools for Richmond county, Ga.\n\n(See the Zducational Review, April, 1896.)\n\n*T believe very firmly that the county or township is the proper unit of educational\norganization.\nIf one system of schools can be made to extend over a whole county,\nincluding the city and villages, the organization will be upon a basis of territory. By this\nmeans the entire country can after awhile be brought under a uniform organization.\nSo\nlong as the organization is by cities we merely organize by locality, which can never be\nuniform orentire.\nIt will always remain a one-sided development. A proper policy is to\ninduce the people hereafter to organize by area rather than by spots. The effect of this\nwill be to give to the rural child the same school advantages as to the city child, and\nthere is every reason in equity and good sense why these advantages should be the same.\n“T come from an illustration of this kind of organization, and it may not be amiss to\ntell something of the schools of Richmond county, Ga., in which county is situated the\nthriving city of Augusta.\nHere for the past, twenty-five years has been in operation what\nis known as the county system.\n“One board of education, composed of representatives elected by the people for a\nterm of three years, one-third of the membership expiring every year, has charge of the\nentire school interests of the city of Augusta and of the county of Richmond. This board\nof education has the unique power of levying a school tax directly upon the people of the\ncounty, without revision by any other authority and without any limitas to rate or amount.\nThe school tax is levied and collectcd as a uniform rate upon all property of the county,\n\nwhether it is in the city or out of it. This forms the general school fund of the county,\nsupplemented by the state appropriation.\n“When it comes to the distribution of this fund, no regard is paid to the amount raised\nby any ward of the city or any district of the county, but the fund is distributed according\nto the necessities of each ward and district, determined by the number of children to be educated. The school fund of the whole county is raised by a tax on all the property of the\ncounty, and is,distributed upon the basis of the school population of each community.\nThus it happens that a community rich in naught else but children will get a flourishing\nschool paid for by its wealthier but less fortunate neighbors.\n“ Asa matter of fact, a large part of the money paid by the city is annually spent in\n\n"}
{"page": 518, "printed_page": null, "text": "508\n\nNATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n[National\n\nthe rural districts, for the city has nine-tenths of the taxable property, but only threeSo it happens that the rural schools pay one-tenth of\nfourths of the school population.\nthe school tax and receive the benefit of one-fourth of it. Augusta has spent in the past\ntwenty years the sum of $200,000 in building schoolhouses and paying school-teachers for\nthe children who live in the country districts around her. Augusta has shown her faith\nin the proposition that every city needs to be environed by an intelligent, industrious, and\ncontented population.\n:\n‘‘ When it comes to the teachers, the same qualifications are demanded for rural schools.\nas for city schools.\nUpon the regular examination terms, and upon issuing of licenses\nto teach, an applicant does not know whether he will teach in the city or out of it, and to\nmany it is a matter of indifference.\nAnd I know whereof I speak when I say that there\nare young women graduates of normal colleges doing high-grade work in country schools\nten miles beyond the limits of the city, and doing it happily and cheerfully. We believe\nfirmly in the further proposition that a country school is entitled to as good a teacher as a\ncity school, and that those who live in the fields are as deserving of education as those\nwho dwell beside the asphalt.\nCarlyle must have had a country child in his mind when\nhe said: ‘This I consider a great tragedy: that one soul should remain in ignorance that\nhad capacity for higher things.’\n“The teachers are treated as nearly alike as can be. City and country teachers are\npaid about the same salary. They get it at the end of every month and on the same\nday. The certainty and the regularity of a fixed compensation create a sense of security,\nsafety, and comfort for a teacher, and accordingly increase his efficiency. No teacher\ncan do his best work when he works at starvation rates, is paid once every three\nor four months, and often in scrip that he must discount.\nThere is much philosophy and\nalso economy in the maxim that advises us to pay a public servant well and watch him\nclosely. So we draw no distinction of locality. First-class work is worth as much twenty\nmiles from town as it is in the heart of the city.\n“The schools of the county all run nine calendar months. They all begin at the same\ntime and close at the same time. During the last year every child of the county, regardless of where he lived, was offered nine months of actual tuition.\n‘So far as schoolhouses are concerned, these are located in rural districts so as to be\n\non an average of four miles apart.\nNo child is out of walking distance of a school open\nnine months in the year and taught by a good teacher.\nThese houses are owned by the\nboard of education and cost from $300 to $2,500 each, according to size and equipment.\n\n“One superintendent has charge of all the teachers in the county. The same degree\nof efficiency that should attend the supervision of city schools is likewise extended to the\ncountry schools. An expert teacher for all is the theory, and, so far as human effort can\navail, itis carried out in practice. ‘The same course of study is prescribed for the pupils,\nand the same course of professional reading is required of the teachers.\nThe teachers of\nthe city schools meet for instruction once a week, the teachers of the country schools meet\nonce a month, and in addition have a two-months’ institute in the summer months.”\n\nAPPENDIX\nCOMPARATIVE\n\nCOST OF\n\nTHE\n\n\\£.\n\nTOWNSHIP\n\nAND\n\nDISTRICT\n\nSYSTEMS.\n\nThe subcommittee has made diligent inquiry as to the relative cost of the townshipunit and independent-district systems of carrying on common schools. Naturally, it is a\ndifficult thing to come at, as the elements entering into the problem are so fluctuating, Some testimony is presented below from three well-known state-school executives, alk\ngiven in response to the inquiries of the committee.\n\n"}
{"page": 519, "printed_page": null, "text": "~'\n“7x”\n\nCouncil ]\nI.\n\nREPORT\nFRANK\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n5°09\n\nA. HIL1, Secretary of the Massachusetts State Board of Education:\n\nI do not think it will be possible without a great deal of special investigation to furnish figures or statistics to show that the town plan is either cheaper or more expensive\nthan the district plan. The expenditures for schools in Massachusetts have been gradually increasing, because of better buildings, better sanitation, better equipment, better\nteachers, and better salaries.\n\nI have a strong conviction, however, that the same amount\n\nof money may be made to go much further under town management than under district in\nthe way of securing greater efficiency in the schools.\nWe are consolidating our scattered and thinly attended schools quite extensively in\nour rural towns, and transporting the children.\nIn this way towns frequently save a little\nmoney, while providing better accommodations and securing better teachers.\nBut the\nargument we use in favor of such consolidation is not the economical one ; it is the educational one, rather, that the school efficiency is thus increased.\n\nIl.\n\nCHaARLEs D. HINE, Secretary of the Connecticut State Board of Education :’\n\nIt is hardly right to say that the district system [in Connecticut] is an independent\nsystem.\nThe town still remains the unit of financial management.\nAll money from the\nstate treasury goes to the town, is added to the town tax, and then is distributed by the\ntown board of apportionment to the several districts. In only 138 of the 1,400 districts is\na tax laid. These districts have the power to tax themselves, but you will see that they\nseldom exercise it. A few districts, probably not more than twenty-five, support their\nschools in part by district tax. The remainder of the districts mentioned have taxed\nthemselves for occasional expenses, like insurance, repairs, or perhaps for building a\nschoolhouse.\nAs to the cost of the two systems, .... it must always be said, and I impress\nthat upon those to whom I speak, that the two cannot be justly compared, except by going\nover a period of years. When towns enter upon the town system, they are likely to\nincrease expenses, if their previous expenses have been stingy and inadequate.\nOn the\ncontrary, if under the district system they have been liberal, the economy which the town\nsystem permits will enable them to reduce their expenses. It follows, then, that you would\nhave to know the policy under the district system before you could judge whether the town\nsystem had made a difference in the case. The tendency in the large districts in this state\nis to become practically independent, and to support the schools liberally under the district system.\nThere are advantages of directness, power to borrow money, etc., which\nmake it possible to secure liberal appropriations in large districts. The tendency in small\ndistricts is to diminish the cost because there are few children.\nAs a result, taking the average district, the town system shows in this state very much\nbetter schools, so far as instruction is concerned, as well as more\n\nefficient administration.\n\nIt would be impossible, of course, to illustrate this by numerous examples. We have not\nbeen able to secure legislation compelling all towns to accept the town system.\nWe are,\nhowever, advancing slowly toward that result by popular vote. In the last year eleven\ntowns voted to adopt the town\n\nsystem,\n\nand now, out of 168, fifty-four\n\nare under town\n\nsystems.\nIt comes slowly, but it is coming as a result of a change of heart and of an\nendeavor to make better schools.\n\nIll.\n\nW. W. STETSON, State Superintendent of Schools, Maine :\n\nThere\n\nis some justice in the claim that the district system is, in one sense, cheaper\n\nthan the township system.\n\nUnder the district\n\nsystem\n\nthe schools were\n\nmaintained\n\nfor\n\na much less number of weeks than under the town system, especially in small districts.\nWhen we were running under the district system, patrons of the schools were willing\nto bid off the board for less than a dollar a week ; sometimes they boarded the teacher\nwithout expense to the district, and also furnished\n\nwood, repaired the schoolhouse, and\n\n"}
{"page": 520, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n510\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nkept it in proper condition generally.\nthese contributions.\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nIt was possible to have longer terms, because of\n\nUnder the township system the town pays for the teacher’s wages and board, and has\nto provide the wood, make the repairs, furnish a janitor, and provide for keeping the house\nclean. Shorter terms and donations made the old district school cheap in the sense of\nIt was usually\nIt was also cheap in another sense.\nusing but a small amount of money.\ntaught by some indigent relative of the agent. Butin Maine we are not entirely free from\nthis curse, even under the township system. We have discovered that 872 of the 4,600\nteachers of Maine are related to or connected with the members of the superintending\nschool committees in such a way as to have an unsafe influence in securing their appoint-\n\nments.\n\nThere can be no question but that for an equal length of terms, if all the services\n\nrendered and materials furnished are paid for, the township system is much more\neconomical than the district system. It is also true that when the conditions prevail that\nare indicated above, in the matter of money, the district system may be cheaper.\n\nAPPENDIX\nTRANSPORTATION\n\nfF,\nOF PUPILS.\n\nThe declining population of many towns and counties, and even larger districts,\naffects the rural schools very unfavorably.\n(See Appendix A.)\nI. Hon. C. R. Skinner, State Superintendent of Public Instruction of the State of New\nYork, thus forcibly urges the need of consolidation in the schools of that state:\n“In 1860 the school\n\npopulation of the state outside\n\nof its cities was\n\n894,432.\n\nAt\n\nthe close of the school year of 1895 the school population of the state outside of its cities\nand villages containing upwards of 10,000 people was 609,146, a decrease\n\nof 285,286, or\n\nupwards of 31 per cent., while the number of school districts in 1860 was 11,358. While\nthe number of school children has decreased during that time nearly one-third, there has\nbeen substantially no decrease in the number of rural districts. It needs no argument to\n~ show that the antiquated school-district system, which served the people so well in 1860,\nhas outgrown its usefulness, and that, if the state of New York desires to keep pace with\nadjoining states in the advancement of her educational interests, some new system must\nbe devised.\n“The township system, or some unit larger than the present system, in my judgment,\nis the only solution of the difficulty, and until the state shall have adopted that system\nits rural schools will continue to decline in efficiency. There is, in my opinion, no better\nschool in America than the union free school and village school of our state, but the\nresults there obtained cannot possibly be achieved in the weak rural districts, where the\naverage attendance is less than twenty pupils, and, as shown above, in nearly 3,000 districts less than ten. The ambitions and rivalries of the students—incentives to greater\nexertion on the part of the pupils\n— which prevailed thirty-five years ago in these country\ndistricts no longer exist. The school is lifeless, cannot be graded, there is little enthusi-\n\nasm among the students, and that activity and earnestness which come from numbers are\nentirely lacking.” (Report for 1894-95, pp. x, xi.)\nII, The arguments for the reform have been luminously stated by Mr. A. W. Edson,\none of the Massachusetts state agents, as follows (Fifty-eighth Annual Report of the\nMassachusetts Board of Education, 1893-94, pp. 215-17):\nConsolidation and Transportation.—Vhere is a decided tendency on the part of intelligent and progressive communities to close the small schools in remote districts and to\ntransport children to the graded schools of the villages, where better classification, better\n\n"}
{"page": 521, "printed_page": null, "text": ": Council]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nS11\n\ngrading, and better teaching are the rule. This is done not so much from an economic\nstandpoint as because of the firm conviction that the children receive greater educational\nadvantages there than in the small, ungraded schools.\n\nThe number of children in the back districts is small, and growing less eyery year.\nWith few children and small classes there can be but little enthusiasm and progress.\n\nThe leading arguments in favor of the movement are :\n1. It permits a better grading of the schools and classification of pupils. Consolidation allows pupils to be placed where they can work to the best advantage; the various\nsubjects of study to be wisely selected and correlated, and more time to be given to recitation.\n2. It affords an opportunity for thorough work in special branches, such as drawing,\nmusic, and nature study.\n\nIt also allows an enrichment in other lines.\n\n3. It opens the doors to more weeks of schooling and to schools of a higher grade.\nThe people in villages almost invariably lengthen the school year and support a high\n\nschool for advanced pupils.\n4. It insures the employment and retention of better teachers.\nTeachers in small,\nungraded schools are usually of limited education, training, or experience, or are past the\nage of competition.\nThe salaries paid in cities and villages allow a wide range in the\nselection of teachers.\n5. It makes the work of the specialist and supervisor far more effective.\nTheir plans\nand efforts can all be concentrated into something tangible.\n_\n6. It adds the stimulating influences of large classes, with the resulting enthusiasm\nand generous rivalry. The discipline and training obtained are invaluable.\n\n7. It affords the broader companionship and culture that come from association.\n8. It results in a better attendance of pupils, as proved by experience in towns where\nthe plan has been thoroughly tried.\ng. It leads to better school buildings, better equipment, a larger supply of books,\ncharts, maps, and apparatus.\nAll these naturally follow a concentration of people, wealth,\nand effort, and aid in making good schools. The large expenditure implied in these better\nappointments is wise economy, for the cost per pupil is really much less than the cost in\nsmall and widely separated schools.\n10. And, again, it quickens public interest in the schools.\nPride in the quality of the\nwork done secures a greater sympathy and better fellowship throughout the town.\nMr. Edson reports that the following objections have been made in Massachusetts :\n1. Depreciation of property; decreased valuation of farms in districts where schools\nare closed.\n2. Dislike to send young children to school far from home, away from the oversight\nof parents; and to provide a cold lunch for them rather than a warm dinner.\n3. Danger to health and morals; children obliged to travel too far in cold and stormy\nweather; obliged to walk a portion of the way to meet the team, and then to ride to school\nin damp clothing and with wet feet; unsuitable conveyance and uncertain driver; association with so many children of all classes and conditions; lack of proper oversight during the noon hour.\n4. Insufficient and unsuitable clothing; expense to parents of properly clothing their\nchildren.\n5. Difficulty of securing a proper conveyance on reasonable terms, or, if the parent\nis allowed compensation, of agreeing upon terms satisfactory to both parties, parents and\ntown officials.\n6. Local jealousy; an acknowledgment that some other section of the town has\ngreater advantages and is outstripping any other locality.\n7. Natural proneness of some people to object to the removal of any ancient land-\n\n"}
{"page": 522, "printed_page": null, "text": "/\n\n512\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nmark or to any innovation, however worthy the measure\nwhere.\nTo these\nreplies:\n\nobjections\n\nMr. Edson, who is one\n\n[National\n\nor however well received else-\n\nof the most\n\ncompetent\n\nof authorities,\n\nThe first one is more imaginary than real, for any level-headed man with children to\nbe educated will place a higher value on the quality of the schools and the school spirit in\nExperience has\nthe community than upon the number and accessibility of the schools.\ndemonstrated the fact that property in towns committed to this plan has appreciated rather\nthan depreciated in value.\nThe second and third objections are the most serious.\nIt behooves school authorities\nto see that the danger is reduced toa minimum.\nSuitable conveyances, covered, should\nbe provided, and competent, careful drivers selected.\n\nNo risks should be taken.\n\nDuring\n\nthe noon hour some teacher should remain with the children who carry luncheon.\nThe fourth, fifth, and sixth objections have no great weight.\nThe last one has great\ninfluence with those people who choose to live, move, and die as did their ancestors, on the\n\ntheory that this is the last generation, and that any special efforts at improvement are just\nso much more than is wise or necessary.\n\nIII. The experiment in consolidation now in progress in northeastern Ohio is of such\ninterest and promise as to warrant extracts from the annual reports for 1895-96 of the two\n\nsuperintendents who have been most prominent inthe work.\nThis recent movement may\nhave an interest for some minds that earlier movements would not possess.\n1. Extracts from the report of Mr. F. E. Morrison, Superintendent of Kingsville,\nAshtabula county:\nThe new school system, which is known as the Kingsville system of education, has\nbeen formulated and introduced with marked success.\nBy this system the pupils of the subdistricts are given the same advantages for\nobtaining an education as the village pupils, and this result has been obtained without\nworking any disadvantage to the village pupils, for we have been enabled to open a new\nroom and supply another teacher in the village schools, thus reducing the number of grades\nin each room and giving all the pupils better school advantages.\nWe have sufficient room\nyet for several more pupils without crowding the rooms.\nThe pupils of the subdistricts have not only been given the advantage of more\nextended associations and larger classes with which to recite, but they have also the\nadvantages of a school where the teacher has fewer recitations and can give more time\nand attention to each recitation; thus the pupil’s progress is much more rapid than is\npossible in a school where there are three times as many classes and one-sixth the number\nof pupils. It is a fact that the work of the teacher depends more upon the number of\nclasses to recite than the number of pupils in attendance.\nIt is a pleasure indeed to note\nthat the attendance in the subdistricts that have availed themselves of the new system\nhas increased from 50 to 150 per cent. in some cases, and a larger increase in all cases;\nthe daily attendance in the same subdistricts has increased from 50 or 60 per cent. to 90\nor 95 per cent., thus increasing greatly the returns from the school fund invested.\nThis\nhas been accomplished at a saving of more than one thousand dollars to the taxpayers in\nthe three years.\nThe board of education and citizens of Kingsville are to be congratulated for their\nprogressive and energetic spirit in being pioneers in formulating and placing in operation a system of education superior to any in the state of Ohio, and which is to be the\nsystem of the future. The board of education has been enabled, under the new school\n\nlaw, to conduct its financial matters by better business methods, buying its supplies in\nquantities and letting its contracts on competitive bids, and by centralizing the schools,\nthus saving many needless expenses.\n\n"}
{"page": 523, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nRURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n513\n\nSince the schools were centralized the incidental expenses have decreased from $800\nto $1,100 per year, to from $400 to $600 per year. All other expenses have also decreased,\nwhich may be seen from the following table compiled from the clerk’s records:\nEXPENDITURES\n\nOF\n\n1889-90,\n1890-91,\n\nTHE\n\n-\n\nBOARD\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n1893-94,\n\n1894-95,\n\nZ\n=\n\n-\n\n-\n\n:\ni\n\n-\n\nTotal for three years,\n\n2\n\n-\n\nBu\n\n-\n\n$10,147.82\n\n:\nFf\n\nOwe\n\n3,183.54\n\n-\n\n-\n\n0.\n\n$3,248.05\n\n-\n\n:\n\nTotal for three years,\n\n1892-93,\n\nKINGSVILLE,\n\n-\n\n-\n\n=\n\n-\n\n=\n\n:\n\n1891-92,\n\nOF\n\n.\n\n-\n\n$3,153.44\n*\n\n-\n\n-\n\n3,072.73\n\n2,831.20\n$9,057.37\n\nIn giving these figures we have deducted the $600 with interest which was borrowed\n\nin 1889, and has been paid during the past three years.\nIt should be mentioned also that the permanent improvements made by the board of\neducation during the past three years are nearly double the amount made during the\npreceding three years.\n2. Extracts from the report of Mr. J. R. Adams, Superintendent of Madison township, Lake county:\nIn my report to the board one year ago I called attention to the very low average\nattendance in some of our schools, the great expense per capita of educating the pupils\nin those small schools, and to the fact that, on account of the lack of interest and enthu-\n\nsiasm therein, good results could not be obtained, and suggested the plan of consolidation\nas the proper solution to the difficulties.\nActing upon my suggestion, the board, having in view only the best interest of the\nchildren for whom our schools exist, voted to consolidate three subdistricts at North\nMadison, No. 16 and No. 3 with No. 12, and also three at Unionville, No. Io and No. 11\n\nwith No. 4, arrangements being made with the school board of Harpersfield township\nwhereby the pupils of Subdistrict No. 1, of said township, might attend the school at\nUnionyille upon payment by the board of education of Harpersfield to the board of\neducation of Madison township the sum of $140 tuition.\nOur school opened with two teachers and with an attendance of ninety-three pupils.\nThis was certainly more than the number for which we had planned, and was a great\nsurprise to me, for from No. 10, in which subdistrict there had been the previous year an\nattendance of only ten pupils, there came eighteen; from No. 11, in which there had been\nan attendance of only eight pupils, there came eighteen, and from the Harpersfield district,\nin which there had been an attendance of fourteen pupils, there came twenty-three. The\nnumber of pupils enrolled in this school was 107, with an average attendance of seventythree.\nHaving tried the new plan for a year, it is no longer an experiment, but an experience\nwith us; therefore, let us now candidly look at the results.\nFirst, I wish you. to know\nwhat the patrons of the consolidated school think of the plan, and then to give you, as\nbriefly as I can, some of my own observations.\nAll the patrons in the school of Sub-\n\ndistrict No. 10 of Madison,\n\nand in Subdistrict No.\n\n1 of Harpersfield, have signed a\n\npaper stating that they are well pleased with the plan and its results, and asking their\nrespective boards to continue the plan another year. While there has been no canvass at\nUnionville, Subdistrict No. 4, to ascertain what the people there think of the plan, yet,\nfrom what I have heard, 1 am confident that they are unanimous in its support. The\nforegoing represents the opinion of patrons who send eighty-nine of the 107. pupils to\nthis school. A large majority of the patrons in Subdistrict No. 11, who send eighteen\n\n"}
{"page": 524, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n514\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n[National\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nbeing\nof the 107 pupils to the school in question, have publicly expressed themselves as\neducadissatisfied with the plan, and that under it their children have not received the\nFurther comment is unnecessary.\ntional advantages which they ought to have received.\nFollowing are some of the good results which have come under my personal observation :\n1. A much larger per cent. of enumerated pupils enrolled.\n2. No tardiness among the transported pupils.\n3. Irregular attendance reduced, the per cent. of attendance of transported pupils\nfrom two subdistricts being each 94 per cent., the highest in the township.\n4. Pupils can be better classified and graded.\n5. No wet feet or clothing, nor colds resulting therefrom.\n6. No quarreling, improper language, or improper conduct on the way to and from\nschool.\n7. Pupils under the care of responsible persons from the time they leave home in the\nmorning until they return at night.\n8. Pupils can have the advantage of better schoolrooms, better heated, better ventilated,\n\nand better supplied with apparatus, etc.\ng. Pupils have the advantage of that interest, enthusiasm, and confidence which large\n\nclasses always bring.\n10. Better teachers can be employed, hence better schools.\n11. The plan insures more thorough and complete supervision.\n12. It is more economical.\nUnder the new plan the cost of tuition per pupil on the\nbasis of total enrollment has been reduced from $16 to $10.48; on the basis of average\ndaily attendance, from $26.66 to $16.07.\n\nThis\n\nstatement\n\nis for the\n\npupils\n\nin said Sub-\n\ndistricts Nos. 10 and It.\n13. A trial of this plan of consolidating our schools kas satisfied me that it is a step\nin the direction toward whatever advantages a well-graded and well-classified school of\nthree or four teachers has over a school of one teacher with five to eight grades, and with\nabout as much time for each recitation as is needed to properly assign the next lesson.\nI am now more thoroughly convinced than ever before that consolidation, or centralization, as it is sometimes called, is the true solution to the country-school problem.\n\nIn a private letter, of recent date, Mr. Adams says, since his report was made, consolidated schools have been established at two other points in Madison, at one place four\nschools, at the other three, each with two teachers.\nThis makes five in the township (which\nis a very large one, owing to the “gore” onthe lake). Five teams are employed to\ntransport pupils, at a cost of about $1 a day fora team. Every conveyance carries about\neighteen pupils. There is no trouble in transporting the pupils, even the youngest, three\nand a half miles, which is the greatest distance.\nIn 1895 there were eighteen schools in\nMadison, with an average attendance of 217; in 1896 the number was fourteen, with an\n\naverage of 260; this year there are ten schools, with an average that will reach over 300.\nThe total expense will be about the same in this township as under the old plan, but the\ncost per pupil will be much less. Mr. Adams adds that the new plan is rapidly growing\nin the neighborhood, and the belief is spreading that the new system is sure to prevail\ngenerally in northeastern Ohio.\n3. The following advertisement well illustrates the care that is taken in Madison\ntownship to secure suitable transportation for school children:\n\nNOTICE TO BIDDERS\nFOR\n\nTRANSPORTATION\n\nOF\n\nPUPILS\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nTOWNSHIP\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nBids for the transportation of pupils of the Madison township schools over the following routes will be received at the office of the township clerk until Friday, July 24\nat I2 M.:\n\n,\n\n"}
{"page": 525, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n515\n\n?\n\nRoute A. Beginning at County line on the North Ridge road and running west on\nsaid road to schoolhouse in Dist. No. 12.\n\nRoute B. Beginning at Perry line on the North Ridge road and running east”to\nschoolhouse in Dist. No. 12.\nRoute C. Beginning on Middle Ridge road at residence of N. Badger, running thence\nwest on said road\n\nto the residence\n\nof Rev. J. Sandford, thence\n\nnorth to schoolhouse\n\nin\n\nDist. No. 12.\nRoute D. Beginning at Perry line on River road, and running thence east on said\nroad to schoolhouse in Dist. No. 6.\nRoute E. Beginning at the Hartman farm, thence by Bennett road to Chapel road,\nthence east to A. R. Monroe’s, thence west on Chapel road to schoolhouse in Dist.\nNo. 13.\n\nRoute F. Beginning at residence of J. H. Clark and running east on Chapel road\nto schoolhouse in Dist. No. 13.\nAll whose bids are accepted will be required to sign a contract by which they agree :\n1. To furnish a suitable vehicle with sufficient seating capacity to convey all the\npupils properly belonging to their route, and acceptable to the committee on transportation.\n2. To\n\nand\n\nfurnishall\n\nin severe weather\n\nnecessary robes, blankets, etc., to keep the children\n\nthe conveyance\n\nmust\n\nbe properly heated\n\ncomfortable ;\n\nby oil stoves\n\nor soap\n\nstones.\n\n3. To provide a good and reliable team of horses, and a driver who is trustworthy,\n_and who shall have control of all the pupils while under his charge, and shall be responsible for their conduct.\nSaid driver and team to be acceptable to the said committee\non transportation.\n\n4. To deliver the pupils at their respective stations not earlier than 8:30 A.M. nor\nlater than 8:50 A.M., and to leave at 4:05 P. M. (sun time).\nEach contractor shall give bond for the faithful discharge of his contract in the sum\nof $100, with sureties approved by the president and clerk of the board.\nThe committee reserves the right to reject any and all bids.\nBy order of the committee.\nC. G. ENsIGN, Clerk.\n4. Hon. T. J. Clapp, an active business man of Geauga county, who has also done\ngood service in the legislature, makes a very flattering report of this work, in private letters\nto the chairman of the subcommittee.\nHe says the centralization movement is spreading\nrapidly; many townships are using it, and all are delighted with the result. The feeling\nis becoming common that the old district school does not “measure up” to the demands\nof the time, and that centralization is the only hope of giving to all the children the\neducational advantages which they need to keep pace with the city and town schools\nThe higher educational advantages are placed within the reach of all the children.\nThe\npupils riding three and four miles to reach school come to the schoolhouse in better\ncondition than those who walk only half a mile. Mr. Clapp remarks that in his township the old wooden schoolhouses have been abandoned, and a new brick schoolhouse has been built at the center of the town, at a cost of $6,000, large enough to held\nthe single township school.\n\nIV. The following reports the first transportation experiment in this country :\nWm. T. Harris, Commissioner of Education.\n\nMy pEAR\n\nDr. Harris:\n\nI received the draft of your report for rural schools; also\n\n:\nthe pamphlet in regard to carrying pupils, etc. I thank you for them very much.\nfrom\nreport\nthe\nof\ncopy\na\nyou\nsend\nand\npupils,\ncarrying\nof\nmatter\nthe\nup\nI looked\nthe town of Quincy for the years 1874 and 1875, signed by J. Q. Adams, Asa Wellington,\nI have no doubt but\nC. L. Badger, C. F. Adams, Jr., Wm. B. Duggan, and Jas. H. Slade.\n\n"}
{"page": 526, "printed_page": null, "text": "516\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nYou\nthat this is the first movement in the direction of carrying pupils in Massachusetts.\nwill notice that this is one year before my superintendency in Quincy. From the report\nof 1875 and 1876, my first report, are the following items, page 139 :\nLappan Bros., conveying children,\nJoseph T. French, Me\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n$129.00\n392.50\n\nFRANCIS W. PARKER.\nChicago, Ill., December 22, 1896.\n\nEXTRACT\n\nFROM\n\nSCHOOL\n\nREPORT,\n\nCRANE\n\nQUINCY,\n\nMASS.,\n\n1574-75.\n\nSCHOOL.\n\nA reference to former reports of the school committee of the town will show that for\n\nmany years the condition of the little school at Germantown has been steadily unsatisfactory.\n\nIsolated and small, classification was impossible, emulation unfelt, and enthusiasm\n\nabsent. Ten pupils ranged from the primer to the proper studies of a high school.\nThe\nmost conscientious teacher soon lost hope and energy in such surroundings.\nFor years\ncommittee after committee has striven in vain to afford a remedy. During the past\nsummer, the teacher, who has been\n\nlaboring there for a considerable\n\nperiod, declared her\n\nintention of resigning in despair. The committee, profoundly dissatisfied with the backwardness and lethargy of the school, was unable to assign the fault either to the teacher or\ntothe pupils. At the same time, it became evident that the school building was unfit for\noccupation during another winter without extensive repairs. It was indeed shamefully\ndilapidated, decayed, and dirty. Competent mechanics, after careful survey, estimated\nthe expense of necessary repairs to be at least five hundred dollars.\nBesides this extraordinary outlay, the regular expense in salary, care of house and fuel, incurred to maintain\nthis school of ten scholars, was $560 a year. And yet this large expense availed those\nten scholars but little or nothing.\n\nThe committee, therefore, determined\n\nto try by exper-\n\niment whether or not at one and the same time in this department the outlay might\nbe reduced and the returns increased.\nIt ascertained that it could contract for the\ntransportation of all the school children in that school district to the Coddington school for\nabout $420 yearly, and it thought it probable that when there they would be aroused\nand stimulated by the transfer to a large and graded school.\nThe result has fully justified\nits anticipations.\nThe whole number upon the register of the old Crane school was\ntwelve, and of these the average number of attendance was never more than ten. Now\nseventeen are daily transported to the Coddington school from the same territory; and so\ngreat has been their interest that the attendance among them has been almost absolutely.\nperfect. Meanwhile, both from the reports of teachers and from personal observation, the\ncommittee is thoroughly satisfied that they are making a progress in their studies which\nthey never had approached at Germantown.\nFor these reasons the committee thinks it\ndecidedly for the interest of the town, and clearly beneficial for the pupils concerned,\nthat the present experiment should be prolonged for at least a year more. It is persuaded\nthat this policy will approve its wisdom to those who are now most doubtful if it can be\nfairly tried. The day of small, ungraded, remote, and isolated schools in a town like\nQuincy has passed away. Only absolute necessity can now justify it. Even if the plan\nwe recommend was as much more costly as it is really less costly than the old one, we\nshould not hesitate to urge its acceptance as decidedly the cheaper and better.\n\nae\n\n"}
{"page": 527, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF THE\n\nENRICHMENT\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON RURAL\n\nAPPENDIX\n\nG.\n\nOF RURAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n517\n\nCOURSES.\n\nAt the Chicago meeting of the Committee on Rural Schools the undersigned were\nappointed a subcommittee to report, in the form of an appendix, a scheme for the enrichment and vitalization of the work of the rural schools by means of subjects drawn from\nrural life and surroundings.\nWe do not deem it our province to discuss the theory of the\n. rural-school programme, much less the broader problems of the country school. It may,\nhowever, conduce to a better appreciation of what we suggest if we frankly state at the\noutset the assumptions on which we have proceeded.\nWe take it for granted that the work of every school, rural or otherwise, should\nembrace subjects drawn from its environment and from the life of its pupils. We assume\n\nthat it should do this —\nBecause children should be taught to gather culture, knowledge, and inspiration from\neverything with which they come in contact;\nBecause children should acquire the habit of bringing to bear their knowledge and\ntheir mental powers upon every subject of thought that falls within their experience;\nBecause the study of the environment is especially effective in discipline and inspiration, since it is tangible, vivid, and impressive, and\n\nawakens\n\nstrong\n\nand\n\nclear\n\nconcepts,\n\n-and produces deep and lasting educational effects;\nBecause mental acquisitions thus associated with the environment will be constantly\nrevived by recurrent contact with it, and will thus be refreshed and kept alive and effective ;\n\nBecause the basis for a successful study of the unseen and the intangible is best laid\nin clear and strong impressions of things seen and realized;\nBecause the school work is thereby made directly serviceable to the work of life, the\nvalue of immediate and practical utility being added to the superior disciplinary and\ninspirational values ;\n\nBecause it puts life and soul into the work;\nBecause it serves as a bond of sympathy between\n\nthe out-of-school life and the in-\n\nschool life;\n\nBecause, in time (perhaps not at once, while inherited prejudices last), it will become\na bond of sympathy between the patrons of the school and the work of the school.\nWe assume that a rural school, to be a true vwva/ school, must take tone and color\nfrom rural surroundings, and must contribute directly to the enrichment and inspiration of\n\nrural life.\n\nWe believe that this will aid in giving meaning and’ attractiveness to life in\n\nthe country.\nThe following suggestions are offered in the hope that they may be helpful to teachers\nin making use of rural surroundings to enrich the work of country schools and to give\n\nvividness to the various formal studies. Our space being severely limited, it has seemed\nbest to develop a few topics with some little fullness and let these suggest the treatment\nwhich others may receive. Those which we have been forced to neglect are quite as\nimportant and as rich in good material as the ones more favored. All are treated too\nscantily. What is really needed is a series of primers or a manual carefully worked out,\nembracing information as well as suggestions. But perfected tools come only with a perfected trade. ‘The pioneer work must be done with poor implements. The progress of\nthe work will bring better facilities.\nWe shall certainly be met with the criticism that the suggested work is impracticable,\nthat the teachers cannot carry it out. This is far too true, but not wholly true. A success\n\n"}
{"page": 528, "printed_page": null, "text": "518\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nhere and there will be a center of education, and from such beginnings, even though they\nIt must start somewhere and somemay be small and scattered, the good work may grow.\n\nhow, or must have many little starts in many places and in many forms. This little appendix\ndoes not hope to be anything but a passing contribution to an evolution that must be long\nand doubtless slow. The gravest difficulty lies in the defective education of our teachers.\nTo remove this we would urge every normal school to give elaborate courses in the lines\nhere suggested, and to recognize in other ways that the rural\n\nproblem that must be solved in its own way.\n\nschool furnishes a distinct\n\nIt may be that the establishment of rural\n\nnormal schools is the mode of solution.\nWe would urge agricultural colleges to give short\ncourses on rural science for the special benefit of country teachers, and to educate the\npeople, through their institutes and by other means, to appreciate and to require the adap- ©\ntation of the rural schools to rural needs. We would urge upon the agricultural colleges\n\nthe adaptation and publication of matter,on rural science and rural economy suitable for\neducational uses.\nWe begin our suggestions with the surface features, partly because a study of them is\na natural foundation for that of the remaining environment, and partly because it is directly\ntributary to one of the leading formal studies.\n;\nI. STUDIES\n\nThese should\n\nUPON\n\nTHE\n\nSURROUNDING\n\nLANDSCAPE,\n\nbe found helpful (1) as a foundation for geography ; (2) as a basis for\n\nimagining the aspects of other regions which must be studied through maps, descriptions,\netc.; (3) as good material for oral and written descriptions, and hence as a basis for\nlanguage work; (4) as a means for the culture of the sense of the beautiful, thus furnishing\narational basis for modeling, painting, and drawing; (5) as a mode of teaching the significance of things usually regarded as meaningless; (6) as an unconscious introduction\nto geological processes, and (7) as an aid to understanding many matters of agricultural\ninterest.\n1. Surface Features, their Nature,\n\nOrigin, and Meaning.—Let\n\nthere be a general\n\nstudy of the landscape of the neighborhood and a series of talks upon it for the purpose\nof gaining a true conception of what a landscape really is, and of laying the ground-work\nfor comparisons with other parts of the face of the earth. The children should gain a\nvivid and definite idea of the nature of their own landscape as a type; if it be plain,\nwhether it be very plain or but partially so; if undulatory, whether it be gently or strongly\nundulatory; if hilly, whether gently or roughly hilly; if mountainous, whether of the\nrounded, the rugged, or the grand type.\n\nFrom the general survey of the landscape descend to its larger elements.\nNote and plot* the hills and valleys of the neighborhood, first taking up those near\nand then reaching out farther and farther, so that there shall be a gradual passage from\nthose that are familiar to those that are only occasionally or distantly seen.\nFrom these\nit will be a relatively easy step to those which must be wholly imagined. Thus the child\nis led out easily and naturally from his own environment to the general geography of the\nearth. In carrying this out, walks and occasionally more considerable excursions will\nintroduce the idea of travel and of the methods by which geography is made, and, if\nverbal and written descriptions, sketches and maps are required, the children are started\nright in their geographical work by being made young geographers themselves in a limited\n*It will be understood throughout that the work indicated should be done as largely\nas practicable and advisable by the children themselves, but the teacher will do well at\ntimes to lead them by example as well as instruction.\nThe special mode of carrying out\nthese suggestions must be left to the discretion and resources of the teacher.\nOur effort\n\nis only to point out certain main lines, which, of course, need not be followed closely.\n\nThe\n\nteacher will often find a different way preferable for himself, and will always find much to\nbe filled in, and perhaps more or less to be left out as not adapted to the particular school\nor to its surroundings.\n\n"}
{"page": 529, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n519\n\nsense.\nSeeing and learning thus just what geography is, experiencing for themselves just\nhow geography is constructed, they can use their text-books intelligently and appre\n\nciatively.\nFrom the general features descend to particulars.\nNote the way hills and valleys are\nrelated to each other. Are the valleys put in among the hills in any regular order or not?\n\nAs early as it may seem prudent raise the question of the origin of the hills and valleys,\nbut do not be too hasty about answering it. Let the children gradually work it out.\nWere the hills built up, or were the valleys cut out? Let them ponder upon this question\nand see if they do not find the answer to it in the hills and valleys themselves.\nIn leading up to this question, direct the children’s observation to what is actually taking place.\nAre the valleys being built up, or are they being cut down? What is happening in the valleys? What is happening on the roadside?\nSuggest to them to observe the gullies and\nto contrast the new gullies with the old gullies. How do the new gullies pass into the\nold gullies? What is the difference in form between the new and the old?\nWhich are\nmost like the valleys? JLead them on thus tu see how atrench may be gradually widened\nand rounded into a valley. Lead them to observe how tributary gullies arise along the\nsides of the principal ones, and how they grow by widening themselves and by eating\nback on either side. Lead them to see that, if such creeping backwards and such rounding of the slopes were extended long enough, they would result in little valleys separated by ridges. Lead them on to note how the tributary valleys by eating back may\nat length cut through the top of the ridge and divide it into hills, and by deepening\nseparate the hills more and more; and so on, step by step, until the children acquire a\n‘tangible conception of how valleys with intervening ridges, and, at length, intervening hills,\nare formed. From this miniature mode of forming a landscape it is an easy step to the\ncomprehension of the way in which the larger valleys and larger hills, that make up the\nlandscape around them, were produced.\nWhen this conception is fully acquired, a firm\nbasis has been reached for understanding the formation of landscapes generally. And not\nonly this, but the landscape comes to have a meaning where before it was quite meaningless, and it is the significance of the things by which we are surrounded that gives soul\nto intellectual life.\nReferences.\n\nAmerican Geographical Series.\nThe Report of the Committee of Ten.\nDavis on “Geography in the University,” Journal of Geology.\nThe Journal of School Geography.\nSee Appendix L for list of books.\n2. The Study of Streams.— Lead\n\nthe children\n\nto observe just how streams flow, how\n\nthe current plunges into one bank and then is turned about and plunges into the other\nbank ; how it cuts back the bank where it strikes it; how it digs down into the bottom in\ncertain places; how it heaps up material in other places, etc. As they observe, lead them\nto reason upon what they see and apply it to the study of maps. They will readily come to\nunderstand how the bends are made longer and why a stream meanders. They will thus be\nIn the region of the glacial drift there is often no regular relation between the hills\nand valleys, but in other regions the hills are generally (not always) simply that part of\nthe surface that has not been carried away in the wearing out of the valleys, and this idea\nthat the valleys are worn out by the wash of the land is the one to be implanted in the\nchildren’s minds, as it is the germ idea of the formation of most rolling surfaces. Insome\nplain regions the valleys have not been worn out enough to form hills, and we have only a\nplain with trenches cut into it. In such cases it will be very easy toshow the children how\nthe valleys have been formed by the streams and by the land wash. In the glacial regions\nthe hills and valleys may be quite irregular, and it may not always be easy to explain them,\n\nunless the teacher is exceptionally well informed on the subject.\n\n"}
{"page": 530, "printed_page": null, "text": "520\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nled to see the meaning of the tortuous courses of streams. Induce the children also to note\nthe work of temporary streams (e. g., after showers) along the roadsides, in the valleys,\nand on the slopes of the fields. Have them notice the wash from the surface of the land,\nLead them to note that this matter\nand thus lead on to the work of water transportation.\nlodges elsewhere, and thus approach to the work of deposit. By seeing when and how\nthis wash lodges they will understand the modes\n\nof deposition,\n\nthe formation of deltas,\n\nand the building of bars and spits in the streams, the formation of “ bottoms,” etc.\n\nTo approach the origin and maintenance of streams, direct the children to observe\nwhat takes place after a rain; if light or slow, that all water goes into the ground; if\nThe latter makes\nheavy and rapid, that some goes into the ground, but much runs away.\nDirect\nsurface streams, but they don’t last. Follow the water that goes into the ground.\nattention to underground water as shown by wells,and connect this with the rain that\nsoaks into the ground. Have the children bring together the depths of the wells at their\nRaise the question whether the wells go down as low as the neardifferent homes.\nest streams.\n(It will be found almost invariably that the water in the wells is higher\nthan in the adjacent streams, except in occasional flood stages.) Then draw out the general principle that the underground water is higherthan the streams, being only the rain\nwater on its slow way through the ground to the streams, and that it is this water which\nworks out to the surface in the low valleys and keeps up the supply of the living streams.\nThe dry valleys lie above this underground water, and hence they are not constantly filled.\nWater only runs in them after showers.\nThe wet valleys lie below the surface of the\nThe children\nunderground water, and hence it seeps out or comes forth in springs.\nwill easily understand how the seeping out makes bottom lands wet and marshy.*\nThe\nprinciples here brought out will be helpful later in settling questions of water supply,\ndrainage, etc.\n3. The Study of Soils— Incite the children carefully to examine the soil to see how\n\nitis made up. Have them wash some of it so as to separate the fine material from the\ncoarse.\nDirect attention to the natural assorting done by water in the gullies, on the\nslopes, and in the valleys, and how, on the other hand, fine mud is laid down in the “ bottoms” and elsewhere, and thus lead them to see how soils become coarser or finer according\n\nto conditions.\nIn most places it will be easy to find pieces or beds of rock partly decayed,\nand to show that this rotted rock is much the same as soil. From this they may be ledon\nto understand that soil is usually but decayed rock. This will be easily accomplished in\nregions where the rock lies but little below the soil and the latter graduates down into\ndecaying rock, showing the stages of the process. Induce them to note how the leaves,\ngrass, etc., decay and turn black, and thus lead them on to see that the dark\n\npart of the\n\nsoil comes chiefly from the decay of vegetation. Induce the children to observe the different qualities of soils in different situations ; the soils in the valleys, on the slopes, and on\nthe hilltops, and lead them to see how the wash of the surface affects the soil; also how\nthe vegetation affects the soil; and how the soil affects the vegetation.\nTeach them to\nnotice the difference between wet soils and dry soils; the swelling and softness when wet,\nthe shrinking and the hardness when dry; also the swelling when frozen and the softness\non thawing; the effects of the ants, worms, and burrowing animals in bringing bottom soil\n\nto the top, letting in air, etc.; likewise the effects of the roots of plants in opening up\nlittle tubules, which are often left open when the roots decay, and so lead on to the idea\nof porosity and of the penetration of the soil by air. With the older students the fact\nthat the air goes into the ground when the barometric pressure is great, and comes out\nwhen the barometric pressure is light, the “breathing of the soil,” may be taught, and its\nimportance urged. ‘Teach the children to observe the difference in the dryness of culti1 Much marshy land is, however, due to the catching of the surface waters\nthat have no sufficient outlet.\n\nin basins\n\n"}
{"page": 531, "printed_page": null, "text": "cert.\n\nCouncil]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF THE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n521\n\nvated and uncultivated soil, of hard soil and mellow soil; and so lead on to the utility of\nthe culture in permitting air and moisture to go in, etc.\nStarting again with decay of rocks, lead the children to see that some parts of the\nrocks do not decay readily, and hence bits are left, and that these are washed\n\nabout\n\nand\n\nform grains of sand or pebbles.\nLet them observe these and see that some are wellrounded and some are angular, according to the amount of wear, and thus the origin and\nThe rolling action of brooks and\nmeaning of sand or pebbles will become evident.\nrivers and of lake and seashores will be manifest.\nWith a thermometer interesting\nexperiments on the temperature of soils when wet and dry, when hard and when mellow,\nwhen stirred and unstirred, etc., can be made.\n\nReferences +\n\n“The Soil,” by F. H. King.\nThe Macmillan Co.\n“Rock-Weathering and Soils,” by George Merrill...\n“The Formation of Vegetable Mold,” by Charles\nSee also Appendix L.\nII,\n\nAPPLICATIONS\n\nOF\n\nLANDSCAPE\n\nThe Macmillan Co.\nDarwin.\n\nSTUDIES.\n\nThe study of the features of the landscape may be followed by a study of their influence on human affairs, and on the distribution of plants and animals.\nThe following are\nsome of the lines along which this may be carried out:\n1. The Location of Homes.— Relative merits of different situations, such as summits,\nslopes, valleys, etc.; of different exposures, as southerly, northerly, etc.; of different relations to woods, openings, outlooks, etc.; of relations to springs, streams, and other bodies\n\nof water; of access to highways or to the several parts of the farm, and the bearing of the\nsurface features on such communications.\nDo the sites of the later dwellings-differ from\nthe earlier?\n\nAre there discernible reasons for change ? What determined\n\nof the material of the first generation of houses?\ncessive\n\nDoes the material\n\nthe selection\n\nchange with suc-\n\ngenerations, and, if so, why ?\n\n2. The Location of Roads.— How far are they influenced by surface features?\nHow\nfar by other considerations ? Distinguish wise and unwise locations. What isthe effect of\nwash, drainage, etc.? What changes of location or of method of maintenance may be\nrecommended ?\n3. The Location of Adjacent Towns and Villages.— Study the reasons for their particular\n\nsituations.\nWhat bearing had natural means of transportation, roadway crossings, river\nfords or bridges, special agricultural or mineral resources, mill sites and like features upon\ntheir location?\nDo the dates of their founding, the rates of their growth and other features of their history show wisdom or unwisdom in their location?\nNote the bearings of\ntheir location on the interests of the surrounding country.\n4. Development\n\nof the Region\n\nas Affected by its Environment.—Study\n\nthe\n\nnature\n\nof adjacent manufactories and the reason for their location.\nWhat class was first developed, what later, what changes have taken place ? Has there been increase or decline,\nand what is its meaning?\nWhat is their importance and the value of their products?\nHow do they affect the rural interests? What sources of power are used and what remain\nstill unused ? Note the favorable and unfavorable features in the physical conformation;\nthe presence of mines, quarries, the facilities for transportation by roadways, streams,\n\ncanals, railways, etc., and their bearing upon the development of the region.\n5. Social and Civil Life of the People as Affected by Surrounding Physical Features.—\n\nAre the physical surroundings favorable to social gatherings and sociallife ? Do the surface features lead to sparseness of dwellings, roundabout and difficult roads, or the oppo-\n\nsite?\n\nDo they make the earning ofa living easy and give time for social intercourse, for\n\neducation, etc. ? How do they affect the character of the people, etc. ?\n\n"}
{"page": 532, "printed_page": null, "text": "522\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\n6. The Distribution of Vegetation as Influenced by Surface Features.— Sketch the\nNote the effects of slopes, drainage, soils,\ntimbered, prairie, marsh, and “ bottom” areas.\n\netc., upon these. How do the physical conditions affect the roots, stems, leaves, and general forms of plants? Note the adaptation of different areas to different crops; also the\nadaptation of the region to different kinds of industry, e. g., grazing, grain raising, etc.\nNote the changes in vegetation and compare the original with the present vegetation.\nDiscuss\n\nthe removal\n\nof forests.\n\nWhere\n\nwas\n\ntimber\n\nfirst removed,\n\nand\n\nwhat\n\ntimber?\n\nNote the earlier and the later uses of timber supply,\nWhere is it now reserved and why?\nand the variation of prices and of uses of timber.\nIll.\n\nTHE\n\nSTUDY\n\nOF ATMOSPHERIC\n\nPHENOMENA.\n\nIna manner analogous to the foregoing all the features of the air and sky wethin the\nobservation of the children may be treated with interest and profit ; the air itself, the winds,\nthe clouds, rain, snow, hail, thunder, lightning, heat, cold, dew, evaporation, etc.\nThe\nkeynote should be observation, followed by inquiry, reading, reasoning, forecast, etc.\n\nThe systematic prediction of tomorrow’s weather\n\nat the close of each day will greatly\n\nstimulate acute observation of delicate features of cloud, wind, etc., and wil] build up that\n\njudgment of weather which is so important to the farmer.\nIt is urged that teachers secure from the nearest weather bureau station\n\nthe daily weather maps, and copies of the monthly summaries\n\ncopies of\n\nof the weather and crop\n\nconditions of the United States.\nA careful study of these maps and summaries, szpf/ementing the pupils’ own daily observations, will form a good basis for other geographic\n\nstudy. The data furnished by the Weather Bureau are particularly valuable for several\nreasons: (1) They are collected by trained observers; (2) the stations are so distributed\nas to fairly represent the whole country; (3) observations are uniformly and regularly\nmade every-day at allstations; (4) the various meteorological conditions are automatically\nrecorded by instruments of precision, insuring great accuracy of detail; (5) the various\ndata are appropriately represented daily upon one map which, thus, day by day presents\na clear picture of the climatic and crop conditions of the whole country.\nBy these means the pupils will be much interested in working out the relative amounts\nof rainfall, cloudiness, and sunshine; also the average and the extremes of temperature\nfound in the areas and belts devoted to the great crops, as wheat, corn, oats, tobacco, cotton,\n\nand sugarcane\n‘The relative amounts of rain, cloudiness, and sunshine for the seasons\nmay be readily determined.\n‘The incidents of the season in the localities where the pupils\nlive frequently afford excellent opportunity for forming a picture of other localities far\nremoved from theirown.\n‘Thus a study of the character of the rain and the clouds in\nwinter gives a basis for picturing arctic regions, and the same study in summer an\nequally sound basis for picturing tropical regions. For example, in June, 1892, there was\na fall of nearly eleven inches of rain at Chicago; with the summer temperature, an almost\ntropical verdure was the result.\nIn September and October in Chicago, in 1891, the rainfall was about two-thirds of an inch; this closely approximated the average precipitation\nin Arizona, and, when considered in connection with the unusually high temperature of the\nyear, it became an easy matter forthe pupils to picture desert conditions and modes of\n\ndesert formation.\n\nBy similar means the study is capable of almost indefinite expansion.\nIV.\n\nTHE\n\nSTUDY\n\nOF\n\nPLANT\n\nLIFE.\n\nIn like manner, the plants of the region may be treated. The purpose here, as before\nis not so much to learn adou¢ plants as to come into actual intellectual contact with them\nby observation, interest, sympathy, and appreciation. Not only should the plants be\nobserved in all their parts and functions, but their history, mode of propagation, preferences for soil, topographic situations, exposures, etc., should be studied. The association\nof plants with one another—“ plant societies” —are especially interesting and profitable\n\n"}
{"page": 533, "printed_page": null, "text": "a\nil\n5\n\nCouncil]\n\nREPORT\n\nfor study.\n\nThe\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\ncultivated\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nas well\n\nas\n\nthe\n\nnative\n\nON RURAL\nplants\n\nshould\n\nSCHOOLS\nbe included,\n\n523\nand the\n\nreasons for cultivating some plants and neglecting or warring against others afford large\npossibilities of interest.\nAs farming is essentially plant culture, the vital relations of\nsuch studies are evident, if carried out on the right lines. The old-fashioned botany, the\ngrinding out of the Latin names by an “analytical key,” is not at all the thing here\nurged, but direct inquiry into the nature, life, habits, functions, associations, and\n\nservices\n\nof plants.\nTo give a more concrete idea of what we have in mind, the following is offered as\nan illustration.\nIt is not set up as a model.\nThere are many ways of reaching like\nresults.\n1. Growth from the Seed.— With several seeds (beans, for example) in the hands of\neach pupil, invite a careful inspection of their surfaces, as a first step. Write upon the\nboard a list of things observed, e. g., (1) stem scar (hilum), (2) small dot on one side of\nhilum where pollen tube entered to fertilize the seed (micropyle), (3) ridge on side of hilum\nopposite from micropyle (radicle), (4) one end of bean has different slope from the other,\n(5) a light line or ridge extending longitudinally around the seed, etc. Request pupils to\nbring other varieties of beans, and see how many of the observed points are common to\nthem all. Asa training in the exact use of words in oral expression, require the pupils to\ndescribe precisely what has been observed.\nAs a training in written language, require\nthe pupils to write out what has been seen.\n‘This will react to zz¢ensify the seeing.\nTo introduce the quantitative element, let a pint cup, or a straight-sided bottle, or a\nglass be exactly half-filled with beans, and mark the surface of the beans with a string or\nrubber band.\nNow fill the vessel with water and put in a warm place for twenty-four\nhours.\nSet some pupil to watch the first stages of change, and charge him to be able to\nstate the next day just what they were.\nOn the next day measure the amount of change\nin volume. What has caused this change?\nIf the water put in was first accurately measured or weighed (and every country school should have means of measuring and weighing), pour out what remains and measure it. Compute the difference. Compare the loss\nof the water with the increaseof the beans. What has become of the water? By what\nmeans have the beans grown?\nHere are the first steps of growth.\nDistribute the swollen beans among the pupils, and let them again look for the points\nobserved in the dry bean. Have any disappeared?\nHave others appeared? Have any\nchanged in character?\nLet the skin be removed.\nWhat features previously noted are\nremoved with it? Do you now see an explanation of any features noted on the outside?\nCarefully note the two seed leaves (cotyledons), the radicle, and the now very evident first\ntwo leaves. Study the pea, pumpkin seed, and corn in the same manner.\nAs a next step, fit two layers of thick cloth to the inside of a round pie tin. Wet\nthese pieces of cloth and place between them some of the seeds which have been studied,\nand turn the two pie tins together to prevent evaporation (which introduced a slight error\nin the experiment above). Place these in a warm place to germinate, noting the temperature.\nEncourage some pupil to repeat the experiment in a place where the temperature is between 32° and 45°, recording the temperature from time to time.\nUrge another\nto try the experiment, using cloths wrung out very dry. Compare results to find out the\n\neffects of heat and moisture.\n\nTry different seeds to see what differences of conditions\n\nthey require. These are capital experiments which fix the foundation principles of mois' ture and temperature in plant growth.\n\nWhen these tests have sufficiently advanced, urge the boys and girls to request permission to test the germinatory power of the seeds which their parents expect to plant in\nthe spring. (This seed study is best done from February to April.) Place 100 seeds of a\ngiven kind under the conditions described, and note how many sprout in three, four,\nfive, etc., days.\n\nAll seeds should be tested before planting, and this is practical work\n\n"}
{"page": 534, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n524\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nwhich, if rightly done, will be appreciated by parents as being immediately useful as well\nas instructive and disciplinary.\n2. Growth from Buds.—When vegetation begins to start in the spring, make an excurClip sprigs of the Balm\nsion at noon or after school to gather specimens of large buds.\nof Gilead, cottonwood, or hickory, set them in water and study in the manner of the bean,\n\nand so reach the fundamental idea that the bud and the seed are in nature much the same.\nPick off the scales one by one until the leaves are reached, inquiring what the scales are\nfor;\n\nwhat\n\nthe cotton;\n\nwhat the varnish.\n\nCount the number of true leaves, and then go\n\na little later to the trees again and see how many leaves the shoots from similar buds then\nhave. Are they the same in number as in the buds?\nOr have new ones formed?\nWhen\nwere these buds formed? Why were they formed the year before? Let the children\nponder over these questions.\nStudy the arrangement of buds and of leaves on the stems.\nLead the children\nto discover the law that buds and leaves are placed as far apart on the stem as possible,\nand in a symmetrical order. Lead them to discover that this order places the leaves\nwhere there is the least shading, where the movements of sap up and down feed all\nleaves and branches quite equally, so that the stem will be equally loaded on all\nsides. Let them learn to distinguish fruit buds from leaf buds. Have them explore the\ngardens and orchards to see if there is an abundance of fruit buds.\nTeach them to distinguish between live and dead buds, particularly in regard to fruit trees. All this should\nbe done with a definite educational purpose, in which the utility of the knowledge has\nalso a clear recognition.\nReferences:\n\n“Principles of Plant Culture,” Professor C. S. Goff.\n\nPublished by the author, Madi-\n\nson, Wis.\n\n“Flowers in Relation to Insects.”\n\nThe Macmillan Co.\n\nGray’s Botany.\nBessey’s Botany.\nSee also list in Appendix L.\nV.\n\nTHE\n\nSTUDY\n\nOF\n\nANIMAL\n\nLIFE,\n\nAlong essentiaily the same lines the animal life may be treated.\nHere a new and\nimportant factor enters, conscious life, and this affords a most fruitful field for educating\nthe sympathies and moral sentiments of the children.\nNothing so contributes to a real\nand vital (not merely sentimental) sympathy with living things other than ourselves as a\ncareful study of their lives and habits. The child comes to see the world as they see it,\nand to appreciate and sympathize with them in their efforts to work out the purposes of\ntheir lives. And even if these purposes strike across human interests, the sympathy\nwill not be entirely absent, and cruelty will grow more and more rare as sympathetic\neducation progresses. The education of the sympathies finds little space in the formal\nschool programme, and hence the special value of utilizing the opportunity here afforded.\nThere are several other topics which may be treated in like manner, as mensuration\nin its application to land measurements, etc., various phases of economics as applied to\nrural affairs, the social and civic aspect of country life, etc.\nWe respectfully submit the foregoing suggestions, fully conscious of their limitations,\nin the hope that some little helpfulness may be found in them.\nT. C. CHAMBERLIN,\nW. S. JACKMAN,\n\nF. H. Kine,\nCommittee.\n\n"}
{"page": 535, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF THE\n\nA COURSE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nOF STUDY\n\nFOR\n\nON RURAL\nRURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n525\n\nSCHOOLS.\n\nA course of study for country school children should be framed with direct reference\nto the actual conditions that prevail in country life and, in large measure, determine it.\n\nAmong the most important points to be kept in mind are the following :\n1. There ts a general lack of appreciation of the immediate surroundings.\n\nThis is not peculiar to country people; it is simply a fact in the country, as it is in\nthe city. Education can confer no greater boon than that of showing how the real pleasures of life may be derived from one’s own immediate surroundings, and from the work\nhe is called upon to perform.\n2.\n\nThere is an almost total lack of scientific skill in farm\n\nwork.\n\nThe prejudice against farm machinery has been extremely strong. Farmers have\nbeen forced into using it because other vocations have drawn away the help that formerly\nwas depended upon for hand labor. The treatment of the soil is, in the extreme,\nunscientific.\nThe American farmer, in this respect, is scarcely ahead of the Chinese;\nhis unscientific methods have made him the target of every caricaturist.\nIn this, and in\na score of other ways, the farmer pays the penalty of his ignorance.\n3. Ln the country there is great dearth of social life.\n\nThis, more than hard work, deprives the country of its strength.\nBad roads are\nlargely responsible for the present social condition.\nIn many places farmers, and\nespecially the wives and daughters, live in dreary isolation for more than half the year,\n\n‘because no means of travel yet invented will master the mud of country roads. To properly recognize the foregoing conditions, therefore, it would seem that a course of study\nshould contemplate three lines of interest :\n1. Jn the earlier years, especially, great attention should be given to the picturesqueness\nand natural beauty of the surroundings.\n\nWithout trained and careful effort in this direction, the intensely practical character\nof their contact with the various things about them will close the eyes of the children to\nmany beautiful things that should be a source of joy and pleasure throughout life. Much\nout-door study should, therefore, be encouraged.\n‘The children should be familiar with\nevery brook and waterfall; with every cliff, wooded copse, and ravine. The hills, cloud-\n\ncapped, basking in sunshine or glistening with snow, should be permitted to work their\nsilent influences into the children’s lives. The country pupils are not naturally insensible\ntowards these scenes; but the usual tendency of school life is to belittle and destroy all\nkinship that the children may originally feel for the beautiful.\nAs an adjunct in this\nphase of study, drawing, painting, and modeling should hold at least equal place with\nreading, in these early years.\n2. To supply the demand for scientific skill a good deal of attention should be given to:\n\n(1) Mechanics.— Pupils should be taught enough of practical mechanics to enable\nthem to ward off the legion of fakirs that beset the farmer with their labor-saving (?)\ndevices.\n(2) Manual Training.—Scarcely a day in a farmer’s life passes when there is not\nsome demand made for skilled hand work with tools. The “stitch in time” on the farm\nis frequently fatally delayed when it involves a trip to a neighboring mechanic.\n\n(3) Mathematics.— The farmer suffers more loss today from his ignorance in this subject than any other. Bookkeeping, as applied to farm accounts, should be carefully taught.\nTaking the amount of money at stake on the farm into account, no other business in the\nAs a natural result, there is infinite\nworld tries to get along with so little bookkeeping.\nThe time has come when the farmer must\nwaste ina hundred ways that are unnoticed.\nlearn the lesson that the merchant already knows, that, if he is to gather a competence,\nor even earn a livelihood, it must be done by a careful saving of sma// margins of profits\n\n"}
{"page": 536, "printed_page": null, "text": "*\n\n526\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nupon all the things with which he may work, instead of by large gains upon a few things.\nFew farmers, simply because no accounts are kept, realize that badly stacked hay and\ngrain, poorly fed stock\n\nand illy cultivated felds result in actual cash loss, just as surely as\n\nthough the money were spent at the gaming table. The arithmetic of the farm account\nwould be of incalculable value to the farm boy if he learned nothing else. The study of\nEvery farm boy should\nform and elementary geometry should be made very prominent.\nHe should know how to “run a\nbe taught the elements of trigonometry and surveying.\n\nline,” and how to lay off fields so that the same may be worked to the greatest advantage.\n\nHe should be taught how to lay out roadways at proper grade, and how to make them.\nNothing would hasten the era of good roads more than to show the farmer how much loss\nin actual cash may be charged to bad ones, through loss in harness, vehicles, horseshoes,\nhorses, and time.\né\n(4) Biology—To show the splendid opportunity before every farmer of intelligence\nfor study in this field, it is only necessary to cite the fact that it was by a close study of\ndomesticated animals and plants that Darwin was able to probe the mysteries of life more\nprofoundly than any before him. It is by no means necessary that the farm boy should\nstudy the sunshine only to find its value in pounds of beef; by the nature of the case\nhe is, if intelligent, brought into closer touch with the great problems of life and energy\nthan any other being. It would broaden, not diminish, the scope of this interest if from\nboyhood he were to learn everything possible about the care and scientific feeding of\nanimals;\n\nif he were to learn exactly, for example, how to feed for beefsteak, and how to\n\nfeed for butter, with the greatest economy.\nThe study of plants would furnish an interesting analogy.\nThe selection of seed; the cultivation of crops with due reference to\nroots and top; planting, care, and grafting of fruits; the relative value of forage, grain,\nand other crops, and many similar topics, are subjects for exhaustless study, every hour\ndevoted to which would bring actual cash returns, and at the same time furnish a broad\nbasis for an understanding of the plant world.\n(5) Meteorology and Physics of the Atmosphere.—\nBy a careful study of the maps\n\nand,\n\nother materials supplied by the United States Weather Bureau, every farm boy should\nlearn something of the nature of the great storms that are likely to visit his region.\nA\ncareful study of the weather maps, supplemented by good collateral fcadins, would leave\nvery little to be desired in his geography.\n(6) Mineralogy.— The composition, the origin, and the treatment of soils, how\n\ntheir\n\nproductiveness may be renewed and conserved.\nThe relation of the soil to the underlying rock. The origin and relative value of the native rock. The geological history of the\ncountry.\n\n(7) Chemistry.—A practical knowledge\nthe soils, plants, and animals.\n\nof the principal elements which enter into\n\nThe chemistry of foods.\n\nThese subjects should be presented not only from the economic, but also from the more\nstrictly scientific or philosophic side. Because “Man shall not live by bread alone,” he has\n\nalways despised the science of bread\n\nfor bread’s\n\nsake.\n\nCountry children, as well as\n\nall others, must be allowed to have an insight into the deeper and more general problems\nof creation if they are to be satisfied with their work. An intelligent study of nature from\nthe economic standpoint inevitably involves a study from the scientific side also.\nIt would\n\nbe a service of inestimable value to the rural schools, and, for that matter,\n\nto schools everywhere, if the many government publications bearing upon the studies of\nnature could be placed in libraries easily accessible to teachers and pupils. The best of\n\nthese should be in every schoolhouse as books of reference. These works are worth a great\ndeal more than many of the text-books that are far more pretentious.\n\n3. If the country is ever to acquire that refinement which the human being feels it is\nhis right to possess, it must grow it. There are those who believe that, some time, the\n\n"}
{"page": 537, "printed_page": null, "text": ")on\n..\n\nCouncil]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nRURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n527\n\ngreat tide of youth that is now pouring in upon our cities will turn back upon itself, and\nthus carry to the country the culture that the soil could not of itself produce.\nIt is not to\nbe. Those who are once engulfed in the vortex of the city never go back; and if their children or children’s children are by some chance cast out upon the country, they must\nbegin life afresh, as did the primeval man.\nCertain physical conditions that now prevail in the country must be improved, or social\nprogress will be forever stayed. The chief of these obstructive conditions is the unspeakable\n\nsystem\n\nof roadmaking.\n\nsolve the problem\n\nGood\n\nof country life.\n\nroads, with their natural segwele, would\n\npractically\n\nThey would mean hours of social intercourse instead\n\nof hours of dreary, monotonous solitude.\nThey would mean free delivery of goods from\nthe stores in towns.\nThey would mean free and daily delivery of mail. Better have threeor even four-cent postage, if necessary, with free delivery every day, than one-cent postage\nand the “catch-as-catch-can” delivery of the present time. Good roads would mean the\nrapid extension of the troJley-car system, which would reduce to the minimum the labor of\nexchange of commodities between one locality and another, and between country and\ntown.\nAs in the city the attention of children is being directed more and more to\nmunicipal affairs, so in the country let the children study practically all these conditions,\nwhich lie at the foundation of their physical, intellectual, and moral welfare.\nWhatever\n\nelse the course of study may do, let it breathe hope for the country boys\n\nand girls; not the hope of a life that, to be realized, must be lived in the city, but let it\nrouse the anticipations of a life that has its background in the sunsets, the hills, the\nwoods, the orchards, and the waving grain fields of the country.\nA genuine life, intelli-\n\ngently lived, alone can bring culture.\n\nWhether\n\nthe instrument\n\nof living is the plow or\n\nthe pen, it matters but little; the furrow well turned, and the line well written, are both\nfundamental and absolutely uninterchangeable in human society.\n\nCountry life, not less than that in the city, may have its aspirations that are truly\nnoble. The schools must not confuse or destroy these by trying to “citify” the country\nor by seeking to “countrify” the town.\nThe city and the country express the equation of life; a weakness in one member\nmeans the ruin of both. Each must supplement, but not destroy, the other, and both must\nbe preserved.\nWILBUR\n\nS. JACKMAN.\n\nChicago Normal School.\n\nAPPENDIX\nTHE\n\nFARM\n\nAS\n\nTHE\n\nCENTER\n\nH.\nOF INTEREST.\n\nNowhere on earth has a child such advantages for elementary education as upon a\nThe bestgood farm, where he is trained to love work and to put his brains into work.\ntaught school in a densely populated city can never equal in educative value the life\nupon a good farm, intelligently managed.\nThe child on the farm is made responsible for something, for some work, for some\ncare-taking, and out of this responsibility grow trustworthiness, habits of work, and a\nfeeling of personal power in all the essential elements of character, with the exception\nof those much-needed phases that spring from personal contact with society outside of\n\nhome.\nThe surroundings of the child upon the farm in contrast with the complexity of city\nsurroundings are comparatively simple; the same forms, colors, sounds are repeated in\nendless succession, presenting innumerable variations and at the same time complete harmony and\n\nunity.\n\nThe\n\ntrees, the shrubs, the foliage, the flowers, the fields, the hills, val-\n\n"}
{"page": 538, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n528\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n[National\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nleys, plains, and brooks create distinct, everlasting images in the child’s mind; images\nimpressed, concentrated, and expanded by countless sensations, by countless contrasts,\nthat stream in through every avenue of the soul.\nFarm work\nThen, too, everything appeals to the child as useful or non-useful.\nmeans\n\nof life, the\n\nthe necessities\n\ncomforts\n\nof home,\n\npossibilities\n\nthe\n\nof an\n\neducation.\n\nThe reaction of the child upon his environment is the main thing, however; his power to\nconquer nature with his own hands and mind, together with continual lessons which bring\nhome to him the inevitable action of and his dependence upon the laws of nature, as\nthey assist, or as they baffle, his efforts.\nThe\n\nchild enters\n\nschool with\n\nsenses\n\nkeen, character in full tide of formation, and\n\nthe impulse to act fully organized.\nHe has, besides, acquired a comprehensive knowledge of his environment.\nThis instinctive, spontaneous growth should go on and have\nfull opportunities for complete development.\nThe statement of what a farm does for a boy in its general lines may easily be taken\nfrom the ‘experience of a farm boy in New England, for instance.\nIt is possible for me\nto give the story of such a one from actual experience—what he learned, what he\nstudied, and what he acquired.\nThe scene is upon a rocky farm in New Hampshire; the boy an ordinary child, such\nas you may meet anywhere in this world of ours. As soon as he found himself upon the\nfarm, at eight years of age, he began to study—to study in the best sense of that\nmuch-abused word.\nHe began the study of geography—real geography.\nHe observed\nwith ever-increasing\n\ninterest\n\nthe\n\nhills, valleys, springs,\n\nswamps,\n\nand\n\nbrooks\n\nupon\n\nthe\n\nold farm. The topography of the land was clear and distinct; its divisions into fields,\npastures, and forests were to him the commonest facts of experience. The image of the\nwhole farm and all that it contained is one of the clearest and most distinct memories in\nhis mind today.\nThe boy not only studied geography, but the foundations of geography, geology, and\nmineralogy.\nHe knew in an elementary way the nature of the soils; why one field was\nbetter than another for a certain crop, and began to reason upon cause —sunshine,\ndrainage, drought, and fertilization.\n\nHe studied botany. All the kinds of grasses he knew —timothy, clover, red top\nsilver grass, ‘pigeon grass; how they were sown, how they came up, grew, were cut.\ncured, and fed to the cattle; what kind of hay was\nHe knew the different weeds, too—the rag weed,\n\nbest for sheep, and what for oxen,\nsmart weed, pig weed; he had a\n\npractical knowledge of these from close contact, with the hoe and his bare hands.\nknowledge\n\nThis\n\nof plants took in medicinal herbs—caraway, camomile, catnip, docks, worts,\n\nand mints, lobelia, pennyroyal, and garget. These practical lessons in herbs were\ndoubly impressed, sometimes in a painful way, although they were intended to relieve\n\npain.\nThe\n\nflowers\n\nthat grew\n\non the farm\n\nand\n\nsurrounding\n\nfarms, wild and cultivated,\n\nhollyhocks and lilacs in the garden, the golden-rod and violets of the pasture, and the\nsweetest flower that ever blossoms, lifting its delicate petals close by the snow banks in\nthe early spring, the harbinger of the resurrection—the trailing arbutus, taught him\nlessons of beauty, trained his eye for color, deepened his reverence for God.\nHe knew the trees—the maple with its sweet burden of spring, the hemlock, and\n\nthe straight pine which he used to climb for crows’ nests.\n\nwoods, and their value.\n\nHe noted the difference in\n\nAs soon as he could wield an axe he cut the trees for lumber,\n\nfences, and firewood. With all the shrubs he was acquainted; in fact, he got an elementary but very useful classification that has made the subject an interesting one\nthroughout his life, and prepared him to appreciate the practical value of botany in the\nschools.\n\n"}
{"page": 539, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF THE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n529\n\nHe studied zodlogy, too, The animal life of the farm was very close to him, The\nbrutes were his early companions.\nThe domesticated animals he knew—the frisking\nlambs, the knowing and antagonistic buck, the tricky mare.\nHe helped to break steers,\nto kill hogs, to hunt for eggs, to feed the chickens.\nHe knew the wild animals, the\nsquirrels, the rabbits, the woodchucks; the insects, the grasshoppers, and ants; bugs that\nscurried away when he lifted a stone.\nWith the birds he was intimately acquainted —the wrens that built their nests in\nthe barn and sheds, the robin redbreast, the shrieking blue-jay, the tiny warblers in the\nwoods, the wise crow, and the timid partridge that would give her life in defense of her\n\nyoung.\n\n;\n\nHe had a practical knowledge of meteorology.\nthe instant, by two infallible monitors, his stomach\n\nHe could tell the time of noon upon\nand his shadow.\n\nHe\n\ncould foretell\n\nstorms with nearly as much wisdom as is exercised by the Weather Bureau.\nThe coming of a shower was known to him—the hurry-scurry to get the hay into the barn.\nThe long, steady breezes-from the east brought on the storm, and a storm was a welcome thing to a boy on a New England farm!\nIt:meant a day of perfect delight on\nthe dear old river. The ostensible purpose of the boy was to catch a few small fish—\nthe real purpose, worship, alone by the rushing floods, the quiet pools, the pebbly\nbeaches, and\n\nthe silent woods.\n\nIn fact, every subject now\nstudied in an elementary way.\n\nknown\n\nin the curriculum\n\nHe was really grounded\n\nof the university this\n\nin these studies.\n\nboy\n\nHe observed,\n\ninvestigated, and drew inferences, perfectly unconscious, to be sure, of what he was\nlearning, or how he was learning; but still, he learned, and he studied, and the best\n\nlesson of all was his personal reaction upon his environment.\nHis plowing, hoeing, haying, digging, chopping, lumbering, his mending of sleds, and making of cider, sugar,\nlye, and soap were all so many practical lessons in life which exercised his body, stimulated his mind, and strengthened and developed his purpose in life.\nHe lived to become a school-teacher, and taught school earnestly and bunglingly for\ntwenty years before he had even a suspicion of the value of his farm life and farm work.\nHow the work of the children upon the farm is to be brought into the school, concentrated\n\nand\n\nexpanded;\n\nhow this great, spontaneous, ever-increasing\n\ninterest is to be\n\nmade use of; how this organized energy is to be turned into the main life current, are\nquestions of questions.\nIt is the imperative duty of parents and teachers to determine\nhow the farm life of the boy and the girl may be recognized by use in the schoolroom.\nWhich of all the studies the boy has begun should be discontinued?\nAre they not all\nessential? Must they be held in abeyance until he reaches the door of a high school or\na college? That the child begins them spontaneously and instinctively is argument\nenough for their continuance.\nWithout attempting a course of study, I may be allowed to make some suggestions.\nIn these suggestions I present only the common and common-sense things needed in farm\nwork and farm life, and endeavor to show why they form the substantial basis of all\nstudy.\n\nGEOGRAPHY,\n\nGEOLOGY,\n\nMINERALOGY.\n\nThe child’s knowledge of geography may be made the basis of all his further study\nof that subject. He brings into school geographical images of the farm and the surrounding landscape.\nHe is tolerably well acquainted with the topography of his district\nand, it may be, of the town. First, find out how much the pupils really know of these\n\nsubjects. Get them to describe the farm or any part of it. How many fields are there ?\nWhere are the pastures? The woods?\nWhat are you raising in each field?\nHow\nmany cattle have you? Describe them. Tell about the sheep, the horses, the hens.\nGet pupils to sketch the farm on the blackboard, paper, or slates.\n\n"}
{"page": 540, "printed_page": null, "text": "530\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nA pile of sand in the yard might be used for modeling the farm, showing hills and\nIn winter rough boards with raised edges might be\nvalleys, plains and brook basins.\nLater, chalk modeling should be used to indicate the relief\nused for sand modeling.\nof the land.\nThe beginning of political geography by the divisions of the farm into fields and\npastures may be made. The lay of the land, the relative positions of these, form good\nPupils would compare one farm with another,\nlessons in the points of the compass.\nso that in time they could model and draw the whole district, including the roads.\nIf there is a streaminthe neighborhood, it may be used as a study of the brook basin,\nthe wearing of water—a good introduction for geology.\nThe examination of the soil\nafter rains, especially loosened soil, may be studied to show the effect of storms in erosion.\nThe dip and formation of the surface, division into hills or plains, bottom lands,\n~ and bluffs, may be related to the working of the stream.\n\nThe study of mineralogy may begin with the study of soils, the kind of soils, and\nthe forms of the grains. Specimens of gravel, sand, loam, vegetable mold, clay, and rock\nshould be brought by pupils to school and studied.\nHow is vegetable mold formed?\nWhat in the soil is useful for plant life ? How does the soil change through vegetation\nand under cultivation, and also under the action of heat, water, frost?\n\nIt is easily seen\n\nthat all these are elementary studies in weathering —dynamical geology.\nIf there are rocks on the farm, they may be studied; the archaic rocks, the secondary rocks, the strata, and the dip of the rocks—all so many points of introduction to\ngeology.\nBoys on the farm will know something of the mineral on different parts of\nthe farm, in different fields. In general the bottom land is the richest, and the question\nmight easily be asked, Why?\nIn this relation uses of the different kinds of soil may\nbe studied.\nQuestions of why one crop will grow in one portion of the farm, and\nnot in another, and why crops should change or rotate from year to year, should all be\nbrought in.\nHousekeeping, butter and cheese-making, cooking, gardening, and affairs pertaining\nto home economy should be taken into the school.\nDraw and describe your garden.\nDivide it into beds.\n\nLocate\n\nthe flowers, the vegetables.\n\nSketch your hens, the turkeys.\n\nHow do you make bread ?\nMETEOROLOGY.\n\nElementary studies in distribution of heat would come through the changes of the\nseasons.\nThe shadow stick may be used, showing the changes in the sun’s position relative to the earth. A sun dial on the schoolhouse should be made.\nThe daily changes\nin the sunlight coming through the different windows may be measured through shadows\non the wall. It is a very easy matter to get the daily weather reports and examine them.\nEvery country school should have a thermometer, barometer, anemometer, and rain gauge,\nto measure\n\nthe force\n\nof heat, the weight of the\n\nair, the velocity of the wind,\n\nand the\n\ndepth of the rainfall. Pupils should make weather reports day by day and compare\nthem with the printed weather reports. The elementary study of air and its composition\nshould be made; its weight, direction, and velocity. The study of evaporation of water,\nfollowed\n\nby the forms\n\nof water\n\nPupils may be called upon\nreasons for the same.\n\nin the\n\nto make\n\nair—fog,\n\nmist, and\n\ndaily prophecies\n\ncloud, should\n\nof the weather,\n\nbe made.\n\nand give their\n\nEvery change of the atmosphere, shower, rain, hail, snow, or wind\n\nmay be taken advantage of for this purpose.\nThe uses of water may be discussed, especially the uses of water for vegetable life;\nthe drainage of the land, especially on farms where the land has to be tiled, or where\nirrigation is necessary. Questions like these may be subjects of investigation: How far\ndoes the water go down into the earth? What stops it? The cause of a spring? A\n‘brook, creek, rivulet, or river?\n\nThe saturation of different kinds of soil and rock by water.\n\n"}
{"page": 541, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n531\n\nDepth of the wells and changes in the water level. Into this discussion would come the\nquestion of floods and flood plains, and of silt brought down by the water, how and\nwhere deposited, that is to say, if there is a creek or a river on or near the farm.\nThese are some of the innumerable points in regard to meteorology that impinge on\nthe child from all sides, and lead to higher and more difficult questions and investigations.\nPLANT LIFE.\nI should place first in this study the crops upon the farm; the study of the corn; its\nhistory; its nature; different kinds of corn; the uses of corn. The same may be said of\nwheat, oats, rye, and barley. How land should be fertilized for different crops. Study\nof the\n\nfood\n\nof plants, nutrition, etc.\n\nThe\n\ngrasses\n\nmay be studied;\n\ndifferent\n\nkinds\n\nof\n\ngrasses brought into the schoolroom.\nIn the spring germination of seeds may be especially noted.\nSeeds should be\nplanted in boxes in the schoolroom.\nIt would be an excellent plan to have a half-acre\ngarden near the school, in which the experiments could be performed, and in which the\nfarmers of the district would take a deep interest. The garden could be made of value,\nand should include everything that is raised on the farm.\nThere should be a preliminary\nstudy of plants, especially flowers, in regard to function.\nLittle or no attempt, at first,\nshould be made to close analysis, or to classification.\nThe guide in the elementary study\nof all subjects should be function.\nForests; different kinds of trees on the farm; leaves, and bark of the trees; deciduous and non-deciduous trees; the uses of wood for heat, shelter, and household furniture.\nZOOLOGY.\n\nThe study of domestic animals and their functions ; cows, and different kinds of cows;\nmilk, and how milk is changed to butter\n\nand cheese.\n\nThe history, fur instance, of butter\n\nand cheese-making, from the old-fashioned churn to the creamery.\n\nStudy of horses, and\n\nsheep; use of wools; meat of different animals. Study of wild animals, birds. Get each\npupil to make a list of all the birds he sees upon the farm during the year; when they\ncome, how long they stay, when they depart. This would bring observations in regard to\nmigration. Name the birds staying upon the farm all summer. Where do they build their\nnests?\nHow do they raise their young? What do they eat? What birds are injurious\nto the farm? What birds are useful? The pupils could learn many a profitable lesson;\nwould find that most of the old ideas about birds are totally wrong; that many, ifnot all,\nof the birds that have been counted mischievous are really helpful; that birds are needed\non the farm to kill destructive insects;\n\nthat the little damage\n\nwhich crows, for instance,\n\nbring about is comparatively nothing to the good they do; that the birds are really\n“nature’s militia” to destroy the enemies that menace the life of vegetable, plant, and\ntree.\n\nAnother study is that of destructive\n\ninsects; the wood-borers, the cankerworms, the\n\nweevil; a very practical study. Then there are the bees, wasps, butterflies, and their\nuses in efflorescence. The wonders of honey-making.\nThe earthworms and the effect\nthey have upon the soil. The boy will be sure not to leave out the woodchuck, the fox,\nthe coon, or the muskrat.\nHe may even learn that the unpleasant little skunk has a use\nand aplace in the world.\nPHYSICS\n\nAND\n\nCHEMISTRY.\n\nWherever forces are seen, felt, or handled, an inquiry into the nature of such forces is\nthe study of physics. Meteorology is one of the great departments of physics. Distribution of sunshine, the working\n\nand nature of heat, the force and wearing of water, meas-\n\nurements of air, of the wind, are all close to the child, who needs only good teaching to\nlead him to close and closer investigation.\n\n"}
{"page": 542, "printed_page": null, "text": "532\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nPractical uses of force suggest many problems: force of running water; running\nmills; force of wind is turning windmills; the economical application of force in farm\nmachinery from the apple-parer to the reaper; the mystery of the lever revealed by wedge\nand crowbar; the turning of the grindstone; and the use of the jackscrew in raising\nbuildings.\n\nChemical changes are taking place in earth, air, and water, and are continually applied\nin the household affairs. The teacher has an excellent opportunity to call attention to the\nchemistry of cooking ; to yeast; to milk in its transmutation\n\nto butter and cheese;\n\nthe\n\nThe composition and nature of differmaking of lye and soap; the oxidation of metals.\nent soils are a fruitful study; the effect of sunlight upon foliage in the production of leaf\ngreen; the transpiration of water through vegetable tissues, bearing nutrition from cell to\ncell.\n\nThe burning of wood and its change into ashes.\n\nThe children upon a farm are called upon to apply daily the laws of chemistry and\nphysics. It is the province of the teacher to lead them toapply these laws more and\nmore intelligently, to the end that a deep interest is aroused and they are made earnest\nand everlasting students of these subjects.\nMATHEMATICS.\n\nThere can be no work properly done upon the farm without measuring. Most of this\nmeasuring is done by what is called “rule of thumb,” or so-called practical judgment.\nThe farmer estimates weight of cattle, hogs, or sheep by sight. He can tell how much\ncord wood or timber a certain area of forest will produce.\nIn fact, measuring in everything he does is absolutely essential. There is no better way for the teacher to study the\nprocesses of measuring, or arithmetic, than to inquire into the everyday demands of farm\nwork, and no better way to teach arithmetic than to bring the measuring necessary for\nfarm work into the schoolroom.\nThe elementary work, and the work that ought to be\ncontinued throughout the course, should be largely estimation with eye and hand, of length,\nof distance, area, volume, bulk, force, and weight;\n\nmeasurements.\n\nthe estimates to be verified by actual\n\nThat which a farmer is called upon at every turn to do should be begun\n\nwith the children.\nAnd here the parent can supplement the teacher at every step.\nWhen developing the mode of judgment, the pupil should be trained to use the chain\nin measuring areas, the yardstick in measuring cord wood, forceps in lumber, dry measure\nfor grain, scales for weights, liquid measure for milk, vinegar, or molasses.\nThe outcome of all raising of crops is commercial value.\nThere should be a system\n\nof farm bookkeeping, in which writing and arithmetic play a prominent part. Children\ncould be easily trained to keep books for their parents, and the work of the farm be made\nto present all the problems and conditions for a complete mastery of all essentials in\narithmetic.\n\nREADING AND LITERATURE.\nThe suggestions already given are for the elementary study of subjects. Interest in\nall these subjects will lead directly to a great desire to know more of the observations and\ninvestigations of others. Here reading and the study of text-books have their great place.\nThe first steps in reading may be short stories of the farm, of the crops, of the animal and\nplant life, written in simple sentences upon the blackboard.\nThe reading lessons should\nbe closely related, and from beginning to end bear directly upon the subjects the child\nstudies.\nNor is there wanting a great and extensive literature on geography, geology, mineralogy,and botany. Books like “The Soil,” written by F. H. King, University of Wisconsin, and “The Great World’s Farm,” by Salina Gaye, would arouse an intense interest\nif the subjects here named were really used for the education of the child. Poetry may\nbe brought in at every step —the poetry of the farm, the clouds, the air, the winds,\nthe\n\nss\n\n"}
{"page": 543, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF THE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nRURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n533\n\nflowers, the fields. The pupil will find that the poet and the artist have embalmed in\ndeathless prose or poetry the commonest things of earth, air, and water by which he is\nsurrounded.\n‘Thin, vapid, sensational, injurious reading would have no place in his life\nif all reading were carefully selected in the direction of his aroused, sustained, and educa-\n\ntive interests.\n\n5\n\nThe process of learning to read is a very simple one, if the free, spontaneous action\nof the mind is not obstructed by abnormal methods.\nWhen the proper stage of development, which manifests itself in an intense desire to gain knowledge through the printed\npage is reached, the child will learn to read as easily as he has already learned to hear\nlanguage.\nAll reading should come close to the child, should enter into his personal\n\nexperience ; should be about something he feels the need of knowing —facts about his\npets,\n\nabout things he loves\n\nto do—words\n\nthat re-image familiar scenes.\n\nThis would\n\nmake reading and the selection of good literature a habit for life.\nWRITING,\n\nWriting is one of the modes\nto have something to express, some\n\ndesire to communicate\n\nwith others\n\nGRAMMAR,\n\nSPELLING.\n\nof thought expression.\nimage\n\nto control\n\nand\n\nThe fundamental necessity is\nsteady the hand, some\n\nearnest\n\nby means\n\nof writing.\n\nSkill in writing takes care of\n\nitself if the teacher writes rapidly and well.\n\nTechnical\n\nskill is nine-tenths imitation.\n\nThe main thing \"is the impulse which the teacher discerns, seizes upon, guides, and\ncontrols.\nThe farm is rich with interesting subjects, rich for the novice of six, or the\npupil of sixteén.\nDescriptions of animals, plants, forests, fields, pastures, hills, valleys,\nsoils, the germination of seeds, the gardening, the shower, the clouds, the rainstorm, hail-\n\nstorm, snowstorm, the cyclone, the raising of crops, the cutting and curing of hay, the\nharvest, the market— these are among the innumerable subjects that may be made of\nintense interest to the children of the country.\nThe little ones may write a word, a line,\nor a paragraph; the older ones, pages.\nAnd in such work comes the one sensible method of teaching spelling and grammar.\nWriting is spelling and punctuation, just as speech is fundamentally pronunciation. Using\ncorrect language is grammar, and where can pupils use correct language to better advanage than by writing under the direct impulse of thought ?\nMANUAL\n\nTRAINING,\n\nART.\n\nOne central and invaluable thing gained on the farm is the necessity for and habit of\nwork.\nAll work on the farm should be honored in the schoolroom by expanding and\nconcentrating it. The school should send back the children to the farm filled with the\ndignity of labor.\nThe work of the farm, in a broad sense, is manual training, but most farm boys get a\ncoarse way of doing manual training. They do not learn to use their hands expertly as\nthey should. On all farms there should be workshops for the mending of tools, construction of materials and apparatus for farm work, and in the country school there should also\nbe a small manual training department in which pupils may be trained to use their hands\nskillfully in making things needed for the farm and the home.\nNo argument is here made for manual\n\ntraining ; I would, however, enter\n\nan earnest\n\nplea for its adoption in the school on the score that it would make labor both honorable\nand interesting, and that its value as a potent factor in the development of the brain would\nbe recognized and appreciated by both parents and teachers.\nApparatus for experiment\n\ncould be made with\n\na small outfit, a bench, a few tools,\n\nlumber, and metals. Much of the lumber could be brought by the pupils from the farm.\nIf it needed sawing, it could be sawed at the mill. Wood\nThey could cut the wood.\nmanual training is one of the best ways to learn the uses of woods. There should be a\nsmall forge, and some work in iron and other metals as well. Every boy and girl should\n\n"}
{"page": 544, "printed_page": null, "text": "[National\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n534\n\nhave a work bench at home and wood-carving materials, to develop the instinctive habit\nLong winter evenings could be\nof whittling into something useful and ornamental.\nprofitably utilized in manual training and the exercise of the arts.\nThe objects of art are countless, the modeling, painting, and drawing of land surLandscape and plant\nfaces in geography, and illustrations in geology and mineralogy.\nlife furnish a great number of subjects for painting. Children have a perfect passion for\ndrawing, until it is crushed by over-attempts at accuracy, or by the drawing of flat copies.\nWith a good blackboard, which is the best piece of educational apparatus ever invented\nfor school or home, children could show the different kinds of crops ;draw cornstalks,\ngrasses, flowers, and trees.\nOf course, these drawings would be crude, but at the same time\n\nthey would\n\nbe satisfactory to the child, and justly, for they would\n\ncorrespond\n\nwith his\n\nimages ; the drawing, in turn, would stimulate observation, and the result would be clearer\n\ninsight. Exact drawing could be introduced in measuring, or arithmetic, and in making\nprojection drawings or manual training.\nExperience has shown that children take great\ndelight in such work, and that is in the highest degree educative.\nArt study leads to the cultivation\n\nof taste, and\n\nmany\n\nfarmhouses,\n\nmany\n\ncold and\n\ndesolate sitting-rooms could be made beautiful by the art of the children; and their\ncomfort enhanced by the manual training. Every effort should be made to project the\nwork of the school into the life of the child.\nInvention may be stimulated by asking\npupils to plan a hen house, wood\n\nshed, barn, farmhouse, and\n\nthe\n\nselection of trees and\n\nshrubs to beautify yard, garden, and landscape.\nINDUSTRIES\n\nAND\n\nCOMMERCE.\n\nThe study of the commercial side of farm products should have its place in the school\nThe cost, the selection, the use of crops, and their value in selling. Here arithmetic and ©\nbookkeeping would come in. Transportation of crops would have its place, the team,\nthe railroads.\nWhere farm products are consumed.\nThe subject of farm tools, instruments of work, may be studied. How crops are prepared for the market; the question of mills; the preservation of foods; barns; winter protection of cattle; ensilage.\nTransportation, beasts of burden, wagons, railroads, steamboats, in our own and foreign\ncountries.\n\nThe\n\nbeginning\n\nthis idea of commerce.\nThe geographical\n\nof history,\n\nhow\n\nothers live and\n\nhave\n\nlived, is involved\n\ndistribution of soil may be considered, as well\n\ntion of air, moisture, heat, and plant life, and through the careful and\nof the farm the whole earth, in time, may be brought to the child.\n\nin\n\nas the distributhoughtful\n\nstudy\n\nHISTORY.\n\nThe elements of history are everywhere present on the farm.\nThe history of farming\ntools, from the sickle to the reaper; from the crude plow of the poet to the steam plow of\ntoday; from the hoe to the cultivator.\nThe history of butter-making, from the old-fashioned churn to the model creamery.\nThe story of the mill; the history of the potato; of\nmaize; of the tomato.\nHow beets are now competing with sugar cane.\nIf there is an\nexperimental station in the neighborhood, it should be used as an auxiliary to the school,\nwhere the history and present status of agriculture may be studied.\nMost towns in the eastern states, and some in the West, have interesting local\nhistories.\n\nThere are generally\n\nstories of the Indians, of settlements, of colonization, of\n\nnoted men and women, of the part taken by the citizens in the Civil War.\nA strong love\nfor history can be induced and fostered by beginning this study close to the home.\nThe breakfast and dinner table furnishes excellent starting points in the study of\nhistory. How much does the farm in itself furnish of the food of the family ? What is\n\nobtained outside, and where is it obtained?\n\nHistory of the making of cloth, the story of\n\nthe spinning wheel and the spinning jenny; the hand loom and the power loom.\n\nThe\n\na\n\n"}
{"page": 545, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nREPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON RURAL SCHOOLS\n\nSad\n\n7\n\nstudy of the inventions used on tle farm will lead directly to the biographies of their\ninventors and the relation of machinery to human progress. ,The history of roads and road\nmaking, back to the time of the Romans.\n\nThere\n\nshould be lessons in every school upon\n\nthe necessity and practicability of good roads, and the best methods and material for making them.\nCONCLUSION.\nThe tremendous advantage of a rational course of work in country schools is that it\nwould make a strong, binding union of the home and the school, the farm methods and\nthe school methods.\nIt would bring the farm into the school, and project the school into\nthe farm.\nIt would give parent and teacher one motive, in the carrying out of which both\n\ncould heartily join. The parent would appreciate and judge fairly the work of the school,\nthe teacher would honor, dignify, and elevate the work of the farm. Farmer and housewife would be ready to discuss the methods of the farm and housekeeping in the school.\nChildren, parents, and teachers could meet at stated periods and hold discussions in the\ndirection of their highest interests.\nOne of the best meetings I ever attended was a union\nof grangers and teachers in Oceana county, Mich.\nOne hour was devoted to a discussion\nof how to raise potatoes, and the next was given to the education of children.\n\nThe farmers would become deeply interested in having libraries in the schools, carefully selected.\nLong winter evenings could be spent around the fireside in mutual study;\nparents helping children, and the children, in turn, arousing and stimulating parents.\n\nCountry life too often fails inthe proper social conditions.\nIt tends to isolation. A\ncommon purpose of education would obviate this. The farmer would often invite the\nschool to visit his farm, and to study it. Pleasant and profitable social meetings would be\nthe order of the day. The teacher with clear ideas of what education ought to be would\nbring the people of a district together to discuss the welfare of their children.\nExhibits of\npupils’ work, of manual training and the arts, would naturally follow and greatly increase\nthe interest.\nIt is an indisputable fact that cities draw largely upon the country for men of action\nand affairs.\nThere are, no doubt, some notable exceptions to this rule, but in the main,\nthe leaders, both men and women, successful manufacturers, bankers, doctors, lawyers,\nministers, statesmen, have received their early education upon the farm or in the work-\n\nshop.\nEducation deserves to be regarded in a broader and more rational light. Real education should be read in terms of character—character translated into action.\nSound judgment, common sense, wisdom acquired by observation and tempered by experience, with\ngenius to help one’s self, and power to plan and execute, entitle a man to a diploma from\nthe world at large, if not from a university. Education which is worthy the name generates the power that penetrates life and makes it better.\nNo method, no system of schools, no enrichment of courses of study, not even the\nmost successful of teachers, can ever take the place in fundamental education of the farm\n\nand the workshop.\nNo matter how good the city schools may be, or may be made; no\nmatter how good the state of society may be—the vital reinforcements of city life that lead\nto progress and prosperity, so far as we can see, must always come from the sturdy stock\nof the farm. This fact, upon which most educators agree, puts upon the country school\nan immense responsibility. It is no small office to train the men and women who are to\nlead and guide the future of the Republic.\nThe country schools have every advantage, so far as material means are concerned;\ntheir environment is rich in organic and inorganic forms; but in one thing they are lacking —the teacher who can utilize that which offers itself in such abundance.\nThis is a\nwant which every thoughtful person deplores, a want that will be met when the farmers\nthemselves realize what a powerful influence for good their schools may be made.\n\n"}
{"page": 546, "printed_page": null, "text": "ahr\n\n536\n\nNATIONAL\nWhen\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nand insight\n\nskill, expertness,\n\ncontrol\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nthe methods\n\n}\n\n[National\n\nof country schools;\n\nwhen\n\nexcellent teachers remain in the same schools year after year, the already powerful influence of country life upon the destinies of the nation will be mightily enhanced.\nA large majority of boys and girls upon the farm entertain mistaken notions of life\nin cities, and early form’a desire to enter into the seemingly greater advantages to be\nThis leads to the congestion of cities, and disturbs the social\nfound in such centers.\nbalance. School education alone can cope with this disease of the body politic, and this\nby fostering an interest in farm life and farm work.\nBoys must be led to see something more in farm life than patient, continuous work of\nplanting, sowing, care-taking, and reaping.\n\nMany a young man leaves the farm to become\n\na mere counter-jumper in the city, who, if he had the right education, would make himself\nan influential and successful farmer.\nMy plea, then, is that the country school should make farm labor and all labor\nhonorable; should dignify it; should show that the environment of the country furnishes inexhaustible\nside of child nature\n\nresources for intellectual life; should see to it that the esthetic\nbe assiduously cultivated; that the child bring a loving heart to\n\nnature, have an appreciative eye for beautiful things; that he be led to see the\npossibilities in the landscape of the farm—the necessity of making excellent roads,\nwell lined with shade trees; that the so-@alled practical things of life, hard and severe\nlabor, should have their highest outcome in the cultivation of the love of the beautiful in\nlife —that love which leads the soul to profound reverence for all things of earth, because\nthey are loving gifts of an infinite God.\nFRANCIS W. PARKER,\nChicago Normal School.\n\nAlt EINDIZ 2.\nTHE COUNTRY-SCHOOL\n\nPROBLEM.\n\n[A paper read before the National Council of Education, July 10, 1894, by Emerson\n\nE, White, LL.D. ]\n\nIt is not my purpose to deny or obscure the real difficulties involved in what is called\n“The Country-School Problem.”\nThis is not a question of nomenclature, but a problem\nof school organization under special conditions.\nThe problem may thus be stated :\n\nGiven a school of twenty to forty pupils from five and six to, say, sixteen years of age,\naccommodated in one room and taught by one teacher.\nTo find the best possible organization and administration that the conditions will\npermit.\nThe facts that enter into the problem are (1) that the pupils possess very unequal ability\nand attainments, and those who at a given time are nearly equal in attainment make unequal\nand varying progress; (2) that the pupils need instruction and training adapted to their\nability and needs\n\neach successive\n\nterm, and hence\n\nthis instruction\n\nmust\n\nhave Sequence,\n\nthus permitting progress; and (3) that the health and physical endurance of teacher and\npupils limit the daily school session to about six hours. It is also to be kept in mind that\nthe problem involves the providing of the best possible instruction and training, not in one\nbranch, not merely in “the three R’s,” but in all the essential elementary branches.\nI.\n\nNON-CLASSIFICATION\n\nSOLUTION,\n\nThe first solution proposed makes no provision for the classification of the pupils, but\neach pupil is taught by himself in all branches of study. It is seen that this plan gives\nas\n\nie\na\n\n"}
{"page": 547, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nRURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nSoil\n\na minimum as many separate teaching exercises as there are pupils in the school, provided each pupil has only one daily lesson,\nIf only “the three R’s” are taught, and\neach separately, there will be three times as many teaching\n\nexercises as there are pupils,\n\nand, if the three exercises for each pupil are combined in one, the length of time devoted\nto each exercise must be increased.\nBut the modern programme of school instruction\nincludes from five to seven school\n\narts, and, in case of the more\n\nadvanced\n\npupils, several\n\nadditional branches of study, as geography, English grammar, history, and physiology.\nIt is unnecessary to take time to show that it is not possible for one teacher to instruct\ntwenty or more pupils, each by himself, in the essential elementary branches.\nThe number of exercises thus required reduces the length of each to so short a time that no efficient\ninstruction is possible; and hence the non-classification solution proposed for the country\nschool may be dismissed as zmpracticable.\nThe plan of individual instruction is only\n\nfeasible in a school composed of very few pupils.\nWe sometimes hear of the old-time country school in which there were no classes,\neach pupil being taught by himself, if taught at all; but I am satisfied that this school\nexists in the imagination, and not in history. ‘If it ever had an existence, it certainly preceded the organization of the common school, if it did not precede any school composed\nof more than ten pupils. Even ten pupils under one teacher necessitate some classification to permit any efficient instruction or drill.\nMy father was a pupil in one of the early common schools in New England, and I\nwas a pupil in a still more primitive school in the then backwoods of Ohio, but neither my\nfather nor myself ever saw the wholly unclassified country school of which the present\ngeneration of teachers is hearing.\nIn at least two of the three common branches—z. e.,\nbranches common to all—the pupils in the old-time school were classified. It is true\nthat little attempt at classification was made in teaching the ABC’s or the a-d-ads, but\nnecessity forced an early classification in both reading and spelling —imperfect, it is true,\nbut necessary and helpful. I now see in my mind’s eye the row of big boys and girls that\nsat on the back seats and read together in the old English reader, and I also see the rows\nof boys and girls, who constituted the successive classes in spelling, standing on the floor\nand “toeing the mark.”\nNo attempt was made in the first schools which I attended at classification in arithmetic, and later the attempt was first confined to the multiplication table, which few pupils\nperfectly mastered, and so common drills were feasible. Asa rule, each pupil “ciphered”\nby himself, at his own gait, going to the teacher or some pupil for assistance, when needed.\nThe fact that most of the pupils never reached fractions, and fewer ever acquired much\nskill in integer processes, is evidence of the weakness of individual work even in such a\nstudy as arithmetic.\nA few clever pupils who needed only opportunity for study made good progress without instruction, sometimes remarkable progress, and this was not only true in arithmetic,\nbut also in geography and English grammar, when these branches were reached.\nThe\nlack of classification in these studies was doubtless an advantage to these few exceptional\npupils, but no one who actually knows the old-time country school can commend the\nprogress made by nine-tenths of its pupils. It is not too much to claim that its helpfulness to the great majority of its pupils was increased by improved and wider classification.\n\n.\n\nis\na\n\n—_\n\nI well remember the first introduction of classification in arithmetic in the rural schools of\nmy native state. I now see the little blackboard that was first nailed to the wall of that\nprimitive schoolhouse, for, though scarcely in my teens, I was installed as teacher for the\nfirst class formed in arithmetic.\nWhen I passed from the dignity of a pupil-teacher to the honors of a teacher, my\nbest work for the country school was in the introduction of improved classification—\nnot\nonly in reading and spelling, but in all the branches taught. Nearly all of the pupils fell\n\n"}
{"page": 548, "printed_page": null, "text": "538\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\nThose who\ninto groups or classes with positive advantage.\ndental assistance were permitted and encouraged to do so.\nIl.\n\nTHE\n\nGRADED-SCHOOL\n\ncould work\n\n—\n\n[National\nahead with inci-\n\nSOLUTION.\n\nAnother solution proposed is the adoption of a graded course of study with term sections —the annual school session being divided into, say, two terms —the plan of grading\nadopted in most cities. In other words, the solution proposed is the grading of country\nschools with one teacher on the plan of the graded schools in cities.\nIt is seen that this organization divides an elementary course of study into at least\nsixteen\n\nsections, each\n\nincluding\n\nsections\n\nof the several\n\nbranches, and\n\nit separates\n\nthe\n\npupils into sixteen or more corresponding grades, if there be a term interval between the\ngrades.t The fact that the pupils in each grade study several branches necessitates as\nmany class exercises as there are branches of study. It is thus seen that an average of\nthree class exercises in each grade gives at least forty-eight daily exercises.\nIt is true that in practice there may be no pupils in several of these term grades, but\nthe reduction in the number of classes thus occasioned will be fully offset by the fact that\nthe pupils in several upper grades study more than three branches, and thus require more\nthan three class exercises to each grade.\nIt seems unnecessary to add that such a classification of the one-teacher school is wholly impracticable.\nI know of no successful\nattempt to grade the country school with a ¢erm interval between the grades.\nThe more common mode of grading the country school is the nominal adoption of\nthe year or session interval between the grades. When this plan of grading is strictly\nadhered to, and there are pupils in all the grades, there are as many separate class exercises as there are year sections in the course of study multiplied by the average number of\nbranches therein. This gives from thirty to forty class exercises—too many for satisfactory class instruction and drill. But in a school of thirty to forty pupils there are necessarily very few pupils in the upper grades, and none in some grades.\nThese breaks are\noccasioned by the attendance of pupils only a part of the school session, by the failure of pupils to do the work assigned them, and other causes.\nIt thus often happens that\ncountry schools may not af any one time actually contain more than five or six grades\nof pupils, even when they are following a graded course of study with eight- or nine-year\nsections;\n\nbut the reduction in the number of class exercises thus occasioned does not make\n\na strict adherence to this city plan of grading feasible. Hence in practice various modifications are made; and some of these are easily made if the school be not dominated by,\nand sacrificed to, the fetich called the “graded system.”\nSeveral of these feasible modifications may be worthy of consideration.\nI. Since the several classes are all taught by the same teacher it is feasible to permit pupils to recite in different grades, strict grading being sacrificed to the best possible\nclassification 7 each branch.\nThus a pupil may recite in the fifth grade in arithmetic,\nthe fourth in geography, and so on.\nThis modification of the graded system is practicable only to a limited extent in\ncities, since the several grades of pupils occupy, as a rule, separate rooms and are taught\nby different teachers, and they are thus required to keep a common step in a// the branches\nof the course.\n\n2. Since the upper classes in a country school often contain not more, than two or\n_N. B.—The term “grades” is used in this paper to denote those formal divisions of\npupils which correspond to the more permanent divisions in the course of study, which are\nseparated by transitional or promotion lines. The pupils in a given grade may be taught\nin one or more classes in all the branches, or they may be taught in one class in some\nbranches, and in several\n\nclasses in other branches;\n\nand these classes may be changed\n\nfrom time to time, and without reference to grade divisions or intervals.\n\nthat the terms gradation and classification are not used as synonymous.\n\nIt is thus seen\n\n—-\n\n"}
{"page": 549, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n539\n\nthree pupils, it is feasible for a bright pupil to work ahead of his class while he continues\nto recite in it. Thus a pupil may be studying decimal fractions or denominate numbers\nwhile reciting with advantage in common fractions; for, while these daily reviews in\ncommon fractions may give him little new knowledge, they will increase his skill in fractional processes —and skill in numerical processes is the chief end of elementary training\nin arithmetic.\n\nIndeed, skill of some sort is the chief end of more\n\nthan\n\nhalf of the exer-\n\ncises in the elementary school, and this requires repeated action.\nExperience shows that\nit is entirely feasible for capable pupils to work ahead of their classes in such studies as\narithmetic, geography, history, etc., and that this is often successfully done with very little assistance.\nIt is thus seen that the one-teacher school permits a happy combination of\nclass instruction and individual work, especially in the case of bright pupils.\n3. Another\n\nmodification\n\nmay be made\n\nin certain\n\nart studies, as writing, language,\n\ndrawing, and singing.\nFor the purpose of drill in these branches, a country school may\nreadily be divided into three classes, and these, except in music, maybe taught s¢mz«/taneously, as will be more fully shown later. This arrangement not only reduces the number\nof classes, but it greatly increases the class practice of the pupils. Nor is it found a\nserious objection that the classes in these branches are, at any given time, two or more\nyears apart. These arts have phases that correspond respectively to the three psychical\nphases through which elementary pupils pass as they advance in the course; and the wise\nteacher can readily so adapt class instruction and drill to the common needs of the pupils\nin each phase of progress as to afford to all valuable practice. This is successfully done\nin many country schools.\nThe feasibility of these and other modifications have saved the country school in\nmany instances from the Procrustean evils that have\n\nso often characterized the graded\n\nsystem in cities. The defects of the graded system in cities does not necessarily inhere in\nthe system as it may be practically administered in one-teacher schools in the country.\nThe year interval between grades in cities well-nigh necessitates the “lock-step”’ advance\nof the pupils. The classes are too large (or are supposed to be) to permit the teacher to\ngive needed assistance to the strong pupils who may be capable of working ahead in any\nor all of the studies of a grade, and, at the same time, the interval between the classes is too\n\nwide to permit the pupils, with very few exceptions, “to jump over” to the next higher\ngrade. We have seen many city classes in which the pupils in the upper third of the\nclass were in ability one year in advance of those in the lower third, and yet these pupils\nwere chained together for one year, and then the only mode of relief was the non-promotion of the lower-third pupils, thus necessitating their going over again an entire year’s\nwork.\nThoughtful teachers know what this means.\nThe pregnant fact is that the year\ninterval between the classes in elementary schools in cities is incompatible with a flexible classification of pupils. It is everywhere attended with a serious sacrifice of time\nand opportunity.\n\nIn the one-teacher school these evils of the graded system may be somewhat lessened,\nbut, after all feasible modifications have been made, the system, with even a nominal year\n\ninteryal between the grades, is not a satisfactory organization of the country school. The\nmodifications permitted relate chiefly to the classification and advancement of the pupils\nbut the course of study must be followed.\nZhe essential thing in the graded system is the\ngraded course of study.\nYo abandon the prescribed sequence and co-ordination of the\n\ntopics and exercises in the course of study is to give up the system as such. But experience shows that it is not practicable to prescribe an “invariable order” of topics and\nexercises for a one-teacher school. The limitations and conditions of such a school\nnecessitate variations from the prescribed course in order to reduce the number of class\nexercises, and hence the course of study as well as the grading of pupils must be flexible. System and order must often be sacrificed to the needs of the pupils and the limita-\n\n"}
{"page": 550, "printed_page": null, "text": "oak\nnd\n\n540\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\ntions of the teacher. The adoption of well-adjusted courses of study for country schools.\nhas unquestionably resulted in great good, but the blind following of such courses in time\n\nand order has often resulted in loss. Much of the difficulty that has attended the graded\nWhat the one-teacher school\nsystem in country schools has been thus occasioned,\nimperatively demands is not only a flexible and adjustable classification of pupils, but @\n\nflexible course of study —that\n\nis, a course of study which permits changes\n\nin the order of\n\ntopics whenever such changes will result in fewer class exercises with a positive gain in\nbetter instruction,\nThis leads to the consideration of a third solution of the problem before us, and this.\nmay be called —\nIll. THE THREE-GRADE SOLUTION.\nThe three-grade organization of the country school, or, if preferred, the threedepartment organization, is based on the psychical transitions which appear in an elementary course of training.\nThe first of these psychical periods includes the kindergarten and the lower primary\nclasses, with pupils from four or five to eight years of age. This is pre-eminently the\nobjective period of training in which primary knowledge is taught objectively, and primary\nskill in reading, writing, number, language, etc., is acquired by doing, largely by imitation. The reader is the only book needed by the-pupils.\nThis is followed by, say, three years that may be called the transitional or middle,\nperiod of elementary training. In this period pupils pass increasingly from concrete\nfacts to their simpler generalizations, from processes to rules, and from the known to the\nrelated unknown by either imagination or thought; and skill in the several school arts is.\nincreased by practice under guidance, increasingly under ideals. The only text-books.\nneeded are in reading, arithmetic (first book), and, later, geography (elementary), and\nthese, both in matter and method, should be intelligently adapted to the psychical conditions and needs of young pupils. This is pre-eminently the fact and skill period of\nelementary training.\nThe next three or four years constitute what may be called the advanced or grammar:\nperiod. The pupils have now sufficient skill in interpreting written or printed languageand sufficient thought power to study, with proper instruction, a complete arithmetic, a\nschool geography, and later (seventh and eighth school years) English grammar, United\nStates history, physiology, and the elements of natural science.\nIt is seen that the grading of the elementary school on this psychical basis is about\nthe same as that secured by its division into three departments when the number of pupils.\nis sufficient to employ three teachers—one for the lower or primary classes, another forthe secondary or middle classes, and a third for the more advanced pupils\nThis is a natural and simple grading for a country school with one teacher.\nThe:\ndistinction in the work of the three grades or divisions is sufficiently marked to permit a\ndefinite statement of the knowledge and skill to be acquired in each; and; at the sametime, the pupils in each grade can, from term to term, be reclassified, thus keeping the\nnumber of classes as few as possible and at the same time putting each pupi] where hecan make the most progress.\nThe number of classes in the two upper grades need not exceed two each in anybranch, and not more than three separate classes will be needed in any branch in the.\nprimary grade —making not more than six or seven different classes in any branch, with.\nan average of not more than four classes in the principal branches.\nThe exercises in.\nwriting, language, drawing, and other arts can each be given iz one period—a veryimportant consideration, since it greatly reduces the number of exercises and, at the same.\n\ntime, secures needed instruction and desired progress.\n\nThe course of study can readily be arranged\n\non the same basis.\n\nThe studies and:\n\n"}
{"page": 551, "printed_page": null, "text": "‘Council]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n541\n\nexercises of each grade may be grouped, thus dividing the course into three well-defined\nsections\n— primary, middle, and advanced —and the attainments required for promotion\nfrom one grade to the next higher can be definitely prescribed.\nIt is not necessary to\ndivide the course into year and term sections with a prescribed order of subjects and parts\nof subjects for each term, as is often done in graded courses for cities. There should be\na division of the course into three sections, with a general order or sequence of topics in\neach, but the teacher should be left free to form classes with varying intervals between\nthem, and the progress of each class should not be fixed by a time schedule —as is sometimes done in city schools with many teachers.\nTo reduce the number of classes in a\ngiven grade it may be necessary to take up parts of subjects in a different order from\nthat laid down in the course of study, and no two classes may make equal progress.\nThe essential provision is that the work provided for each grade be completed as a\ncondition of promotion to the next higher grade.\nThis will establish a clear distinction\nbetween the several grades, and, at the same time, it will allow that flexibility of classifi-\n\ncation detween grade lines which is essential in a one-teacher school.\nIt is not meant that pupils shall be stopped at the line that separates two grades until\nthey have reached the standard in @// branches of the lower grade, as is generally required\nwhen a school is divided into three departments, each under a separate teacher and occupying a separate room.\nIn a one-teacher school pupils may and should be permitted to\npass-a grade line in any branch when they are prepared to do the work of the next higher\n\ngrade.\n\nIn practice it will be found that most pupils can, with advantage, cross the grade\n\nline in all branches at the same time, but this result should not be forced.\nTHREE-GRADE\n\nPROGRAMME,\n\nA course of study on these three psychical grades of work and attainment makes a\nthree-grade programme of class exercises and seat work both feasible and desirable.\nI have elsewhere’ presented such a programme, with a full statement of its uses and\nadvantages in a one-teacher school.\nIt must suffice to insert the programme here, with a\n\nbrief explanation.\nThis programme indicates not only the class exercises, but also the study or seat work,\nthe class exercises being denoted by bold-face type and the study or seat work by common type. The day session of the school is divided into periods of twenty, twenty-five,\nand thirty minutes each, the spelling drills in the two upper grades being considered one\nperiod; and the teacher’s time is divided equitably among the three grades of pupils.\nThe A-grade pupils have eight exercises each day, the B-grade pupils six exercises, and\nthe C-grade pupils five; but, as is seen, the A-grade pupils have two more studies than\nthe B-grade, and the B-grade pupils have one more study than the C-grade. The extra\ntime required to prepare and direct the seat work in Grade C will make the time\ndevoted by the teacher to this grade nearly, if not quite, equal to that devoted to the\nB-grade.\nA rural school of some thirty pupils will probably have two classes in several branches\nin the A-grade, two classes in one or more branches\n\n<n\n\nin the B-grade, and possibly three\n\nclasses in the C-grade; making in all some seven different classes of pupils. The time\nallotted to any branch (as arithmetic) in a given grade must be divided between the several classes (if there be more than one class in the grade), but not equally from day to day,\nthe time devoted to each class depending on the nature of the lessons. One day the upper\nclass in Grade A in arithmetic, for example, may have only ten minutes, and the lower class\n\nWhat the programme requires is\nfifteen minutes, and the next day this may be reversed.\nthat the several exercises do not together exceed the time assigned to the grade. Writing,\nlanguage, and drawing in all three grades are to be taught simultaneously in the same\ntWhite’s\n\n‘School Management,”\n\npp. 86-94.\n\n"}
{"page": 552, "printed_page": null, "text": "542\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nTHREE-GRADE\n\n[National\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nPROGRAMME,*\n\nes\n\nMinutes\n\nPrimary (C)\n\nSecondary (B)\n\n9.10\n\n10\n\n9.35\n\n25\n\nSeat Work Tf\n\nBOS\n\n25\n\nOn slate or with objects\n\nArithmetic\n\n10.25\n\n25\n\nNumber\n\nGeography\n\nGeography\n\n10-45\n\naC\n\nForm Work\nPaper folding,\nstick laying, etc\n\nGeography\n\nraph\nGeography\n\n10.55\n\n10\n\nII.15\n\n20\n\nSilent Reading\n\nGeography\n\nGrammar\n\n11.35\n\n20\n\n:\nA\n| Reading\nand Spelling\n\nForm Work\nBap deaw'y.\nsondauolding ced\n\nGrammar\n\n12.00\n\n25\n\nExcused from School\n\nReading\n\nGrammar\n\nOPENING\n\nEXERCISES\n\nArithmetic\n\nNumber\n\nAdvanced (A)\n\nj\n\nf\n\nArithmetic\n(@\n\nstad\n\nh\n\nRECESS\n\nNOON\n\nINTERMISSION\n\n1.10\n\n10\n\nal\n\nE38\n\n2°\n\nClay model’g, paper cutt’g, etc\n\nReading\n\nReading\n\n1.50\n\n20\n\nSilent Reading\n\nSeat Work Tf\n\nReading\n\n2.10\n\n20\n\naan sonal aa\n2.50\n\nIo\n\n310\n\noe\n\n“et\n\nit\n\nForm Work\n\n:\n\n:\n\nHt\n\n7\n\n;\n\n| Reading and Spelling |Animal or Plant Study\n\nWriting? or\n\nWriting? or\n\nLanguage?\n\nLanguage:\n\ni\n\nU. S. History or\n\nPhysiology\n\nWriting? or\n\nLanguage 3\n\nRECESS\nNumber\n\n:\n\nOn slate or with objects\n\nSpelling\n\nDrawing,’ Singing,? | Drawing, Singing,?\n\nU. S. History or\nPhysiology\n\n| Drawing,? Singing,”\n\n3:35\n\n5 | or Moral Instruction‘ |or Moral Instruction‘ |or Moral Instruction®\n\n3.50\n\n15\n\n4.00\n\n10\n\nExcused from School\n\nx\n\nSpelling\n\nSpelling\n\nArithmetic\n\nSpelling\n\n+ As may be provided for by the teacher.\nNOTES:\n\nThe small figures at right indicate the number of lessons a week.\n\nUnited States history may be taught the first half of the session, and physiology the\nsecond half; or each branch may have two lessons a week.\nOn Friday the last twenty-five minutes may be devoted to instruction in hygiene,\ntemperance, physics, natural history, etc.\n* Copyright, 1893, by American\n\nBook Co.\n\na\n\n"}
{"page": 553, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n543\n\nperiod.\nThe inexperienced teacher may not see how this can be successfully done, but\nthe apparent difficulty has been solved in hundreds of schools.\n\nThe most hopeful improvement of the country school lies in the adoption of a simpler\ngrading than that of the city school, a more flexible classification, with opportunity for\nindividual study and progress, and a workable daily programme.\nIt needs system, but\nnot rigidity\n— an elastic system adapted to its conditions and limitations.\nThe danger is\nthat the rural school may be sacrificed to rigid grading, as has been true in so many cities.\nWhat the country school needs is not a Procrustean system of grading and promotions, but\nsuch an organization as will permit its single-handed teacher and diverse pupils to make\nthe best possible use of time and strength.\nIt is idle to talk of abandoning all attempts to improve the classification of country\nschools.\nAttempts at classification in reading and spelling are as old as the school itself,\nand classification in other branches has attended, if it has not made possible, most\nimprovements that have been made.\nThe disappointments have usually been due to\nunwise attempts to introduce into rural schools the rigid graded system as developed in\nthe cities. Such attempts ignore conditions and limitations.\nIt seems wise to add here that the one-teacher school will not permit a perfect organization.\n\nIt has necessary limitations, and, after the best possible\n\nhas\n\nbeen\n\ndone, it will\n\nstill have its imperfections.\nIt is, however, my belief that the teacher of a country school,\nif competent, has some advantage over the teacher of the “highly organized” city school.\nIt is certainly possible to make the one-teacher school a most valuable agency for the elementary education of children.\nREMARKS.\n\nIt seems important to call attention to the fact that the term “ grade” in this paper is\nused in the sense of section or department, and not as synonymous with class. The term\ngrade is applied to the three divisions of the pupils of a school, which correspond respectively to the three recognized psychical periods through which pupils pass as they advance\nfrom the kindergarten to the secondary school. It would possibly have been better if the\nterm section had been used instead of grade, and, perhaps, still better if the word grows had\n\nbeen\n\nemployed, the term used by the subcommittee\n\nin its report.\n\nIndeed, the reader\n\ncan substitute the terms group or groups for grade or grades, as the case may be, through-\n\nout the paper, without materially changing its meaning.\nThe sense in which the term\ngrade is used is explained in the footnote on page 538, and it is also made clear in the paper.\nThe term applies not only to the three groups of pupils, but also to the corresponding\ndivisions in the course of study.\nThe division of the course of study into three sections or groups has important practical advantages.\nAmong these advantages are:\n1. Needed freedom of classification and instruction in each section.\nThis advantage\ncan be fully appreciated only by those who have actually used the plan in rural schools.\nThe fact that the subjects and disciplines in each of these sections are closely related\nfacilitates reclassifications and sometimes a temporary union of classes.\n2. A standard and an evidence of progress.\nThe promotion of pupils from one\nsection to the next higher is stimulating evidence of progress, and, as a result, the\nadvancement of pupils from section to section affords a wholesome incentive throughout\nthe entire course.\nThe fact that pupils are known as primary, or secondary, or advanced\n\n(Group I., or Group II., or Group III.), affords both satisfaction and stimulus.\n3. A needed reduction of class exercises in writing, drawing, language, and other\nschool arts in which skill is the chief end. Reference to the programme on page 542 will\nshow that instruction and drill in writing and language are provided for in only one\nThis is\nperiod each day; and the same is true of drawing, singing, and moral instruction.\nnot accomplished by making each of these subjects a general exercise for the entire school,\n\n"}
{"page": 554, "printed_page": null, "text": "544\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nbut the pupils in each section (group) have a lesson adapted to their ability and attainments, thus securing desired progress from year to year. It is found entirely feasible to\nteach the pupils of a rural school in each of the school arts in three sections (groups), and,\nwhat is very important, the three-section exercises can be taught 7” one period, as shown\nThe manner in which this is done in practice is shown in the writer's\nin the programme.\n“School Management,” p. 92, and the feasibility of the plan is attested by its successful\nIn teaching the several school arts, skill is the chief end,\nby hundreds of teachers.\n\nuse\n\nThe needed preparatory instruction\nand this can only be attained by guided practice.\nin any elementary art lesson can be given within five minutes, and hence in less than\nfifteen minutes the pupils in three sections, beginning with the highest, can be prepared\nfor fruitful practice; and then the remaining part of the period can be devoted to an\ninspection of the pupils’ work in each section, the giving of needed instruction, etc. It is\ntrue that physigal exercises and even singing, as usually taught, can be made a general\nexercise, but it would be a great gain if the pupils in the primary section, at least, were\ngiven separate instruction in music. No school art in which progress from year to year is\ndesirable should be taught in a rural school as a general exercise.\n‘The three-section plan\naffords time for instruction and practice, and secures desired progress.\n4. A workable programme, one that regulates class exercises and seat work.\n1am\nconfident that no rural teacher who uses a section (group) programme long enough to\nbecome skillful will ever go back to a class programme with its numerous and unequal\ndivisions of time. The regulation of the seat work of pupils is an important element in\nschool administration.\n\nThe great desideratum of the rural school is a practical reduction in the number of\ndaily class exercises. The three-section plan reduces the number of exercises in teaching\nthe several school arts to a minimum,\n\nand it also facilitates a reduction in the number\n\nof\n\nexercises in arithmetic, geography, history, and other branches which require previous\npreparation by the pupil. The manner in which this is accomplished is pointed out in\nthe paper. It is true that the very best that can be done in this direction still leaves the\nrural school with too many class exercises and, as a consequence, too little time in each\nfor satisfactory instruction.\nThe brevity of class exercises is, however, in part offset by\nthe fact that the classes are smad/, and also by the further fact that the section programme\npermits a variation in the time given to exercises, the time depending oz the nature of the\nZesson, the essential condition being that the time devoted to the classes in a given branch\nshall not exceed the time allotted to the section.\nIt seems unnecessary to guard the reader against the inference that the pupils in each\nof the three sections are to be taught as one class in each branch, thus giving an interval\nof two or more years between successive classes. This is only true of szl/ exercises in\nart studies\n— exercises that do not require previous preparation by pupils. In these art\nstudies there may be an apparent interval of at least two years between the sections or\nclasses, but this is not a serious difficulty in actual practice. In the other branches the\npupils in a section may be subdivided into classes, with a varying interval between them.\nThis interval need not be common to all the branches,\n\nas in graded schools in cities, but\n\neach branch may have its own interval, and this be unequal and varying.\nThe interval\nbetween two successive classes in arithmetic in a section may not exceed one term, while\nthe interval between the corresponding classes in English grammar may be a year. It is\nnot only true that a uniform class interval of one year is incompatible with a workable\nclassification of rural schools, but any fred interval between classes results in rigidity and\nloss.\nNor is it desirable in a rural school to keep the classes in the several branches abreast\nas they advance in the course, as is the practice in graded schools.\nIt is wholly unneces-\n\nsary to keep aclass\n\nin arithmetic, for example, “marking time” while the pupils are\n\n"}
{"page": 555, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n545\n\nbringing up belated work in grammar or history. In a one-teacher school there is no\nserious loss or inconvenience if the pupils do not maintain the same rate of progress in all\nthe branches of the course.\nWhat is needed is a free movement forward, not only of\nindividual pupils, but of the several classes.\n\nThere is, in my judgment, no serious difficulty in teaching the pupils in a rural\nschool in most instances in classes.\nThis can readily be done in all art or skill branches,\nand in the other branches mos¢ of the pupils can be classified with advantage.\nWhen a\npupil can not profitably keep step with a class, he should be permitted and encouraged to\nwork by himself.\nIt may be that in a term or so he will reach a class in which he can\nrecite, at least for a time ; and, while he is working by himself in one branch, he may be\nin classes in other branches.\nThe rural school must make provision for individual progress, but individual study\nand instruction should not prevent needed classification and a regulating system. A graded\ncourse of study, with its sequence of topics and exercises, and its division into natural\nsections, makes a return to the unclassified condition of the old-time country school\nimpossible, as well as undesirable.\n\nA hint of my ideal of a one-teacher rural schoolis given below by means of a graphic\nillustration.\nI take a school of thirty (30) pupils, and suppose twelve of these pupils to\nfall in Group I. (using the terminology of the subcommittee), ten in Group IL., and eight in\nGroup III. The pupils are designated by numbers, those in the first group by the\nexponent I; those in the second group\n\nby the exponent 2; and those in the third group\n\nby the exponent 3.\nGroup I. (C)\n\n;\n\nSaas UES\nSo See\n:\n\n:\n\nBrtbmetic\n\nove.\n\nOe\n\nee\n\nOral in Group I.\n\nOral in Group I.\n\nEnglish Grammar.\n\nGroup II. (B)\n\nHER\n\n(is.\n\nOe ret\n\nT3002\n\n18? 20?\n\n22? 253 283\n\nSee\n52\n\nPe L On 2a\n\neat azer 72\n15?\n\n107217\n\n233 263 293\n243 273 303\n\n8\n\nee\n\n384%\n\nSt 6t\nees\n\noss\n\nE2eES2\n\noar\n\n162\n\n19?\n\ngt 10% | -14? 15? 18? 202 21?\n\n17? 22? 233\n\nSeen Te\n\nnS ay\n\n18? 21?\n\n108\n\n15?\n\n20H\n\nFor synthetic lan-|guage\nbelow\n\nexercises,\n\nat5t7t\n\n36!\n\ngt r2t|\n\n14? 17?\n\n19? 22?\n\n263\n\n273 283 293\n\n233 263\n\n| 243 273 283 293 303\n253\n\n233 263\n24\n\n253\njt ne\n\ngt\n\nee\n\n16?\n\n19?\n\nPAZ 172207\nini? Tee OA\nB22\n\n20 LOr\nk=\nypu\nA Salou\ntt ee\n\nDrawing, Singing,\nens\nhia visies\n\n253\n\n283\n% 29\n\n27° 30\n\n223\n243 263\n\nNe eysvene ieee\n\nWriting and LanGuage vin... oa\n\nsee\n\n243 303\n\n25\n\n;\nHistory and Physi.\nology\n\nGroup III. (A)\n\ngt\n\n2\" 6\" 107\nKa eeSS\n4t 8\" 12?\n\n283\n293\n273 303\n\n233 273\n\n+\n\n243 283\n253 293\n263 303\n\nge big\n\n233 273\n\n£47, 187721%\n15? 19? 22?\n\n243 283\n253 293\n\n16? 20?\n\n263 303\n\nSupposing the pupils to have a lesson daily in each branch or group of branches (as\nindicated), the above scheme gives only fifteen daily class exercises, not including those in\nGroup I. in reading and spelling, number, and geography. Weekly exercises are not\n\n"}
{"page": 556, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n546\n\n[National\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nIt is possible for a teacher to do good work with this number of exercises\nrepresented.\nThe largest amount of individual work is found in Group DLL eat\nwith small classes.\npractice there would doubtless be more irregularities in classification than can well be\nshown in the illustration.\nEMERSON\n\nColumbus, O.\n\nCOURSE\n\nOF INSTRUCTION\n\nFOR\n\nPrepared in accordance with the directions\nmeeting in Chicago, November 18, 1896.\n\nRURAL\n\nof\n\nE. WHITE.\n\nSCHOOLS.\n\nthe Committee\n\nof Twelve\n\nat\n\nits\n\nSUGGESTIONS.\n\n[This course of study is arranged in four groups, partly with the thought that whenever the schools of a township are gathered at one or more central points the first two\nmay constitute the basis of work for the lower, and the last two for the higher room,\nWhether the three-group system explained by Dr. White be used, or the four-group, as\nindicated in this course, must depend very largely upon the size and advancement of the\nschool. The principles are the same in either case. —HENRY SABIN.]\n“The course of study is the measuring rod or scale which ts used to determine at what\npoint in the eight years work in the elementary course a pupil’s work has arrived.\nIt\nshould not be used as the Procrustean bed on which to stretch the work of the school in order\n\nto give uniformity.”\n\n(Report of Subcommittee on Instruction and Discipline.)\n\nIt is the aim in this course of instruction to present the most essential topics in\norderly sequence, without any prescription of methods of teaching.\nIt can be begun at\nany age\n\nfrom\n\nfive to seven;\n\nit can be continued, often with profit, to a later age than is\n\nhere stated.\nIt is believed that this course offers every facility for combinations of\nclasses, for transfers of pupils, and for any system of alternation.\nThis course recognizes the essential elements entering into accepted courses of instruction. Each of the four groups comprises about two years’ work.\nIn these groups there\nwill be divisions into sections— as (a), (6)—only when absolutely necessary. Experience\nhas shown that, within the age limits of the several groups, the work as laid down can be\ndone. Whenever a pupil is able to do the work of the succeeding group he should pass\nto it.\n\nIn small schools there will be much individual instruction, and in these will seldom\n\nbe found\n\npupils representing\n\nall these grades\n\nof work.\n\nIn large schools,\n\nwith one\n\nteacher, a skillful teacher can to a considerable extent secure assistance from the more\nadvanced pupils in certain work with the younger, to the mutual advantage of teacher and\ntaught, as well as to the school as a whole.\nThis has been done in this country, and is\ndone throughout England today under the pupil-teacher system.\nWhenever several schools working on such a course are consolidated so as to employ\n\ntwo teachers, if one teacher take Groups I. and II., and the other Groups III. and IV., the\nschool is at once graded into a primary and a grammar school, and the next step in gradation will give one group to each teacher. In this gradation the work of each group will\nbe expanded as circumstances allow.\n\nIf, in the course as here laid down, a line of work\n\n—as elements of science —must be omitted, the time can be added to other subjects; if\nin some subjects—as elements of science and morals—but few lessons can be given,\neven\n\nthese lessons, carefully prepared\n\nand\n\nwell taught, will tend to make the teacher a\n\nbetter teacher, the pupil a more thoughtful pupil, and to raise the standard of the school.\nTo carry out such a plan of work as is here outlined, the pupil as he advances must do\nmore and more for himself under the guidance of the teacher, very much to the advantage of the pupil. Thus, in arithmetic, there is provision for but two formal recita-\n\ntions per week in Group III.; for but one in GroupIV.\nby doing.\nne ae studies are grouped, each group comprising\n\n40-59).\n\nFor the rest the pupil learns to do\n\nabout two years’ work\n\n(see pp.\n\n"}
{"page": 557, "printed_page": null, "text": "e\n\nCouncil]\n\nREPORT OF THE COMMITTEE\n\nON RURAL SCHOOLS\n\nThere is here given a scheme for distribution\nlessons per week :\n\nof time, the numbers\n\nrepresenting the\n\nNG\n\nIl\n\nLAGE,\n\nDVis\n\nReading,\nLanguage,\nArithmetic,\nWriting,\noer.\nDrawing,\nHistory and Geography,\n\n8\n4\n8\n|\n3\n4\n\nSO\nNee, fe)\n8=16\n4= 8\nB= 0\n4— 78\n\nB\n4\n2\n2\n2\n4\n\n2\nAo\ncs\nO=2\n2A\n4=8\n\nMorals,\n\nI\n\nD2\n\n1\n\n=\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\nElements of Science,\n\n-\n\nTotalsin J. andIl.,\n\n-\n\n-\n\n547\n\nI\n\nt=?)\n\n2\n\n2\n\na= 5\n\n66\n\nTotals in III. and IV., 37\n\nGiving to lessons in I. and II. an average of ten minutes each, and to those in III. and\nIV. an average of twenty minutes each, the total time will be 1,400 minutes for the week.\nIf the daily session be six hours, and one hour per day be given to recesses and general\nschool business, there remains a surplus of 100 minutes\nteacher, which can be devoted to more\n\nper week\n\nat the disposal of the\n\ninstruction wherever needed.\n\nThis table is given merely as suggestive of possibilities, and not by any means as an\nideal adjustment of ratios.\nIn many schools much more time can justly be given to subjects here left with but little.\n_\nJn all the work of this course it must be borne in mind that in the average rural\n\nschool the complete course will never be in working at one time; that there must be much\nindividual instruction ; that in every good rural school there must be very much encouragement of the pupil to work by himself under the general guidance and direction of the\nteacher.\nREMARKS\n\nObject of the Course—To\n\nON\n\ndevelop correct\n\nDRAWING.\n\nnotions\n\nof form as it appears and to repre-\n\nsent these notions truthfully by drawing, and to cultivate appreciation of beauty of\nform.\n.\nMaterials.—Geometrical solids large enough to be seen from any part of the room.\nThese can be found in common objects or made from stiff paper or cardboard and tablets\nshowing geometrical figures. A prism for teaching color; sticks one to five inches long\nfor laying forms; paper for cutting and folding; good drawing pencils, soft and medium\nin hardness; drawing paper with surface to take pencil well; a good blackboard, and\nclear, soft crayons, with a few colored crayons; some colored pencils for pupils’ use;\nwater\n\ncolors; some\n\ncharcoal\n\nfor more\n\nadvanced\n\nwork;\n\nan\n\nample\n\nsupply\n\nof common\n\nobjects, leaves, flowers, fruits, etc., renewed from day to day from the neighborhood.\nThe statements of this course are necessarily brief and general; it is supposed that\nteachers will be aided in matters of detail by some of the published courses in drawing.\nIn teaching drawing as a truthful representation of the visual appearance of form there\nis not necessarily the strict sequence in the use of geometric models which there would be\nin a course of form lessons. For lessons in representation of the facts of forms as a basis\nfor construction in connection with working drawings, see Group IV.\n\nSome prefer in the early stages to drill only on planes and lines, postponing solids\nto a later period. In the French course in drawing the solid does not appear before our\nGroup II1., and then at first the drawing is a carefully graded course from low relief.\nThose who prefer to work at first entirely from nature can select in order such\nexercises as are in accordance with this theory and mass the technique in the later stages.\nof the course.\n\n(Continued on p. 560.)\n\n"}
{"page": 558, "printed_page": null, "text": "ye\n\n&\n\n548\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nGROUP I. (5-7 years.)\nReading.\n\n(a) First exercises in reading;\nfrom blackboard and chart; Primer\nand First Reader; andappropriate\n\n[National\n\nGROUP II. (7-9 years.)\nof\n\n(a) Second Reader and literature\nsimilar grade.\nFables\nand\n\n_ folk stories, etc.\n\nliterature.\n\nSpelling.\n\n() First_and Second Readers,\nand other reading of similar\ngrade.\n\n(6) Third Reader or books of\nsimilar grade.\nLiterature as supplementary readings.\n\nChildren should be taught carefully such selections as will awaken\ninterest and lead to a desire to read\nfor themselves.\nIn all grades\nchildren should memorize choice\nselections appropriate to their age.\n\n(See general directions in I.)\n\nTaught\n\nchiefly\n\nwith reading\n\nWriting.\n\nin\n\nconnection\n\nTaught\n\nchiefly\n\nin\n\nconnection\n\nOral and written.\n\nwith reading and other studies of\ngroup. Chiefly written.\n\nIn this section the child should\nlearn to write legibly and neatly,\nand should form the habit of writ-\n\nUse simplest forms of letters;\ntrain to uniformity in spacing\n\ning with correct position of paper,\nbody, and hand. Use the pen\n\nsize and height of letters; in short,\nin all the qualities which constitute\na neat and legible written page.\nInsist upon careful penmanship in\n\nearly.\n\nbetween letters and words, and in\n\nall written work.\n\n"}
{"page": 559, "printed_page": null, "text": "REPORT\n\nCouncil]\n\nGROUP\n\nIII.\n\nOF THE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\n(9-11 years.)\n\nGROUP\n\nFourth Reader at discretion of\nteacher for drill; the reading\nshould be largely of literature, as\nsupplementary reading.\n\nON RURAL\n\nIV.\n\n(11-13 years.)\n\nThe reading of good literature,\nas much as can be carefully read.\nMemorizing of choice selections\nshould receive careful attention.\nEncourage home reading.\n\nThe\n\ndrill should\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nIII. and\n\nbe mainly in\n\nIV. should constitute one class each,\n\nthe reader, and the choice of litera-\n\nand the reading-lesson drill need\nnot be a daily exercise.\nFrom the\nfirst give careful attention to the\ncultivation of the speaking voice.\n\nture as supplementary\nreading\nshould be such as the pupil can\nread with such ease as to give\npleasure and thus develop a desire\nto read good literature.\nTake\n\ntaste\n\ngreat care\n\nfor\n\ngood\n\nto cultivate\n\nreading.\n\nReading.\n\na\n\nTrain\n\npupils in proper use of the library.\n\nWords to be selected chiefly\nfrom reading and other studies of\ngroup. Chiefly written.\n\nSee Group\n\nII.\n\nMuch\n\npractice\n\nto give ease and rapidity, never\nsacrificing legibility and neatness.\n\nMuch writing, to form the habit of\neasily expressing thought with the\npen.\n\nNT\nee\nWee\n\nWords to be selected\nfrom\nstudies of group, or spelling-book.\nTo be taught chiefly in connection\nwith written work.\n\nSpelling.\n\nSee Group III. Writing in this\ngroup should be chiefly in compo-\n\nWriting.\n\nsition, in written\n\nlessons, and re-\n\nviews, in practice in business forms,\nandin correspondence.\n\n"}
{"page": 560, "printed_page": null, "text": "5p?\n\nNATIONAL\n\nGROUPI.\n\nLanguage.\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nGROUP\n\n(5-7 years.)\n\n(a) Conversational lessons on\nfamiliar experiences and familiar\nthings. Reproduction of stories\ntold by the teacher; invention of\n\nstories suggested by pictures, etc.\nAll this will be training in observation and thinking as well as in\nexpression.\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nGreat\n\ncare\n\nis neces-\n\nsary as to choice of words and tones\nof voice.\n\n[National\n\nII.\n\n(7-9 years.)\n\n(a) See (4), Group I. Combination\n\nof oral\n\nand\n\nwritten\n\nwork.\n\nSeek\n\nvariety\n\nin\n\nsubjects.\n\nBase\n\nlessons on nature lessons, readings,\netc. Careful attention to form and\n\nuse of complete sentences in recitation and conversation, to purity\nof tone, clearness of enunciation,\ncorrectness of pronunciation in\n\nspeaking,\n\nto legibility and\n\nneat-\n\nness in writing.\n\n(4) Similar to (a), adding written\nto oral expression;\n\ninstruction\n\nin\n\ncorrectness of the written forms, as\nthe form of the sentences, the use\n\nof capitals and punctuation. Memorizing of choice selections.\n\n(4) Work of previous years continued and expanded; oral narration, invention (from pictures, etc.),\ndescription, with written sentences\nfrom\n\nthe\n\nsame;\n\nletter\n\nwriting,\n\nwith special attention to the general form of the letter; careful attention to the vocabulary of the\nchild. Memorizing of choice selections.\nIn much of this work all the\ngroup can be taught as one class,\nbut pupils of very unequal advancement should not be classea\ntogether.\n\nHistory.\n\nShort\n\nstories, such\n\nas will\n\nin-\n\nSee Group I.\n\nConversations on\n\nterest the child, drawn from biography, history, and travels. Ex-\n\ncurrent events within the knowledge or easy comprehension of the\n\nplanation of historical pictures.\nThe teacher must have at hand\nappropriate books for the readings\n\nreadings\n\nby herself or by the pupils, hence\n\nthe necessity for a school library.\n\nchild.\n\nConversations, stories, and\n\non\n\nthe lives of eminent\n\nhistorical characters, and\nmemorable\nin historical\n\non the\nevents,\n\nsuch as can be easily imagined\nand comprehended by the child.\nNational manners and customs and\nmodes of life, such as can be fully\nillustrated. All this instruction\n\nmust be made clear and interesting\nby stories, descriptions, and illustration,\n\n"}
{"page": 561, "printed_page": null, "text": "=)\n\neS\n\nCouncil]\n\nREPORT\n\nGROUP\n\nIII.\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\n(9-11 years.)\n\nSee Group II.\nMuch written\nwork in connection with and based\nupon the school work in its various\ndepartments.\nThe sentence and\nits parts; general classification of\nwords into parts of speech according to their use in the sentence,\nnot teaching definitions nor treating of subdivisions. Careful teaching of the construction of the\nparagraph.\nLetter writing, with\nspecial reference to correct forms\nof social and business letters.\nReadings in literature by teacher\nand by pupil in school and home.\nMemorizing of choice selections\nlong enough to have unity in themselves.\nSome\n\ntext-book\n\nof\n\nlanguage\n\nlessons must be used in the rural\nschools, in order that a course of\n\nteaching may be carried out effectually.\n\nCOMMITTEE\nGROUP\n\nON RURAL\nIV.\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n(11-13 years.)\n\n(z) Letter writing, with special\nreference to subject-matter, to form\nand expression.\nMuch writing in connection with\nschool\n\nwork,\n\n551\n\nand\n\nfrom\n\nLanguage.\n\noutlines\n\nwrought out by teacher and pupils.\nThroughout the course careful attention should be paid to the correction and enlargement of the\npupil’s vocabulary.\n(2) A course in grammar by rational use of a text-book.\nPreparation of plans for themes by the\npupil, and writing from them.\n\n(c) Readings im literature by\npupils in school and home. Memorizing of choice selections long\nenough to have unity in themselves.\nAll written lessons and examinations should be so planned that\nthey will be lessons in composition\nas well.\nBy this course of instruction the\npupil should now be able to express his own thoughts clearly, in\ncorrect form, and in well-chosen\nwords.\n\nSee Group II.\nExtension of\n_ course of Group II., with wider\nrange, and\n\nwith\n\nmore\n\nand more\n\nreadings by the pupil.\nSpecial attention to biography,\nwith oral and written reproduction.\nReadings in United States history. See IV.\nIn III. and IV. the course is by\n’ readings or text-book study by the\npupil.\n\n(z) Selected epochs of general\nhistory, with study of leading historical\n\ncharacters;\n\na\n\ncourse\n\nof\n\nreadings and of conversations.\nMain object to develop a love for\nhistorical reading.\n\n(4) A course of study in United\nStates history.\n\nHistory.\n\n"}
{"page": 562, "printed_page": null, "text": "ok\n\nNATIONAL\n\nGROUP\n\nGeography.\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nI.\n\n(5-7 years.)\n\nFamiliar conversations and simple preparatory exercises, serving to\n\nexcite a spirit of observation in the\nchild by leading him to observe\nthe most common phenomena of\nearth and sky. Lessons on relative\npositions of objects, and distances.\n\nPoints of compass learned from\nposition of the sun, and applied.\nOral lessons to teach terms of\ngeographical description from the\nchild’s own observation. Modeling\nin sand. Stories of travel. Object lessons.on products, domestic\nand foreign.\n- These lessons in I. and II. are of\n\nnecessity mainly oral until the\npupil can read fairly well; then\ngeographical\n\nreaders and primary\n\ngeographies will give much assistance.\n\nArithmetic.\n\n(a) Instruction at first entirely\nobjective; objects gradually discarded as the facts are learned.\nNumbers\nand the combinations\nwhich form them up to 9. Throughout the course the child must learn\nthrough his own perceptions and\nself-activity.\n\n(4) Combinations represented by\nthe digits in pairs up to 9 and 9g.\nThe fundamental operations or\ncomputations taught, so far as\npossible, while teaching the combinations\n;thus 3+1=4,2+2=—4;\n3and I are how many? (addition);\n3 and how many are 4? (subtraction); two 2’s are how many?\n\n(multiplication) ; how many 2’s in\n4? (division); etc. Fractions ¥%,\n4%, %. Grouping by tens, to give\nthe fundamental idea of the decimal\nsystem.\n(The course in combinations (a) and (4) follows the grouping of the decimal system.) Reading and writing of numbers to 100.\nConstant application to concrete\nproblems.\nNumber lessons in Group I. are\nmainly oral.\nSimple problems involving addition, subtraction, multiplication,\nand division, using numbers of not\n\nmore than three places.\n\nASSOCIATION\nGROUP\n\nII.\n\n[National\n\n(7-9 years.)\n\nSee Group I.\nHome geography : Observations\nof phenomena of earth and sky; of\nthe seasons; of contour, surface,\nmountain,\nvalley, plain, brook,\nriver, pond, soils, vegetation;\nin\nshort, of whatever elements of\n\ngeographical study can be brought\nunder the observation of the child,\n\nthat his knowledge of his environment may serve as a basis for his\nfuture studies of the world.\n\nModeling in sand.\nNotion of\nmap.\nExtension of study to immediately related regions. Notion\nof form of the earth; the globe.\nIllustrated lessons on races of men,\n\nand on the picturesque and curious\nin their\nlife.\n\ncustoms\n\nSee Group I.\n\nand\n\nmanner\n\nof\n\n(a) Reading and\n\nwriting three and four place numbers. All the fundamental operations with numbers to 1,000. Values\n\nand relations of coins in United\nStates\nmoney.\nExercises with\nfractions %, 4%, %, %, %. Many\nconcrete problems with much objective illustration. Establish connection between arithmetic and the\n\nexperiences and businesses of farm\nlife by simple, interesting, varied\n\nproblems.\na time.\n\nTreat one difficulty\n\nat\n\n(2) Writing decimals to one,\ntwo, three places; addition and\nsubtraction of the same. Common\nfractions with one digit for denominator. The units of measures and\nweights objectively taught ;simple\nexercises involving compound numbers. Rapid calculations with small\nnumbers and easy problems.\nObjects for counting and combinations in the first steps, and weights\nand measures illustrating all the\ntables taught, are necessary.\nThe\nchild should weigh and measure for\nhimself before he is questioned in\nrelative values.\n\n"}
{"page": 563, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nREPORT\n\nGROUP\n\nIII.\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\n(9-11 years.)\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nGROUP\n\nON\n\nIV.\n\nRURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n(11-13 years.)\n\nSee Group II. Continents and\ngreat landand watermasses. North\n\n(az) See Group III.\nStudy of\nforeign countries, apportioning the\n\nAmerica\n\ntime devoted to them\n\nand\n\nUnited\n\nStates, with\n\ntheir relative interest and impor-\n\nof the world,\n\ntance.\n\nin\n\nconnection\n\nwith\n\npies TT\n\nee\n\nshe y OF Beography\n\n=\n\nnote its correlations with other sub-\n\njects, especially with history, literature, language.\n\n(8) Work\n\nof\n\nGeography.\n\naccording to\n\nincidental treatment of other parts\nea\n\n553\n\nthis group\n\nto\n\nbe\n\ndivided if necessary.\nThe use of modeling, map drawing, and the various means of\nillustration is presupposed throughout the course in geography, and\nalso the treatment of\nphysical,\n\nmathematical, industrial, and commercial geography, in due order\n\nand degree.\n\nAs the subject\n\nwill\n\nusually be taught in the rural\nschool with the aid of text-books\nin which these topics are developed, it is deemed unnecessary to\nenter into details in this statement.\n\n(a) See\n\nII.\n\nCompound\n\ncommon\n\nfractions,\n\nfractions\n\nand per-\n\n(4) Ratio and proportion ; simple\n\ncentage, with common\nbusiness\napplications in easy problems.\n\ntreatment of square and cube root.\n\nnumbers\n\nGroup\nand\n\n(a) See Group\n\nIII.\n\nPercentage\n\nArithmetic.\n\nwith applications to business.\n\nsimply treated.\n\n(6) Decimal\n\nSimple\n\ngeometrical\n\nfacts\n\nand\n\nconstructions, with mensuration of\n\nplane figures. Business forms and\nsimple bookkeeping.\n\nThroughout the course\narithmetic should receive\nattention.\n\nmental\ncareful\n\n©\n\n"}
{"page": 564, "printed_page": null, "text": "554\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nGROUP\n\nGROUP I. (5-7 years.)\n\nDrawing.\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nII.\n\n(7-9 years.)\n\nDrawing very simple familiar\nand nature-forms of beauty and\n\nDuring this period of two years,\nfrom large models, mainly by the\n\ninterest.\nIt is well, also, for the\nchild to represent simple colored\n\nvisual appearance and not as form\nstudies in the usual sense of that\nterm, study the sphere, cube, cylinder; spheroid, prolate and oblate ; square and triangular prism ;\npyramid, cone, ovoid; comparing\nwith each other and with objects\nrelated to them, noting resemblances and differences.\n(Some exercise in drawing these,\n\nobjects,\n\nas apple, lemon,\n\norange,\n\nand natural objects at hand, according to the season, in solid color, as\nhe sees them.\nIllustrative\ndrawing,\nby the\n\nchildren, may be frequently introduced\n\nas a means\n\nall these exercises\nshould be allowed.\nFree\n\npaper\n\nof interest;\n\ngreat\n\ncutting,\n\nin\n\nfreedom\n\nusing, soft pencil—black,\nas exercise\n\nin memory of proportions, may be\nan occasional exercise.\nPractice on lines of various kinds\n\nas combined\n\nin symmetrical and\n\npleasing figures, so conducted\n\nconstantly to exercise\n\nas\n\nthe inyen-\n\nbrown,\n\nor blue—and\nshading a little,\navoiding pure outline in picturing\nsolids.\nThis work can be postponed to the next group.)\nPaper cutting to the line of\ndrawings and construction may\nbe used as elementary manual\ntraining.\n\ntion and taste of the child.\nSymmetrical\narrangement\nof\nforms (tablets, seeds, etc.), by repetition in a line (borders) and around\na center (rosettes); by selecting\nobjects of different colors this may\nbe made an exercise in color as\n\nline; draw leaves, fruits, nuts, and\n\nwell\n\nof\n\njudgment of length of lines; pro-\n\nruler in drawing lines and figures.\nColor. — The spectrum colors,\nfrom the prism, should be taught,\nand colors in flowers and other\nobjects should be carefully observed,\n\nproportions of figures; accurate\nmeasurement of lines and distances; drawing and estimation of\nangles of various kinds; cultivate\n\nas\n\nform;\n\noccasional\n\nuse\n\noval,\n\nand\n\nother good forms with curved\n\nDraw\n\nout-\n\nfamiliar\n\ncircle, ellipse,\n\nobjects\n\nof\n\nbeauty\n\nand\n\ninterest; drill on division of lines,\nbisection, trisection, quadrisection;\nportions\n\nneatness\n\nof lines one\n\nand\n\nsymmetrical\n\naccuracy\n\nto another;\n\nin work;\n\narrangements\n\nof\n\ntablets and other forms, as borders,\nrosettes, and other ornaments, and\n\ndrawing the same; a part of each\nlesson should be given to free-arm\nmovements and to exercises in\n\ndrawing adapted to give freedom\nand accuracy in drawing outlines,\nright-lined or curved,\nExercise in picturing”\nin color,\nwith water color, or colored crayon,\nthe various natural objects studied\nin this group.\nIllustrative drawing.\nColor.— Spectrum colors, hues,\ntints, and shades.\n\na\n7\n\n~\n\na\n—\n\n"}
{"page": 565, "printed_page": null, "text": "REPORT\n\nCouncil]\n\nGROUP\n\nIII.\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\n(9-11 years.)\n\nFree-hand drawing\nfigures, right-lined or\n\nof plane\ncurved in\n\noutline; pictures of geometric solids and of natural and artificial\nobjects, choosing objects good in\nproportion and outline; interest\nwill be increased\nby drawing\ngroups of objects. Once a week\ndraw from geometric solids and\nsimple objects in light and shade,\ndrawing the shadows very simply.\nIn autumn and spring, especially,\nstudy plant growth, and draw\nsprays of leaves and flowers;\ndraw vegetables and fruits; construction of forms of regular solids\nby drawing, with\ninstruments,\ncutting, folding, and pasting paper\nand cardboard; studies in design\nfrom natural plant forms, using\ncolored crayon or water color if\npossible. Neatness and accuracy\nrequired in all work.\nDrill as in II. in free-arm movements and in exercises in drawing,\npracticing especially on circles,\nspirals,\n\nellipses,\n\novals,\n\nreversed\n\ncurves; judgment of proportions\nof lines and figures.\nCommence collection and study\nof pictures.\n\nColor.— Mixing colors; harmony\nof colors.\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nGROUP\n\nON\n\nIV.\n\nRURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nLESS)\nDrawing.\n\n(11-13 years.)\n\n(a) Draw pictures of geometric\nsolids and of natural and artificial\nobjects in groups, choosing objects\ngood in proportion and outline,\ngiving special attention to arrangement of groups.\n(6) Study foreshortening of horizontal and vertical surfaces;\n\ndraw\n\npictures of rectangular solids in\ndifferent positions relative to the\neye, singly and in groups; draw\nbooks, foliage, vases, etc.; draw in\n\nlight and shade with simple background, using charcoal, pencil, or\nbrush, and paper of size suited to\nthe object; large paper, nine by\ntwelve inches, is desirable for much\n\nof this work.\n(ad) Exercises in drawing shapes\nof faces of objects— top and front\n—and\nworking\ndrawings with\nfigured dimension lines, with drawing instruments, using pencil, or\npen and ink. (Some of this work\nmay be done in Group III.)\nFree-hand drill on curves, shade\n\n(or tint) lines, and judgment of\nproportions; drawing of original\ndesigns, using color; practice in\nuse\nof\ndrawing\ninstruments;\ngraphic solution of simple problems in geometry.\n\nColor.—See Group III.\nAdd\ncomplementary colors. Study color\nin vegetables, flowers, leaves, etc.\n\nNore.—In drawing, as in the other subjects of this course, the aim has been to construct a course which will be helpful to teachers in the average rural school under fairly\nfavorable conditions.\nThe order of treatment of subjects in each group, and the amount\nof work done, must depend upon the conditions ; in some cases more can be done than is\nhere laid down, in many cases not so much.\nSo far as the child learns to see clearly and\nto draw truthfully and well what he sees, and as he sees it, good work has been done.\nHe should be encouraged to draw much, aside from his lessons and school exercises, from\n\nwhatever is of interest to him.\n(See Remarks on Drawing on pp. 547 and 560.)\n\n:\n\n"}
{"page": 566, "printed_page": null, "text": "556\n\nNATIONAL\nGROUP\n\nElements of\nScience, or\nNature\nStudy.\n\nEDUCATIONAL.\nI.\n\nGROUP\n\n(5-7 years.)\n\nIn the work in nature study\nonly so much should be attempted\nas can be well done.\nThe\n\nASSOCIA TION\n\ncourse in science\n\nfurnishes\n\nan excellent basis for written work.\n\nSimple object lessons, if possible\nwith the object under the eye and\nin the hand of the pupil; conversational lessons on familiar things\nand on the phenomena of nature,\ndesigned to lead him to give attention, to observe, to compare, to\nquestion, to remember.\nFamiliar\n\ntalks on the human body and the\ncare of it; on common animals\nknown to the child, their distin-\n\nguishing characteristics and habits ;\non common flowers and plants,\nespecially food plants and plants\nof use in the arts, as corn, cotton,\netc.; on stones and metals in com-\n\nmon use which\n\nthe child can learn\n\nto recognize.\n\nAs early as possible\n\nhe should have some care of plants\nin the schoolhouse or the school\ngarden.\n\nCorrelations, especially with language and drawing, with geography and literature, should be kept\nin mind,\n\nII.\n\n[National\n(7-9 years.)\n\nA _ graduated\nSee Group I.\ncourse of nature study following a\nsystematic order of development,\nbut observing the child’s standpoint\nas determined by his experience\nand interests, studying things, phenomena, processes, properties, and _\nclassification\n\nof things, as animal,\n\nvegetable, mineral. Conversational\nlessons on the human body, its\nprincipal parts, their movements\nand\n\ntheir uses;\non common animals, so conducted as to arouse\ninterest in anima] and bird life,\n\nespecially treating\n\nof the uses of\n\nbirds to the farmer, and the neces-\n\nsity for their protection, to stimulate observation regarding their\nhabits, and to cultivate a sentiment\n\nof kindness in the treatment\nthem; on plants and the care\n\nof\nof\n\nthem, their parts, as roots, stems,\nflowers, fruits, seeds, and their\ngrowth; onsome common minerals\nand their uses.\nLessons on transformations of material in manufactured articles of common use.\n\nIn nature study the development\n\nof appreciation of and love for the\nbeautiful should be made prominent.\n\nE\ne\nme\neie\nt\na\na\na\n\n"}
{"page": 567, "printed_page": null, "text": "REPORT\n\nCouncil]\n\nGROUP\n\nIII.\n\nOF THE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\n(9-11 years.)\n\nGROUP\n\nPreceding course so expanded\nand taught as to give clearly some\nof the more important notions of\nnatural science: the human body\nand the principal functions of life;\ndistinguishing\ncharacteristics of\nanimals taught from the study of\ntypes ; useful and noxious animals,\nespecially\n\nbirds\n\nand\n\ninsects;\n\nthe\n\nstudy, in typical specimens, of the\nprincipal organs of the plant; plant\ngrowth, its order and conditions;\nsome typical trees, and their characteristics, value and\n\nwood;\n\nON RURAL\n\nuses of their\n\nfruit trees best adapted to\n\nthe region ; lessons on soils.\n\nEvery rural school should have a\nplot of ground prepared as a school\ngarden, in which every pupil may\ncultivate and study plants.\nIn this\n\ncase the instruction in Groups IIT.\nand LV. would be extended to include\nthe preparation of soils for cultivation, the action of fertilizers, the\nsimpler agricultural operations, and\nthe use of garden tools.\n\nIV.\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n(11-13 years.)\n\nRevision and extension of the\ncourse in Group III., giving more\nof completeness and of scientific\narrangement and form to the instruction.\nCabinets\nshould\nbe\ncollected for the school.\nPhysiology.\n\nGeneral\n\nreview\n\nby\n\nuse of a text-book, giving special\nattention to hygiene and to the\neffects of stimulants and narcotics.\nSanitation of school and home.\nZovlogy.\n\nObservation\n\nof\n\nthe\n\nhabits of animals throughout the\nyear; study of available types;\ngeneral classifications; geographical distribution.\nEssential parts of the\nBotany.\nplant; order and conditions of\ngrowth; principal groups; geographical distribution of plants;\nuses of plants; study of trees.\nMineralogy.\n\nGeneral treatment\n\nof the structure of the crust of the\nearth; soils, rocks, fossils, with\nillustrations from the neighborhood.\n\nExcursions\nthe pupil.\nPhysics\n\nand\n\nand\n\ncollections\n\nChemistry.\n\nby\nThe\n\nelementary facts and principles of\nthese sciences should be taught by\nsimple experiments. The course will\nvary according to the qualifications\nof the teacher\n\nyy 7\n\nand\n\nthe means of -\n\nVarious courses for\nthis instruction have been prepared,\ngiving methods in detail.\n\ninstruction.\n\nOnly such selections from\nabove as can be well done.\n\nthe\n\nElements of\n\nScience, or\nNature\n\nStudy.\n\n"}
{"page": 568, "printed_page": null, "text": "558\n\nNATIONAL\n\nGROUP\n\nMorals\n\nCivics.\n\nand\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nI.\n\n(5-7 years.)\n\nGROUP\n\nConversations with the children\n\nin all the school exercises,in which\nthe teacher shall aim to secure the\nconfidence and familiar participation\n\nof the\n\nchildren, and\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nthus to\n\nlearn their characters so as to guide\ntheir tendencies of thought and action. Special care regarding children in whom the teacher notices\nany moral defect or vicious tendency.\nCareful attention to propriety of conduct and good manners.\n\nFamiliar\n\nIl.\n\n[ National\n\n(7-9 years.)\n\nconversations\n\nand\n\nkind\nindividual\ncounsel when\nneeded.\nSimple stories, parables,\nfables, treated with reference to\nideas of right and wrong.\n(Never\nmake a class lesson from cases involving the conduct of the pupil;\nthese should be treated by private\nadmonition.)\nPractical exercises\ntending to arouse the moral sense\nof the class, by methods of school\ndiscipline, by often making the pupil the judge of his own conduct,\nby training the pupil to draw the\nappropriate lessons from facts observed by himself.\n\n"}
{"page": 569, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nREPORT\n\nGROUP\n\nContinue\n\nIll.\n\nOF THE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\n(9-11 years.)\n\ncourse\n\nof Group\n\nGROUP\n\nON RURAL\nIV.\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n(11-13 years.)\n\nIL,\n\nInstruction along the linesof the\n\nwith somewhat more of method.\nConversations so conducted as to\ninterest the pupil and induce the\nfreest participation. Passages from\nhistory and literature treated from\nthe point of view of right and\nwrong.\nAll lessons and readings\nso arranged as to omit no important point of the following course:\n\npreceding course, expanding the\ninstruction especially in regard to\nsocial morality and duties to the\nnative land, treating under this last\ntitle the organization and principles\n\nduties to parents, duties to brothers\nand sisters, duties toward employers, duties toward servants and\n\nemployés,\n\nduties\n\nof the child\n\nin\n\n~ school, duties toward the native\nland and society, duties toward\none’s self, as cleanliness, temperance, economy, self-respect, modesty, the Golden Rule;\nduties\ntoward God, not a course of reli-\n\ngious instruction, but emphasizing\nespecially two points: cultivating\nthe feeling and habit of reverence,\nand a disposition of obedience to\nthe laws of God.\nThroughout the whole course\nkindness to animals should be most\ncarefully taught.\nSome\n\nwork\n\nin civics should\n\ntaken up in III. as well as IV.\n\nbe\n\nof our form of government (civics).\nAs a preparation the teacher\nshould carefully read some systematic treatises on ethics\n\nand civics,\n\nand the immediate test of success\nwill be the fact that the pupils are\n\nheartily interested in the subject.\nMorals and civics furnish an excellent basis for training in speaking and writing.\nThis course in morals, in its general classification and arrangement\nof topics, is in accordance with the\ncourse of moral instruction in the\nschools\n\n559\n\nof France,\n\nand\n\nhas\n\nbeen\n\ntested for several years in a training school in this country.\n\nMorals and\nCivics.\n\n"}
{"page": 570, "printed_page": null, "text": "560\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nREMARKS\n\nDRAWING\n\nON\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\n—(continued from p. 547.)\n\nHistoric ornament is left to the discretion of the teacher, as in most cases limitations\n\nTeachers should themselves gain such\nof time would exclude it from the rural school.\nart as is possible. Excellent books\nof\nhistory\nthe\nof\nand\nornament\nhistoric\nknowledge of\ntreating of these subjects can be easily obtained, and the knowledge thus gained will\nenable them to add much of interest and value to their instruction.\nFor the complete treatment of this course it is desirable that the teacher should have\nIn the rural school selections will\nhad some special preparation for teaching drawing.\nThere\noften have to be made according to circumstances and the ability of the teacher.\nshould be at least three lessons a week, of twenty minutes each, in Groups I. and II., and\nlonger lessons in Groups III, and IV. Exercises included in parentheses are left to the\ndiscretion of the teacher.\nIn all parts of the course in drawing care should be taken to cultivate an appreciation of the simple elements of beauty, and to develop a love for the beauties of nature\nand art; and the schoolroom should be furnished with some classic examples of art for\nstudy as well as for ornament.\nIn this regard note the analogy between the study of art\nand the study of literature.\n\nAPPENDIX\nNEGRO\n\nTEACHERS\n\nFOR\n\n/.\n\nNEGRO\n\nSCHOOLS.\n\nThe answer to the question, ‘‘ Should white teachers be employed in negro schools ?”’\nrequires some knowledge of the past conditions of the negro, as well as an intelligent\nand sympathetic appreciation of his present status.\nI propose then to consider the question in the light of certain broad, fundamental principles which involve, essentially, the\nwelfare and progress of the negro race.\nThirty years have\n\npassed since the emancipation\n\nof the negro\n\nbecame\n\nan accom-\n\nplished fact. For thirty years he has been the subject of much contention and the object\nof much solicitude. During this period new nations have been born to civilization.\nJapan, for instance, whose birth was almost coincident with negro emancipation, has\nestablished herself “Queen of the Orient,” and has demonstrated her right to a place of\n\nhonor among the great nations of the earth. While much progress has been made by the\nnegro race in the South, it must be admitted that this progress has been due too litile to\nhimself, and too largely to the external influences of the civilization under which he has\nlived, While marvelous development may be found in individual instances, the condition\nof the-masses of the race is but little improved; the solution of the vexed negro question\nis as problematical as ever; the education of the race is still in an empirical stage.\nUnlike\n\nother races\n\nthat have\n\nattained\n\nto civilization, the negro, with a few individual\n\nexceptions, has been content to be merely a passive spectator of the processes that have\naffected him. Incapable of initiative and executive power, and wanting in genius for\norganization, he has never been an active agent in the work of race redemption.\nHe has\nnever been accustomed to voluntary activity; he is here not of his own\n\nchoice;\n\na docile\n\nslave, he wrought on southern plantations until, without an effort of his own, he was made\nan American citizen.\nHaving received his political elevation by legislation, he naturally\n\nexpected to obtain a commercial, intellectual, and moral status in some such mysterious\nway. The progress of the negro race, remarkable though it may be, is not the result\nof social and political self-evolution, but an effect produced by extraneous causes.\nIf the education of the negro is to be anything more than a veneer, the race must\nobey that great law of human development which makes voluntary energy the source of\npower and progress. The intellectual power developed must be energized by proper incen-\n\ni\n\n"}
{"page": 571, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n561\n\ntives into self-activity ;it must be made reproductive within the race itself. It isnot enough\nthat the race shall be environed with all the accessories of civilization.\nIts consciousness\nmust be aroused, its powers energized, its sense of responsibility quickened.\nIt must be\ntaught to work out its own salvation, if its progress is to be real and enduring.\nThe\ngospel must be preached by its own preachers; its schools must be taught by its own\n\nteachers.\n\nIt must consciously realize its own\n\nresponsibility for the effective use of the\n\nmeans at its command in the work of race development.\nThe position of the negro as a race has heretofore been one of dependence.\nLacking the virtues of thrift, foresight, and economy, he is still very largely supplied from the\nwhite man’s table; and in time of trouble, confidently appeals, and seldom in vain, to his\nformer master for aid and relief. The negro wears his master’s religion, and sometimes\n\nhis politics, very much\n\nas he does his old clothes, as something\n\nentirely foreign and\n\nexternal to himself.\nBy perpetuating this dependence, intellectual and moral, we acquiesce in a species of spiritual bondage that is almost as unfavorable to race progress\nas slavery itself.\n\n“Our\n\nreal friends,” says Emerson, “are\n\nthose who\n\nmake\n\nus do what\n\nwe can.”’ Judicious aid to a dependent people is necessary and praiseworthy, but, in my\n~ judgment, it should stop short of doing all their intellectual work for them,\nTo cultivate in the negro the sense of intellectual and moral independence, such\navenues of service as will enable him to effect the uplifting of the race should not be\nclosed against him.\nHe requires these as worthy incentives to arouse his ambition and to\nstimulate his sense of responsibility.\nTo be the teacher of his race is the one position of\nhonor, dignity, and responsibility to which he may legitimately aspire. To throttle his\nenergies and to close against him this avenue of activity and usefulness would be an\nunwarranted assumption of responsibility by the white race and an injustice to the negro.\nBut a further and more potent reason for employing negro teachers to teach negro\nschools is the fact that race identity is an important factor in educational work.\nThe\nteacher and the taught must possess a common consciousness, a mutual affinity, as a condition of proper intellectual and moral growth. ‘The teacher must embody in his personality the historic race epochs and processes of development represented in the pupil, in\norder that the intellectual powers of the child may be invested with that atmosphere of\nsympathy and appreciation necessary to their healthy activity. The historic consciousness of teacher and pupil must possess certain intuitive elements in common, as the result\nof common race processes, if the teaching is to be efficient and the development natural.\nAgain, it is a fact that cannot well be called in question that white teachers in negro\nschools can never realize, even approximately, the ideal relation that should exist between\nteacher and pupil. This is forcibly true in elementary schools. That relation requires\nlove, not philanthropy; affection, not charity; sympathy, not pity. Occupying planes so\nwidely separated, spheres of activity so diverse ;without common blood or social ties,\ncommon history or common interests, common origin or common destiny, a white teacher\nand a negro class will never realize the ideal school. In such a case the teacher cannot\nappeal to the inner life of the pupil, and the craving consciousness of the child finds no\nresponsive chord in the teacher. They must meet, if they meet at all, upon the cold,\nabstract plane of reason.\nThe instinct of race identity, as strong in one race as in the\nother, as strong in the pupil as in the teacher, intervenes as an insuperable barrier.\nBetween teacher and pupil must ever remain this chasm of race difference, as deep as\nhuman consciousness itself. Call it prejudice if you will, but it exists as a God-implanted\n\ninstinct of which the teacher can neyer divest himself—out of which the pupil can never\nbe educated.\nAlthough it be tempered by philanthropy, sweetened by religion, or even\nsmothered by fanaticism, it still exists, and will continue to exist as long as humanity.\nThe principles here emphasized are not restricted in their application to the negro\nrace; like all natural laws they are universal, and are modified in their operation only by\n\nthe variation of the conditions involved.\n\nThey are true in their application to the Ameri-\n\ncan Indian and to the Mongolian, to the Fiji Islanders and to the Kaffirs of South Africa\n\n"}
{"page": 572, "printed_page": null, "text": "562\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nExperience in the missionary field has demonstrated the fact that the successful\npropagation of the gospel requires the preparation of native teachers and native preachThe foreign missionary may direct and supervise, aid and\ners as a primary condition.\ninspire, but he remains a foreigner still—a being apart and something different from the\npeople. The native teachers and preachers of our missionary fields are the hope of\nheathendom, because they alone can fulfill the requirements of the law of race identity.\nNor is this principle confined to race relations ;in a lesser degree it operates between\ndifferent families of the Caucasian race, and indeed between any two people differing in\nnationality and language.\nSchool men of wide experience will testify to the fact that\nfew teachers of English or American birth can successfully manage a school of Irish,\nGerman, or Swedish children;\n\non the other hand, a native French or German\n\nteacher, be\n\nhe ever so proficient in scholarship, or fertile in resources, finds much difficulty in the discipline of American children, and years of striving are usually required to bridge the\nchasm of difference.\nIn elementary and secondary education I regard this law of race identity as vital and\nimperative,\nbut in the province of higher education its authority, under certain conditions,\nmay possibly be relaxed without serious consequences.\nInstitute instruction, however,\nand the guidance and supervision of negro teachers by the whites must still be continued\nas a matter of duty and as an administrative necessity.\n\nThe important principle involved here is primarily that of co-ordination — not of textbooks and curricula\n— but the vital co-ordination of the teacher with the child. When we\nimpose upon the child a relation so incongruous, physically, intellectually, and morally,\nwe violate a primary law of nature as well as an established pedagogical principle.\nThe\nfact that the vast majority of negro teachers are deplorably incompetent no one will\ndeny. But the remedy is to be sought in the improvement of these teachers, and not in\n\nthe substitution of white teachers. Novel as the statement may appear, I confidently hold\nthat no white teacher is competent to teach negro children.\nWe must remember that for\nthe teacher there are conditions and qualifications antecedent to scholarship, and tests\nmore important than the uniform state examination.\nOther considerations in the same line might be adduced, such as the necessity for\nmodifying our courses of study and adapting our methods of teaching to the wants of\nnegro schools.\nIt remains to be seen whether the instruction of an infant race can proceed along the same lines and by the same methods as that of a race whose culture is\nbased upon centuries of struggle and self-effort, without involving the violation of all\nsound economic and pedagogic doctrine.\nBut the consideration of these lines would\ncarry me beyond the limits and the object of this discussion.\nIn conclusion, let me briefly summarize the argument for employing negro teachers in\nnegro schools:\n1, The educational development of the negro must be from within, and by the race\nitself, and not solely through extraneous agencies.\n2. The intellectual and moral dependence of the race should not be perpetuated. The\nnegro needs to be stimulated to independent activity.\n3. As a teacher of his race the negro occupies a position of trust and honor, which\nhe needs to quicken his sense of responsibility, and to furnish him the incentives and the\nmeans for race elevation.\n4. The teacher and the pupil must possess a common consciousness, whose historic\nprocesses have common elements, resulting in common intuitions. The teacher must\nembody in his character the race epochs and processes represented in the child.\n5. The instinct of race identity renders impossible the realization of an ideal relation between the white teacher and the negro pupil. The teacher and the child must\nbe co-ordinated.\n\nBirmingham, Ala.\n\n. H. PHILLIPS.\n\n:\n\ne\ne\ne\na\nee\n\naco\n\ne\n—\n\n"}
{"page": 573, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF THE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nRURAL\n\nSCHOOLS °\n\n563\n\nAd PEIN DIX. KK\nJ. W. BRADBURY.\nHon. J. W. Bradbury, United States Senator from Maine 1847-53, was a teacher for\nten years, commencing at the age of seventeen.\nHe had among his pupils Hawthorne,\nLongfellow, Abbott, Cheever, Cilley.\nHe had completed his studies for admission to the bar in 1829, but it would be some\nmonths before the court could make provision for his examination.\nHe had learned in visiting schools that teachers were ignorant of proper methods of\ninstruction, and, hoping\n\nto assist them\n\nto some\n\ndefinite ideas of what studies should be\n\ntaught in the common school, the order in which they should be taken, and the methods\nwhich should be used in teaching them, he gave notice in August, 1829, that a training\nschool for teachers would be opened in Effingham, N. H. The school was in session during September, October, and November.\nAbout sixty teachers were in attendance.\nInstruction was given in the subjects taught in the public schools and in the methods that\nshould be used in teaching them, and the ability of his pupils to comprehend the instruction in methods\n\nwas\n\ntested\n\ncriticism.\nAt this time he had\n\nby regutring them to teach the sulject to the class under his\n\nnot heard of the existence\n\nof such a training school in this\n\ncountry.\nIn the winter of 1829-30 Mr. Bradbury was\n\na member of the school committee of\nParsonsfield, Me.\n“‘Vhe methods which he had taught in his Effingham training school\n» were adopted in Parsonsfield.\nBy improved methods of examination of teachers better\nteachers were secured, the quantity and quality of work done in school were raised, and\nthe schools of Parsonsfield were placed on a higher plane. It is some evidence of the\ncharacter of this movement that more than 600 women have gone out from this small\n\ncountry town and become good teachers.\n\nTEACHERS’\n\nSEMINARY\n\nAT PEVYMOUTEH,\n\n[Extracts from catalogue, 1839, in which year the school was\n\nWN. Z.\nclosed from failure in\n\nappropriation.]\n“This seminary has been founded with the hope of improving popular education, by\nelevating the character of teachers..... The trustees have three prominent objects in\nview : (1) to educate teachers for common and other schools ; (2) to fit students for college ;\n(3) to furnish the means for a thorough English education. ... .\n“The school embraces a department for males and one for females..... The course\nof study in the Teachers’ Seminary requires four years in the male department and three\nin the female department, with the exception of one term each year, during which the\nmembers may be absent to teach school.”\nIn the course of study were taken English language, history of the United States and\nof England, physics\ntrigonometry and\n\nand chemistry, with experimental lectures; mathematics, including\nsections; political economy, intellectual and moral philosophy,\n\nconic\n\nlogic, natural theology, lectures on the history of education and the art of teaching, in addition to the common school studies.\nStudies were suspended in the winter terms of the last three years of the course in the\n\nmale department to allow students to teach, and in the summer terms of the same years in\nthe female department for the same purpose. .\n\n"}
{"page": 574, "printed_page": null, "text": "564\n\n;\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCTATION\n\n[National\n\nAlthough the students in the classical department far outnumbered those in the teachers’ department —eighty-seven to twenty-eight —yet all the statements show that the\nteachers’ department was the leading one in the interest of the principal, and scholarships,\nof which there were several, were founded only in this department.\n\nAPPENDIX\nNEW\n\nVORK STATE\n\nL.\n\nSCHOOL\n\nLIBRARY.\n\nThe New York legislature of 1895, in an act entitled “An Act for the Encouragement\n\nof Common Schools and Public Libraries,” authorized the state superintendent of public\ninstruction to establish a state school library for the benefit and free use of the teachers of\ntheystaterer: caer. The books selected embrace those bearing directly on the profession of\nteaching, with others relating to studies in psychology and the training of children,\ntogether with those referring to special studies in school.\nParticular attention has been\ngiven to the selection of works on civil government, political economy, and social and\nmoral questions, as discussed by teachers with the children.\nVolumes on the natural\nsciences have been provided for popular use rather than for technical or professional\nreading. Care has been taken to provide, to a limited extent, books relating to history,\n\nCe\nme\n.\n\ngeneral literature, and art.\n\nAny teacher may have the use of the books of this library free of expense, except for\npostage and express, and he may purchase books from the list at a fixed price. (From\nReport of State Superintendent of Public Instruction, New York, 1896.)\n\nLIST OF BOOKS\n\nFOR\n\nRURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nAND\n\nCOMMUNITIES.\n\nThe committee has endeavored to make out a list of books for study and reading\nfor parents, teachers, and pupils in the country schools. It wishes to acknowledge the\nassistance of President F. W. Parker, of Professor L. H. Bailey, of Cornell University ;\nProfessor F, H. King, University of Wisconsin, and Professor D. L. Kiehle, of Minnesota.\n\nColonel Parker makes this suggestion: “The mere reading or study of these books,\nwithout copious illustrations direct from nature, would be like reading any other books\nwithout experience back of them.\nMy suggestion is this: that the books be read in connection with the study of nature. The teachers can easily make the right selections; for\ninstance, the study of soils in the time of plowing, the study of plants in the time of\ngrowth, etc. Specimens may be brought into the schoolroom, or better, the pupils may go\nto the specimens by field excursions.\n\n“TI am quite sure there are many other books, but I have not had sufficient time to get\nhold of them.\n\nOO?\nee\nee\nOU\nte\ney\ne\nP\nA\nSe\n=\n\n“T wish to call the attention of the teachers to a fact that should be well known, that\n\nthe United States government publishes some of the best books on farming and nature\nknown.\nI have appended a very brief list here, but the trustees of schools and principals\nof schools can yery easily get all of these valuable documents from their representative in\nCongress.”\n\n2.\nho\n‘\n\nAGRICULTURE,\n\nThe\n\nand\n\nSoil, Franklin\n\nstudy for school\n\nmeetings.\n\nH. King (Rural Science\n\nand home;\n\nexcellent\n\nSer.).\n\nThe\n\nMacmillan\n\nfor study of upper\n\ngrades,\n\nCo.\n\nReading\n\nand\n\nfarmers,\n\n"}
{"page": 575, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nThe Fertility of the Land, J. P. Roberts.\n\nfor home and school.\n\nON RURAL\n\nThe\n\nMacmillan\n\nSCHOOLS\nCo.\n\n565\n\nReading\n\nand\n\nstudy\n\nExcellent.\n\nFirst Principles of Agriculture, Edward B. Voorhees.\n\nSilver, Burdett & Co.\n\nRefer-\n\nence.\nIrrigation Farming, Lute Wilcox.\nOrange Judd Co. Reference.\nFarm Drainage, C. G. Elliot. United States Department of Agriculture (Farmers,\nBulletin No. 40). Reference.\nTillage and Implements, W. J. Malden.\n\nG. Bell & Sons.\n\nReference.\n\nOur Farming, T. B. Terry. The Farmer Co., Philadelphia.\nReference.\nYearbook of the United States Department of Agriculture.\nReference.\nFarmers’ Bulletins, United States Department of Agriculture.\nReference.\nRelation of Soil to Climate, E. W. Hilgard.\n\nBulletin No. 3, United\n\nStates Weather\n\nBureau Department.\nSome Physical Properties of Soil in their Relation to Moisture and Crop Distribution,\nMilton W. Whitney.\nBulletin No. 4, United States Weather Bureau Department.\nFluctuations of Ground Water, Franklin H. King.\nBulletin No. 5, United States\nWeather Bureau Department.\nLaws of Rainfall, Gustavus Hinrichs.\nUnited States Department of Agriculture.\n\nForest Influence upon Climate, Water Supply, and Health, B. E. Fernow.\nNo.\n\nBulletin\n\n7, Division of Forestry.\nHORTICULTURE.\n\nThe Principles of Fruit-Growing, L. H. Bailey.\nstudy for home and school.\nAmerican Fruit Culturist, J. J. Thomas.\n\nThe\n\nMacmillan Co.\n\nOrange Judd Co.\n\nReading and\n\nReference.\n\nLandscape Gardening, Edward Kemp.\nOrange Judd Co. Reference.\nHow to Make the Garden Pay, T. Greiner.\nOrange Judd Co. Reference.\nPrinciples of Plant Culture, E. S. Goff, Madison, Wis.\n\nReference.\n\nPlant-Breeding, L. H. Bailey. The Macmillan Co. Reference.\nNursery-Book, L. H. Bailey (Garden Craft Ser.) The Macmillan Co.\nHorticulturist’s Rule-Book, L. H. Bailey.\n\nThe Macmillan Co.\n\nReference.\n\nReference.\n\nBOTANY.\n\nHow Crops Grow, S. W. Johnson.\n\nOrange Judd Co.\n\nReference.\n\nHow Crops Feed, S. W. Johnson.\n\nOrange Judd Co.\n\nReference.\n\nFamiliar Trees and their Leaves, F.S. Mathews.\nD. Appleton & Co.\nFamiliar Flowers of Field and Garden, F. S. Mathews.\nD. Appleton & Co.\n\nExcel-\n\nlent for reference.\nMay be profitably studied with the flowers and plants throughout the\nyear.\nThe Garden’s Story, G. H. Ellwanger.\nD. Appleton & Co. Reference.\nHow Plants Grow, Gray.\n\nAmerican Book Co.\n\nBotany for Public Schools, Abbie G. Hall.\nBotany for Young People, Gray.\n\nReference.\n\nGeo. Sherwood & Co.\n\nAmerican Book Co.\n\nReference.\n\nTo be read with specimens\n\nby intermediate grades.\nFrom Seed to Leaf, J. H. Newell.\nGinn & Co.\nReader.\nTalks Afield, L. H. Bailey. Houghton, Mifflin & Co, For teachers.\n\nexcursions.\nChapters on Plant Life, S. B. Herrick.\nHarper & Bros.\nmens and microscope by intermediate grades.\n\nGood for field\n\nTo be studied with speci-\n\nHow to Know the Wild Flowers, Mrs. Wm. S. Dana.\nChas. Scribner’s Sons.\nPlants and their Children, Mrs. Wm. S. Dana.\nAmerican Book Co.\n\n"}
{"page": 576, "printed_page": null, "text": "566\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nSCIENCE.\n\nThe Macmillan Co. Reading book for grammar grades.\nSunshine, Amy Johnson.\nForms of Water, Tyndall.\nD. Appleton & Co. Eighth grade.\nWeather, Ralph Abercromby.\nD. Appleton & Co.\nNatural History of Selborne, Gilbert White.\nGinn & Co. Eighth grade.\nThe Great World’s Farm, Selina Gaye. The Macmillan Co. Charming, and very\nprofitable for grammar grades and home study.\nElementary Meteorology, W. M. Davis.\nGinn & Co. Teachers and parents, and\nfor reference.\nA Popular Treatise on the Winds, W. Ferrel. John Wiley & Sons. Teachers’ study\nand reference.\nElementary Text-Book of Physical Geography, R. S. Tarr.\nThe Macmillan Co.\nExcellent for study and reference.\nThe Geological Story Briefly Told, J. D. Dana.\nAmerican Book Co. Excellent for\nreading and reference.\nFirst Book in Geology, N.S. Shaler. D.C. Heath & Co. Unexcelled reading book\nfor seventh and eighth grades.\nThe Story of the Hills, H. N. Hutchinson,\nThe Macmillan Co. Reading book for\neighth grade.\nMonographs on Physical Geography.\nAmerican Book Co. Excellent for teachers’\nstudy.\nRound the Year, L. C. Miall.\n\nAutumn, Winter, Spring:\n\nThe Macmillan Co. 'Teachers.\n\nThree small volumes.\n\nGinn & Co.\n\nReading for third\n\nand fourth grades.\nScience Readers, Vincent T. Murche.\n\nThe Macmillan\n\nSystematic Science Teaching, E.G. Howe.\nANIMAL\n\nHoney-Bee, L. L. Langstroth.\n\nLIFE,\n\nJ.B. Lippincott Co.\n\nManual for the Study of Insects, J. H. Comstock.\n\nN.Y.\n\nCo.\n\nD. Appleton & Co.\n\n<A practical treatise.\nComstock\n\nReference.\n\nPublishing Co., Ithaca,\n\nReference.\nHalf Hours with Insects, A. S. Packard.\nEstes & Lauriatt.\nReference.\nBuz; or the Life and Adventures of a Honey Bee, Maurice Noel.\nHenry Holt & Co.\n\nReading, eighth grade.\nBoys and Girls in Biology, S. H. Stevenson.\nD. Appleton & Co.\nAnts, Bees, and Wasps, Lubbock.\nD. Appleton & Co. Reference.\n\nThe Population of an Old Pear Tree, E. van Bruyssel. The Macmillan Co. Grammar grades.\nMy Saturday Bird Class, Olive Thorne Miller.\nD.C. Heath & Co. Fourth grade.\nLittle Brothers of the Air, Olive Thorne Miller.\n\nIn Bird Land, L. S. Keyser.\n:\n\nTenants\n\nHoughton, Mifflin & Co.\n\nA.C. McClurg & Co.\n\nof an Old Farm, H.C. McCook.\n\nFords, Howard\n\n& Hulbert.\n\ninsects,\n\nDomesticated Animals, N.S. Shaler.\nA.C. McClurg & Co.\nLife Histories of American\nInsects, Clarence M. Weed.\n\nThe\n\nHabits\n\nMacmillan\n\nof\n\nCo.\n\nEntertaining and instructive.\nNATURE\n\nSTUDY.\n\nNature Study and Related Subjects, Wilbur S. Jackman, Chicago Normal School.\nTommy-Anne and the Three Hearts, Mabel Osgood Wright. The Macmillan Co.\nA good reading book for intermediate grades.\n\n"}
{"page": 577, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n567\n\nThe Beauties of Nature, Lubbock.\nThe Macmillan Co. Home reading.\nMan and Nature, G. P. Marsh.\nChas. Scribner’s Sons.\nReference and reading,\nForest Trees, Wild Apples, and Sounds, H. D. Thoreau.\nHoughton, Mifflin & Co.\nJohn Burroughs’ Works.\n\n*\n\nHoughton,\n\nMifflin & Co.\n\nWinter Sunshine.\nParents and teachers.\nFor pupils, The Apple.\nRiverby.\nParents and teachers.\nSelections for home reading.\nWake-Robin.\nParents and teachers.\nSelections for older pupils.\nPepacton.\nParents and teachers.\nSelections for pupils: Springs, Idyl of the\nHoney-Bee, etc.\n\nLocusts and Wild Honey.\nHome reading.\nSelections for pupils: Sharp Eyes,\nStrawberries, Is it Going to Rain, Bed of Boughs, etc.\nSigns and Seasons.\nHome reading.\nSelections for pupils: The Tragedies of\nthe Nests,\n\nA River View, Bird Enemies, Phases of Farm Life.\n\nBirds and Poets.\nHome reading.\nBass’s Nature Stories for Young Readers.\nand fourth grades.\n\nD.C. Heath & Co.\n\nExcellent for third\n\nMISCELLANEOUS,\n\nArt of Beautifying Suburban Home Grounds, F. J. Scott. D. Appleton & Co.\nA Text-Book on Roads and Pavements, F. P. Spalding.\nJohn Wiley & Sons.\nUnited States Government Reports.\nWater and Land, Jacob Abbott.\nHarper & Bros.\nWhat Darwin saw in his voyage round world in Ship “ Beagle.”\nHarper & Bros;\nBrooks and Brook Basins, Alex. Frye. Ginn & Co.\nThe Story of a Stone, in Science Sketches, David Starr Jordan.\n\nA. C. McClurg & Co.\n\nThe Earth and its Story, Angelo Heilprin.\nSilver, Burdett & Co.\nFormation of Vegetable Mold, Darwin.\nD. Appleton & Co.\nScience Primer of Physical Geography, A. Geikie. American Book Co.\nUp and Down Brooks, Mary E. Bamford.\nHoughton, Mifflin & Co.\nEvery-Day Occupations, H. W. Clifford.\nBoston School Supply Co.\nModern Industries and Commerce, Robt. Lewis.\nBoston School Supply Co.\nCamps in Rockies, Wm. Grohman.\nChas. Scribner’s Sons.\nCoal and Coal Mines, H. K. Greene.\n\nHoughton, Mifflin & Co.\n\nThe Sea and its Wonders, Mary and Elizabeth Kirby. T. Nelson & Sons.\nCanoemates, Kirk Munroe.\nHarper & Bros.\nCampmates, Kirk Munroe.\nHarper & Bros.\nTalking Leaves, W. O. Stoddard.\nHarper & Bros.\nAn Iceland Fisherman, Pierre Loti. A.C. McClurg & Co.\nHunter Cats of Connorloa, H. H.\nRoberts Bros.\nJohn Brent, Theo. Winthrop.\nHenry Holt & Co.\n\nz\n\nThe Electrical Boy, J. T. Trowbridge.\nRoberts Bros.\nHow to Study Geography, F. W. Parker.\nD. Appleton & Co.\nMethods and Aids in Geography, C. F. King. Lee & Shepard.\nThe Story of the Plants, Grant Allen. D. Appleton & Co.\nWonders of Plant Life, S. B. Herrick.\n\nG. P. Putnam’s Sons.\n\nIntelligence of Animals, Ernest Menault.\nChas. Scribner’s Sons.\nElementary Meteorology, F. Waldo.\nAmerican Book Co.\nThe Food of Plants, A. P. Laurie.\n\nThe Macmillan Co.\n\nAgriculture, R. H. Wallace. J. B. Lippincott Co.\nGarden Craft Series. The Macmillan Co.\nRural Science Series. The Macmillan Co.\nThe Story of our Continent, N.S. Shaler. Ginn & Co.\n\n"}
{"page": 578, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n568\n\nEDUCATIONAL.\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nGlimpses at the Plant World, F. D. Bergen.\n\nGinn & Co.\n\nAnimal Memoirs, Parts I—-II., S. Lockwood.\n\nAmerican\n\nBook Co.\n\nThe Survival of the Unlike, L. H. Bailey (Garden Craft Ser.).\nElements of Geology, LeConte.\nD. Appleton & Co.\nTown Geology, C. Kingsley.\nThe Macmillan Co.\n\nAPPENDIX\nHYGIENE\n\nAND\n\nHEALTH\n\n,\n\n[National\n\nThe Macmillan Co.\n\nM.\n\nIN PUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS.\n\nDr. G. Stanley Hall has said: “ What shall it profit a man if he gain the whole world\nof knowledge and lose his health ?”’ In our public schools, especially in the high schools,\n\nmany a promising young life has been sacrificed by over-study.\nThe system of marks\nand medals, now happily disappearing from many of our best schools, has driven many\nan ambitious boy and girl to an early grave at the point of a pencil, because that system\nstimulates those very pupils who need no spur and whom the spur injures. More frequently the health of pupils is injured by ignorance of the most obvious laws of health,\nor by criminal neglect of those laws, and by the impure air of schoolrooms.\nUnsuitable\nfurniture which cramps and distorts the growing bodies of children, and poor light which\nimpairs the sight, have also a long account to settle with children thus ruined for life.\nThe evils of unsanitary schoolhouses have attracted most attention in the crowded\nschoolrooms of cities, but these evils are not confined to densely populated places. They\n\nappear equally in the rural districts, and they are less known only because the cases of\ninjury are scattered, and the statistics are less easily obtained.\n\nThe vigorous country boy and girl may for a time resist the evils of a schoolroom,\nalternately too hot and too cold; of drafts of cold air in winter through cracks in the floor\nand poorly built walls; of outhouses too filthy for use and sources of moral defilement ; of\nseats and desks, built for cheapness\n\nand\n\nnot for comfort, and more racks for torture than\n\nlike a proper resting place for the growing bodies of little boys and girls. But however\nmuch the injury may be concealed, the deadly work goes on in many a country school.\nTake a single instance.\nMany a man has suffered for years from hemorrhoids brought\non by ignorance or neglect in childhood; neglect, because proper accommodations were\nnot provided or not properly cared for at the schoolhouse ; ignorance, because the school\ngave no instructions in hygiene—-not the technical hygiene suitable for physicians, but\nthe obvious, ordinary hygiene that relates to clothing, proper bathing, eating, and the\nexcretions.\n\nPhysiology is now required by law to be taught in the schools of nearly all the states.\nAs too frequently taught, it concerns itself about the chemical effects of certain substances\nupon various parts or processes of the body. Such a treatment of the subject is too\nabstruse for children in the schools, it goes beyond their knowledge and their experience.\nThey need to be taught the effect of green apples upon the stomach before they are\ntaught the effect of alcohol upon the brain. We ought to learn wisdom from the concrete\nteaching of nature about eating green apples in her monitory pains. People mean well\n\nwhen they teach the evil effect of alcohol to little boys and girls who do not know what\nalcohol is.\n\nIt would be better to teach these children the good effect of wholesome food\n\nand drink, and especially to teach them that the whole alimentary canal should be kept in\nhealthy, regular, and daily movement throughout, and to teach this and all that relates to\nthe necessary bodily functions with delicacy and propriety, and without any squeamishness. Is any teacher too delicate, cultured, and refined a lady or gentleman to give this\ninstruction concerning the bodies of the children? Then let them be relegated to the\n\nE\nee\na\n\n"}
{"page": 579, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council ]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nRURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n569\n\nland of spirits, to teach where the mortal coil has been shuffled off. It is high time to\ninaugurate a campaign of hygiene, and not the least important branch of child study is\nthe study of their bodies, and how those bodies may be made in school to grow strong,\nrobust, healthy, natural, at ease —“‘the temple of the living God.”\nIn making the many advancements in education in recent years the pedagogical literature of the past three hundred years or more has been ransacked, and the educational\nphilosophy of many eminent and venerable teachers has been exploited to constitute the\nnew education — Comenius, Pestalozzi, Froebel, Herbart, and\n\nthe rest; it is worth\n\nwhile\n\nnow to bring to the front the maxim, “Mens sana in corpore sano,” and to found an\neducational philosophy on that. Already we have physiological psychology which seeks\nto trace mental phenomena through a study of the brain, and missionaries are now learning to convert the heathen by making their bodies comfortable without their eating the\nmissionary.\nBenevolence now seeks to raise humanity, both intellectually and morally,\n\nby first improving men physically.\n\nLet the schools follow the lead of philosophy and of\n\nreligion in this regard.\nIt is well known that no child can learn well or grow mentally when in bodily discomfort.\n\nDullness, uneasiness, and consequent disorder\n\nin a school, are directly traceable to\n\nvitiated air. If the body is numb with cold, if the feet are damp and chilled, the mind\nbecomes stupid; and the sweltering heat of a badly ventilated schoolroom, the uneasiness\nof an over-loaded stomach, of constipation, and\n\nthe same result.\nimmorality.\n\nMoreover,\n\nan abnormal\n\nWe blame the first Adam\n\nof uncomfortable clothing, will produce\n\ncondition of the body\n\ntoo much;\n\nthe real Adam\n\nis often\n\nthe source\n\nis nearer\n\nhome, and of\n\nof\n\nthis generation and every generation that neglects the laws of health.\nThe outbuildings\nof ill-governed schools with ill-taught children sometimes give evidence of fearful demoralization, and the demoralization is contagious, like a plague.\n\nAn important part of school hygiene, then, relates to the lavatories or water-closets.\nThis is not the only, nor perhaps the most important, part of school hygiene, but it needs\nemphasis most at present, because it is nearly always neglected.\nIn rural districts the\nouthouse is generally located in a remote part of the grounds, where its offensiveness may\nnot interfere with the school, and it is the prey of tramps and bad boys who delight in\ndefiling it. The closet should adjoin the schoolhouse, and be accessible through the\n\nhouse only. This location would compel its being kept inoffensive, and make it easy to\ndo so. It should then be used by every child with the same freedom as at home in a\nwell-regulated family. And the child should be taught in school to respect his body in\nevery part and in all its functions—that nothing about it is defiling unless he himself\nmakes it so; and that, while we are animals, we should be rational animals, and not brutes.\n\nSuch teaching should not be indelicate nor obtrusive; but it is important, because respect\nfor the body is at the foundation of self-respect and true manliness. This special teaching\nof hygiene has often been neglected through a false modesty which is highly indelicate,\nand which is itself the evidence of an impure mind.\nFor health, for comfort, and\n\nfor intellectual\n\nand moral well-being, the schoolhouse\n\nshould be well-constructed and suited to its use. It should stand in the middle of the\ngrounds, high, well-drained, and ornamented with trees and shrubs. The well should be so\nlocated as to supply pure water.\nThe architecture should be simple and show a refined\ntaste, for the schoolhouse is an educator.\nIt should be as convenient and as well-built as\nthe best homes, in order that the children of the well-to-do may not despise it, and in\n\norder that the children of the poor may see how the best people live. The schoolhouse\nwill thus become an inspirer in the young to higher living; for education is more than\nlearning from books. It is a training also in how to live.\nChurches are built as an example of noble architecture, to be an object lesson\nJeading upward to a higher life, They are usually grander than the houses of the wor-\n\n"}
{"page": 580, "printed_page": null, "text": "570\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n-ASSOCIA TION\n\n[National\n\nshipers, and the poorest man in the congregation has an ownership in them. Municipal\nand state buildings often display, or are meant to display, the community’s ideal of a ee\nfor itself. And so the schoolhouse should exhibit the taste and to some extent the aspiration of the neighborhood.\nIt should be a little better than the best dwelling house.\nBelow is an attempt to show the least that should be tolerated in any community where\n\nthe Americans of the future are to be educated.\n\nThe ideal room may be repeated in a\n\nsingle building to any number below sixteen or twenty.\n\nTHE\n\nIDEAL,\n\nRURAL SCHOOL HOUSE\n\nSECTION OF CHIl\nABOVE\n\nI\n\nV. VENTILATOR&\nCV. CLOSET DG\n\nS. SMOKE FLUE)\n\nDES\n/S)\nVENTILATING\nFLUE\nFIG.1\n\nPLAN\n\nWw\n\nFiG.e ELEVATION\nThis plan provides for forty-eight pupils\n—one desk and chair in each of the squares,\n3 ft. by 3 ft., indicated by the dots. The desks’at the front are at right\nangles to the\nwall, and each succeeding desk toward the back is at a greater angle\nthan the last, till\nabout 45 degrees is reached at thelast.\nThe teacher’s desk is at T in the left front. The\nsurface of the floor is 720 sq. ft.,or 15 sq. ft. each for forty-eight pupils,\nwhich is the least\nallowable.\nIf the room is 13% ft. high, its contents are 9,720 cu. ft., or\n200 cu. ft. each\n(the regulation number), and only 120 cu. ft. for the teacher when\nall the pupils are present.\nFig. 1. This represents a schoolroom 24 ft. by 30 ft., with\n(B) boys’ entry and (G)\ngirls’ entry. The entire south side has a series of windows\nas near each other as the\nconstruction will permit, and extending to within three\nor four feet of the corners of the\nroom.\nThese windows should be three or four feet from the floor, and\nthey should extend\nentirely to the ceiling of the room.\nOnly the two outer ones need to be built so as to open.\nIn cold climates all the windows should be double.\nNear the entry door, both on the boys’ and on the\ngirls’ side, another door leads into\n\n"}
{"page": 581, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n571\n\nthe cloakroom, which is 11 ft. by 6 ft. in size, and each cloakroom is provided with a sink\n\n(S) and two windows, five feet from the floor, one looking into the entry opposite a corresponding one above the outside door, and the other looking into the back piazza. The\nlast of these windows must be stationary, the one looking into the entry may be open in\nsummer, but never in winter, for a reason that will appear later.\nFrom the entry on each side of the house another door opens backward upon a\npiazza accessible in no other way, and enclosed with heavy lattice-woik (shown in Fig. 2)\nor stout wire screens, and from this piazza a door leads into the closet, which is provided\nwith a single window protected by heavy screens.\nEach vault must be built as nearly air-tight as possible (preferably of brick), must\nbe connected closely with the under side of the floors, and must have a ventilating pipe\nof galvanized iron leading from the end of the seat at the top and entering a separate\nflue in the chimney next to the smoke flue, as seen in Fig. 2.\nThe furnace, F (Fig. 1 and Fig. 2), has a large stove, with 10-inch fire-pot (if for coal)\ninclosed in a brick chamber, some 3 ft. by 3 ft., from which a door opens into the school-\n\n_room.\n\nThis door is six or seven feet high and three feet wide, and is very carefully pro-\n\ntected on the inside with tin, or better, it may be made of tin or sheet-iron.\n\nAbove this door\n\nis a transom, three feet wide and two feet high, either open entirely or filled with a screen\nof light wire and large mesh, and from the top of this transom and within the chamber or\nfurnace a sheet-iron partition or diaphragm slopes backward, at an angle of about 45\ndegrees, to back side of the furnace.\n_ Below the stove and in the bottom of the furnace is an opening 2 ft. by 2 ft. connecting with a fresh-air duct of the same size that extends beneath the floor to the outer\nwalls beneath\n\nthe outside\n\nsteps, where\n\nit must\n\nbe\n\ncovered with\n\na wire\n\nscreen\n\nand be\n\nprotected from the dust.\nThe tin door of the furnace being closed and\n\nthe stove heated, the air becomes rare-\n\nfied, rises to the top, is deflected by the slanting partition or diaphragm, and enters the\nschoolroom through the transom.\nAt thesame time the fresh air is supplied to the bottom\nof the furnace through the duct described above.\nThis duct should be supplied with a\nvalve by which it may be closed if necessary. The smoke flue of the stove is shown in\nFig. 2, and behind it is the flue for ventilating the vaults.\nBut the warm air will not enter the room unless a corresponding volume of air is\nwithdrawn\n\nat the same time;\n\nand\n\nthis exhaust\n\nshould be from near the floor, and on the\n\nsame side of the room on which the fresh air enters near the top of the room.\nFor the\npurpose of exhausting the vitiated air of the schoolroom, the furnace flue is extended\n- upward through the roof; and it should be contracted near the top. This flue is represented in Fig. 2 (the large flue); and it will be heated by both the smoke flue on one side\nof it (which may be of metal) and by the diaphragm or slanting partition at the bottom.\nThis diaphragm will be heated by the hot air impinging against its under side.\nThe vitiated air from the schoolroom reaches this ventilating flue as follows: The\npartition between the schoolroom and the cloakroom is raised 2 inches or 3 inches from\nthe floor; on each side of the flue and above the diaphragm there is an opening of 18\ninches by 24 inches, through which the air is exhausted\nand as the\n\ndoors\n\nand windows of this room\n\nare\n\nfrom\n\nalways\n\nthe top of each cloakroom,\n\nclosed (as said above) in cold\n\nweather, the vitiated air is withdrawn from the schoolroom\nthe clothing is thus warmed and ventilated.\n\ninto the cloakroom, where\n\nIn order to secure warmth and perfect ventilation, it will be perceived that the floor\nof the schoolroom and the cloakrooms must be perfectly tight, and the walls should be\nlined with brick, or otherwise made tight, at least three feet from the floor, and all the\nentry doors must shut very close. In other words, good construction is indispensable to\ncomfort\n— both warmth and ventilation.\n\nIt is for this reason that double windows are requi-\n\n"}
{"page": 582, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n572\n\n[National\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\na\nal\n\nsite in cold climates.\n\nAll the warm\n\nair within which strikes the cold glass of a window\n\nis at once chilled, falls to the floor, and creates\n\na draft.\n\nMoreover, the best-lighted part\n\nof the room is close to the window; and the first row of seats may be placed near the windows, as shown in Fig. 1, if the window is double.\nAt night and before the children arrive in the morning the cold-air duct and the ven-\n\nIn that case, the door (D)\ntilating flues (I) leading from the cloakrooms may be closed.\nof the furnace being open, the air within the schoolroom will come into direct contact with\nthe stove, rise through the transom, and thus rotate throughout the schoolroom and warm\nall parts of it; and children may one by one warm their feet at the stove. But when the\nroom is filled with chiidren, the door (D) would\n\nbe closed, and the fresh-air duct and the\n\nventilating flues (I) must be open, in order that the stove may constantly heat the fresh\nair and ventilate as well as warm\n\n;\n;\n\nthe room.\n\nIn summer the diaphragm above the furnace may be raised to a vertical position;\nif then the door (D) be closed, the warm air of the schoolroom may pass upward through\nthe transom and the ventilating flue, while the fresh air is supplied through the entry\ndoors and windows, at W W (for this purpose and not for light), and through the two\nwindows that may be raised in the front. In mild weather or on damp days a fire in\nthe enclosed stove will help to produce the upward draft without heating the room.\nA pailful of dry earth must be thrown into each vault every day, and the contents of\nthe vault must be removed every week.\nThis can be done by sliding outward a watertight trough made for the purpose and fitted into each vault. These troughs should then\nbe replaced, and each door through which the trough is drawn should be securely\nlocked.\nThe\n\nhouse\n\nshould\n\nhavea dry, clean,\n\nand\n\nwarm\n\ncellar; but\n\nwhere\n\nthis\n\ncannot\n\nbe\n\nafforded the house should stand on a sufficient number of posts two or three feet high and\nboarded around tothe ground.\nThese posts, and especially the foundation of the chimney\nand of the vaults, must be absolutely secure from frost, and the floors might be boarded\nbelow the joists and plastered between; and there must be felt or thick layers of paper\nbetween the floors. A cold floor is costly and dangerous; and the cold schoolhouse costs\nmore in the end, in health and\n\nAs to the light.\n\nin fuel, than it costs to build a tight, warm\n\nhouse at first.\n\nThe best light for the pupil comes from the left, with no cross lights;\n\nbut if the whole left side of the room\n\nis one\n\ncontinuous window, then the pupils in the\n\nback part of the room will face the light, though the window is at the left. To obviate\nthis difficulty the first rows of desks might be placed with the axis at right angles to the\nwindow.\n\nAfter the first two rows, each desk is placed with its axis at a greater angle than\n\nthe last, till the last row is at an angle of 45 degrees.\n\nSuch an arrangement is novel, but upon\n\nreflection there seems to be no necessity for the prevailing rectangular placement of\nschool desks, with the teacher at the middle front. In this plan the teacher is at the left\nfront of the pupils at T, and the oblique situation of the desks is shown.\nThis position\nrequires chairs and not shelves for seats—the only rational seat; and there is no excuse\nfor any but adjustable seats and desks.\nThe best light is from the top of the window.\nA window properly lights the room\nonly at a distance of one and a half times its height. The south light is the best. The\nnorth light is too cold in winter and lacks the effect of the sun’s rays in the room\n— chemical and hygienic effects not explained, but known to exist. The east and the west window\nadmit the slanting rays in the morning or afternoon.\nIn summer, though the rays are\nhot, they are nearly vertical at noon and do not shine directly in at the windows of the\nsouth exposure.\nBut there should be very light shades to roll from the top and temper\n\nthe light when it is too bright, and dark shades to roll from the bottom to shut out\nthe light sometimes—to shut it out from the bottom because, as said above, the light\nfrom the top of the window shines across the room.\nAn awning of white cotton cloth on a\n\n:\n\n"}
{"page": 583, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n573\n\nrectangular frame outside the window would be inexpensive and worth many times the\ncost in a single summer.\nAny intelligent carpenter could build a house like the one described, and if some\narchitect would build into it only a little good taste and chaste beauty, the house as well\nas the teacher would be an educator and a public benefactor.\nNew\n\nA. P. MARBLE.\n\nYork city.\n\nAPPENDIX\nSCHOOL\n\nN.\n\nSYSTEMS,\n\nONTARIO.\n[From Ontario School Regulations,\n\nArts. 93-6.]\n\nThe system of public education in Ontario requires that every position be filled by\na trained teacher, and no teacher receives a permanent certificate who does not possess\nthe requisite qualifications as to (1) scholarship, (2) a knowledge of pedagogical principles, and (3) success in teaching as shown by actual experience.\n\nThe institutions for the preparation of teachers are, first, the county\n\nmodel schools,\n\nwhich one must attend fora session in order to be eligible for examination for a thirdclass certificate, without which no one can begin teaching in any public school in Ontario ;\nthe normal schools, of which there are two, one at Toronto and one at Ottawa, and which\n\none must attend in order to obtain a second-class certificate and a permanent license ;\nand the School of Pedagogy at Hamilton, in which are trained the first-class public-\n\nschool teachers, the assistant and principals of high schools and collegiate institutes,\nand the public-school inspectors.\nOnly first-class teachers can be appointed principals of\ncounty model schools or members of county boards of examiners.\nThe board of examiners for any county may, with the approval of the education department, set apart any\npublic school to be a county model school for the professional training of teachers.\nThere are sixty county model schools in Ontario, averaging about thirty pupils in\nattendance.\nPupils may be admitted on a high-school primary certificate, which is\ngranted to those who complete the first two years of a high-school course, although the\npupils have often completed three or four years of the course.\nThe course of study and\ntraining continues from the first of September for four months; it comprises school\norganization and management, methods of instruction, school law and regulations, music,\nand physical exercises; the course in training comprises observation of the work of the\nregular teachers, practice in teaching, criticism of work, and discussion of methods.\nThe minister of education may prescribe a course of reading for teachers of public\nschools. The course shall extend over three years, comprising three books each year.\nAny teacher who desires a certificate of having taken the public-school teachers’ reading\ncourse shall make a synopsis of not less than ten nor more than fifteen pages of each\nbook read, and transmit the same to the inspector of his district. The managing committee of each teachers’ institute shall appoint two persons who, with the inspector, shall\nform a committee, to determine whether the synopsis made by the teacher indicates that\n\nthe books have been intelligently read, and for each book so read the inspector shall issue a\ncertificate, and any teacher submitting a certificate for nine of the books prescribed shall\nreceive a diploma certifying to the completion of one full reading course of three years.\n\nIn Ontario the law requires that the inspectors of schools shall hold first-class certificates, certifying to completion of the course of professional study of the School of\nPedagogy at Hamilton, and shall have had three years’ experience in teaching.\n\n"}
{"page": 584, "printed_page": null, "text": "574\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nNEW\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(National\n\nBRUNSWICK.\n\nThe salaries of teachers shall be provided for from the three following sources, v7z.:\nfirstly, the provincial treasury; secondly, the county school fund; thirdly, district assess-\n\nAll other items of fixed or current expenditure shall be provided for by district or\nment.\nIn the distribution of the provincial and county school fund the numlocal assessment.\nber of days of school session and the average attendance are made factors of such importance as to encourage a long school year (average for the province, 215 days in 1895) and\nregularity of attendance.\nThe amount of provincial and county money to be received in any district in aid of\nschools will depend almost exclusively on the direct efforts made by the inhabitants of\neach district in maintaining their own schools .... and every such effort will be duly\nsupplemented by funds from the county and province. (“Manual of School Law of New\nBrunswick,” Arts. 12-23, and Remarks, p. 56.)\nMANITOBA.\n\nIn reply to inquiries contained in the circular of the National Council of Education,\nforwarded by your correspondent at Regina, I beg to say that there is one normal school\nfor the province for the training of first- and second-class teachers, and four training\nschools for professional instruction of teachers holding third-class certificates. No academic work is done in either the normal or training school.\nThe normal-school course is\nfive months in length, that of the training school three months.\nThese institutions are\npublic, and supported by the province and controlled by the educational department. The\ntraining schools are conducted by the inspectors, who spend eight months of the year in\nthe rural schools and are thoroughly conversant with the requirements of rural districts.\nNo one is admitted to either normal or training school until he has a non-professional\ncertificate of the grade for which the school affords professional training. The examination for third-class certificates covers the ordinary subjects of the public-school course,\nwith physics, botany, algebra to the end of simple equations, and one book of Euclid,\nwith deductions. Certificates of this grade are good for three years, subject to a limitation\nto be hereafter mentioned.\nThe second-class non-professional certificate covers ground corresponding in the\nmain with the requirements for matriculation into Harvard, and the first class corresponds\nwith the first year of university work, omitting in each case all languages except English.\nAbout one-third of the time of the above courses is given to practice in teaching.\nIn the\nschools of the towns where the normal and training schools are situated practice is given\nin each of the grades, but the time spent in the first four grades is about three times that\nspentin the second four. Practice in teaching and a written examination on history of edu_ cation, psychology, management, methods, etc., count equally in determining a candidate’s\n\nfitness to receive a certificate. The certificate issued is good for one year. If, after this\nyear of probation, the inspector so recommends, a third-class certificate, good for three\nyears, or a second or first (according to the grade of non-professional certificate held),\ngood for life or good conduct, is issued. Otherwise the certificate lapses.\nHeretofore the holder of a non-professional certificate was allowed to teach without\ntraining for one year. Hereafter, however, no teacher will be allowed to teach in any\npublic school who has not at least the professional training above outlined for third-class\ncertificates,\nAbout 75 per cent. of the graduates are from rural districts and country towns.\nSixty-six per cent. of the teachers employed in the province in 1895 were trained. After\nthis year all teachers will have training.\nInstitutes are held by the inspectors and normal-school instructors at points chosen\n\nby the department of education.\n\nThey last from two to three days.\n\nEighty per cent.\n\n|\n\n:\n\n"}
{"page": 585, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n575\n\nof the teachers attend.\nThe aim of these institutes is to stimulate to professional study.\nThey are a valuable means of stimulating teachers and arousing interest.\nCirculars are sent to teachers and secretaries of school districts, giving notice of\nplace of meeting and programme. Provincial grant is payable to districts whose teachers\nattend the institutes, as if the school were open.\nUpwards of 80 per cent. of the teachers of the province are organized into\nvoluntary associations. The aim and scope of the work are much the same as those of the\ninstitutes, but the work is done by the teachers themselves instead of by the normal\ninstructors and inspectors.\nSeveral associations sometimes combine to secure the services\nof a prominent educationalist from outside of the province. The only qualification for\nmembership is that of being a teacher actively engaged in teaching.\nReading circles have been organized only to a limited extent, and the data for reply\ncannot be obtained.\nAll teachers take one or more teachers’ journals. The desirability\nof doing so is kept before teachers by the inspectors.\nCertificates to teach are granted\nonly by the department of education for the province, so that the provincial or state\ncertificate is the only one valid here.\nTeachers are chosen by the school boards of the various districts. Teachers in\nrural schools are engaged from year to year as\narule. In towns and cities the engagement is continued without re-election.\nIt is impossible to say to what extent anything\nbesides merit operates\n\nto determine\n\nthe\n\nchoice of teachers in rural\n\ndistricts.\n\nIn towns\n\nappointments are made largely on advice of the supervising officer.\nThe maximum salary is $1,400 in towns and $720 in rural schools, with an average of\n\n$428 for the province and $368 for rural districts.\n\nIn ten years the average\n\nsalary has\n\nfallen about $90 per annum, owing in part to general depression and in part to competition of large numbers of young teachers using the profession as a stepping stone to some\nother line of work.\nAll improvement in educational work, and in status of teacher, must come through\nbetter education of the teachers. It is only where our class-rooms are filled with cultured\nand earnest men and women that teaching will become a profession, and take rank in\n\npublic estimation in accordance with the importance of the interests committed\nschools.\nWinnipeg.\n\nDANIEL\n\nto the\n\nMCINTYRE,\n\nFRANCE.\n\nIn France, which has made so great an effort in late years to advance popular education, the law requires that the candidate for the office of inspector of schools shall be at\nleast twenty-five years of age, shall have had several years’ experience in teaching, and\nshall hold certificates indicating a high grade of scholarship.\nIn his written examination\nhe is required to write a paper on some subject in pedagogy, and one on some subject in\nschool administration; then follows an oral examination covering a wide range of psychology, ethics, pedagogy, and school administration; and then a practical examination,\nwhich consists of the inspection of a school, followed immediately by a verbal report.\nIn view of the increasing importance of inspection it is recommended that the standard be raised so as to require a certificate of qualification for a professorship in a normal\nschool.\nNORWAY.\n\nThe main obstacle in the way of perfecting the rural schools of Norway is of a geographical kind. Mountain peaks and ranges, valleys and woods, rivers and rapids, are so\nmany barriers to human intercourse of any sort. There are few clusters of farms or cottages sufficient to form villages, so that children very often have to go miles to and from\nschool without other means of transport than sleds, skis, or skates.\n\n"}
{"page": 586, "printed_page": null, "text": "576\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nIn spite of these natural hindrances, Norway is well known to have a more enlightEvery Norwegian peasant under fifty can\nened rural populace than most other countries.\nread, write, and figure;\n\nall can read.\n\nSome, or rather many, years ago the country districts of Norway had itinerant\nteachers, perambulating from farm to farm, gathering about them the nearest children\nTeaching of this kind was necessarily very defective, and often the\nwhere they came.\nNorway has\nteachers knew so little that it was a case of the blind leading the blind.\nchanged all that. For twenty-five years or more the teaching force has been uniformly\ngood, trained in the state-endowed\n\nor normal\n\nseminaries\n\nschools.\n\nA great majority of\n\nthese rural teachers are sprung from the people amongst whom they work; they have the\nadvantage of knowing their pupils’ condition, peculiarities, and points of view.\nMost inhabitants of the city above the laboring classes send their children to higher\nschools (Borgerskoler and Middelskoler), if they in any way can afford the school fees.\nIn the country it is different. There even well-to-do farmers send their children to the\npublic schools;\n\nthey have no choice, unless, indeed, they go to the trouble\n\nand\n\nexpense\n\nof employing private tutors, which some do.\nAs a rule, the school children are divided into two classes or grades, attending alternately every other day; each child, in this way, getting about fourteen to eighteen hours’\nschooling a week, or say 500 to 550 hours a year, the summer vacation lasting only one\nmonth.\nThe branches taught are reading, writing, arithmetic, singing, history, political geography, grammar and composition, religion, and, sometimes, drawing.\nNorway has an\nestablished church (the Lutheran), and all its public schools, therefore, have something of\na parochial stamp. Biblical history and the catechism have their hour, or even two, daily\n—a serious drawback, admitted to be such both by religious persons and those more\nlatitudinarian.\n\nDissenters’ children are, however, exempted from religious instruction, if\n\ntheir parents so desire.\nTo an American these school hours may seem few; but then the Norwegian\n\nhave an advantage\n\nover the American:\n\nabove\n\nchildren\n\nthe primary grade no time is wasted\n\non\n\nspelling, it being taken for granted that any child who has arrived at a tolerable command of the mother tongue knows\n\nhow to spell.\n\nTo be sure, the Norwegian\n\nlanguage\n\nhas fewer difficulties of pronunciation and spelling than the English.\nQuite a prominent factor in the educational system of Norway are the authorized\nreaders. Beginning with short rhyme and moral stories, they carry the child through the\ncountry’s great past by means of selections from the sagas; contain chapters on botany,\nzoology, physics, and physiology, besides selections from the poets; but the best thing\nabout these readers is their valuable information on almost all topics of vital national\ninterest, from the Lofoden fisheries to the mining\n\nindustries;\n\nthey give, in short, a com-\n\nplete picture in miniature of the whole country.\nOf late these readers are being discarded for one that promises to be still better,\nespecially in a linguistic respect. As far as language is concerned, Norway is in a somewhat unsettled condition, chiefly in the rural districts.\nIt has an heirloom of old Norse;\nits various dialects are direct descendants of the language still spoken on Iceland; but its\nofficial language is Danish.\nOf late a fusion of the two has been effected, there is an\nimperceptible but real change going on, new words are constantly being imported from\nthe dialects into the literary language.\nNow the chief purpose of the new reader, quite\nextensive in matter, is to get the actually spoken language as near as possible, the objections to the old readers being that they are too’old-fashioned, “ bookish.”\nAs to the teachers of the rural districts, they are generally very able men (women\nteachers are employed in the cities only). They are not men of the world, to be sure;\nbut, looked down on by their urban brethren, living on a pittance, they are, perhaps, truer\n\n"}
{"page": 587, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\ni iei\n\n“servants\n\nof the idea’ (to use an old Norwegian expression) than many more favored\nI have often thought that the branches formally taught in a Norand respected men.\nwegian country school are of little significance in comparison with the loftiness of intellectual and moral aim often imparted by the teachers to their scholars.\nThe country schooling is nominally ended at the confirmation age, say fourteen.\nBut in many places the education is continued in the half-free night schools, where the\ncommon-school branches are taught as before, special stress being laid on composition,\nUnder an able teacher these popular evening schools are\nhistory, and national literature.\nvery delightful, the teacher often being more of an older and wiser friend than a formal\ninstructor,\nA few words must be given to the so-called people’s high schools (Folkehéjskoles),\ninstitutions patronized by young men and women generally better off. These institutions were founded by the Danish clergyman and educator, Grundtvig.\nThey have\nalways been of more importance in the land of their origin, Denmark, than in Norway.\nThe principals of these schools are generally university-trained, high-minded men, and\nmany of the leaders in Norwegian public life and literature have been connected with\nthem.\nOf these schools it might be said what Emerson said of books, they are there\nmainly to inspire. They might also be styled rural counterparts of the university extension and Chautauquan movements.\nMuch of the best in Norwegian national life can be\ntraced directly back to these schools.\nThey are, however, high schools only by courtesy.\nNorway is a democratic country.\nFor that reason forces are always at work in the\ndirection of lifting the lower strata up into the daylight of culture and knowledge.\nConventions of teachers and educators for the purpose of furthering this aim are very common.\nAll the while self-education is going on.\nBut a few nights ago I read the following letter\naddressed to a Christiania editor:\n“We have an association of young men here, and a library of about 2,000 volumes.\nWe meet\n\nonce a week, and have readings and lectures.\n\nLast week we had a lecture\n\non\n\nSchiller’s ‘Wilhelm Tell.’ With Goethe and Schiller I am fairly well acquainted, but,\nas Dante is to me an honored name only, please recommend me a good translation of his\nworks.”\nThis letter from a young farmer voices a yearning for light and culture quite common in the rural districts of Norway.\n\nOscAR GUNDERSEN.\n\nChicago, Ill.\n\nAPPENDIX\n\ntt\nAaa\nAnil,\ntpl\ni,\nAb\naagty\n7ces\n\nEXTENSION\nThe following extracts\n\nO.\n\nWORK IN RURAL SCHOOLS.\n\nare from a report upon\n\nExtension Work in Agriculture, by\n\nProfessor L. H. Bailey, of Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.:\nThe plan of effort in this teaching was to visit two schools during the day, one in the\n\nforenoon and one inthe afternoon.\nThe arrangements were made in advance with the\nschool commissioner or the trustees, and the fact that the speakers were to be at the\nschoolhouse was ordinarily announced some days in advance, so that parents and friends\ncould visit the school at that time if they chose.\nThe teacher was in every case willing\nto omit the regular exercises for an hour or two, in order that our instructors might take\nup the work of object teaching with the children,\nThe motive in this work was to find\nout just how the pupils could be reached by means of object-lesson teaching, and just\nhow much interest they would be likely to manifest in agricultural matters in case it were\never found to be desirable to introduce such teaching as a part of the district school\nwork.\nThe instructor would first explain the reason for his coming, and give the school\n\n"}
{"page": 588, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n578\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n[National\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nto understand. that no new text-books were for sale and that no new classes were to be\nHe then ordinarily took up some simple object\nrequired at the hands of the teacher.\nlesson.\n\nIt might be, in one\n\nplace, a stalk of corn which\n\nhe had in his hand, and the\n\nprocess of growth of which he would explain from seed to harvest; it might be, in another\ncase, the germination of a bean ora pumpkin seed; it might be, in another case, the habits\nor structure of a potato bug or some other insect; it might be, again, the reasons why\nthere were knots and knot holes in the woodwork in the schoolhouse ; it might be a very\nelementary talk upon the different plant foods which are in the soil; it might be, in other\nThese exercises were\ncases, a very brief sketch, with charts, of some fungus; and so on.\nuniformly well received by both the pupils and the teachers, and this work has, I think,\n\nawakened more inspiration in the minds of our instructors than any other attempt which\nThe teachers in the schools have without excepwe have yet made to reach the people.\ntion expressed themselves as willing and desirous of taking up some such simple exercises\nas arest for the pupils two or three times a week, if only they themselves could be\nIn order to afford this instrucinstructed in the proper methods of carrying on the work.\ntion to the teachers, we are now proposing to issue a series of experimental leaflets on\nobject lessons and place these in the hands of the teachers.\n\nThere is no doubt of the necessity for work of this kind with the children.\n\nThe love\n\nor antipathy of the farm. is engendered at a very early age in the minds of the young.\nThis has been demonstrated in these October meetings, when we have asked those children who live on\n\nfarms\n\nand who still desire\n\nto do so to raise their hands, and we almost\n\nuniformly find that the number who desire to live on farms is far less than those who\nactually do live on them.\nWith these children, ranging trom six to fifteen years of age,\nthe question of pecuniary profits upon the farm has appealed very little, but they are\ninfluenced directly by the environments under which they are living. These environments\n\nmust be improved;\n\nand if they are, there is every reason\n\nto expect that children\n\nwill\n\nlove the country better than the city. We have thought, therefore, that it is eminently\nworth the while to instill the love of nature and the knowledge of a multitude of living\n\nthings in the minds of the children. An important question here arises: What is to be\nthe future of our rural schools and of the agriculture of the state if the present generation, as seems so clearly indicated, is not satisfied with rural life and\n\nfeels no\n\ninterest\n\nin\n\nmaintaining or contributing to the agricultural and educational interests of the state?\nWhile many more rural schoolhouses must become deserted, there are thousands of children already in our cities who are deprived of school advantages because adequate room\ndoes not exist for them to get into the schools of the city. The further problem also\narises of the difficult economic questions to be met in our cities as the result of congestion of population. The standard of teaching had been much improved in New York\nstate. It had been gratifying to meet so universally teachers who are not only well qualified, but who are doing excellent work in their schools, and who have the true teaching\nspirit. Our educational forces are thoroughly efficient and well equipped, but there is a\n\nneed of different application of our school work in rural districts.\n\nThe life of the district\n\nneeds to be changed, and it can in no way be so effectively done as through our schools.\nThe best work cannot be done in schools with an attendance of only half a dozen children.\nSchool districts will be forced to even greater consolidation in the future, and it\nwould be desirable if families could also be consolidated, for it is the lack of social opportunity that is felt. It is the isolation of the farm home that the boy and girl dislike in\nthese days of close communication and contact with the world which are brought about by\nsteam and electricity. School grounds could be enlarged.\nThey should furnish the\nopportunity for planting trees and shrubs; for the planting of seeds and growing of flowers; for having a nicely kept lawn, and, in time, these things, with their influences, would\nextend to the homes of children who do not have them and bring with them those\n\n"}
{"page": 589, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF THE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n579\n\nattractions and interest that make a home what it ought to be, pleasant and inviting in\nits surroundings.\nAll this work, as I have said, has been experimental—an attempt to discover the\nbest method of teaching the people in agriculture.\nWe believe that the most efficient\nmeans of elevating the ideals and practice of the rural communities are as follows, in\napproximately the order of fundamental importance: (1) The establishment of nature\nstudy or object-lesson study, combined with field walks and incidental instruction in the\nprinciples of farm practice in the rural schools; (2) the establishment of correspondence\ninstruction in connection with reading courses, binding together the university, the rural\nschools, and all rural literary or social societies; (3) itinerant or local experiment and\ninvestigation, made chiefly as object lessons to farmers and not for the purpose, primarily,\nof discovering scientific facts; (4) the publication of reading bulletins which shall inspire\na quickened appreciation of rural life, and which may be used as texts in rural societies\nand in the reading courses, and which shall prepare the way for the reading of the more\nextended literature in books; (5) the sending out of special agents as lecturers or teachers, or as investigators of special local difficulties, or as itinerant instructors in the\nnormal schools and before the training classes of the teachers’ institutes; (6) the\nitinerant\n\nagricultural\n\nschool, somewhat\n\nafter the plan of our horticultural schools, which\n\nshall be equipped with the very best teachers, and which shall be given as rewards to\nthe most intelligent and energetic communities.\nAll these agencies, to be most efficient, should be under the direction of a single\nbureau wholly removed from partisan political influence and intimately associated with\ninvestigational work in agriculture.\nSuch a bureau should also have most intimate relations with the Department of Public Instruction, for not only must the public schools be\nreached, but teachers must be trained.\nThe teachers in our public schools are now of a\nhigh grade, and they will quickly seize opportunities to prepare themselves to teach the\nelements of rural science.\nThere should be facilities placed at the disposal of every\n\nnormal school in the state, whereby it may receive courses of lectures upon rural subjects\nfrom teachers of recognized ability, and teaching-helps, in the way of expository leaflets\nshould be placed in the hands of every teacher who desires them.\nAll this work of\ncarrying the modern university extension impulse to the country is too important and\ntoo fundamental to be confined to any one particular agricultural interest or to any one\ndistrict of the state;\n\nand it is a work, too, which should be treated\n\nas a teaching\n\nexten-\n\nsion and not as an experiment-station extension.\nIn conclusion, I must say that the farmers, as a whole, are willing and anxious for\neducation.\nThey are difficult to reach because they have not been well taught, not\nbecause they are unwilling to learn. It is astonishing, as one thinks of it, how scant and\npoor has been the teaching which has even a remote relation to the tilling of the soil;\nand many of our rural books seem not to have been born of any real sympathy with the\nfarmer or any just appreciation of his environments.\nJust as soon as our educational\n\nmethods\n\nare adapted to the farmer’s needs, and are born of a love of farm life and are\n\ninspired with patriotism, will the rural districts begin to rise in irresistible power.\n\nAPPENDIX\nINSTITUTES\n\nP.\n\nIN PENNSYLVANIA,\n\n1. Every county holds an institute annually for a week. Towns, cities, and boroughs\nhold separate ones for a day or two, or for a week. The course of instruction and the\ncorps of instructors in county institutes are entirely determined by the county superintendent, who is always an experienced teacher,\n\n"}
{"page": 590, "printed_page": null, "text": "580\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nThe considerations that secure attendance are: (1) Continuance of salary for the\nweek, if the time be spent at the institute; (2) closing the schools by law during the\ninstitute week; (3) the knowledge that the county superintendent will discriminate\nagainst teachers not in attendance, and\n\nthat directors will do likewise;\n\n(4) an\n\ninstitute\n\nprogramme that attracts, that wins outsiders interested in education.\nOnly sickness keeps teachers away as a rule. It is unusual for more than one in a\nhundred to be absent. Often every teacher is present. The effect of the institutes upon\nthe schools is most potent. The professional spirit of the teachers is intensified, the\nquality of the teaching is improved, and the interest of the public in education is\naroused.\nIt is a great revival period, covering the state, the audiences being limited\n_ generally by the capacity of the largest halls available.\n2. Local institutes are held at different dates in different sections of almost every\ncounty, conducted by the teachers of the neighborhood, and are attended by teachers and\npupils from adjoining sections.\nThere is generally but one local institute a year in\neach section.\nIt continues for one day. The subjects all relate to work in rural schools.\nPennsylvania.\n\nD. J. WALLER,\n\nAPPENDIX\nTHOMAS\n\nARNOLD\n\nA\n\nFOR\n\nSTUDY\n\nRURAL\n\nJR.\n\nOQ.\n(1795-1842).\nTEACHERS.\n\nWe are to study this month the contributions of Thomas Arnold to educational doctrine\n\nand practice. One of the great biographies in English literature is Dean Stanley’s “ Life\nof Thomas Arnold.”’ An American educator says that to become familiar with this biography marks an era in the life of a teacher.\nFor material concerning Dr. Arnold’s\npedagogical work consult Oscar Browning’s “Arnold and Arnoldism” (foundations, of\nFebruary, 1897), Payne’s “ Lectures on Arnold”\n\n(pp. 129 and 261, Vol. IV., Houndations),\n\n“Tom Brown at Rugby,” and Carlisle’s abridgment of Stanley’s ‘‘ Life of Arnold.”\nThe discussions to take place at the institute session, to be held on the 13th proximo,\nwill be founded upon the following questions :\n1. Give a brief biographical sketch of Arnold, calling especial attention to events\nhaying formative influence upon his character.\n2. Describe the school at Rugby.\n3. How did Arnold contribute toward dignifying the profession of teaching?\n4. What was his theory with respect to teaching morality?\n5. Compare Arnold’s views concerning school management with the views advocated\nrespectively by Locke and Herbert Spencer.\n6. Prove: Arnold hated shams.\n7. Discuss two excellent characteristics of his instruction.\n8. What practical lesson with respect to self-government should the teacher learn\nfrom the study of Arnold?\n9. Of what feature of the modern English school would Arnold have entirely disapproved, and upon what grounds?\n\n10. To what one thing, above everything else, do you attribute Arnold’s success?\n11, Give in parallel columns a comparative view of the contributions made to educational history by Ascham, Locke, Spencer, and Arnold,\n\nEach of the following paragraphs has bearing, direct or indirect, upon this month’s\nlesson :\n1. “A schoolmaster’s influence is with the young, the strong, andthe happy; and he\ncannot get on with them unless in animal spirits he can sympathize with them, and show\nthem that his thoughtfulness is not connected with selfishness and weakness.”—Arnold.\n\n"}
{"page": 591, "printed_page": null, "text": "- Council]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n581\n\n2. “What I want is a man who is a Christian and a gentleman, and one who has\ncommon sense and understands boys. I do not so much care about scholarship, as he will\nhave\n\nimmediately under\n\nhim the lowest forms in the school;\n\nbut yet, on second thought,\n\nI do care about it very much, because his pupils may be in the highest forms; and, besides,\nI think that even the elements are best taught by a man who has a thorough knowledge of\n\nthe matter.\nHowever, if one must give way, I prefer activity of mind and an interest in\nhis work to high scholarship; for the one may be acquired far more easily than the other.”\n— From one of Arnold’s inquiries for a master.\n3. “A master should have sufficient vigor of mind and thirst for knowledge to persist in adding to his own stores without neglecting the full improvement of those he is\nteaching.’’— From a letter of Arnold to a newly appointed master.\n4. “The lapse of years has only served to deepen me in the conviction that no gift\ncan be more valuable than the recollection and inspiration of a great character working\non our own.”— Dean Stanley, referring to Arnold.\n5. “There is no short or royal road to good teaching other than the king’s highway\nof good living. He who wishes to teach well must, first of all, try to live well. He who\nwishes to do something in his chosen life-work, must aim to be something.\nHe who\nwishes to have a good influence, must first be a good influence.”—James H. Carlisle, of\nSouth Carolina.\n6. “Not the most eloquent exhortations to the erring and disobedient, though they be\nin the tongues of men or angels, can move mightily upon your scholars’ resolutions till the\nnameless, unconscious, but infallible presence of a consecrated, earnest heart lifts its holy\nlight into your eyes, hallows your temper, breathes its pleading benedictions into your\ntones, and authenticates your entire being with its open seal.”—From Huntington’s\n“Unconscious Tuition.”\n7. “The glory of the children is unity with nature; the glory of the teacher is unity\n\nwith childhood.”—G., Stanley Hall.\nW.\n\nS. SUTTON.\n\nHouston, Tex.\n\nAPPENDIX\nINTELLECTUAL\n\nAND\n\nfk.\n\nMORAL\n\nEDUCATION.\n\n[From “Les Nouveaux Programmes des Ecoles Primaires,” a handbook containing the\ncourse of study, time tables, directions, and explanations for the guidance of the teacher.|\nINTELLECTUAL\n\nEDUCATION.\n\nThe aim of intellectual education in the common school is not to give an exhaustive\ncourse of instruction, but to secure to the child the practical knowledge along many lines\nwhich he will need in life, so taught as to exercise his faculties, cultivate and enlarge his\nmind, and thus constitute a true education.\n\nTo attain the end of true education it is demanded that there be a continual interaction of the minds of teacher and pupil. The teacher must lead the pupil from the\nknown to the unknown, from the easy to the difficult, from the study of concrete realities\nto the abstract idea, thus developing the power to compare, to generalize, to reason, without the aid of material examples.\nThe teacher must respect the pupil’s intuitive power of\ngrasping, not all truths, but the simplest and most fundamental, and must take care not to\n\nwaste time in idle discussion, nor in the acquisition of useless knowledge.\nHe must follow\nthe guidance of nature, developing the judgment of the pupil by leading him to judge, the\npower of observation by making him observe much, the power of reasoning by aiding him\nto reason for himself.\n\n"}
{"page": 592, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n582\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nMORAL\n\n[National\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nEDUCATION.\n\nMoral education is designed to complete, to elevate, and ennoble all the other\ninstruction of the school. While the other studies develop skill and cultivate intelligence\nin certain special lines, moral instruction tends to develop the essential character of man\nhimself. The power of moral education depends less on the precision and the logical\nconnection of the truths taught than on strength of feeling, liveliness of impression,\nIt moves the will. It does not undertake to analyze all the\nwarmth of conviction,\nreasons for moral\n\naction, but it aims, before all else, to produce and to repeat the act; to\n\nform a habit of thought which will govern the life. It is not to be considered a science\nso much as the art of inclining the will toward the good.\nIn moral instruction the teacher represents society. He is to organize, and to make\nclear and definite, the fundamental moral ideas which the child brings to school; to\nstrengthen these ideas; to make them a motive power in the habitual conduct of life, and\nthereby to train the child for the varied duties of citizenship.\nThe moral lesson must be kept distinct in character and form from other lessons. It\nis not enough to give the pupil correct ideas and to furnish him with wise maxims: he\nmust be led to feel the majesty of the moral law. The teacher must keep clearly in mind\nthat it is for him to develop, to render acute, to correct, to strengthen the moral\n\nsense\n\nby\n\nexercising often, but with extreme care, the conscience of the child. The instruction\nshould be limited, especially in the earlier years, to the essential elementary points, to\nthose which are clear, simple, yet imperative; avoiding the finer developments of ethics\nwhich are appropriate only at a more advanced age, it should aim to lead the child to a\nmoral life by such an accumulation of beautiful examples, of good impressions, of wholesome ideas, of salutary habits, and of noble\n\naspirations, that he may\n\ncarry from\n\nschool\n\nwith his acquisitions of elementary knowledge that which is far more precious—a good\nconscience.\nSuccess in this instruction demands that the teacher be an example of what is taught;\nthat he avoid a mechanical method ; that he feel, himself, the true\n\ncharacter\n\nor force of\n\nevery lesson, and that he watch the moral development of his pupils with the same solicitude as he watches their progress in scholarship; that he have as much care for the\ndevelopment of character as for that of intellect. This alone can give to the teacher the\ntitle of educator, and to elementary instruction the name of liberal education.\n\nPW odaflS84 DBY\nCONTINUOUS\n\nSESSIONS\n\nP.Gey\n\nIN NORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS.\n\n[Inserted at the request of the Chairman of the Subcommittee on Supply of Teachers, as a suggestion worthy of careful consideration.|\n\nA plan for continuous\n\nsessions in normal schools has been devised by President\n\nShepard of the State Normal School at Winona, Minn., which, by virtue of a recent act of\n\nthe legislature, will be entered upon July 1, 1897. It provides for continuous sessions in\nthe schools at Winona and Mankato of four quarters annually of twelve weeks each. The\nquarters will open respectively July 1, October 1, January\n\n1, and April 1.\n\nThis arrange-\n\nment of quarters is designedly in the interest of the rural school-teachers. New classes in\nall subjects will be commenced each quarter, and classes will graduate each quarter. Any\nrural school-teacher will be able to attend at least one full quarter each year. The work\nof each quarter will constitute a unit of credit on the regular courses of the school. The\n\nsubjects and methods of instruction in the earlier quarters of the several courses will\nbe those which are especially suited to the needs of teachers of rural schools.\n\n"}
{"page": 593, "printed_page": null, "text": "’\n\nCouncil]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF THE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n583\n\nA special summer-term course of six weeks, from July 1 to August 15, is provided for\n\nthose whose schools begin before the close of the regular summer quarter (October 1).\nThe work of this term will also apply on the regular courses as a minor unit of credit.\nThe advantages of this plan are apparent.\nThe valuable and extensive equipments\nof the state normal schools will be made available throughout the year instead of standing idle, as now, many weeks during that part of the year when teachers, especially rural\nschool-teachers, are most at liberty to attend-school.\n‘\n\nTeachers in rural-school service may take up and pursue regular normal-school courses\nwithout withdrawing from teaching service. This will be a distinct gain, both to the teaching supply and to the self-supporting teacher who must alternately teach and attend school.\nIt is well known that this constitutes the most valuable and most progressive class of\nrural school-teachers.\nThe beginning of new classes each quarter enables teachers to attend school with\nequal advantage any quarter when at liberty. The present practice of normal schools in\ngraduating classes but once a year and at the close of the graded school year is greatly\nto the disadvantage of the rural schools.\nThese graduates are largely absorbed by the\ngraded schools, which just at that time of the year are organizing their teaching corps for\nthe following year. When the rural-school officers later in the year apply for graduate\n\nteachers, there are usually none to be had. Under the “Winona” plan at least three\nclasses will be graduated at times during the year when the graded-school situations are\nnot open and just when the rural-school situations are open.\nThis will tend to direct a\nlarge and valuable supply of normal-school graduates into rural-school service.\n\n"}
{"page": 594, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT OF KINDERGARTEN\nEDUCATION.\nSECRE\nFIRST\n\nDARN\n\nSa MUN UEE\n\nSESSION.— WEDNESDAY,\n\nJULY 7, 1897.\n\nThe department met at the Bijou Theater and was called to order at 3 P. M. by the\nPresident, Miss Caroline T. Haven, who introduced Miss Mary C. Hall, Chairman\n\nof the\n\nFroebel Union of Milwaukee.\nMiss Hall, on behalf of the Milwaukee kindergartners, gave a warm welcome to\ntheir visiting sisters.\nThe President responded for the visitors, thanking the Froebel Union for its affectionate greeting, and for the complete arrangements made by the union for the comfort of\nits guests.\n\nMiss Ethel Vergin sang two songs, “Little Boy Blue” and a “ Lullaby.”\n\nThe first paper was presented by Dr. John Dewey, The University of Chicago, on\n“The Kindergarten and Child Study.”\nThe second paper, “Has the Child Study Movement Any Help for the Kinder\ngartner?” was read by Miss Bertha Payne, Hull House, Chicago.\nThe third paper was given by Miss Geraldine O’Grady, Philadelphia Normal School,\non “ Froebel’s Use of Child Study.”\n*The next number was a “ Kinder-Symphonie,” by the Froebel Union of Milwaukee.\nThis was followed by a paper, on “ Methods of Child Study in the Kindergarten,” by\nDr. Jenny B. Merrill, Kindergarten Supervisor of New York Public Schools.\nA discussion was led by Mrs. A. H. Putnam, Chicago Froebel Association.\nThe President announced the following committees:\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nNOMINATIONS.\n\nMrs. A. H. Putnam, Chicago, Ill.\nMiss Jessie Winterton, New York, N. Y.\nMiss Hattie Phillips, Des Moines, Ia.\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nRESOLUTIONS.\n\nMrs. J. N. Crouse, Chicago, Ill.\n\n<\n\nMiss Beulah Douglas, ————\n\nMiss Bertha Payne, Chicago, IIl..\n\nThe meeting adjourned until Thursday at 3 P. m.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION.—\n\nTHurspay, JULY\n\n8, 1897.\n\nThe department met at 3 Pp. M. at the Bijou Theater.\nA violin solo was played.\nThe first paper was read by Superintendent C. B. Gilbert, of Newark, N. J;,on She\n\nPlace of the Kindergarten in the Public School.”\nMr. Gilbert’s paper was discussed by Dr. W. N. Hailmann, of Washington, D.C.\n\n584\n\n"}
{"page": 595, "printed_page": null, "text": "Depertment]\n\nTHE KINDERGARTEN AND CHILD STUDY\n\nGOs\n\nMiss Katherine Beebe, Evanston, Ill., read a paper on “Kindergarten Work\nPrinciples in the School.”\nThe Froebel Union, of Milwaukee, sang two kindergarten songs.\n\nand\n\nMrs. J. N. Crouse, Chicago, read the report of the Committee on Resolutions :\nResolved, That we extend our hearty thanks to all who have contributed so generously to our entertainment during these meetings; to Mr. Wm. George Bruce and the General Committee for securing this central\nand commodious building, and for their untiring efforts in providing for the comfort of guests; to the Froebel\nUnion and Miss Mary F, Hall, its president, whose thoughtfulness has anticipated all our needs; to the\nofficers and directors of the Athenzeum, whose hospitality and beautiful home will long be held in remembrance; to the press for its uniform courtesy and its excellent reports, and to the soloists who have kindly\n\nrendered their assistance,\nResolved, That we reaffirm our allegiance to the great principles of Froebel, which have done so much\nfor the advancement of all education; at the same time, we welcome any assistance from child study, and all\nother sources,\nResolved, That, since the kindergarten cannot reach its highest efficiency without the co-operation\nhome and school, no effort should be spared to secure the intelligent co-operation of parents and teachers,\nResolved, That, since the kindergarten has been accorded its place in our national school system as an\nintegral part of the same, and has been given a place in the meetings of the National Educational Association,\ngreater efforts should be put forth by this body to increase its membership and efficiency ; that to this end we\nurge all kindergartners present to join the department this year and to use their influence, as well, in securing\nother members; also, that the officers and members of the department put forth special efforts in this direction\nthe coming year.\nRespectfully submitted,\n\nMrs, J. N. Crouse, Chatrman,\n\nThe report was unanimously adopted.\nMiss Mary C. McCulloch, Supervisor of Kindergartens, St. Louis, gave an address on\n“Tdeals to be Realized by the Kindergarten Supervisor.”\nThe report of the International Kindergarten Union was read by Mrs. Mary J. B.\nWylie, Buffalo, N. Y.\nThe report of the Committee\n\non Nominations was submitted.\n\nFor Prestdent, Miss Mary McCulloch, St. Louis, Mo.\nFor Vice-President, Miss Jenny B. Merrill, New York, N. Y.\n\nFor Secretary, Miss Mary C, Hall, Milwaukee, Wis.\nRespectfully submitted,\n\nMrs. A. H. Putnam,\n\nChazrman.\n\nThe report was unanimously adopted.\nOn motion, the department adjourned.\nMary\n\nPAPERS\nTHE\nBY\n\nAND:\n\nDISCUSSIONS:\n\nKINDERGARTEN\nJOHN\n\nDEWEY,\n\nTHE\n\nJ. B. WYLIE, Secretary.\n\nAND\n\nCHILD\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF\n\nSTUDY.\n\nCHICAGO.\n\nWhile the child-study movement in name is a recent affair, and while\nin many of its superficial features it deserves the name sometimes given it\n—that of a fad—in its underlying reality it represents the culmination of\neducational and social forces which have been at work for generations,\nand presents itself as a factor which must be permanently reckoned with.\nIt represents the attempt to\nIt is a part of the psychological movement.\nof the class, and”to\ninstead\nindividual\nthe\nof\nterms\nstate experience in\nservice.\nof\npowers\nand\nneeds\nadopt training in individual\n\n"}
{"page": 596, "printed_page": null, "text": "586\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nSpecial opportunities for study of child psychology under unusually\nThe folfavorable circumstances offer themselves in the kindergarten.\nlowing directions may be singled out:\n1. There is the study of the motor and constructive activities of the\nIn the adult the conventionalities of life and long periods of past\nchild.\ntraining conspire to suppress most of the outward signs of mental activity.\nIn childhood the normal relationship between feeling and idea on one\nAnd the kinside and expressive activity on the other is most obvious.\ndergarten, by the sort of work which prevails in it, gives peculiarly valuable occasions for studying this connection.\nThe time is ripe for restudying the gifts and occupations from the standpoint of what is now known\nregarding the laws of development of motor activity in childhood.\n2. The kindergarten has always laid much emphasis upon the conception of play as an educational factor.\nPsychologists have now taken\nup the study of play, and are relating it both to the general principles of\nmental evolution and of the facts of structure of the nervous and muscular\nsystems.\nSociologists are also studying play from the standpoint of the\ninheritance and modification\n\nof social\n\ncustoms\n\nand\n\nhabits.\n\nHere, too,\n\nthe hour has come for reconsidering kindergarten practice in the light\nof the theory of play and the facts gathered from a study of the spontaneous plays of children.\nIt needs to be looked at in the light of difference\nof age, of sex, of nationality, of social environment,as well as of individual\ntemperament.\n\n3. Much is now said regarding the artistic and esthetic factor in\neducation.\nBoth because the kindergarten has from the outset laid more\nemphasis on the artistic than have the succeeding periods of our school,\nand because of the comparative freedom of expression in the kindergarten\nit is highly important that the manifold opportunities which present\nthemselves along this line should be utilized.\nIn conclusion, the study of the kindergarten theory and practice from\nthe psychological standpoint is important, because it enables the teachers\nto translate the abstract and general propositions of philosophic theory\ninto terms of the concrete living individual, and because it is psychology\nwhich controls the adaptation of all materials and occupations to the\ncapacities and aims of the individual child. To put psychology into\nkindergarten practice means to make it more vital and more personal.\n\nHAS CHILD\nBY\n\nMISS\n\nSTUDY\n\nBERTHA\n\nANY HELP FOR\n\nPAYNE,\n\nPRINCIPAL\n\nTHE\n\nCHICAGO\n\nKINDERGARTEN?\n\nFROEBEL\n\nASSOCIATION.\n\nI sometimes think that kindergartens have been hampered by the richness of their heritage, much as the sons of a rich man, who spend without\n\n"}
{"page": 597, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHAS CHILD STUDY ANY HELP FOR KINDERGARTEN?\n\n587\n\ntoil that which the father has labored to amass.\nWith the amassing he\naccumulated strength and wisdom.\nThe greatest fruit of his labors was\ncharacter.\nThe sons spend in weakness, and accept the fortune and not\nthe example.of sturdy effort.\n\nSo we have taken Froebel’s philosophy asa gift, without digging out\nfor ourselves further treasures.\nWe have accepted the products of his\nwisdom and experience, and have not learned from him to acquire power,\nas he acquired it, by constant, sympathetic study of the children.\nThe suggestions and criticisms of our friends, who are child students,\nscientific investigators as well as philosophers, force us either to prove the\ntruth of our practice or relinquish it in part. They force us to go back\nof Froebel, to\n\nthe same\n\nchild nature\n\nthat he studied, and\n\nto base\n\nour\n\nclaims to true insight upon our own original study and reflection upon\nwhat we ourselves see and hear in the child world.\nThey force us to\nreaffirm our right to this heritage of philosophy and method by searching\nthe substratum of experience upon which the understanding of Froebel\nonce built his structure, and seeing with our own eyes we may, or may\nnot, find the foundation for precisely the same building, in the same\n_ measurements that he found necessary.\nMost probably we may not.\nThe body and soul are indefinably one; yet the body is not the soul.\nThe soul of Froebel’s educational philosophy needed a body, which was\nfound in the gifts, occupations, and games of the kindergarten.\nThis\nbody has for years fulfilled its function.\nIt has made it possible for the\nspirit of the kindergarten to make itself felt. It has shown to us all the\ntruth of the spirit. It has been a visible and effective sign of the educational meaning of play.\nWithout these needs and materials of work Freche s teachings would\nnever have spread as they have done.\nThe tradition of success that has\nfollowed in the wake of the kindergarten has been due to the fact that\nkindergartners had not only a great aim, but a definite method of making\nthe great purpose effective.\nI do not propose to give them up.\nBut have they done all that needs to be done?\nIn the face of the success of the kindergarten, do we dare accept an untoward criticism of their\nuse?\n\nWith all reverence to a master mind, and a great heart, do we dare\n\nquestion whether the last device has been planned for the manipulation\nof childish fingers? Is the last mold turned in which to run the fusing\nelements of play? And has one man, however great, said the last word\nas to what shall be done under present circumstances ?\nThere are a few reasons that make it necessary to find, at least in methods, something more than, or something different from, that which Froebel\nhas planned.\nWe must plan more than ever for present needs.\nWe must remember that, in spite of the greatness of Froebel’s idea of\nfreedom and self-activity, his out-working of these ideas in definite plans\n\n"}
{"page": 598, "printed_page": null, "text": "588\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nWe must also\nwas colored by both his environment and his heredity.\nan American\nunder\nlive\nto\nchildren\ntraining\nare\nwe\nrecognize the fact that\ngovernment, and not a German; that we are training them to obey\nideals, as well as masters; that we are training them to take their places,\nand do their work, in a world whose social life has been revolutionized by\nthe march of science and social freedom.\nFroebel was a German, and the son of strictly orthodox evangelical\nparents.\nHis whole atmosphere and heredity were that of unquestioning\nobedience to law of church, state, and ruler.\n\nIn spite of the fact that his\n\ndoctrines are those of freedom and self-government, still some of his gifts\nand occupations bear the undeniable stamp of the formalism, the dictatorship, of the age and country.\nIt is true that he lays great stress, also, upon the free use of chalk and\npencil, clay and sand, as materials of expression; but we have been so\nfascinated by the formal work that we have neglected these other modes,\nand have pinned our faith too exclusively to the long sequences of work\nemphasizing the laws of form and number.\nIt has been a most fitting\nthing that science has come to the aid of a sympathetic philosophy, and\nwe are bound by all that is true to listen to the advices of science, and to\nharmonize the new with the old.\nAs usual, we are met with the very pertinent question, ‘‘ What are the\nresults?”\n‘‘What can a kindergarten get out of child study?”\nWe\nusually get out of anything just a little more than we put into it, but—\nlet us glance briefly at some of the results which would seem to be most\nfull of suggestion for those who are trying to assist nature in the education\nof young children. .\nScientists have made the most wonderful discoveries of the age along\nthe line of nerve and brain movement, and of the interrelation of mind\nand body, of the effects of bodily condition upon brain and nerve, and,\n\nconsequently, upon the power of thought and of the effect of thought\nupon bodily states.\nSince this is so, is it not important that we at least know what has been\ndiscovered, and then adjust our treatment of the children accordingly ?\nKnowing, as only the experimental scientist can teach us, the indelible\neffect of the repetition of a movement upon the brain and nerve tissue, we\nwill be very much more careful to watch and prevent the formation of\nbodily habits, and question whether any such habits formed are to be\nalways helpful to the real self, or sometimes a hindrance.\nThe rut-making tendency, as Dr. Hall has called this habit formation,\n\nhas opened my eyes to many things which we cause our children to do uselessly in the kindergarten.\nIndeed, after going a round of visits to various\nkindergartens,-I began to fear the cultivation of a persistent clapping\nautomatism, by this everlasting time-filler of hand clapping.\n\n"}
{"page": 599, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nWAS\n\nCHILD\n\nSTUDY\n\nANY\n\nHELP\n\nFOR\n\nKINDERGARTEN?\n\n589\n\nIt has also led me to regard seriously this question, whether we\n\nhave\n\nnot required overmuch of systematic work in block building, stick and\ntablet laying, folding, cutting, etc., so that the mind unconsciously feels\n\nfor this element as an end in itself, and strives too often to produce the\nsymmetric, perfect thing, instead of being able to use that principle of\nsymmetry when needed in a useful thing.\nHundreds of questions spring up along this same field of inquiry.\nFroebel’s doctrine of early impression is forced ‘upon us with intense\nmeaning, when we realize how actually tender and retentive of movement\nhabit this brain substance is.\nAnother line of investigation that has given substantial aid to the\nkindergartner is now so familiar as scarce to need quotation.\nIt is that of\nperiodicity in growth.\nThe knowledge of the successive growth of powers\nhas been followed by the definite knowledge of the fact that when a\npower is growing rapidly into function is the time when skillful habit is\nmost quickly and easily acquired.\nThis fact, seen in all its bearings, will\nsuggest many changes.\nIt has already caused us to lay aside all fine\nhand work which demands adjustment of muscles in eyes and fingers that\nare governed by nerves not ready for function. Measuring our occupation\nwork by this standard, we sws¢ throw out all pricking and sewing in the\n\nkindergarten.\nHere is aplain illustration of the fact that a man’s ideals are\nalways greater than his power of carrying them out in method.\nFroebel’s\nprinciples of the lasting effect of early impressions and of growth bystages\nare the very ones we are trying to obey when we demand these changes.\nThe kindergartner, who knows that fatigue actually engenders a poison,\ncan never allow her children to overstep their time at any givenwork.\nTo\nher, who has followed the results of these investigations, the bad temper,\nor sulkiness of fatigue, takes on anewaspect.\nThe child whose irritability\nis positively known to originate in physical hunger is treated accordingly. It is even comforting to find that the child whom we supposed to\nbe an inheritor of a double dose of original sin, because of constant disobedience, is merely afflicted with defective hearing and in need of medical treatment.\nThe recognition of what Dr. Bryan calls “plateaus in\nmind growth” brings up some very important questions.\nWe are all\nfamiliar with these. periods in our own lives when we seem exerting ourselves in vain to increase our power in some direction.\nTo put it in the\nvernacular, “we\n\nare\n\nstumped,” not for a moment, but for a measurably\n\nlong time.\nAll our efforts are as useless as pushing against a stone wall,\nuntil, after much discouragement, we find that the apparently futile struggles have been cumulative.\nSuddenly the obstacle rolls from the path,\nand we are free to bound along the higher path. We have met this thing\nin our experience, but it has baffled us most in the kindergarten.\nSometimes it was an obliquity of moral vision which could not be straight-\n\n"}
{"page": 600, "printed_page": null, "text": "590\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nAt other times it was a heedlessness or dreaminess that hindered\nened.\nEvery teacher has in mind hunall the rest in marching or playing.\ndreds of instances.\nShall we wait or\nThe question is, “ What is the right thing todo?”\nWhich helps most quickly, and which helps for the longest\nstruggle?\ntime ?\nAlong the line of arrests in development we are to be held clearly\nresponsible, if we do not mend our ways.\nIn this connection Dr. Harris\nsays: “Child study will perhaps find its most profitable field of investigation in this matter of arrested development.\nIf it can tell the teacher\nhow far to push thoroughness to the borders of mechanical perfection,\nand where to stop, just before\n\ninduration and\n\narrest set in, it will reform\n\nall our methods of teaching; and it can and will do it.”\n“The new psychology, in its two phases of direct psychological study\nof brain and nerves and its observation of child development, will show\nus how to realize, by education, the ideals of highest civilization.”\nIt is most important to determine, in the kindergarten as in school, how\nfar to train for technical exactness, and how far to encourage active discussion of a variety of subjects, leaving stress on the finish of detail for\na later excursion round the same subject.\n:\nI have simply touched upon a few of the principles that have impressed\nme forcibly, but, passing over into the more strictly mental life of the\nchild, there are many truths that are given greater intensity, or a new\naspect, by modern psychology.\nThe motor nature of consciousness, as emphasized today, is brought\nhome to us as we watch the children going immediately from suggestion\nto execution, from thought to expression.\nIt enhances the Froebelian\ndemand for creative expression, for variety of expression.\nThis deepened knowledge is effective in reminding us to remove the\nstimulus when the child’s response to it is one which it is not well for him to\nexperience.\nIt teaches anew to change the stimulus rather than to check\na wrong or untimely action.\nThe modern doctrine of interest is not a new one to students of\nFroebel, yet it has penetrated farther than has Froebel’s conception of\nchildren’s interests.\nHere, again, the man’s broad statement is greater\nthan his practice, which is weak in some details.\nIt has been found that the interest in a thing as active, or in use, is\nindisputably greater than the interest felt for the number, form, or color\nof its parts per se.\nThe interest in a process of logical development comes chiefly in older\n\nchildren than those of the kindergarten, hence the flaw found in long\nschools of work in the occupations\nand long sequences in formal gift work,.\nwhere the order and succession of form are supposed to be the chief interest..\n\n"}
{"page": 601, "printed_page": null, "text": "La\nDepartment]\n\nWAS\n\nCH/LD\n\nSTUDY\n\nANY\n\nHELP\n\nFOR\n\nKINDERGARTEN ?\n\n591\n\nThe child’s most helpful interests are found in the expression of complete ideas.\nWe cannot give much of this formal work, without substituting our\ninterests for the child’s.\nWe are prone to forget that these successive\nstages of development through which a child must pass still demand\nstudy. We have not yet fully sounded the depth of Froebel’s dictum,\n“Let the child be at each stage all which that stage calls for.” We forget\nthat something may still be done for the child after he has left the kindergarten.\n\nI cannot leave this hasty survey without alluding to the way in which\nFroebel’s position regarding children and nature has been strengthened\nby child study. Surely, Dr. Hall’s conclusions in reference to children’s\nlove for nature and the introduction of nature observation, of gardening,\nand of pets, into the schoolroom, must reach down into ,the kindergarten\nand revive the ofttimes weak efforts of the kindergartner to bring to a\nchild those things of nature which Froebel deemed in the highest degree\nessential.\nThere are many among us who:say, “ Out upon child study; it is\nworthless.\n\nThe mind, the\n\nspirit, so\n\ntranscends bodily conditions, and is\n\nso superior to its environment, that all this gathering of data of the effects\nof physical conditions upon mental states is folly.”\nTo these I would say that as long as physical substance in the human\nbody is the medium through which the soul makes itself known, so long\nwill we need to study to keep the instrument in the most perfect condition.\nScience has made it possible for us to know vastly more what health of\ntissue and perfect functioning of organs mean, and, therefore, how better\n\nto keep the organism in natural balance, and how to adjust unbalanced\nstates, which cause disordered functions, hindering the free expression of\nthe transcending, but not omnipotent, ego.\nJust so long as the inner ego is reached by outer stimulus by organs of\nsense, and in no other way, we must study to select the right stimuli.\nJust so long as mental action is awakened by contact of matter in some\nform, or the impingement of force termed physical, as it can be wakened\nin no other manner, just so long must our poor human endeavor be to\nselect those outer stimuli to which the ego will most readily respond, and\nwhich will awaken the mental action most needed.\nIn other words, environment does count.\nThough the ego transcends, it transcends in seizing\nupon that which is material, through sense, and in wringing from it the\n,\n|\nessentials for thought.\nWe have among us those who say, “ Froebel knew and taught all that\nchild study includes,” and, “ We find in Froebel all the teachings of modern\nSo Froebel did teach in a broad way. His great principles\npsychology.”\n\n"}
{"page": 602, "printed_page": null, "text": "592\n\nNATIONAL\n\nstand firmer than ever,\nteachings of science.\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nbecause\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nstrengthened,\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nnot undermined, by the\n\nNo one underNo one can deny the greatness of Froebel’s ideals.\nrates the wondrous intuitive power which enabled him to peer into the\nchild’s soul. All of his followers should hail with delight the coming of\nthis day when science follows his insights to confirm his truth and to convince by demonstration those who cannot rest upon his intuitions without\nscientific proof.\nWe find his principle of creative expression ratified, when viewed from\nthis new standpoint.\nHis idea of the educational value of play is indorsed as a whole, if not\nin its details.\nThe educational force of imitation and suggestion is reaffirmed. The doctrine of interest is Froebelian. ‘The emphasis placed by\nhim on growth in stages is correspondent with the modern principle of\nperiodicity in growth, save that with Froebel it was intuitive and sympathetic, while\n\nnow\n\nit has been\n\nmade\n\ndefinite\n\nIt has, by this means, been carried far beyond\nments.\n\nby extended\n\nobservations.\n\nhis simple, broad state-\n\na\n\nTime will not permit me to carry the parallel further ; suffice it to say.\nthat Froebelian principle is not restated in naming the results of child\nstudy, but is elucidated, defined, deepened, and extended.\nHere, as always, science, instead of wholly tearing down the product\nof former thought, brings additional, convincing proof of its highest truth,\nmerely sweeping away the errors that have clung to the true substance.\nAs in all new\n\nmovements,\n\nwe have the two\n\nradical\n\nand\n\nthe two con-\n\nservative bodies—not among the discoverers, but among those whose\ncherished ideals are in some way affected by the changes in thought.\nWe\nhave those who drop their time-honored customs and beliefs too readily.\nWe have the other class, which holds back, afraid to step aside from the\nbeaten track, or which, if not afraid, is too well satisfied with the previous\n\nrevelation and its own interpretations of the teachings of former masters\nof thought.\nBetween the two extremes are those who owe allegiance to\nthe truth, and not simply to one man’s view of the truth, no matter how\ngreat and wise he might have been.\nThese are they who keep the eye and mind open for all ‘views, and\nwho have individual strength enough to put all that seems worthy through\nthe alembic of individual reason ; who honor all those who have blazed the\nway ;who recognize the enormous debt we owe the master mind. Kindergartners\n\nmust\n\nsay, if they be honest, ‘First let us see that we be true,\n\nand next Froebelian.”\nTo all these child study has offered much, not\nalone in actually new material and new light, but, beyond that, the greatest help has come to the kindergartner when, struck by an apparent\nantagonism, she has been forced to read her Froebel anew, and to approach\n\n"}
{"page": 603, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nFROEBEL'S\n\nUSE\n\nOF\n\nCHILD\n\nSTUDY\n\n593\n\nhis teachings with a new view of childhood, and gain the strength which\ncomes from the effort to reconcile the modern and scientific with the old\nand prophetic.\nThose who have honestly made this effort will agree with Ruskin,\n“The value of philosophy lies in the number of truths it enables one to\nreconcile.”\n\nPROEBELS\n\nBY\n\nMISS.\n\nGSE\n\nC. G. O'GRADY,\n\nOF\n\nCHILD\n\nPHILADELPHIA\n\nSTUDY.\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL.\n\nI think Froebel would have had a vision of delight could he have seen,\nin a magic mirror, this meeting of today, men and women whom one\nmay call the van-guard of educational progress in this country, devoting\ntheir whole thought and time this morning to a work which he so enthusiastically urged upon educators.\nThe thought of child study runs underneath all his writings, vivifying,\nlike the silent, continuous\n\ncirculation of the\n\nsap\n\nin the tree, everything\n\n_ growing from it. An echo of child voices asking wondering questions,\ncooing and calling to the birds and creatures, rippling a tra-la-la accompaniment to the duller sounds of life; a trip of little feet in constant,\nrestless activity ; a memory of small hands grasping at curious treasures,\nworthless to other eyes; a coloring from childish fancy, that sees life and\npictures in every inanimate stick or stone or tag-rag by the wayside—\nmay be traced through every book; but some of his most definite utterances on child study are in his letters.\nIt would seem to be no fault of Froebel’s that a German child-study\nassociation did not show us the way to ours, but one reason for our better\nsuccess may be that in America the tail has to some extent wagged the\ndog. The German child would sit still and wait till people were ready\nto study it; but young America was like the riddle of the sphinx—a\nproblem that you were obliged to study and solve, or you might be swallowed whole.\nLack of time obliges me to make very brief quotations from the\n‘‘ Education of Man;” it is not, we know, a work on the child, like those\nof Preyer and Perez, but a work on pedagogy, based on evident child\nstudy.\n“All education,” says Froebel, ‘all instruction and training,\nshould start from the outer manifestation . . . . and, proceeding from\nthe outer, act upon the\n\ninner.....\n\nBut,”\n\nhe adds,\n\n“the\n\ndrawing\n\nof\n\ndirect inferences concerning the inner life of the child from certain external\nmanifestations of life is the chief occasion for frequent mistakes and false\njudgments of young children, for so many unreasonable demands on them ;\n\n"}
{"page": 604, "printed_page": null, "text": "594\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nthe outwardly rough, stubborn, self-willed child is frequently filled with\nthe desire for goodness; and the apparently inattentive boy often follows\na certain fixed line of thought that withholds his attention from external\nthings; therefore, originally, and in its outlines, education should necessarily be passive, following —not prescriptive, interfering.” Dr. G. Stanley\nHall Americanizes this when he says that a certain amount of painting the\ntown red is good for a boy, and that he may enjoy pummeling another\nat football,\n\nand\n\nbreak\n\nsome\n\nwindows,\n\nyet\n\ndevelop\n\nboth\n\nbrains\n\nand\n\nFroebel discusses the differences distinguishing infancy from\ncharacter.\nchildhood, saying: “It is not possible to establish a definite order as to\nthe importance of stages of development, except the necessary order of\nI might\nsuccession, in which the earlier is always the more important.”\nquote, endlessly, passages on what would now be called first reactions to\nstimuli of food, warmth, light, sounds, pleasure, pain, etc. ;on the earliest\n\nmotor and sensory experiments and experiences of little children ; imitative instincts; love of rhythm and color, etc.; and, still more fully, on\nthose subjects from the ‘‘ Mother-Play”’ commentaries ; but these passages\nare so well known that I shall omit them. But it is worth noting how constantly Froebel calls on us to shape our teaching by observation of the\nchildren taught. ‘Let the boy’s eye and mind be your guide,” he says ;\n“follow his questions thoughtfully, . . . . examine the life within you\nWe disdain altogether, alas!\nand compare it with that around you.....\nto examine our own youth, from which we might learn so much that would\nbenefit our children.” This is now being done, thanks to the Child Study\nAssociation.\nTo show how heartily Froebel is in accord with their work,\nI will trace one special comparison.\nOne of the most practical syllabi\nsent out from Clark University last year was on “ Migrations, Travel,\nTramps, Truancy versus Love of Home.”\nIt called for personal experiences, as well as observation of children, from the toddler’s first adventure\n\nfrom the home yard. The “ Pigeon-house”’ and ‘‘ Cuckoo” songs will at\nFroebel notes this instinct and its varied\nonce occur to a kindergartner.\nstimulating causes from the first. ‘See, the child feels strength in his\nfeet, tries to go forward; he is attracted by the bright, round pebble, the\ngay, fluttering bit of paper, a twig, a bit of straw; laboriously stooping,\nhe secures it, and, like a young bird in spring, carries it to his nest, as it\nwere.” He traces the growing love for exercise of strength in the youngster\nof four or five, the attempt to climb over obstacles, the ambition to be per-\n\nmitted to do things, without watching and guarding ; then the longer walks;\nthe eagerness to arrive at some new place; the satisfaction of wonder and\ncuriosity ;the joy of adventure, climbing, seeing the horizon change,\nwiden, and drop away; the mysterious delight, with, perhaps, a spice of\ndanger, in exploring dark caves and recesses; of making discoveries\nand possessing one’s self of some new treasure or experience, the feel-\n\n"}
{"page": 605, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nFROEBEL’S USE OF CHILD STUDY\n\n595\n\ning that lies under a boy’s, aye, and a girl’s, delight in “ Robinson\nCrusoe.”\nFroebel pleads powerfully for the satisfying and guiding of these\ninstincts and needs, and his practical climax may be read in Georg Ebers’\n“Story of my Life,” telling how this was worked out in the Keilhau\nschool; the out-of-door life and holiday tramps; the Saturday night\ncamping out, up on the mountain side; the exercises in strength and skill\nwhich carried them safe through hardship and adventure, and the carefully planned\n\nexcursions which, all through August, formed as regular a\n\nWe have no\npart of the school course as the lessons the rest of the year.\ndoubt of Froebel’s relation to the school, even though Barop was in charge\nat the time.\n“Froebel,” says Ebers, ‘was decidedly the master who\nplanned it.” Unless we understand child study in the most limited sense,\nmerely of recording observations in answer to questions ready-formulated,\nwhich is an injustice to it, surely the kindergarten includes it as a matter\nThere may be two reasons why this inclusion has not been\nof course.\nfully appreciated.\nUntil very recently the majority of women who studied kindergarten,\nin spite of many bright exceptions, have been of limited ability and culture;\n\ncertainly\n\nthis was\n\nso in Germany;\n\nand, partly owing\n\nto the very\n\nshort training course —only six months— which Froebel was obliged to\ngive, far the greater number of its exponents have understood the kindergarten, and acted it out, only as a system of hand work, object teaching,\nand physical training, adapted with more or less instinctive sympathy to\nthe powers of the children, but wholly in an empiric way, and for immediate ends.\nVery little study in most cases, and that little not ofa\nthoughtful kind, was given to Froebel’s own writings, and almost none to\nthe science, psychology, and philosophy which he demands for the real\nunderstanding of his aim and method.\nThis limited view still holds\ngood, more than we could wish.\nFroebel realized how little he was\nunderstood, for he says “if three hundred years after his death there\nshould be one kindergarten after his mind, it was all he could expect ;”\nand he looked to the bright, analytical American student and the radical\nconditions here, allowing freedom of thought, for that realization.\nAnother reason that we suppose child study to be something different\nfrom\n\nwhat\n\nhe\n\nmeant\n\nis that\n\nwe,\n\nwhen\n\nbeginners,\n\nobserve\n\nand\n\nrecord\n\nchiefly the unusual and remarkable things that children do, and we note\nbright children more than commonplace ones.\nFroebel based his work\non the common things which the average small child likes and does, every\nday, and found these out, not so much by standing as a calm, scientific\nobserver, notebook in hand, but literally by living with the children.\nWe are told that Froebel was unable to cross the school yard without half\na dozen little lads clinging to his coat-tails, pleading, ‘Do, do sit down\n\n"}
{"page": 606, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n596\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nand tell us a story !”” How many of our elderly school principals would\nA distinguished member of the Child\nbe found in a like predicament?\nStudy Association visited my kindergarten lately, and, though I know\nhow\n\nhe loves\n\nand\n\nunderstands\n\nchildren, I think\n\nhe\n\nwould\n\nhave\n\nbeen\n\nslightly embarrassed had I invited him to lead our games and become a\nNo doubt some of our\nblacksmith or a butterfly at a minute’s notice.\nmost dignified members, who are fathers and grandfathers, do occasionally become bears and whales, at the behest of their special tyrants, and\nplay balls and blocks with them ;but how many could take charge of fifty\nlittle peasant children, playing their games, and inventing new ones for\nthem, based on their spontaneous actions?\n“I notice my boys always\nlimping and hopping,” says Froebel, “so I have invented a limping\ngame.”\nFroebel believes with Oliver Wendell Holmes that “‘ what we must do\nwith books of experience is to make them alive again with something from\nour own lives;”’ unless\n\nour\n\nchild students\n\ncan do this, their obervations\n\nmust be open to the charge of incompleteness.\nOf the ‘“ Mother-Play”\nbook, as an example of child study, I need hardly speak. Whether we\nlook at its development as based on the primitive child activities of jumping and kicking, catching, swinging, pushing and pulling, tasting, smelling ; at its use of the rhyme and rhythm, the child fancy and child experience which make the lasting charm of “‘ Mother Goose ;” or the deeper\nstudy of the child soul—it is an amazing achievement for a man who had\nnever children of his own. In the capacity for taking child thought quite\nseriously, from its own point of view (which distinguishes the sympathetic\nfrom the merely scientific student), and in subjects, Froebel resembles\nRobert Louis Stevenson.\nBoth have garden and flower and river songs;\ntravel songs, and verses about the fishes and the mill stream ; the shadows, the wind, sun, moon, and stars; the birds, especially pigeons, give\nsubjectsto both, and both sing of the blocks, the pictures, and the music\n\nitself, so dear to little people.\nIn two great points of Froebel’s psychology, v7z., that, in its earliest\nforms, language is, and should be, rhythmic, and that the first realizations\nof ideas. must come through moto-activity, Dr. Lukens and Dr. Hall,\namong others, support Froebel strongly, and reaffirm his conclusions.\nBut I think his fame as a child student will finally rest on his discovery\n— for I may call it so—that language is but the interpretation into more\nabstract\n\nform,\n\nthe\n\ntranslation\n\nprevious stage, ideas\nprehension\n\nperceived\n\ninto\n\nanother\n\nthrough\n\nmedium, of\n\ndeeds\n\nthe necessary\n\nand things;\n\nthat com-\n\nand expression, not merely of sensations, but of ideas, must be\n\nfirst through objects.» Froebel’s whole system of using material is\ngrounded on what things can say to the child, and what he can say\nthrough them.\nHere, though not of our own will, we first part company\n\n"}
{"page": 607, "printed_page": null, "text": "Ana\nal\n\nDepartment]\n\nFROEBEL’S USE OF CHILD STUDY\n\nwith the purely scientific child student.\n\nFroebel’s\n\n597\n\nstatement\n\nthat the\n\nphenomena of presence, departure, return, possession, loss, weight, num-\n\nber, etc., can be first appreciated\n\nonly through\n\naccepted.\n\nthat, without these, such\n\nWe\n\nmust\n\nacknowledge\n\nactions and\n\nobjects is\n\nwords\n\ncould\n\nnot have existed for the race, and cannot for the child, with any meaning.\nBut Froebel ardently believes, not only that things may’speak to a child,\nbut that they may speak of higher ideas before it could receive them in\nwords;\n\nthat\n\nmastery,\n\nlaw, obedience, helpfulness, co-operation, transfor-\n\nmation, may hint of their presence in the world through the government of a ball or heap of blocks, the magical change of cylinder into\nsphere, the growing of a complete sand-table picture under a dozen little\nHis conviction is that there are “tongues in trees,”\nhands and minds.\nnot because they are beautiful, but because they are the expression of\nmind, and speak to mind in us;\n\nand that mind\n\ndevelopment is a whole;\n\nthat there is no day nor hour which can be fixed as the first when spiritual\nideas are possible ; that the ethics which, as Emerson says, “sparkle on the\nchisel-edge and weigh in the plummet ;” the law which is perfect, converting the soul, as it was realized by an untaught shepherd boy to whom\n\nday\n\nunto day uttered speech and night unto night showed knowledge, even\n— that this, too, may come to a\nthough there was no speech nor language\nyoung child, in things, not\n\nin words.\n\n‘“ Many,” he says, ‘‘ have been the\n\nobservations made on the physical relations binding mother and child, and\non the consideration and fostering of this joint life; but by no means yet\nhave observations been made on the reciprocal spiritual tie between them.”\nHe would have us never leave out facts and experiences, but would remind\nus that biology is but one side of truth, and that he who would refer all\nuncomprehended actions of children to “broken neurological fragments of\nold reflex arcs” will make many mistakes. We need not deny or belittle the\nnoble, ardent efforts, and the magnificent work, of the other leaders of\nGladly we acknowledge that many of them are far more\nchild study.\nthan merely scientific students, and gladly receive the help they give, for\nwe need them as we need Darwin and Spencer and Goethe, and all\nFroebel would tell us that we have no right to go by\nseekers after truth.\nthe light of science alone and deny the witness of poets, philosophers, and\nprophets from all time, to another side of the shield; that we have no\nright to study children’s cruelty without their tenderness and heroism,\ntheir fears without their courage, their bodies without their souls. Study\non these points has been so one-sided that I should like to give one\ninstance (though not Froebel’s) which covers both points. Two little\nchildren whom I knew were lying awake in their cribs at night. Some\ninjudicious elder had spoken before them of the horrors of eternal punishment, and the little girl, four years old, who had a difficult disposition\nand sensitive temper, and was often told that she was naughty, said to her\n\n"}
{"page": 608, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n598\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nbrother, “Oh, Tanny, I’s so ’fraid\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nI sall go to de pit wit Satan, I is so\n\n“Oo sall not, I’ll hold oo,” responded the wee lad a year\nnaughty.”\nyounger. ‘Ohno, 00 cannot,” she replied despairingly ; “ I’s so naughty,\nI sall go to de d’eadful black pit.” “Den I’ll go wit 00,” was the ardent\nLet us study the manifestations of spirit as well as body, as\nresponse.\nFroebel urges, “in ourselves and our children, in nature and history, that\nwe may perceive general as well as special laws of development, and that\nchild training\n\nmay receive, in these laws, its surer basis and\n\ntrue\n\nfounda-\n\ntion.\n\nMETHODS\nBY\n\nMISS\n\nJENNY\n\nOF\nB.\n\nCHILD\n\nSTUDY\n\nMERRILL,\n\nIN\n\nSUPERVISOR\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nNEW\n\n‘YORK\n\nTHE\nOF\n\nKINDERGARTEN:\nKINDERGARTENS,\n\nPUBLIC\n\nCITY.\n\nMany years ago there came into my hands a little book by an English\nwriter, entitled “ What is a Child?”\nI shall never cease to be grateful\nto the writer, for the guestion, as well\n\nboth been of great service to me.\n\nas his attempt\n\nto answer\n\nit, have\n\nJI commend the question to all young\n\nkindergartners, and hope that it will\n\nfollow them, as it has me, through\n\nlife, and be the means of arousing their interest in the present-day methods\nof child study.\nI wish today simply to call your attention to two or three methods that\nwe have actually used in New York, hoping that they will yield more\nresults in your hands than they have in ours.\nThey involve writing, and\nwriting takes time and is apt to be neglected, but even an intermittent\nuse of the methods suggested will be of some value.\nThe first method suggested, which has been followed more or less com-\n\npletely in the kindergarten of the Associate Alumnz of the Normal College, New York city, is as follows:\nThe kindergartners aim to keep a\nrecord of each child in a separate blank book. In the room, on a hanging\nshelf, may be seen twenty-five of these record books.\nIf possible, the\nchild’s photograph on entering the kindergarten is placed on the front\npage, followed by a brief family history.\nA careful description is given\nof the child’s actions during the first days. Notes follow from day to\nday, or week to week, at irregular intervals, according to the time that\ncan be given. When a child remains two or three years, the record\nbecomes of special interest.\nIn some instances a summary of the work\naccomplished by the child in weaving or sewing appears at the end of the\nyear, or a statement of his color preferences.\nA few of the books are\nindexed, so that illustrations of certain traits may be found readily, as of\nanger, discouragement, theft, generosity, etc.\n\n"}
{"page": 609, "printed_page": null, "text": "ahs\nee\n\nDepartment]\n\nMZETHODS\n\nOF CHILD\n\nSTUDY\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\n599\n\nIf it is too much work to keep a record for every child, it may be\npossible to keep three or four, choosing children of different temperaments as types.\nOne of the kindergartners who has assisted in keeping\nthese records says nothing has helped her so much.\nThey remind one\nof Pestalozzi’s records of the children at Stanz, and, while they may not\nyield material for the scientist, they help to create an interest in the individual child.\nThe kindergartner is led to connect one act with a series\nof similar acts, and so to form an idea of tendencies in the child.\n\nWhile\n\nit is true that such impressions are formed almost unconsciously by the\nkindergartner in her daily intercourse with her children, it will be found\nthat the written record will greatly strengthen this power in young\nteachers.\nThe second method that has been tried in some of our public kindergartens during the present year is as follows:\nThe teacher keeps a daily record of the order of exercises on the left\nside\n\nof a record\n\nbook, and leaves the right side blank, unless\n\nshe finds\n\nsome items of interest to record in relation to one or more children.\nEven when nothing is written, the blank page is a reminder from day to\nday of the child.\nThe tendency is to think of the work being done, the\nmat, the weaving, the blocks, the product of work, rather than the child\nworking.\nWeneed a frequent reminder, and I say to our kindergartners, even if you write nothing, you will give a thought to the child,\nand perhaps wonder what you could or should have written.\nA third method of child study in the kindergarten has been a careful\nobservation of a child’s drawings as suggestive of the content of his mind.\nFor example, in one case we have found a child drawing an elaborate\npicture of a funeral procession.\nOne who lived in the neighborhood\nand had witnessed the display made on such an occasion would not be\nsurprised, but a teacher who had not known of the custom would certainly\nhave had an unlooked-for peek into that child’s mind.\nIn another case a child made a picture of a little boy running to meet\nhis father at night as he was coming home.\nQuite a different state of\nhome affairs was shown in the drawing of a boy on a chair fastened to a\nbed, but the boy announced he was running his tongue out and having a\ngood time.\nMistaken notions of the meaning of words are sometimes\ndetected by free drawings.\nIt is in the free drawing, principally, that these opportunities come.\nThe subjects suggested by the kindergartner may be so chosen as to\nhelp in disclosing the child’s thoughts, as when the children are asked to\ndraw “objects noticed on the way to the kindergarten,” or each child is\nasked to draw ‘“‘ whatever he thinks will make a good picture,” or ‘ what\nwe saw on our walk.”\n\n"}
{"page": 610, "printed_page": null, "text": "600\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nWhile I have particularized these three methods, I think a// methods of\nchild study are good for the kindergartner, and I know of no better summary of these methods than the one found in “Studies of Education,”\nfirst number, by Professor Earl Barnes, 772. :\n\n1. Undirected observation in everyday home and school life.\n2. Miscellaneous written collections, without any hypothesis.\n3. Personal reminiscences of the students.\n4. Personal journals or letters of children (May A/antic).\n5. Reminiscent autobiographies, written or printed.\n6. Artistic interpretations of childhood.\n7. Direct studies of children.\n\n8. Biographies of young children.\ng. Statistical studies on the lines of a syllabus.\n\nI especially recommend\n\nthe\n\nkindergartner\n\nto\n\nstudy\n\ncarefully\n\nher\n\nown childhood, for I believe, as Professor Barnes says, ‘‘he who sits down\n\nand carefully and honestly reconstructs from memory his own childhood,\nin its moments of joy and grief, has given himself a medium through\nwhich he can see children as they are.’”’ Last winter I was asked to speak\non the subject “ The Child’s Love of Work”’ at the Brooklyn Congress of\nFathers and Mothers.\nI prepared for the paper mainly by looking back\ninto my own childhood experiences, and one after another came back to\nme, until I was more thoroughly aroused than ever to the value of work\nas a pastime.\nI remembered the delight I felt in helping on moving\nday—the pleasure in little household duties—and I fully sympathized\nwith the choice of Queen Victoria, who was\n\nasked, when\n\na child,\n\nby an\n\naunt who wished especially to please her, what she would choose to do;\nthe future queen chose “to wash the windows.”\nProfessor Barnes says, in speaking of these reminiscent studies:\n‘They quicken our interest in childish activity by relating it vitally to\nour own egoistic interest.\nWe also see acts in their perspective and in\ntheir relations, as we cannot when observing a child.”\nWe will not have the proper methods of child study in our kindergartens until we have them in our training classes.\nI can conceive of no\nmore profitable exercise in a training class than these reminiscent studies,\nthe teacher suggesting lines of thought by appropriate questions, as:\nWhat is the first thing you remember ?\nDid you have many playmates as a child ?\nWho was your favorite playmate ?\nWhat were your favorite plays as a child?\nWere you a leader in plays?\nWhat were your favorite picture books?\nYour favorite songs ?\nDid you spend much of your time with adults ?\n\n"}
{"page": 611, "printed_page": null, "text": "rt\n*\n\n.\na\n\nDepartment]\n\nJZETHODS\n\nOF\n\nCHILD\n\nSTUDY\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\n601\n\nWhat adult did you like best to be with?\nWhy?\nDid you like to\nvisit?\nDid you travel?\nWhat work did you like to do about the house?\nWere you fonder of older or younger children than yourself?\nWere you fond of dolls?\n\nWhat kind, large or small?\n\nyou like ?\nDid you have pets ?\nSuch questions are not asked for the purpose\nclassifying, but\n\nto lead\n\nthe student\n\nWhat toys did\n\nof collecting data and\n\nback into his own\n\nchildhood,\nand to\n\nawaken the feelings and interests then experienced.\nIt would be profitable for the training teacher to secure such individual\nrecords\n\nof children\n\nas have\n\nbeen\n\nmentioned, and to read them with her\n\nstudents, interpreting them in the light of her wider experience.\nShe\nshould also require each student to keep a record of at least one child.\nI have said nothing about child study from the physician’s standpoint.\nWe will all agree that special attention should be given to the hygienic\nconditions in the kindergarten.\nNo report on Dr. Hall’s syllabus for\nkindergartners interested me more last summer at Clark University than\nDr. Burnham’s report on Section I., vzz., hygiene.\nSuch questions as these\nwere included :\nWhat precautions are and should be taken against contagious diseases,\nand what essentials are neglected?\nIf washed, do the children all have\nthe same soap, wash-rag, sponge,\ncups, etc.?\nAre the toilet rooms\n\ntowel, water, handkerchiefs, drinking\nnear, warm, suitable, used freely, and\n\nare children properly attended, isolated, watched, taught cleanly habits\nthere ? Do they meet primary children there on going or coming ?\nWhat\n\ncare\n\nis taken\n\nof eyes,\n\nears,\n\nnose,\n\nteeth;\n\nare\n\nthese\n\nmedically\n\nexamined or tested by the teacher?\nAre drafts, direct sunshine, dark corners, overheating avoided ?\n\nWhat\n\nis done to insure ventilation and pure air? What temperature is kept?\nWhat precautions against exposure and colds in taking off outer garments,\ngoing to and from kindergartens, etc. ?\nAre\n\nchairs, tables, blackboards, etc., adapted\n\nto the size of different\n\nchildren? Are they seated by age, size, or proficiency?\nHow do you try to prevent the contagion of bad habits, as mispronunciation, biting nails, picking the nose, sucking lips or fingers, making\nfaces, stammering, swaying, and other automatic movements, and how\nwould you treat them in the individual child?\nHow do you try to prevent fatigue, nervousness, excitement, and insure\nproper postures, and prevent over-tenderness, and over-susceptibilty of\nmind and body, coddling, and fastidiousness ?\nHow long do children stand, or play in ring or circle, at one time?\nWhat proportion of the children take lunch between 9 and 12? What\n\n"}
{"page": 612, "printed_page": null, "text": "602\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\ndo they usually bring, and how is it served and eaten, and how much\ntime is thus consumed, and are they better or worse for this; bearing on\n\ninsufficiency of breakfast, table manners?\nWhat signs of increased nervousness or fatigue, if any, have you noticed\nafter Christmas week ?\nDr. Burnham reported that very little literature exists upon the subject, and that the returns to the questions suggested were small, but that\nhe had come to the conclusion that the kindergarten is a very hygienic\nplace;\n\nnevertheless,\n\nhe said, “grave\n\ndefects\n\nexist,’ and\n\nadvised\n\nkinder-\n\ngartners to study Froebel again, for Froebel was not only a good teacher,\nbut a real champion of hygiene.\nNo one had given greater attention to\nFroebel saw the dangers of nervous\nthe muscular system than Froebel.\ndiseases —and desired to train up a generation of youth of better constitution.\nDr. Burnham claimed that work out of doors is the core and center of Froebel’s system, and advised kindergartners to do more toward\ndeveloping occupations for outdoor work.\nHe warned us of the danger of too exciting stimuli for young children\nin pictures and stories, especially for those children who come from a\nmeager environment.\nHold the child’s attention with the weakest stimuli\npossible.\nOf two stories choose the one less exciting.\nBy keeping children calm and free from excitement we lead them to self-control.\nThe\ncause of nervous breakdown is often lack of self-control.\nThe self-control\nof the kindergarten is of great moral and hygienic value.\nIt would seem to be a foregone conclusion that kindergartners would\nobserve the children in regard to cleanliness, but in large cities we have\nnot wholly solved the problem of “the dirty child.”\nWe are yet in need\nof Dr. Harris’ wise counsel upon this subject, namely, above all things to\nteach the children to keep clean and to be polite. We have been greatly\naided this year in New York in this direction by the appointment of\nphysicians to visit our schools daily.*\nThe height of chairs and tables appears to be unsolved in some kindergartens.\nHow to take care of the children’s eyes is still a problem: is\nit best to have the light from the left? Then we must face the question:\nHow must we place our tables to accomplish this desirable result ?\neven though it breaks up our much-loved ring? The Baroness von Biillow\nsaid to me, in speaking of this change of the ordinary position of the\nkindergarten tables: “You Americans are too sentimental.\nYou want a\ncircle all the time.\nYou have it in the morning at the opening talk and\nin the games.\nThat is enough.”\nI was indeed glad to find she agreed with me, and I now suggest plac«In speaking recently of the danger of singing in dusty rooms, Dr. Wood, an eminent physician in New York city, suggested that the dust be blown out of the room by\nmachinery, as is done in certain factories where delicate work is being done.\n\n"}
{"page": 613, "printed_page": null, "text": "~\npy\n*\n.\n\nDepartment]\n\nZHE\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n603\n\ning tables one behind the other, at least during occupations, for only in\nthis way can we secure light from the left, and keep direct light out of the\nchildren’s eyes.\nThe only method of child study that will secure desirable physical\nconditions is that of constant observation of these little things that affect\nIt is surprising to find what important physical\nthe health of the child.\nmatters escape the attention of the kindergartner whose mind is on her\nprogramme and not on the child. The kindergartner, as well as other\nteachers, need occasionally to be reminded that we do not teach drawing,\nweaving,\n\nsewing, etc., but\n\nwe teach\n\nthat\n\nthe child—the\n\nchild\n\nmust\n\nbe\n\nuppermost in the mind; the work must be seen constantly in its relation\nto the child.\nYoung kindergartners do not always realize how they are tested.\nA supervisor recently visited a kindergartner who had been in charge of\nher class but a week.\nThe kindergartner began almost at once to speak\nabout the children: This little one has an invalid mother; there are eight\nchildren in the family; this little quiet one cannot speak above a whisper,\nit seems that she fell out of a window some time ago.\nAnother kindergartner said: ‘O, how different it is to discipline the children when you\n‘know them!”\nIt is such knowledge that makes the supervisor feel assured\nthat the individual child is not being forgotten in the desire to have pretty\nwork to exhibit or a programme connected in all its parts.\nAnother eminent writer on education said: “There are doubtless\nmany ways in which men make a new heaven and a new earth of their\ndwelling places, but the simplest of all ways is through a fond discerning\nand individual care of each child.”\n\nSuch care, the result of child study,\n\nshould be the aim of all true kindergartners.\n\nTHE\n\nKINDERGARTEN\nBY\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nIN THE\nC.\n\nB.\n\nPUBLIC\n\nGILBERT,\n\nNEWARK,\n\nSCHOOLS.\nN.\n\nJ.\n\n[ABSTRACT. |\n\nI. The growth of the kindergarten in America was for many\nvery slow.\nIts recent development has been most rapid.\n\nyears\n\nII. The cause of the slow growth was a lack of comprehension of the\nkindergarten on the part of the average educator, including the average\nkindergartner, the latter being a partial cause of the former. This period\nmay be called the period of the nursery-maid kindergarten.\nIII. The recent rapid development.is the fruitage of the persistent\nefforts of the great kindergarten leaders and of the revival of the study of\n\n"}
{"page": 614, "printed_page": null, "text": "604\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nThe general introduction of the kindergarten\npedagogy in this country.\ninto public schools is the greatest step in pedagogy that has ever been\nmade in this country.\nIt is, however, fraught with dangers both to the\nkindergartens and to the other schools, and necessitates considerable\nThe kindergarten must not be attached to the\nmodification of both.\npublic schools as a new and distinct department, but it must be co-ordiThis means for the kindergarten :\nnated with them in a vital way.\n1. Broader culture and better professional training for kindergartners.\n\n2. A more general spirit of co-operation, and an attempt to meet real\nrather than imaginary conditions.\n3. A broadening of the course and a gradual modification of the tools\nused.\n4. A better training for citizenship through the enlarged comprehension of the meaning of co-operation.\nIV. This means for the other schools:\n1. Thesweetening and mollifying of the systems of discipline, through\nthe introduction of the kindergarten spirit.\n2. A more rational and careful consideration of individual needs.\n3. The introduction of a more generous and altruistic spirit into the\nschools.\n4. A training for citizenship through\n\nthe introduction\n\nof self-govern-\n\nment.\n\n5. A saving of time in the instruction in fundamental branches.\n6. The making of education real and vital instead of formal\nunreal.\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\nBY\n\nMISS\n\nWORK AND\nSCHOOL.\n\nKATHERINE\n\nBEEBE,\n\nPRINCIPLES\n\nEVANSTON,\n\nIN\n\nand\n\nTHE\n\nILL.\n\nThere have been few educational gatherings for years past where a\npaper bearing some such title as this of mine has not been read.\nYou\nare quite accustomed to listening to the exploitation of the greatness and\ncompleteness of Froebel’s theory and practice.\nYou have heard many\ntimes, and most of you have come to believe, that\n\nFroebelian\n\nprinciples\n\nshould be applied to the later school life of the child.\nYou probably\nexpect me to tell you once more what these principles are, and to urge\ntheir wider knowledge and subsequent application upon you.\nI ought to\nspeak to you of the physical, mental, and moral aspects of the play; of\ncreative activity, individual development, incipient manual training, the\n‘\n\n"}
{"page": 615, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\nWORK\n\nAND\n\nPRINCIPLES\n\n605\n\nsociology of the kindergarten, its power as a preventive force, its plan for\nnormal and logical development of those faculties most used in the school\nlife, actual and ideal.\nI shall be sorry if I disappoint you in not placing\nbefore you any of those things which my subject gives you the right to\nanticipate, but ever since I was asked to take part in this meeting I have\nbeen promising myself the pleasure of telling you, in a friendly and\ninformal way, how some of these principles have been applied in one\nparticular school, ‘‘the one I know best of all.”\nPlease bear in mind that I do not claim these principles as the exclusive property of the kindergarten; for no one knows better than we\nkindergartners\n\ndo\n\nhow\n\nuniversal\n\nthey\n\nare, how\n\nfundamental,\n\nand\n\nhow\n\nabsolutely a part of all that is or has been good in educational processes\nfrom the beginning.\nWe do claim, however, that Froebel organized,\nsystematized, and arranged them most wonderfully for the education of\nlittle children; that in the kindergarten they have heen used and proved,\nand that it has been our privilege and pleasure at least to pass some of\nour good things occasionally on to the school.\nMany new and good\nthings in education which to kindergartners have long been familiar in\ntheir essence have been evolved without any apparent help from the kindergarten, and many direct gifts from the kindergarten to the school\nhave not been recognized as coming from that source.\nIt is not at all\nnecessary that they should be. That the vital principles of education\nshould prevail in both kindergarten and school is the main thing, and\nthat in which we all rejoice.\nHow much of what I shall tell you of the work of our little school is\nthe result of any kindergarten influence I do not know or care.\nI only\nknow that from the newest five-year-old to the oldest sixth-grader we are\nall good friends, members of one family, and working along the same\nlines.\nI shall have to apologize to some of you for having previously stolen\npart of my own thunder.\nWhen Miss Haven gave me a place upon her\nprogramme, I welcomed the opportunity to pass on to my fellow-teachers\nthe story of this past winter’s experiment in using our school as a social\ncenter, and made many preparations accordingly.\nSubsequently our\ncounty superintendent, Mr. Bright, asked me to tell the same story to his\nteachers in Chicago, assuring me that it would make no difference to the\naudience I expected to address in July. This story was printed in a\npamphlet used at the meeting of the Northern Illinois Teachers’ Association on April 22, 23, and\n\n24, and it is to those present on that occasion\n\nand at the Chicago meeting who may hear me today that I offer this\nexplanation of what may be repetition to them.\nSome of the kindergartners have long had an idea that our occupations, which are so good in themselves, in that they hold for the child\n\n"}
{"page": 616, "printed_page": null, "text": "606\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nthe degree of development claimed for them by Froebel and proved by\nIt is true\nhis followers, might be used to advantage in primary rooms.\nthat they already have been largely used as busy-work, or seat-work, but\nthey deserve a place by themselves, if it is true that hand work should be\nLong before he can\na part of a pupil’s education from the beginning.\nenter a manual training school—before sloyd, sewing, cooking, and the\nlike, are practicable in the average\n\nthey are called, could be used.\nlessons\n\nin sewing,\n\nweaving,\n\nschool—these\n\nThere\nfolding,\n\n“ schools\n\nof work,” as\n\nare beautifully arranged\ncutting,\n\npasting,\n\nand\n\nseries of\n\ncolor\n\nwork,\n\nwhich older children could do as thoroughly and well as the trainingclass students, and which would yield them the same delight and development which they bring to kindergarten children.\nIn two of our Evanston schools the teachers in the first and second\ngrades have been doing this kind of work.\nIn some rooms it is given\nonce a week, in others oftener; but it has its own place on the programme, and is done under the teacher’s immediate supervision.\nThe\nfirst experiment was with a set of furniture, developed from the square\nfolding papers, which\ncradle, sofa, brackets,\n\nincludes chairs, tables, bed, bureau, washstand,\nclock, and other articles, the making of which\n\nbrought great pleasure and profit to the little folks, who each completed\na set, to be taken home as a plaything or given away for a present.\nWe\nused papers cut 88 for this, and any quantity of lessons in attention,\nform, number, position, direction, accuracy, neatness, and invention were\n\n_ given, some by the teacher, others by the work itself. We hope to go on\nwith this next year in the first and second grades of our six schools, and\narrangements have been made for instruction in the technique of the work\nfor those teachers who wish to put the kindergarten principle of creative\nactivity into their schoolrooms in this particular way.\nOur own little one-story school of eight rooms has many advantages\nin its location and surroundings.\nIt is in a suburban city, where there\nare not only trees, grass, flowers, and open prairies, but where there are\nalso a settled home feeling and a community spirit often absent in large\ncities and towns, and not always strong enough to be felt even in country\nplaces. We love our city and are proud of it. We do not move very\nmuch, and we live in the same houses and teach in the same rooms long\nenough to know and be known.\n\nHence, when\n\nwe\n\nwant\n\nflowers, plants,\n\nseeds, books, pictures, specimens, or anything else for school purposes, we\nhave only to ask for it.\nOften we need not even ask, for the homes\nvoluntarily lend, send, and give much to the school.\nThis relation is one\nwhich has always been a part of the ideal kindergarten, and should be a\npart of the ideal school.\nThere is among us an esprit de corps, a pulling together, a working\ntogether, a living together, which are the essence of kindergarten life. It\n\n"}
{"page": 617, "printed_page": null, "text": "ia\n\nry»,\nhe\na\n\nDepartment]\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\nWORK\n\nAND\n\nPRINCIPLES\n\n607\n\nis a little hard to put so intangible a thing down in words, but you would\nhave seen it and felt it could you have been with us before school time in\nthe morning of the Friday before Memorial Day, which was the day of\nthe school celebration.\nDozens of children were darting to and fro with\nvases and glasses of water, everybody was bringing flowers, some were\ndusting and tidying up here and there, boys were helping the janitor put\nup flags and bunting, halls and reception room were being put in festal\nEveryarray, and every room was being made as attractive as possible.\nwhere was the suppressed excitement of a gala day, so dear to the childish\nheart, beaming smiles, and frequent exclamations\n\npretty!”\n\nof “Oh, doesn’t\n\nit look\n\nProbably the same sort of thing was going on at the same time\n\nin many other schools, and if in them there was\n\nthe same\n\nsweet, helpful,\n\nfriendly, family spirit which fairly made the air vibrate that sunny morning, | am very glad.\nThere is not a morning when from ten to twenty of our children do\nnot come in with offers of help in the necessary school housekeeping.\nThey are as efficient as willing, in most cases, and have asked for and\nobtained permission so often to do certain kinds of work that their doing\nit is now largely taken for granted.\nWe really have a very fourishing\ndomestic science department in operation, whose sessions are held\n“between times,’ and where the attendance is purely voluntary.\nWe have put our little ones in the care of the older ones, and most\nbeautifully have they responded to the trust.\nWhere in times past the\nmonitor stood in the dressing room only to report and spy out delinquencies, to his own and his victims’ undoing, today a number, chosen\nfrom an army of aspirants, are sent among the marching lines and into\nthe dressing rooms ¢o he/p. ‘They show the new children how to keep\nstep; they keep the lines straight, put on rubbers, help with wraps, find\nlost hats, button\n\nup\n\nlittle coats, and\n\ndo\n\nnumberless\n\nother\n\noffices\n\nof a\n\nbrotherly and sisterly nature.\nThey extend their offices to the playground, and see that justice, fair play, care, and protection are given\nwhere they are needed.\nThis family feeling within the school, and the neighborly feeling\nwithout, have finally crystallized into an experimental organization of the\nforces at work, which promises so well that the story of it seems worth\nthe telling, if only that those interested may watch its progress, success\nor failure.\nWith our school as a center, there exists today a reading room, gymnasium, two boys’ clubs, sewing classes, and a woman’s club, with a military company and a workshop in the near future. All of this arose in a\nmost simple and natural way from small beginnings, and has been a matter of growth rather than innovation.\nThe school, being situated at the west end of a residence town, includes\n\n"}
{"page": 618, "printed_page": null, "text": "608\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\namong its pupils children from families in comfortable, and even affluent,\ncircumstances, and also those of the working people, the latter class preSeveral of the teachers have been in the school so long that\ndominating.\nthey are necessarily very well acquainted with the families whose children\nMuch visiting among them has given to these\nattend from year to year.\nteachers an intimate knowledge of circumstances and characteristics, and,\n\nas a natural consequence, a sympathetic and friendly interest in their\nwelfare.\nIt was ascertained that many of the people, through lack of work, lack\nof thrift, because of illness, bereavement, or other stress of circumstances,\n\nhad great difficulty in clothing their children warmly or comfortably for\nschool.\nThis led to a request of the well-to-do portion of the school district and town for cast-off or outgrown clothing, which has been so generously responded to for several years that there is in the storeroom, during\nthe whole school year, a supply of clothing on which teachers can draw\naccording to individual necessities.\nThere is more than the one reason given in the idea of paying specific\nattention to the clothing of the children.\nOf course, it is primarily necessary that they should be enabled to attend school and be protected from\ncold and exposure, but it has been deemed important that a child’s\nself-respect should not be injured by being obliged to appear among his\nwell-dressed mates in ragged, dirty, or grotesque clothing.\nIt is the\nendeavor of those interested to make any such condition so distasteful\nthat every effort will be made to avoid it. Many a forlorn and discouraged child, who keenly felt the difference between himself and the other\nchildren,\n\nhas\n\nbeen\n\ncheered,\n\nhelped,\n\nand\n\nstimulated\n\nby his\n\nteacher’s\n\ninterest in his personal appearance and her assistance as given from\nfriend to friend.\nThis supplying of clothing is done as quietly as possible, but when the\nsecret leaks out, as it is often bound to do among the children, the fact that\n\n“the teacher” gave the clothing seems very different from a giving by an\norganized or recognized charity.\nThe children are, as far as possible, encouraged to make some\n\nreturn\n\nfor what they receive.\nPersonal cleanliness is insisted on, work is given\nthem in and about the schoolhouse, and they are often helped to mend\nor make over the garments given them.\nWhile the House and Home Club has no official connection with the\nschool, the interests of the two are so closely allied that it is in reality a\npart of it. This club is composed of about forty women, who either work\nthemselves or are the wives of laboring men, all of whom live in the\nschool district. It was organized by one of the “other class” of mothers,\nwhose own children attend the school. The club has met at her house\nweekly for over a year, and, while it is self-governing, her friendly help\n\n"}
{"page": 619, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\nWORK\n\nAND\n\nPRINCIPLES\n\n609\n\nand interest, as well as that of her husband, is always at hand.\nNeighbors and teachers are also members of this club, and the fraternal feeling\nexisting among them was happily visible at the Christmas party given\nlast year, when the club entertained husbands and children.\nThe entertainment consisted largely of songs and recitations by the little folks, most\nof whom belong to the school in question, though Catholic and Lutheran\nparochial schools were also represented.\nA chorus from the sixth grade was present on this occasion, and,\nseated on the stairway, sang for the company their repertory of Christmas carols, which had been put into their possession by means of the\nexcellent musical training of which the Evanston public schools are justly\nproud.\nThe members\n\nof this club, on one occasion, when the teachers’ outside\n\nwork for the children was under discussion, expressed a wish that they\nmight, in some way, have a hand in it. It was suggested that they form\nthemselves into a sewing society, to meet in the kindergarten room on\nFriday afternoons, for the purpose of making over and mending the\nclothing then on hand.\nThis was done without loss of time, and in the\ncourse of a few weeks the garments, which, of course, arrived in all sorts\nof conditions, were sorted, mended, or transformed ready for use.\nFrom\n\nthe accumulation such clothing\nwas first laid aside;\n\nas was\n\nsuitable\n\nfor the school children\n\nfrom that which was left the women\n\nwho did the sew-\n\ning were allowed to take anything which met any of their individual\nneeds, and they availed themselves of this privilege with alacrity. From\nthe remainder they were asked to carry away and give to neighbors,\nfriends, or relatives such articles as they could so place to advantage,\nthus enlarging the circumference of the circle. They were very glad to\ndo this, as each one knew some one whom she wished to help, and the\npleasure they must have had in carrying to those in need of such aid a\nmended dress, coat, or undergarment can well be imagined.\nWhatever\nis left after these three needs have been supplied is sent to a colored\nwoman in the district, for distribution among her people.\nTo teach the girls of the working people’s families to sew, mend, and\nmake over seemed a necessary work, if present conditions are to be\nimproved, and, therefore, sewing classes have been formed among the\nschool children, which meet after school hours in small groups in charge\nof a teacher or interested neighbor.\nWhen the first of these classes was organized in the third-grade room,\nafter the nature of the work had been explained, the question was asked,\n“How many girls would like to join this class?””\nMost of the girls, and\none bright-faced boy, raised their hands.\n“T said girls/” said the teacher, smiling.\n‘How many gzr/s would\nlike to join the sewing class ?”\n\n"}
{"page": 620, "printed_page": null, "text": "610\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nAgain there was the same result, the boy looking straight at the\nteacher with his own sunny smile and the light of a steady purpose in his\nbrown eyes. The teacher took the hint.\nFourteen boys\n“How many boys would like to join, too?” sheasked.\npromptly responded, and from that moment all sewing classes were open\nto both sexes.\nThe principal of this school, from whose entire and wise devotion to\nthe interests of the children in her care comes the inspiration which\nvitalizes this whole movement, found that about fifty of the schoolboys\nwere running about the streets at night, doing nothing, or worse, partly\nbecause homes in many cases were unattractive, and partly because of the\nIt was she who proinnate and natural desire of boys to flock together.\nposed opening the school building at night for a boy’s club, and she\ncalled to her aid her teachers, the parents of the district, interested\nneighbors, and social settlement\n\nworkers.\n\nShe met\n\nwith such enthusias-\n\ntic support from all of these that the first steps were taken almost immediately.\nA few of the most interested conferred with the school board regarding the opening, heating, lighting, and general care of the schoolhouse.\nThe members of the board then present stated that it had always been\ntheir policy not to allow their school building to be used for other than\neducational purposes, regarding the property as a public trust to be conserved in the best possible condition for the succeeding generation of\nchildren.\n‘They had often been obliged to refuse requests for the use of\nbuildings to political and religious organizations for this reason.\nThe\nuse of the schoolhouse proposed by the petitioners, however, they\nregarded as educational in the truest and highest sense of the word, and,\n\ntherefore, they not only granted the use of the building, but the necessary lighting apparatus, and assumed the expense of the additional\njanitor service necessary.\nAfter this was settled, a meeting was called of all those interested, and\n\na simple organization was formed, consisting of a controlling council of\neight, and active and\n\nhonorary members, the whole\n\nto be known\n\nas the\n\nWesley Avenue School Club Association.\nOn the council are four women\nand four men ; the principal of the school, one mother, an experienced\n-and enthusiastic social settlement worker, the kindergarten teacher, the\nsuperintendent of schools, two fathers, and another enthusiastic social.\n\nsettlement worker.\nThe honorary members are those who wish to contribute money, the active those who become members by virtue of service\nvolunteered.\nMany are both honorary and active members, and, as the\nmembership list was a full one, the council in a very short time found\nitself in possession of sufficient money and helpers to begin work.\nThe\n\nkindergarten\n\nroom,\n\nwith its piano,\n\npictures,\n\nand\n\nopen\n\nspace,\n\n"}
{"page": 621, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\nWORK\n\nAND\n\nPRINCIPLES\n\n611\n\nbecame the central point of action.\nBooks and magazines sufficient for\na small library were contributed, a library committee placed in charge,\ntables and chairs purchased, and the room opened between the afternoon\nhours of half-past three and half-past five for the children who wish to\nread, draw, study, or do other quiet indoor work.\nThrough the kind\noffices of one of the district fathers an almost full set of the bound volumes of St. WVicholas became the library’s most valued possession.\nThe\nchildren are not encouraged to remain indoors during pleasant weather,\nexcept for very special reasons, but during the long, cold winter they\nseemed to find the reading room most attractive.\nA good supply of gymnastic apparatus was purchased and placed in\nthe wide hall for use in the evenings by the boys’ clubs, A number of\nmen interested and proficient in gymnasium work volunteered as\ninstructors, and, with the wildest enthusiasm on the part of the boys, the\n\nbuilding was open from seven until nine o’clock four evenings a week.\nIt soon became necessary to divide the boys into two sections, as the\nnumber of applicants for admission ranged towards eighty.\nSection A\nuses the gymnasium on Mondays and Thursdays, while Section B either\nlooks on or plays games in the kindergarten room.\nOn Tuesdays and\nFridays Section B changes places with Section A. At eight o’clock the\nbell rings, and games and apparatus are put away by the boys. The\nreading room and the more quiet games and the business meetings of the\nboys’ clubs take up the rest of the meeting.\nAn occasional entertainment for the boys is part of the plan, and they\nhave already had an interesting “chalk talk” given them by one of the\nneighbors.\nThe fifth and sixth grades, assisted by the music teacher,\ngave, on another occasion, a concert to their neighbors and friends.\n\nA plan is afoot for the forming of a military company, to be drilled\nby a “real soldier” from Fort Sheridan, and a professor of manual training in the Chicago schools has offered his services as soon as benches and\ntools can be purchased.\nThe whole movement is as yet in the experimental stage, but the\nresponses to the requests for money and helpers have been so prompt\nand generous, the enthusiasm for and interest in the work so general, and\nthe delight of the children so manifest, that the organizers are full of\nhope and courage.\nThe objects of the Wesley Avenue School Club are many.\nIt aims to\ngratify the boys’ natural desire for each other’s company, to furnish them\nwith opportunities for rational and healthful amusement, to guide and\ndirect the children’s reading, to influence character for good, to improve\nmanners and to encourage self-government, self-control, helpfulness, and\n‘unselfishness.\nAlready demands for larger scope in the work are making themselves\n\n"}
{"page": 622, "printed_page": null, "text": "612\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nfelt. The girls want a chance at the gymnasium, some of the pupils\nwant special drawing lessons, some mothers and housekeepers are talking\nof a Saturday cooking school in the basement, one teacher wonders why\nthere may not bea vacation school during the summer, other teachers\nare asking why all schools should not be social centers of some sort.\nThese, and many other things, are possibilities of the future, but it is\n\nthe policy of the council to feel its way slowly, to let the work grow, to\nwait for demand before offering supply, and to test the work at all points\nby the results on the behavior, minds, and characters of the children\nwhom it seeks to benefit.\nSince this account of our work was written the military company has\nbecome a reality, and a penny savings bank established.\nOur garden\nthis year is going to be as great a delight to neighbors and passers-by\nduring July and August as it will be to us when we come back in September, and as it was to the workers in it during April, May, and June.\nWe planted late on purpose, so that many flowers will be blooming in\nthe fall. We have large grounds, and there was much work to be done\nbefore this result could be obtained.\nOur boys did the cleaning-up with\nrakes, spades, and little wagons, and the building of a new division fence\nmade this work more arduous and necessary than usual.\nThe children\nbrought in wheelbarrows and wagons fresh black earth from the prairie\nfor the flower beds. The kindergarten children did most of the seed and\nroot planting, the girls most of the transplanting and setting-out of young\nplants, and all took a hand in the weeding.\nThe half hour before school\nhours and the half hour after provided the necessary time.\nThe janitor,\nwho,\n\nof course, mows\n\nthe\n\nlawns\n\nand\n\nwaters\n\nwith\n\nthe\n\nhose,\n\nwas\n\nalways\n\nready to lend a hand, and among us we did really a great deal of work\nwith a slight expenditure of time, muscle, and money, simply because we\nworked together for “our garden.”\nA few of our projects for the vacation days may interest some of you.\nSome of our teachers will be in Evanston during the summer, and to\nthem will be loaned at intervals certain horses, carriages, and coachmen,\n\nfor the purpose\n\nof giving an\n\nouting to hard-worked\n\nmothers,\n\nfretful\n\nbabies, and delicate children.\n\nThere will be sundry informal little picnics and lunches on the\nprairie (the ice cream is already promised), and some bathing parties on\nthe lakeshore, which some of the children rarely see, owing to its distance\nfrom their homes and lack of time to take them thither on the part of the\nmothers, and lack of inclination on the part of the fathers. One teamster\nand a grocer, who owns a large wagon, stand ready on demand to take\n‘“‘the teacher” whenever she wants to. go.\nThe odds and ends of kindergarten material left over after the cupboards were cleaned were given to kindergarten graduates of twelve and\n\n"}
{"page": 623, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\nWORK\n\nAND\n\nPRINCIPLES\n\n613\n\nthirteen years of age, and there will be, in consequence, many little play\nkindergartens under the trees this summer.\n\nSome of these, I understand,\n\nare to be free, others not.\nOne young woman says she means to charge\nthe parents ten cents a month.\nHalf a dozen big girls are going to form reading classes for the younger\n\nchildren in their half a dozen selected (not select) neighborhoods.\nfour\n\nor\n\nfive o’clock,\n\nwhen\n\nmost\n\nchildren\n\nare, or ought\n\nAbout\n\nto be, washed\n\nup for supper time, they are to go to the big girl to hear a story read.\nThe books will be furnished her by one of the teachers, and a philanthropist has been found who is going to pay the big girl a penny a week for\neach child she secures for her class up to ten.\nAfter she has ten pupils,\nthe candidate for admission or his parents will have to stand the expense.\nIt is hoped that in this way the love of “playing school” so common\namong children may be turned to account.\nThe big girls have been\nchosen from those who are natural teachers and fairly good readers.\nWhether this experiment will prove a success or not of course remains to\nbe seen.\nI only speak of it as one of the ways in which teachers, pupils,\nneighbors, and friends may work together for the time when every school\nshall be a social center, every home a social settlement, and every parent\n\nand teacher a settlement worker.\n\n"}
{"page": 624, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF ELEMENTARY\n\nEDUCATION.\n\nSECRETARY’S MINUTES.\nFIRST\n\nSESSION.—TuHurRsDAY, JULY 8, 1897.\n\nThe department was called to order in the Grand Avenue M. E. Church at 3 P.M. by\nthe President, Miss Sarah C. Brooks, St. Paul, Minn.\n\nIn opening the meeting, the President made a brief statement regarding the nature\nof the programme to be presented at both sessions of the department.\n\nThe first paper, on the subject “ What to Teach\nby Wm. M. Giffip, of the Chicago Normal School.\n\nand What to Leave Out,” was read\nDiscussion followed, led by Miss\n\nFlora J. Cook, of the Chicago Normal School.\n\nThe next paper was presented by Frank H. Hall, Superintendent of Schools, Waukegan, Ill., on\n\n“Imagination\n\nin Arithmetic.”\n\nDiscussion was\n\nled by Newell\n\nD. Gilbert,\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, Austin, Ill.\n\nThe Committee on Nominations was appointed as follows:\nW. W. Speer, Chicago, Ill.\nAdelbert Bugbee, Buffalo, N. Y.\nMiss Mary Hall, Milwaukee, Wis.\n\nSECOND\n\nSESSION.—FRripay,\n\nJULY 9.\n\nThe department was called to order by the President.\n“The New Arithmetic”? was the subject of a paper prepared by the late John H.\nTear, formerly Principal of the Washington School, Chicago, and presented and discussed\nby Henry C. Cox, Froebel School, Chicago.\nL. W. Colwell, Principal of the Linne School, Chicago, read a paper on “ Elementary\n\nMathematics and Education.”\n\nThe paper was discussed by W. H. Skinner, Superintend-\n\nent of Schools, Nebraska City, Neb.\n\nThe Committee on Nominations reported the following for officers for the ensuing year:\nFor Preszdent, William N. Hailmann, Washington, D. C.\nFor Vice-President, R. H. Halsey, Binghampton, N. Y.\nFor Secretary, Miss Harriet E, Smith, Milwaukee, Wis.\n\nThe report was accepted, and the officers declared duly elected.\nThe department then adjourned.\nIpa C. BENDER,\nSecretary.\n\n614\n\n"}
{"page": 625, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nOPENING\n\nPa bibko ND\n\nADDRESS\n\n615\n\nDISCUSSIONS.\n\nOPENING ADDRESS.\nBY\n\nSARAH\n\nC.\n\nBROOKS,\n\nST.\n\nPAUL,\n\nMINN.,\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nDEPARTMENT.\n\nEvery method employed in elementary instruction, to be accounted\npedagogically correct, must fulfill at least two conditions: First, it should\ncorrespond in its development to the mental development of children,\nthereby allowing a natural order, and thus arousing spontaneous activities\nand interests; second, its results in mental development should be commensurate with the time and effort expended by teacher and pupils.\nApplied to present generally prevailing methods of teaching number,\nthese tests prove beyond question their failure to meet the standard\nrequirements.\n\nIn fact, experts freely declare that, in some respects, these\n\nmethods have little to commend them over the old custom of leaving the\nmatter of number development to chance until the second or third year\nof school life, when the child was supposed to be able to master the contents of a text-book in elementary arithmetic.\nIt was from thorough conviction of the foolishness of this custom that teachers ten or fifteen years\nago accepted with enthusiasm a method which seemed correct in logical\ndevelopment, and at the same time afforded free use of concrete material\nin development of the number idea.\nOf late years, however, attention\nhas been turned from the sole consideration of matter to be presented toa\nstudy ofthe child. One conviction arising from this studyis that no method\ncan be effective which is not based upon the natural order of mental\ndevelopment.\nThe growth of the kindergarten has likewise contributed\nto a clearer insight of this as of other kindred matters.\nPassing from the\nprimary to more advanced grades, the introduction of additional subjectmatter into the course of study through the influence of recent pedagogical activity has created a general demand for a rearrangement of topics\nin arithmetic, in order that time may be saved and the best work be done\nby dispensing with all matter not essential to a perfect development of the\nsubject.\nFrom existing indications the times are ripe for a general readjustment of arithmetical method and subject-matter.\nIt is, therefore, safe for\nus to turn our faces toward the light and ask: ‘“‘ How much is correct in\nwhat is now being done?\nWhere is the existing evil? What shall be\nFrom two or\nadopted to fill the place of that which is to be omitted?”\nthree centers of interest, within a limited territory, a few students have\nIn view of the valuable services\nbeen selected to answer these questions.\n\n"}
{"page": 626, "printed_page": null, "text": "616\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nalready contributed by these diligent seekers after truth and their colaborers, the officers of the Elementary Section feel that no apology is needed\nfor the limited territory which they represent.\n\nWHAT\n\nTO\n\nBY\n\nWM.\n\nTEACH\n\nM.\n\nAND\n\nGIFFIN,\n\nWHAT\n\nCHICAGO\n\nTO\n\nLEAVE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL.\n\nOUT.\n\nI desire to preface much that I have to say by acknowledging my obligation to what is known as the arithmetic creed prepared by the superintendent of schools and the teachers in the suburban districts of Cook\ncounty.\n\nI shall not discuss the question in the order of the title, but trust that\nwhen I have finished reading you will have no doubt as to where I stand\non the question:\n‘‘ Nothing should be taught to a child, that is, no\noperation should be given him, that cannot be performed with numbers\nof things.”\nSome of you will recognize at once that this will necessitate\nhaving five rather than four fundamental operations, because, if we give\na child twelve objects, and ask him to find how many four objects there\nare in the twelve, he will at once\n\ndivide\n\nthe numbers into a number\n\nof\n\nequal numbers, and his answer or quotient will be equal to his dividend.\nIf next we give the child these twelve objects and ask him to find onefourth of them, in quite a different way, he proceeds\n\nto do so;\n\nhence\n\nit\n\nis certainly very confusing to him if we call this operation by the same\nname as the first one performed.\nIn this case (though he may not be\nable to say how)'he knows he divides the number into a number of equal\nparts in order to find the number in one part. He also knows that he\nbegins with an entirely different condition of things.\nHe will recognize\nthat in the first case the thing to be divided and the number of equal things\ninto which it is to be divided have the same name, and in the second case\n\nthey have not. How much more logical to teach the operation in division\nin such a way as to make it possible for him to do the same work when\nreaching fractions!\nHe is made to see that in division the dividend and\nthe divisor have the same name.\nWe ask him how many pounds of\nsugar can be bought with $2, at 5 cents per pound ; he at once changes\nhis $2 to 200 cents and says, “As many pounds as there are 5 cents in 200\ncents, or 40.” Again, if I have 2 pounds of tooth powder and desire to\nput it in 3-ounce bottles, how many bottles must I buy? He will know\nthat he must change his 2 pounds to 24 ounces (apothecaries’ weight),\nand then says, ‘“‘ As many bottles as there are 3 Ounces\n\n8.”\n\nin 24 ounces,\n\nor\n\nIf we ask him how many pounds of tea can be bought with $ ofa\n\n"}
{"page": 627, "printed_page": null, "text": "SO\ndeals\njad\n\nDepartment]\n\nWHAT\n\nTO\n\nTEACH\n\nAND\n\nWHAT\n\nTO LEAVE\n\nOUT\n\n617\n\ndollar at } of a dollar a pound, he will recognize at once that his dividend\nand divisor have not the same name as they should have.\nHe then proceeds to change them, and then says, “As many pounds as there are 2\ndollars in § dollars, or 3.”\nThe creed also holds that the subjects to be taught in arithmetic, the\nterms to be used, and the processes to be employed should be determined\nfrom the standpoint of the child, and not from the standpoint of the\neducated adult.\nThe trouble with the average teacher is that he does not\nget down to the child, and unless he does get right down on a level with\nhim, and presents conditions for the child to discover step by step what\nhe himself has discovered, until he reaches the height where the teacher\nnow stands, and, as he should, goes beyond that, he (the teacher) will be\n\na failure. Too many, instead of doing this, instead of getting right down\nto the child, stand on their pedestal and grasp the child almost literally by\nthe nape of his neck and pull him up to their own height, look him in the\nface, andsay: ‘Now, my boy, here is where you are to begin: remember\nthat the square of the hypotenuse of a right triangle is equal to the sum\nof the squares on the other two sides.\nLearn the rule, go to your seat,\nand work the sums.”\nIn determining what should be taught in arithmetic, we should be able\nto show that any topic is disciplinary or practical.\nAs to this word\npractical, anything is practical that is necessary to the child for the better\nunderstanding of what he is doing, and I have no hesitancy in saying that\nthat which is practical is also disciplinary.\n‘Too often teachers have an\nidea that the word practical has reference to a business transaction only,\nand for this reason teach any subject found in arithmetic that has to do\nwith business life. Take, for example, the subjects of foreign and\ndomestic exchange.\nNot long ago I was working in an institute held in\none of the largest cities of one of the largest states of the Union, and,\nwhen asked to name some things that I would not teach a child, I proceeded to name foreign and domestic exchange.\nThis, of course, as I\nexpected it would be, was the cause of an animated discussion. Fortunately\nfor me, perhaps, the bell for the noon recess sounded.\nThere was a\nyoung man seated in one of the front seats. I called him to me and\nasked him if he were acquainted in the city. Hewas.\nI invited him to\nWhen we were out on the street I asked him which\ntake a walk with me.\nI asked\nHe said, “The First National.”\nwas the largest bank in town.\nand\nwas;\nhe\nHe said\nhim if he were acquainted with any officers there.\ntold\nI\nthen, going to the bank, he introduced me to the cashier, whom\nwhat I was doing, and asked if I might put a few questions to him\nthat I thought might be of interest to the teachers of the state or county.\nHe, like all other men in his position, was very glad to give me any\nI then asked him if he studied foreign and\ninformation that he could.\n\n"}
{"page": 628, "printed_page": null, "text": "618\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nHe smiled and said that he\ndomestic exchange when a boy at school.\nlearned there in his present\nas\nrules\nthe\ndid. I asked him if he applied\nposition,\n\nand, to this, with\n\nan\n\nsmile,” he said:\n\n“ audible\n\n“I have\n\nbeen\n\ncashier in this bank for ten years, and have never yet had occasion to use\nforeign exchange.”\nThink then, fellow-teachers, of the thousands of\ntwelve-year-old boys who are kept in after school, when the skating: is\ngood, or when baseball is at its height, because this great financial question has not ‘been mastered\n—a question which this cashier, in one of the\nlargest banks in one of the largest cities in one of the largest states in\nthis country had never had occasion to use!\nIf a boy is preparing for a business life and feels that it is necessary\nfor him to have a knowledge of stocks, bonds, and foreign exchange,\nthere are special schools that will prepare him in these lines.\nLet the\npublic schools so train, not stuff, the mind that it will ever be able to\ntake up any of the affairs of life, when called upon to do so.\nIn short,\nprepare the mind to be able to draw an inference rather than to be able\nto recall a rule. Teach no part of arithmetic mechanically.\nHence,\nteach no subject till the child is ready to grasp it.\nThe creed condemns the giving of work in arithmetic under the name\nof ‘‘examples”’ for which conditions stated in problems-cannot be made;\nfor instance, complicated examples in complex and compound fractions.\nThe creed states that operations in arithmetic which have become\nobsolete, or have\n\nnever\n\nexisted\n\nelsewhere\n\nin the world,\n\nshould\n\nbecome\n\nobsolete in the schoolroom.\nThis will throw out such subjects as greatest\ncommon divisor, cancellation (as such), circulating decimals, compound\ndenominate numbers.\nHow inspiring, by the way, for a child to find out\nthat there are 384,756,567,897 inches in a given number of miles, furlongs,\nrods, yards, and feet!\n\nThe time wasted on such nonsense\n\nis sufficient\n\nto\n\ngive all the arithmetic necessary to a grammar-school boy; and yet thousands of them leave school with scarcely any knowledge of arithmetic,\nother than the fundamental operations and a limited amount of mensuration, the most beautiful part of arithmetic, usually found in the appendix of the text-books and devoted to the last weeks of the last grade of\nthe school.\nWe would throw out miscellaneous measures ; reduction of\ndenominate numbers, ascending and descending; reduction of denominate\n\nfractions,\n\ncompound\n\nditto;\n\nduodecimals\n\n(do oh let us\n\ninterest; partial payments;\n\nVermont\n\nleave them\n\nalone!);\n\nrule, unless we live in\n\nVermont ; stocks ; life insurance ; equation of payments ; averaging of\naccounts ; arbitration of exchange; alligation, alas robbing, cheating,\n\nand defrauding your neighbor; annuities ; all of which have been taken\nfrom the table of contents of an arithmetic used in many of the large\ncities of our country.\ni\nIn all the grades the comparison of numbers should be a feature of\n\n"}
{"page": 629, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nWHAT\n\nTO\n\nTEACH\n\nAND\n\nWHAT\n\nTO LEAVE\n\nOUT\n\n619\n\nthe work —the part one number is or equals of another; the per cent.\none number is or equals of another ; the ratio of one number to another.\nBoth the teacher and the pupil are thus made to see the truth from all\n_ Sides, to turn it-over, to reproduce it in more than one shape, and to see\nit in more than one aspect.\nIn each subject— 7. ¢., lines, area, volume, bulk, weight, time, and values\n\n— lead the pupils to discover that they are repeating given units — in lines,\na linear unit ; in area, a square unit ; in volume, a cubic unit, etc.\nIn percentage discard all superfluous terms, rules, formulas, and sub-\n\ndivisions ; present conditions making it possible for the pupils to discover\nthe relations of the part of a number to its per cent.\nThe first lessons in\neach subject must be oral and from the standpoint of the child.\nUse the different modes of expression whenever it is possible to do\nso. The using of one will frequently suggest the using of another.\nThe teacher should keep in mind the fact that “number is an exact\nmode of limiting single things, lines, areas, volume, bulk, force, weight,\ntime, and commercial values by units or exact standards,” and should pre-\n\nsent conditions\nment\n\nin these\n\nmaking\n\nit necessary for the child to exercise his judg-\n\ndirections.\n\nWhen dealing with an object, the child’s est/mate of its length, area,\nvolume, bulk, etc., should first be obtained, after which the exact meas-\n\nurement may be given.\n‘The value of such exercises cannot be too much\nemphasized.\nA number should be so presented, that is, when applying it, the\nteacher\n\nshould\n\nso use\n\nit to enhance the work\n\nin hand, that a child will\n\nnecessarily see it (@) divided into a number of equal numbers (division) ;\n(2) into a number of equal parts, to find the number in one part (partition);\n(c) into any two numbers, one of which is to be known (subtraction) ; (d)\nalso to see any number of numbers that united will equal it (addition) ;\n(e) the equal numbers that united will equal it (multiplication).\nHave it\ncompared with any number greater or less than itself. ‘The more the\nmind is exercised in numbering, the less drill is necessary.”\nThe metric system of weights and measures should be taught with the\nold method as often as possible in the grades, but independently, z. ¢.,\nthe meter as a meter and yard as a yard, each as a unit by itself.\nToo little attention is paid to the study of form. The idea of the\nsphere, the cylinder, the cube, and the different kinds of angles may be\ntaught through the study of the trees and the different kinds of seeds,\nwhich the children have collected, in such a way as to enlarge the image\nThere is no better time in the year for\nwhich the pupils already have.\nthe children to observe the different trees which they have been studying\nthan the winter months, for answers to the following questions: The\ntrunks of which trees form the most acute angles with their branches?\nrt\n<<\n\n"}
{"page": 630, "printed_page": null, "text": "[Elementary\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n620\n\nWhich form the largest acute angles ? Which most nearly form right\nAre there any that may be said to form obtuse angles P\nangles?\nEmbrace the opportunities that are constantly presenting themselves\nWhen any opporwhich make the child feel the necessity for number.\nchild, stop right\nthe\nto\ntunities occur that require a process unknown\nas to fix it\nthoroughly\nso\nthen and there to teach the process, and do it\nrequire the\nwill\nthat\narise\nFor example, some question may\nfor all time.\nnot know\ndoes\nchild\nA\nfinding of the difference between 248 and 19934.\nthen\nteacher\nNothing remains for the\nto proceed to get this difference.\ndisto\nchild\nbut to present conditions that will make it possible for the\ncover how to proceed.\nNo matter what the subject may have been, it is\nto\n\ngive\n\nplace\n\nto the\n\nnumber,\n\nuntil the process\n\nhas\n\nbeen\n\nthoroughly\n\nmastered.\n\nDISCUSSION.\nFLoRA J. CooKE, Chicago Normal School.—My discussion must necessarily be confined to the place of number in the primary work.\nI shall take the positive side. Dr.\nGiffin says: “No operation in number should be given to children which cannot be performed with a number of things.’\nHe hints what those things should be, but he does not\nsay directly that number should be used only when its purpose is to make some educative\nimage clearer.\nin\nThe children are constantly imaging, comparing, and analyzing; number element\ncomes consciously or unconsciously into all their work. For instance, in the science\nwork they measure, weigh, and compare the quantities which they use in their experiments.\nThey construct charts, estimate amounts, and keep daily records concerning the\nsunshine, temperature, wind, and rain. In the making of apparatus, useful articles for\nhome and school, the Christmas\n\nwork\n\nand valentines, the models\n\nof primitive\n\nshelters,\n\ntools, etc., the children acquire through actual use standards of judgment, units of measurement, as the foot, pound,\n\nsquare\n\ninch, etc., in lines, weight,\n\narea, volume, and\n\ntime.\n\nThe children’s own needs, and with the desire to secure systematically their best\nefforts, continually present difficulties in the form of new processes and facts which must\nbe overcome before the desired images can be made\n\nclear.\n\nThis, it seems\n\nto me, is the\n\ntrue place for drill, as much or as little as the children may demand to help them to\novercome the obstacles.\nInterest in the work and the feeling of necessity to attain the end desired secure\neconomy of effort and the least possible amount of drill. The skill and power gained in\nmaking one article are usually directly applied in making another and more difficult\npiece of work.\nEach child plans his work for himself, after which the children select from all the\nplans the best and most convenient one for a guide in actual making.\nIf the necessity\nfor the article is felt sufficiently to secure good effort, the criticism upon the work should\nbe entirely as to its fitness for the purpose for which it is intended, and the child himself\nsees the necessity for most careful and accurate work.\nThus, during the first year, a class may easily practically master the facts within the\nnumber twelve, including the whole\n\ntiplication, and division.\n\nnumbers and fractions in addition, subtraction, mul-\n\nThey are, however, in no sense limited by the number twelve.\n\n"}
{"page": 631, "printed_page": null, "text": ". Department]\n\nIMAGINATION IN ARITHMETIC\n\n621\n\nThe end to be acquired, an end for which the children feel an immediate necessity, alone\n\nand\n\nfacts shall be taught, and\n\nhow large the numbers\n\nused\n\nThe test of the value of such an outline of work as Dr. Giffin has suggested\n\ncan\n\ndetermines\nshall be.\n\nwhat\n\nprocess\n\nscarcely be estimated in per cents.\nIt is the hypothesis of the school that arithmetic is measuring; that measuring is\nabsolutely essential to all mental processes; in other words, that there can be no real\neducative progress without the use of arithmetic; that such problems arise constantly in\nscience, history, geography, and manual training; that, if the pupils have plenty of work\nin these subjects adapted to their needs, they will acquire the essential facts in number,\nand know how to add, subtract, multiply, and divide.\n\nIn my experience as a teacher in first grade I can say that I think the opportunities\nare sufficient to master all the elements in number.\n\nIMAGINATION\nBY\n\nFRANK\n\nH. HALL,\n\nIN\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nARITHMETIC.\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nWAUKEGAN,\n\nILL,\n\n*“‘Sense-perceptions are the elements of soul life.” They are the\nbeginnings of soul activity. They give primal ideas.\nThe reproduction of primal ideas, in the absence of sense-objects, is\nimaging.\nImaging gives representative ideas, or images.\nThe separating, rearranging, recombining; magnifying, or diminishing of images is zmage-ination\n— imagination.\nImaging (as the word is used in this paper) is producing in consciousness copies of absent objects.\nImagination is. such building with, or\nrearranging of, these copies as shall give that which is new, at least to\nthe mind in which they exist.\nImaging is seeing with the mind’s eye that which has once been an\nobject of sense-perception.\nImagination is seeing with the mind’s eye\nthat which has never been, often\n\nthat which\n\ncan\n\nnever\n\nbe, an\n\nobject of\n\nsense-perception.\n“Tt may seem at first thought,” says D. J. Hill, “that no department\nof knowledge is less indebted to imagination, or less connected with its\nexercise, than\n\nmathematics.\n\nReflection, however, shows\n\nthat it is quite\n\notherwise.’’ Arithmetic deals with the relations of magnitudes. Number\nitself is, primarily, ratio; and every ratio involves two measured magnitudes. The number of magnitudes that can be compared is infinite ; the\nnumber that can be compared by means of actual immediate sense-perception must, of necessity, be limited to such as can be presented to the\nsenses in pairs. Since this can be accomplished with but few magnitudes, by far the larger part of arithmetical work must be performed in\nMoreover, of the\nthe absence of the sense-magnitudes to be considered.\nmany ideal magnitudes considered by the student of mathematics few are\n\n"}
{"page": 632, "printed_page": null, "text": "622\n\nimages;\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nthe many are, and must\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nforever continue to be, the products of\n\nHence imaginawhat Dr. Dewey has called the mechanical imagination.\ntive activity is a séwe gua non to progress beyond the simplest beginnings\nof arithmetical effort.\nThere was a time within the memory of many of us when “object\nteaching,” especially with reference to number, was carried to a very\nharmful extreme.\nThis practice grew out of a very commendable desire\non the part of certain leaders of educational thought to impress upon\nthe teachers the fact that all knowledge has its beginning in sense-perception, and the omission by these leaders to impress the equally important fact that it does not end there.\nIt is hardly an exaggeration to say\nthat, in those days of color lessons, form lessons, and toothpicks, teachers\n\nmight have been found who fully believed that the first two years of child\nlife in school were for the development of sense-perception, the second\ntwo years for the development of the power of representation, and the\nthird two for the development of the elaborative faculty.\nIn those early\ndays pupils might have been found in the fourth, and even in the fifth,\ngrade who were engaged in obtaining a perception of the fact that six\nsevens are forty-two, by making six seven-mark groups and counting the\nmarks!\nIt was said that in one of those schools the first-grade pupils found\nthe half of three by an actual division of toothpicks ; the second-year\npupils found the half of five in the same manner; the third-year pupils,\nthe half of seven, and the fourth-year pupils, the half of nine.\nWhether\nthis process of developing the perceptive power of the pupil was continued into the eighth grade “deponent saith not:”\nIfso, the eighth-grade\npupils were undoubtedly led to perceive that the half of seventeen is\neight and one-half.\nBut, leaving school at the close of the eighth-grade\nwork, when and how shall the pupil learn that the half of nineteen is nine\nand one-half?\nHow far, pray, in his mental peregrinations must he go\non toothpick crutches? How long must he be tied down to the things of\nsense and to actual material measurements ?\nIt is customary in all good schools to acquaint the pupil with one\nkind of volumetric knowledge by means of a pint measure, a quart measure, and dry sand.\nBut the leading of the pupil to perceive the fundamental facts of this kind of volume measurement is only the merest beginning of what is required. If he shall become skillful, and thoughtful, and\nactive in this kind of effort, he must be led to image the pint and the\nquart. This kind of training should be begun as soon as he clearly sees\nthe relation between any two units of measurement, and will occupy tenfold more time\n—possibly a hundred fold more—than will the mere perception of the relation of the two magnitudes.\nPractically the first great\nstruggle comes, in elementary instruction in arithmetic, not so much in\n\n"}
{"page": 633, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nIMAGINATION\n\nIN ARITHMETIC\n\n623\n\nseeing relations, important as that may be, but in imaging magnitudes.\nThere is not a second-grade pupil in the schools of Wisconsin who, with\nthe diagrams before him, will say that a one-inch square is one-half of a\ntwo-inch square.\nWhy do eighth-grade pupils in Illinois, working without diagrams, sometimes say this?\nNot because they are unable to see\nthe relation, but because they cannot— do not —image-the magnitudes.\nThe relation is easy of apprehension.\nThe mental production of the\nmagnitudes to be compared is the difficult thing.\nA comparison of two objects of sense, as a one-inch cube and a twoinch cube, is a necessgry first step; the drawing of these and the comparing of the magnitudes of which the drawings are symbols are excellent, but only as preparation for the second step, which is equally important and vastly more difficult, namely, such clear imaging of these objects\nof sense as will make the objects themselves and the drawings, too,\nentirely unnecessary in the thought process. In many instances the chief\ncause of unsatisfactory results in mathematical training is failure to recognize the importance of this second step. Before much real progress can\nbe made, the spoken or the written word must bring instantly into the consciousness of the pupil the image of the magnitude for which the word\n‘stands.\nThe pupil must begin to acquire this image-making power as\nsoon as he begins to think about magnitudes.\nTraining in this important work must be given through the frequent use of the verbal symbol\nboth by the teacher and by the pupil, while the magnitude itself is not\nan object of sense-perception.\nThe skillful teacher in elementary arithmetic will anxiously observe\nthe words and actions of his pupils for evidence of the image-making\npower.\nThe question, “A one-half inch square is contained how many\ntimes in a one-inch square ?”’ will be stated at first with long, long pause\nafter the words ‘one-half inch square.” ‘This, that there may be suffcient time for the pupil to do the necessary imaging.\nSuch questions\nmay sometimes be repeated many times with emphasis upon the verbal\nsymbols of the magnitude to be compared, without violation of the rules\nof sound pedagogic practice.\nThe child must learn to image magnitude,\nTo do this he must image magnitude.\nEach pupil must do this. The\nteacher must give attention to individual pupils, and must wait and watch\nfor signs of this power.\nThe teacher must not suffer himself to be\nPupils frequently offer the results of pure word memory when\ndeceived.\nasked to give the relation of imaged magnitudes.\nThis false witness must\nbe ruled out of court.\n‘The evidence must be sifted. The teacher must\nnot rest until there is unquestioned testimony to the power of each child\nThe teacher\nto image magnitudes which are not present to the senses.\nmust give this phase of the training early, frequent, and constant attention. More by far of the failure in the teaching of mathematics is\n\n"}
{"page": 634, "printed_page": null, "text": "624\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nattributable to neglect in training the image-making power than to the\nThe comparison of\nneglect of the presentation of sense-magnitudes.\nWithout it there can be no\nsense-magnitudes is essential, indispensable.\nbeginning.\nBut the power to compare image-magnitudes is equally\nessential, much more difficult of attainment, and\n\nwithout\n\nit there can be\n\nno progress.\nBy much exercise in imaging magnitude and the accompanying dissociation and attention to the imagé itself the ideal magnitude is, at\nlength, freed from its reference to the sense-magnitude for which it\nstands, and is “treated freely (I quote from Dr. Dewey), that is, as an\nimage, not as tied down to some thing.” Recombination of these ideal\nelements now becomes possible, and the pupil is able to exercise his\nmechanical imagination. Out of ideal magnitudes that have come to him,\nfirst as images of real magnitudes, he is now prepared to construct, through\nhis power of imagination, magnitudes that have never been the objects of\nsense-perception.\nNow the field of operation is greatly extended.\n“Through the life of the senses he is coming up out of the life of the\nsenses.’\nHe is leaving behind toothpicks and clay, and crayon-made\nsquares, and cubes, and parallelopipedons of wood, and is using ‘‘ mental\nmaterial,” if I may use the expression, in the construction of new mental\n\nproducts.\nHis ‘“‘material” is more plastic than clay; he cuts it without\nsaw or knife; he compares magnitudes whose proportions are perfectly.\naccurate ; he quickly constructs any form he desires; he multiplies it until\nit reaches beyond the farthest limit of sense-perception; he divides it\nuntil he deals with infinitesimals ; and all the while he is discovering that\nthe real thing is relation.\nBut in the study of numerical relation one deals principally with\nimaginative magnitudes.\nIt has before been stated that the number idea\ncomes out of a comparison of sense-magnitudes ; but that very few magnitudes can be compared by the direct action of sense-perception.\nLet\nit now be observed that comparatively few magnitudes are compared\nthrough imaging.\nI have never seen an actual measure 18 inches in\ndiameter and 8 inches deep. I have an ideal measure of the dimensions\nnamed, which I have learned\n\nto call a bushel.\n\nMy ideal measure, unlike\n\nany real one that you may have seen, has its proportions perfect. Its\ndiameter is exactly 214 times its depth, and its periphery is a perfect circumference.\nThis volume I have learned to compare with a 1-foot cube\nwhich, if my memory serves me, I have never seen.\nI compare the 1-foot\ncube with a 31%4-gallon barrel, and neither of these magnitudes has ever\nbeen to me an object of sense-perception.\nI compare the gallon which\nI have seen with the 1-foot cube which I have not seen. For the purposes\nof exact comparison, my ideal measures are infinitely superior to the best\n3-X, brass-bound measures that the shops provide.\n\n"}
{"page": 635, "printed_page": null, "text": "‘aDe\netonban\n\nDepartment]\n\nIt is perhaps\n\nIMAGINATION\n\npossible\n\nIN ARITHMETIC\n\nto compare, by imaging, a 2-foot\n\n625\n\nsquare with a\n\n5-foot square; but is it practicable in a similar manner to compare a\n2-acre field with one that is 4o rods square?\nThesimple truth is that the\nprincipal part of the work of comparing magnitudes in the first years of\nformal arithmetical study, as well as in the high school and college, has\nto do with ideal unities.\nFew, very few, of these unities come to the\nmind of the pupil by imaging things which have at any time been objects\nof sense-perception.\nBy far the greater number of unities compared are\nsimply ideal creations of the mechanical imagination.\nTo employ the pupil for a long time exclusively in the comparison of\nsense-magnitudes or of the images of sense-magnitudes, when the principal part of his work as a student and asa practical mathematician must\nbe in the comparison-of imaginative magnitudes, is, to say the least, misdirected effort.\nComparison of sense-magnitudes there must be. Comparison of images of sense-magnitudes must quickly follow, and should\nreceive vigorous attention. Comparison of imaginative magnitudes should\nnot be long delayed.\nThe mere observation and comparison of objects of sense will not\ngive skill in building with images.\nIt will only furnish the ‘“ material.”\nSimply increasing the amount of “ material” will not give skill in building. Multiplying the variety of objects of sense is not so important asa\npreparation for higher mathematical work as is the imaging of those easily\nprovided and the construction of imaginative variety. Quick imaging,\neasy rearrangement of images—this gives power; this is power.\nNot long ago the following problem was given to classes in the fourth,\nfifth, and sixth grades, and to the seniors in a high school:\nImagine a 3-inch cube of wood.\nPaint allits faces. Allow the paint\nto dry. With a fine saw cut the cube into 1-inch cubes.\nt. Upon how many of the 1-inch cubes is there paint?\n2. How many of the small cubes have paint upon one face only?\n3. How many have paint upon two faces only?\n4. How many have paint upon three faces?\n5. How many have paint upon four faces?\nNo actual cube was presented to the pupils and no drawing permitted.\nThere were found in every class pupils who could answer these\nquestions easily and quickly. There were others who could answer them,\nbut with much apparent effort. There were yet others who could not, in\nreasonable time, answer them at all.\n\nAfter question No. 1 had been answered and effort had been made by\nthe teacher, working without cube or crayon, to make the correctness of\nthe answer apparent to every member of the class, time was noted on\nquestion No. 2. In Grade 6 one pupil was ready with a correct answer in\nless than 30 seconds; five pupils in less than 1 minute; in 3 minutes,\n\n"}
{"page": 636, "printed_page": null, "text": "626\n\nthree.\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nOthers came forward with correct answers as follows : 3%, 3%4,4%,\n\nAt the end of the 15-minute period\n534, 5%, Io, 10, 12, 15 minutes.\nthe exercise was closed ; sixteen only out of twenty-two sixth-grade pupils\nhaving given correct answers.\nIn the senior class there were twenty-eight pupils, three of whom gave\ncorrect answers without delay—perhaps in ro seconds; the twentyseventh pupil gave a correct answer at the close of a 10-minute period,\nwhile the twenty-eighth declared herself utterly unable to see the cube\nand its parts.\nPupils were allowed as many trials as they chose to make within the\nallotted time, some evidently making several guesses before they sat down\ndetermined to make the necessary imaginative effort.\nA pupil in the\nfifth grade gave the correct answer in 40 seconds; another presented ten\ndifferent\n\nanswers\n\nin as many minutes,\n\nthe\n\nlast correct;\n\nwhile a little\n\ngirl eleven years of age sat almost immovable for 12% minutes and then\npresented the correct answer, and proved by further statements that her\nimaginative magnitudes were in exact accord with the conditions of the\nproblem.\nOmitting a few pupils, mainly in the senior class, whose fear that they\nwould not be able to do the work required evidently impaired for the time\ntheir imaginative power, it is safe to say that the results of this experiment are a fair index of the mathematical ability of the pupils tested.\nThose who can answer such a question accurately in 10 seconds, 20 seconds, or even in r minute, have a good degree of mathematical power.\nPower to do what? Power to see relation of magnitudes because they can\nsee the magnitudes. Neither are their images “tied down to some thing.”\nThey come quickly into consciousness; are “treated freely;” can be\neasily painted, divided, examined, counted, compared.\n\nThe pupils who are unable to answer such questions are the pupils\nwho attempt to find relations of magnitudes while they are in possession\nof nothing but the symbols of magnitudes.\nTheir images are images of\nsymbols.\nWhat shall be done for pupils who seem to be thus wanting in mathematical ability? Show them acube?\nYes, if they have never seen one.\nShow them paint? Yes, if they have never seen paint. But suppose they\nhave seen these ? Suppose they recognize a cube without the slightest\ndifficulty\n— know that it has six square faces, eight corners, and twelve\nedges?\nGive them further exercise in the comparison of sense-magnitudes?\nYes, if they do not know, when they see the sense-magnitudes,\nthat a two-inch line is two times as long as a one-inch line; that a twoinch square is four times as large as a one-inch square; that a two-inch\ncube is eight times as large as a one-inch cube.\nBut suppose they are\nable to apprehend these relations when the sense-magnitudes are pre-\n\n"}
{"page": 637, "printed_page": null, "text": "Meee\n(ian\n\nDepartment]\n\nIMAGINATION\n\nIN ARITHMETIC\n\n627\n\nsented to them, and are yet wanting in mathematical ability, what\nthen?\n‘Train them first to image magnitudes; then to deal with imagi|\nnative magnitudes.\nBut how shall they learn to image magnitudes?\nBy imaging magnitudes.\nThere is no other way.\nHow learn to deal with imaginative\nmagnitudes ? By building with images 0 magnitudes.\nTheir condition\nis not so much owing to natural inapitude as it is to the habitual requirement by the teacher that they shall attempt to give relation when the\nterms of the comparison are not present in consciousness.\nFrom the very nature of the case the terms of comparison in arithmetical problems must be, for the most part, imaginative.\nThe imperative need, therefore, in arithmetical\n\ntraining\n\nis, I repeat, not\n\nso\n\nmuch\n\nmere sense-perception ; neither is it mere accurate judgment of the rela-\n\ntion of sense-magnitudes.\n\nIt is more\n\nexercise (1) in imaging magni-\n\ntudes, and (2) in the creation of imaginative magnitudes.\nBlind children excel in mathematics.\nI do not mean that the work of\nall blind\n\npupils is marvelous, or even excellent ; but, as a rule, they do\n\nwell in this branch of study, while many excel.\nThey excel because in\nthe very beginning of their work in mathematics their blindness forces\nthem to do exactly what every teacher should require of every pupil in\nthis branch of study, vzz., to image magnitude and to build with images.\nThe blind child does not have one-half the opportunity for the comparison of sense-magnitudes that the child with sight has; but his condition\nleads him into a constant use of images.\nThis for him is the “line of\nleast resistance.”\nHe can make a diagram ‘in his head’’—in consciousness— much more quickly and accurately than he can make one with pins\nand staples on a cushion.\nMoreover, he can easily find and give attention to any part of his mental diagram, much more quickly than he can\ndo this with a sense diagram.\n‘The sense-magnitudes with which he is\nfamiliar are few and of small variety, but they are sufficient to enable\nhim to construct in imagination every magnitude necessary to a high\ndegree of efficiency in the study of arithmetic, algebra, and geometry.\nThe lesson that comes out of all this is that the normal pupil suffers\nnot so much from lack of sufficient contemplation of the relation of sensemagnitudes as he does for want of more attention to the accurate imaging\nof magnitudes, and the exercise of his power of mechanical imagination\nin the creation of imaginative magnitudes.\nThe teachers in the schools for the blind may profitably increase, in\nevery possible manner, the amount of sense-perception of their pupils.\nThe teachers in the schools for the seeing may, with equal profit, give\nmore attention to the power of their pupils to deal with images and\nimaginative magnitudes.\nIn conclusion: The difficulty with the ordinary pupil, then, is not so\n\n"}
{"page": 638, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n628\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nmuch inability to see relation as it is lack of skill in creating the magniThe mistake in the arithtudes whose relations are to be considered.\nconstant demand that the\nthe\nis\ntoday\nof\nschools\nthe\nof\nmetic classes\nwhen he has in\nmagnitudes\nof\nrelations\nthe\nexpress\nand\nsee\nchild shall\nto express relaexpected\nis\nHe\nmagnitude.\nof\nsymbols\nbut\nnothing\nmind\ntion when\n\nhe does not see relation, and to see relation when he does not\n\nThe remedy lies, not so much in sensesee the magnitudes related.\nno place in consciousness—but in the\nfind\ncan\n—these\nmagnitudes\ncultivation of the power to image sense-magnitudes and to create imaginative magnitudes.\n\nDISCUSSION.\nNEWELL D. GILBERT, Superintendent of Schools, Austin, ll.—Doubtless no phase\nof mental activity receives less adequate consideration, or is less used from definite purpose and plan, than the imagination— this “power of mental realization.”\nThe word\nimagination we tend at once to refer to fancy or to the realm of artistic or poetic creation.\nAnd definite imaging as a condition precedent and as an active, present element of all\nthinking receives little thought, and less intelligent, persistent effort to train. Madzts of\nthe imagination, as something to be formed in the process. of education, come\n\nto us as\n\nsomething vague and far away—jimpracticable.\nBut it is nevertheless the “sole mental\npower to depend on in the process of teaching.”\nIt is the activity by which the mind\naccomplishes its own “emancipation” from the limitations of sense-perception and makes\nits “ascent into formative power,” by which the mind makes its transition from particular to general; by which the ideal, the universal, is “dissolved out of its concretion by\nparticular facts, and is set forth independent.”\nThe\n\ncomment,\n\nthen, is not even\n\nmomentary\n\nsurprise that mathematics\n\nis deeply\n\nindebted to imagination in its processes, but that the necessity of this activity to any\nscheme of training in any subject has been so far ignored.\nFurthermore, there will be at no time any question that the child’s imagination is\nactive, for this is the form the child’s self-activity takes.\nThe only question is, how it\nworks, with what, and how we may control and direct it for his instruction and discipline.\n\nAnd the test of results will be a habit of spontaneous activity along the line of the instruction given.\nI wholly agree with Mr. Hall as to the weakness in our teaching of arithmetic and the\nfundamental cause of such weakness,\nHow to deal with the pupils in order to prevent this\ndefect depends on the material needful rightly to occupy this activity and the conditions\nof its controlled working.\nThe very term zmage confesses the mind’s indebtedness to sense-perception, and\nadmits that, whatever its holding of imagery, all is garnered from the outer world. The\nchild’s first images — how slowly they form!\nHow many and manifold the contacts with\nthe original before its “counterfeit presentiment” develops!\nBut this period shortens as\nimages increase.\nThe first step, then, in dealing with the imagination in arithmetic, is to supply the\nmaterial out of which arithmetical conceptions may be formed, and, beyond this, to give the\n\nchild in his dealing with this material the arithmetical trend.\n‘Arithmetic deals with the\nrelations of magnitudes.”\nA right furnishing of the mind for arithmetical work requires\nmanifold knowledge of many magnitudes gathered from dealing with them in multiform\n\nne,\na\na)\n\n"}
{"page": 639, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nIMAGINATION\n\nIN ARITHMETIC\n\n629\n\nrelations.\nThe error of neglecting the imaginative activity is great, indeed ; but not greater\nthan the correlative error of too scant provision of right material—a store of imagery\nwrought out from and\nperceptions.\nBut for this\n\nthrough\n\nan\n\nincreasing\n\nI deem observation lessons and\n\nand\n\ngreatly varied succession\n\nillustrative\n\nmaterial\n\nof sense-\n\ninsufficient,\n\nand to\n\na large extent ill-adapted and wrong.\nAs collateral aids the former are good, but are too\ncursory, the results too transitory to suffice. The latter implies a considerable store of\nimages, already gathered, related to the illustration, which the illustration serves to gather\nand hold for comparison until the general idea issues and sets itself free, and to furnish,\ntoo, elements with which this idea in the strength of its nascent activity may combine.\n\nBoth are deficient, in that they too little call forth that which is the very life of imagery—\nspontaneous self-activity.\n“An image requires a motor discharge or outlet.”\nHere is the indication, which we\ncannot safely ignore, of a fundamental need that physical and mental activities be kept in\nclose relationship.\nMr. Hall would not, I am sure, have us limit imaging to visualization.\nFor images\nare formed by each sense ; and the motor images are, perhaps, most important of all for\npurposes under consideration here.\n\nFor visual images, because of their vividness, color,\n\nand emotional qualities, rather resist the setting-free of the ideal and universal; while\nmotor images are comparatively unemotional, and adapted to abstraction.\n\nBut this physical\nsome\n\nactivity must have\n\na bearing which the child can see, leading to\n\nend in which he has an interest, which to him is worth while;\n\nit must be the means\n\nto Azs end.\nIt belongs to the teacher to effect that her end shall become his end; so\n~ that what is explicitly set forth by the teacher in her aim shall be implicitly known and\nused by the child in his effort.\nThat is, the physical activity is to be constructive — measurement is of its essence.\nOnce\n\nmore, arithmetic\n\ndeals with number;\n\nnumber is ratio; ratio is the expression\n\nof measurement, the result of comparison of magnitudes; but these not necessarily themselves measured magnitudes, at least not at first. Thus arithmetic leads us directly to the\npoint where psychology brought us.\nTo my mind, then, the requisite training for strong, independent, ready, imaginative\nthinking in arithmetic implies: at the foundation, constructive work in line of the interest of the child ; such interest\n\nto be found, for instance, in the literature or the nature\n\nwork, regularly assigned; something desirable to the child to be done, with counting,\nmeasuring, computing —all in due order and proportion, lying between him and the\ndetermined end.\nAt first, material more than he needs should be at his command, and he\ncount up what he has used ; later, the thing to be done having been conceived, he should\ncompute the amount he needs and make his requisition accordingly\n—himself or a class-\n\nmate measuring it out. Meanwhile out of doors things he loves are forever challenging\nhim with the questions, how many? how much? how high? how long? how broad ?\nhow far? how heavy? For the first two years of school life this should be the characteristic work—a continual reference to sense material, and yet a continual breakingloose from it as the child is able. Thus we begin to grow a habit of looking for an end\nand viewing the magnitudes and their relations as the means to the end, drawing freely\nupon memory and knowing for elements they hold in readiness.\nThis brings the\nchild into the succeeding years with a good store of images, a varied knowledge of relations, and a right trend. Hence we shall be able to make the demand upon him which\nMr. Hall advocates ; but nevertheless must we still on frequent occasions resort to construction.\nIndeed, my observation leads me to fear, even in the upper grades, too little,\nrather than too much, use of this kind of work.\nThe normal child — not for\n“How long must the boy go on toothpick crutches?”\n\n"}
{"page": 640, "printed_page": null, "text": "630\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\na day, if we can and will ourselves learn how to give him the free play of his powers\nalong lines plainly indicated, and cease such warping of him to our misconceptions as\nrenders him impotent in his mathematical legs.\n\nTHE\n\nBY JOHN\n[READ\n\nNEW\n\nARITHMETIC.\n\nH. TEAR, CHICAGO, ILL.\n\nBY HENRY\n\nC. COX, CHICAGO,\n\nILL.]*\n\nThere has recently appeared, as you all know, a new and beautiful\nbook which is likely to revolutionize the teaching of arithmetic in this\ncountry.\nI have been asked to discuss this new doctrine.\nWere I able to\ndo any sort of justice to the topic, as ] am not, no task could be more\nacceptable to me; for, in the first place, it gives me an, opportunity\npublicly to express my great personal obligation, as well as that of my\nschool, not to the book itself, but to its author.\n\nFor, like many of you,\n\nit was my good fortune to fall under the influence of the ideas embodied\nin this book, before they appeared in printed form.\nIn the second place, any opportunity to speak in behalf of a book\nwhich marks a distinct advance in the process of rational instruction is\nnot by any means to be despised.\n‘The New Arithmetic” recently issued\nby Assistant Superintendent William W. Speer marks an epoch in\nmathematical instruction.\nThis new theory recognizes the true nature of number.\nThe keynote\nof the doctrine is struck in the preface to Mr. Speer’s book: “The fundamental thing is to induce judgments of relative magnitude.”\nThe theory\nis that the child should be set, not to studying adou¢ number, nor to learn-ing how to manipulate the bare syméo/s of number, but to exercising an\nactivity which involves number, or which zs number.\n\nIn the past we have seldom asked ourselves the important question,\n“What is number?”\nThe makers of,text-books on arithmetic, and originators of new methods, have usually assumed that number is something\nto be learned.\nWithout concerning themselves as to the nature of that\nsomething, as to whether number is an objective fact in the external world,\n*A few words in explanation, before beginning the reading of the paper this\nafternoon, seem eminently proper.\nMy dear friend, Mr. John H. Tear, about the time he accepted an invitation to prepare\n\nan exercise for this section of the National\n\nEducational Association, consented to\n\nread a paper before the Chicago Institute of Education, and to have present at the\nmeeting a class of first-grade pupils from his own school to illustrate the principles disThe paper I am to read is the one prepared for that body.\ncussed.\nBefore he had time to touch pen to paper in preparation of his contribution to this\nassociation, the Master called him to other fields of thought and labor.\n\nSo much is due,\n\nas his address before the institute was prepared under great press and in much haste.\n\n"}
{"page": 641, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nNEW\n\nARITHMETIC\n\n631\n\nor simply a mental process, all in one’s head, and without making much\neffort to discover the mental processes by which that something called\nnumber\n\nis to be learned, most text-book makers have been content to con-\n\nfine their efforts to the ordering of the several parts or stages of the subject,\n\nwith\n\nexplanations\n\nof the\n\nprocesses\n\nyears\n\nrational\n\nof manipulating\n\nthe number\n\nsymbols involved.\nHowever,\n\nin\n\nrecent\n\ninstruction\n\nhas\n\ncome\n\nto\n\nmean\n\ninstruction that is based on a knowledge of the actual thought processes\ninvolved in the learning of any subject. It was simply inevitable that\nnumber teaching should make the same advance that is being made in\nother subjects.\nNumber learning is number thinking, and rational\ninstruction in number must recognize the nature of the process of numThat number is precisely this judgment as to relative magber thinking.\nnitude, witness these definitions from eminent sources:\n\nSaid Sir Isaac Newton, who has something of a reputation as a mathematician: ‘‘ Number is the abstract ratio of one quantity to another quantity of the same kind.”\nMcLellan and Dewey, in their “‘ Psychology of Number,” say that the\nnumber by itself indicates relative value.\nIt always expresses ratio, 2. ¢.,\nthe relation which the magnitude to be measured bears to the unit of\nreference.\nThe great Swiss mathematician Euler defined number in this way:\n*‘Number is the ratio of one quantity to another quantity taken as a\nunit.”\nI find in the “Oral Arithmetic,” prepared by Assistant Superintendents Kirk and Sabin, this expression:\n“It is believed that the time has\ncome to readjust our forces, to substitute more intelligent methods of\nprocedure and more rational modes of discussion, based upon the central,\nunderlying principle of the relation of quantities.”\nSays Dr. William T. Harris: ‘‘ Methods must be chosen and justified,\nif they can be justified at all,on psychological grounds.\nThe psychology\nof number requires that the methods be chosen with reference to their\npower to train the mind of the pupil into the consciousness of the ratio\n\nidea.”\n\n}\n\nIf these statements are true, if number is a ratio, an abstract relation,\n\nthere is no warrant for assuming that the mere placing of groups of objects,\nshoe-pegs, toothpicks, and the like, before the child is going to insure\nhim insight into numerical relations; and much less is the skillful manipulation of the bare symbols of number proof positive of mathematical\nthinking.\nTo think number one must do something more than to deal\nwith the mere language of number.\nTo see relations one must actually\nmake comparisons.\nAnd in order to make comparisons there must be\nsomething before the mind to compare.\nThe child must actually deal\n\n"}
{"page": 642, "printed_page": null, "text": "632\n\nTATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nwith magnitudes, either as physical objects in his hands or before him, or\nOur little children can no more make bricks\nas images in his mind.\nThey must actually deal\nwithout straw than could the children of Israel.\nanother, as to relative\nwith\none\nobjects\ncompare\nwith quantities, they must\nsize, if they are ever to come\n\ninto their true mathematical birthright, free-\n\ndom in thinking quantitative relations. Hence the problem that confronts\nthe teacher of number is: ‘“ How may I provide the conditions which shall\ninsure or compel the seeing of relations, and which shall, therefore, render\n\nimpossible all purely mechanical processes ?”\nThe answer is that in teaching number we must begin where the child\nactually is; that his growth in ideas must be a growth in actual experience;\nthat before we can count on the child’s getting exact mathematical relations, we must be sure that he has some definite quantities to compare ;\nand that these quantities shall be so presented as to give him an opportunity to analyze and synthesize, to separate and combine, to make judgments; in a word, we must make sure that the child is not robbed of his\nright to think.\nIn the first place, then, the child\n\nmust\n\nhave\n\nsomething to deal with;\n\nhe must use his senses in getting a world of objects; and the objects must\nstand out with some clearness and distinctness for him.\nIn the second place, there is a recognition of the slow development of\nthe power to form perfectly quantitative judgments. For this reason simple\nexercises in relative size are given at first, and it is only by a slow and\ngradual advance to the more difficult that exact relations of magnitude\narereached.\nIt is only after much practice in seeing the inexact, expressed\nby the terms longer and shorter, larger and smaller, greater and less, unequal\nand equal, that the exact mathematical\n\nrelations two, one-half, three, one-\n\nthird, two-thirds, three-halves, etc., may be clearly appréhended.\nBut the most important point in this matter of arranging the proper\nconditions is that the quantities to be compared must be presented as\nwholes and not as parts.\nIn making number judgments we begin with a\nvague, indefinite whole, which is given definite quantitative value by comparing it with, or relating it to, some other quantity whose value we have.\nIn estimating the width of this room I compare the width, one whole,\nwith the foot rule or the yardstick.\nMy whole is a continuous quantity;\nit is not a group of smaller quantities pieced together.\nThe number\ninvolved is the abstract relation of this whole to the quantity with which\nit is compared.\nIn finding the relation of the magnitude 4 to the magnitude 4, 4 is first grasped as a whole.\nThe purpose of the comparison\nis to find its volume in terms of B. The act of comparison consists in\nmentally breaking up 4 into parts, each of which is equal to B, and then,\nin recombining these parts, to reconstitute the whole.\nThis whole, 4, has\nnow a value which it did not have before.\nIt is seen to be equal to four\n\n"}
{"page": 643, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nNEW\n\nARITHMETIC\n\n;\n\n633\n\n4's. This judgment of the relation of A to Z is typical of all number\njudgments.\nAll relations involve this analytic-synthetic mental act.\nIf\nthe magnitude 4 is presented to the child, not as one continuous quantity,\nbut as four separate quantities, each equal to ZB, there is already done for\nthe child what he should do for himself;\n\nand because it is done for him,\n\nit is not done for Azm atall.\nHe may count up the parts and mechanically\nconstruct the whole, but he has taken no step in realizing four as a relation.\nBecause a thing is done for a child before his senses, it does not\nfollow that the child himself gets any experience out of the act. Because\na thing is physically broken into parts before a child’s eyes, it does not\nfollow that he has mentally analyzed it; the thing may never have been\na whole to him.\nThe mechanical construction of quantity with uniform\nblocks is no better than the counting with beans,\n\npeas,\n\nspools,\n\ntoy rakes,\n\nspades, and all of the collection of objects, representing uniform and discrete quantities, which have loaded down our first-grade number tables\nIt all leads to an everlasting counting, the evil effects\nfor so long.\nof which appear and reappear in all of the grades. The “how-many”\nphase of number is so over-emphasized that the ‘““how-much” of quantity\nis entirely lost sight of. What should be the means has become the end.\n‘Assistant Superintendent Sabin remarked a short time since: ‘All over\nthe city I see the effects of our work with counters in the first grade; our\nchildren are counting through all the grades.\nI have seen enough of the\nnew method already to assure me that it will do away with this counting\nbusiness.”\nBut you may say that we cannot get rid of counting; that there are\nthings to be counted, and that children will count outside of the school\nand in the school; that our first ideas of number come through counting.\nI grant it all. Yet I maintain that the function of number is to determine\nthe “how-much” of quantity.\nHowever we may arrive at numerical\nrelations, the process is the same.\nFor, in rational counting, counting\nthat has some quantitative meaning, there is always some reference to a\nwhole whose value is to be got by the counting process; the one, two,\n\nthree, etc., must be thought of as parts of a whole, which must have been\nin the mind before the counting could begin.\nCounting is a crude way\nof arriving at an inexact quantitative value, except where the units counted\nare all equal, and the process is only one element in a larger process: the\ndetermination of the relation of a whole group to one of its parts. How\nmuch more certain is the child to get this relation of the whole if presented,\nnot as a group of parts, but as one continuous whole?\nIn the latter case\nthere is something for the child to do; he must break the whole up into\n‘There is nothing\ngroups of parts, mentally, in order to get the relation.\nto interfere with his analysis and synthesis, which must take place if he is\nMere counting lacks the mathematical element.\never to see the relation.\n\n"}
{"page": 644, "printed_page": null, "text": "634\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nAll marking-off of the blocks or dividing them to facilitate the child’s\nrelating act in reality prevents the very thing which it is vainly supposed\nto facilitate.\nFurther, the\n\nfact must\n\nbe emphasized\n\nthat, while\n\nthere\n\ncan\n\nbe\n\nno\n\nrelations unless there is something to relate, yet these relations must be\n“It is not to be forgotten that there is\nfreed from any particular things.\na wide difference between seeing that the relation between two particular\nthings is eight and realizing eight as a relation; realizing it in such a\nway that it can be freely used without misapplying it.’ To realize any\nnumber as a relation requires the seeing of that number in a great\nnumber of concrete instances.\nThe greatest possible variety of objects\nmust be used. “Only by multiplying experiences in the concrete, by\nnoting the same relation in many different things and in many different\nconditions, does\n\nthe\n\nchild\n\ncome\n\nto know a relation\n\nas it is.”\n\nThere is\n\ngreat danger that the particular quantities compared shall absorb the\nattention rather than the relation by which such quantities become recognized.\nThis method of finding ratios, or relations, may become just as\nmechanical as any other method.\nIf the same quantities are used\nrepeatedly, or if drills are introduced for the purpose of fixing what the\nchild is already supposed to see, the relations are likely to become memorized and fixed in such a way as to prevent the child’s seeing anything\nof any value.\nThe way to drill is to cause the child to see the same relations constantly under new conditions.\nIf this is the order of daily\npractice, there will be little occasion for mere drill work.\nInsight will\ntake the place of memory; or rather, memory will be relegated. to its\nlegitimate place as the handmaid of insight.\nThis new book on number is most noteworthy on account of the ideal\nwhich it holds up to the teacher.\nWe are not to teach number, but to\ndevelop the child. The child is not to learn number, but self-control.\n‘““When the work of the school is mechanical, it weakens the relating\npower, the power to act in new circumstances, and thus lowers the child\nin the scale of being. We may be so successful in training the child to\nreproduce as to destroy his power to produce.\nThese are some of the\nteachings of this new gospel.\nOver and over again the fact is emphasized that the condition of the child must determine what he shall do.\nAgain, there is repeated insistence that the child’s activity should be free;\nthat what is done should be done freely, without external stimulation or\nrestraint.\nFree work reveals the pupil and makes it possible to meet his\nneeds.’\nThe marvelous progress of the child during the first five or six\nyears of his life is largely due to free action and spontaneous attention;\nto the absence of demands unfavorable to growth.\nIt is with this ideal before us that we must take up the subject of\n\n"}
{"page": 645, "printed_page": null, "text": "=<\n\nDepartment]\n\nTHE\n\nNEW\n\nARITHMETIC\n\n635\n\nnumber, if we are to achieve the highest results.\nWe must not aim directly\nto zeach number, but to wse number as a means of comparing quantities;\nand we must not aim directly at the comparison of quantities, but at the\ndevelopment of the child.\nSo far as we fall below this ideal, so far shall\nwe fail in reaching the highest results.\nThis ideal is not chimerical, and\nit is not beyond the appreciation of the “average” teacher.\nIf we could\nonly have the “self-control to persist”’ in letting the child alone, in being\ncontent to supply the proper conditions for free activity, and then in\nallowing the child spontaneously to put forth his activity and to express\nhimself, however crudely, we could work up to this ideal.\nWe must have\nthe courage to make mistakes ourselves, and we must have the patience\nand the insight to let our children make mistakes.\nThe teacher must\nhave the insight to see that all she can possibly do is to provide the proper\nconditions, and then let the child alone to work out his own mathematical\n\nsalvation. All forcing of results, all questioning for the sake of the answer,\nall demands for finished results where only crude work is possible by\nthe child, all measurement of results by some external standard rather\nthan by the child’s needs and possibilities, are contrary to the principle of\nself-activity, and, so far as practiced, will thwart the self-expression of the\n‘child.\nThis ideal is a progressive one for the pupil.\nHe must first be active\nin getting sense experience and inexact quantitative relations; a little later\nhe is ready for the exact relations of quantity expressed in physical\nobjects ; as he acquires physical control and the power to think in images,\nhe becomes prepared to deal with quantitative relations expressed in mental images; later he has freed the relations from the terms compared and\n\ncan apply them anywhere; he has reached the stage of free ideas; he\nhas mastered the method of quantitative thinking.\nAs the pupil gains\nthe power to think the relations of quantity away from the physical\nobjects, he acquires the ability to solve mathematical problems.\nEvery\nproblem presents to him certain conditions.\nIn these conditions are\ninvolved certain quantities and certain relations, or ratios.\nIn the simplest of these problems there are always given, either two quantities to\nfind a ratio, or one quantity and a ratio to find the other quantity.\nLet\nthe problem be to find the cost of a box of candy, when 3 of the cost is\n12 cents.\n\nHere\n\nwe\n\nhave\n\none\n\nquantity, the\n\n12\n\ncents,\n\nand aratio, 2, to\n\nfind the other quantity.\nFive-halves equal the ratio of the quantity to\nbe found, the cost of the box of candy, to the quantity given, the 12\ncents.\nFive-halves of the 12 cents equal 30 cents, the cost of the box of\ncandy.\nOr, again, let the problem be to find 3 of the value of an estate,\nwhen ; of the value is x. Here are given two quantities, } of -the estate\nand } of it, to find the ratio and then to use the ratio in getting another\nexpression for one of the quantities given.\nFour-ninths equal the ratio\n\n"}
{"page": 646, "printed_page": null, "text": "636\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nof 4 of the estate to $ of it. Then the value of } of the estate equals ¢\nof x.\nThe more comThese problems are typical of all simple problems.\nplex problems differ only in the number of quantities and relations\nIn order to solve such problems intelligently, the pupil must\ninvolved.\nbe able to represent to himself the quantities with which he is dealing.\nThe practice of finding the relation of solids, surfaces, and\n\nlines in the\n\nprimary grades develops the ability to make the representations necessary\nto see the quantities and the ratios involved in these practical problems;\nand in such power of imagination and insight lies their solution.\n\nDISCUSSION.\nHenry\n\nC. Cox,\n\nChicago, Ill.—I\n\nfeel that if Mr. Tear\n\nwere\n\nhere\n\ntoday, he would\n\nwant to emphasize somewhat a point or two in the paper, and I take advantage\n\nof the\n\nPresident’s consent to employ a little time in doing it for him.\nSays Mr. Tear: “If the magnitude 4 is presented to the child, not as one continuous\nquantity, but as four separate quantities, each equal to 4, there is already done for the\nchild what he should do for himself, and because it is done for him, it is not done for hzm\n\nat all.”\nI have in mind a teacher who, having seen some of the legitimate work done by\npupils from another room in the same grade with hers, and supposing the purpose to be\nto say words rather than see relations, took occasion to write in heavy letters upon the\nblocks furnished, “4 is one, B is two, C is three,” etc.; so a pupil, taking into his hands\nblocks A and 4, would say quite glibly, ‘One-half is the ratio of A to B; two is the ratio\nof B to A.” But, as an occasional pupil still halted in saying what was thought to be the\nright thing, she effectually put a block to all thought by putting on the board a set of\nequations to fit the several cases. With her the purpose seemed to be to memorize number relations.\nAnother thing he desired to emphasize is the need of patience and a willingness to\nproceed slowly. Sometimes a teacher, noting the adeptness of another’s pupils, and not\ntaking into account the element of time, is disappointed at what seems to be stupidity in\n\nher own pupils, and attempts to force them into saying they see what they do not see,and\nwhat they are not ready to see.\nSome people are blessed with a constructive imagination, and from a cervical vertebra are able to construct the animal.\nOthers are not so gifted.\nLet us suppose that ample time has been taken to familiarize the children with the\nindefinite relations of magnitudes, expressed by the terms longer and shorter, greater and\nless, larger and smaller, equal and unequal.\n\nThe class is arranged about a table\n\nstrewn with blocks of various\n\nshapes, whose relations can be measured by the eye.\n\nEach\n\nmember\n\nsizes and of all\n\nof the\n\nclass\n\ntakes\n\ninto his hands two blocks, and, assuring himself of the relations between the two, recites,\n\nmaybe, as follows: “Four is the ratio of this to this; one-fourth is the ratio of this to\nthis.” The teacher, taking the smaller, says: “I have a pint of milk worth three cents.”\nThe pupil responds: “I have four pints of milk worth twelve cents.”\nAnother pupil, who has chosen a block one by one by four, and another two by two\nby three, says: “Three is the ratio of this to this; one-third is the ratio of this to this.”\n\n"}
{"page": 647, "printed_page": null, "text": "~ Department]\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nMATHEMATICS\n\nAND\n\nEDUCATION\n\n637\n\nThe teacher, taking the larger one, says: “This is a basket of oranges worth a dollar.”\nPupil: “This is one-third of a basket of oranges, and is worth one-third of a dollar.”\nIn the cases cited we have had a little unconscious (so far as the child is concerned)\nexercise in the tables. I think experience has shown that the pupils learn all the tables\nwithout effort to do so.\nA pupil has two blocks, one an inch cube, and the other one by one by five. He has\nmade mental or actual measurement,\n\nand expressed the relations, when\n\nthe teacher, tak-\n\ning the larger, says: “ Let us play that this is a quarter\nof a dollar.” The pupil responds :\n“Twenty-five cents equal five times five cents.”\nExchanging blocks with the pupil the\nteacher says: “I have three oranges.” The pupil: “Three oranges equal one-fifth of\nThe teacher, taking in hand a block two by two by five, says: “Find\nfifteen oranges.”\nme two blocks together equal to this.” , Pupil, taking a block two by two by three and\none two by two by two, responds: “Twelve and eight are twenty.”\nThe teacher may\nthen call for the other sums illustrated by two blocks equal to twenty, then for three,\nfour, and five ; for four equal quantities whose sum equals twenty; for five, and for ten.\nTaking a block three by three by four, the pupil having one two by two by three,\nthe teacher says: ‘‘What part as large is yours as mine?”\n“ What may you now take to\nhave the equal of mine?””\n“What must John take to have the equal of yours?”\nSuch\nproblems lead to the ready finding of differences, giving facility in subtraction.\nShe may say: ‘‘ How many of yours will equal mine?”\n‘What part of mine equals\nyours?” “Who will find a block equal to one-half of mine?” “One-third?” “Twothirds?”\n“One-fourth ?” ‘“Three-fourths ?”\nThrough these and similar exercises the pupils become familiar with the four operations in arithmetic through a sense of need.\nI'll now submit a few book problems and intimate the lines of thought exercised by\nchildren.\n1. If 3 bushels of wheat cost $2, what will 12 bushels cost? The pupil thinks:\n“Twelve bushels equal 4 times 3 bushels;\n\nthey will cost 4 times $2, which is $8.”\n\n2. If 24 of a yard of cloth is worth $1.20, how much is % yard worth?\nPupil:\n“One-half equals 3 of 24; % a yard of cloth is worth 34 of $1.20, which is 90 cents.”\n3. How much are 4 pounds of coffee worth at 30 cents a pound?\nPupil: “Four\npounds equal 4 times I pound;\n\nthey are worth 4 times 30 cents, which is $1.20.”\n\n4. At Io cents a pound, how many pounds of raisins can one buy for 75 cents ?\nPupil: “Seventy-five cents equals 714 times Io cents; one can by 7% times I pound,\n\nwhich is 714 pounds.”\n5. If 7 pencils cost 42 cents, how much is that apiece ? Solution:\n\nOne pencil equals\n\n4 of 7 pencils; it will cost + of 42 cents, which is 6 cents.\n6. If 3 oranges cost 20 cents, what will be the cost of 8 oranges?\nPupil: “ Eight\noranges equal } of 3 oranges; they will cost § of 20 cents, which is 53% cents.”\nBut I must not occupy more time. Quoting the spirit of the paper, let us furnish\nthe conditions, and be patient to let the children do their own thinking, and to give their\nthought its own expression. Let us do this, and I believe that a better culture will be the\nheritage of the pupils who shall develop under the guidance of these principles.\n\nELEMENTARY\nBY\n\nL. W.\n\nCOLWELL,\n\nMATHEMATICS\n\nPRINCIPAL\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCARL\n\nAND\nVON\n\nEDUCATION.\n\nLINNE\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nCHICAGO.\n\nSince power to think is the ground of inteHigent action, education\nBut choice\nmust develop instinct and impulse into deliberate choice.\n\n"}
{"page": 648, "printed_page": null, "text": "538\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nimplies insight, insight deals with essence in the mode that we style meanThe mind that fails to think\ning, and meaning is revealed by thinking.\nTherefore, whatever education may do for the race by\nfails to function.\nrefining the sentiments and esthetic tenor of the coming generations;\nwhatever it may achieve in the formation of habits and training for especial pursuits—it cannot develop a high type of manhood and womanhood\nWhatever it may teach\nwithout appeal to the divine faculty of reason.\nof self-reliance, industry, co-operation, accuracy, exalted purpose, it must\n\nhope for these things through richly conceived ideals and well-executed\nThe keynote of power is thoughtful willing.\npurposes.\nThat mind is truly educated which has developed into the power to\nweigh remote consequences through representation and to determine\naction by judgment.\nOne of the chief purposes of education, therefore,\nis to stimulate active thinking.\nThe material of learning must not only\nbe rational, but it must harmonize with the condition of the learner.\n\nOur\n\ncrying need is not so much logical presentation of the principles of\nsubjects as it is psychological induction into their spirit. What we need\nespecially to emphasize is not receptivity, but self-activity.\nThe mind\nthat keeps thinking keeps growing.\nBut thinking is impossible without sense-experience.\nIts processes\ndeal with sense-products directly perceived or recalled, or they deal with\nabstractions derived from sense-products.\n‘Therefore, education must\neither school the senses through discipline of attention to sense-impressions, or it must depend upon the desultory furnishment which unassisted\nnature gives. To direct attention early to abstractions is to overlook\nsubstance in attempting essence.\nThat such effort does not utterly fail and always is due only to the\ntraining of the senses necessitated by the accidents and incidents of life.\nTo depend on this for educational data is to depend on chance.\nThe\nonly certainty of progress rests upon systematic culture in observing and\nclassifying contacts, sights, sounds, etc. Preyer says truly: ‘“ Without\nthe power of representation there is no will; without activity of the senses\nthere is no representation ; thus the will is actually, inseparably bound up\nwith the senses.”\nOut of attention to experiences, and by means of the comparing\nnecessary to discriminate them, grows the power of conceptual thought.\nImpressions are sensed as like or unlike.\nCognition of these primaryfeelings with their objective reference constitutes perception of partic- —\nular relations..\nIdentifying particular relations is perception of universality, and is found in every act of thinking.\nThe nature of thinking, therefore, would indicate a method of teaching mathematics that requires comparison of those objects of sense that\nmanifest mathematical relation.\n\n"}
{"page": 649, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nLLEMENTARY\n\nMATHEMATICS\n\nAND\n\nEDUCATION\n\n639\n\nCounting and the use of counters do not necessitate that balancing\nand judging which constitute the essence of estimating, and must, therefore, fail to produce mathematical insight. The pupil who learns mathematics by counting does not learn it because of the counting, but because\nof judgments of relative worth occasioned in some other matter than by\nThe futility of dependence upon counting to awaken\nthe teaching.\nmathematical thinking cannot but be clear when we stop to consider the\nmental reactions that it represents.\nThe mainspring of mathematical activity in the race is the attempt to\nadjust means accurately and economically to a material end. The human\nmind\n\ncreated\n\nmathematics,\n\nbecause\n\nit needed\n\nit to subdue\n\nnature\n\nand\n\nachieve freedom.\nMathematical relations exist in nature; proportion is a law of all\nthings.\nFrom the perception of things as somewhat like, the mind\nadvances gradually to the perception of exact likeness, and through continued study of things develops the science of mathematics.\nThe one\ngreat problem of mathematics is determination of magnitude, and the\nnatural practical path to mathematical culture is by the training of the\nmind through the eye and hand to nice discriminations of equality.\n_\nBut quantity cannot be determined absolutely; indeed, all things are\nknown relatively.\nOnly by comparing a quantity with another quantity\ncan it be apprehended and expressed.\nDiscovery of mathematical truth\ntakes the form of judgments of relative magnitude.\nOf course, anything has quantity that can be measured.\nWe may\nthink of magnitudes of time,\n\nof heat, of color, of velocity, of weight, of\n\npurchasing power, etc., but we cannot compare these easily or exactly and\ndo it correctly. The means for determining quantity in any such case is\nshown by Herbert Spencer to depend upon inference from spatial relations.\nThe space emptied of sand in the hourglass, or the arc of a circle passed\nby clock hands, does not measure time directly, but it renders inferences\npossible as to comparative amount.\nIn every case the only means of exact quantitative comparison is by\nmeans of geometric forms.\n‘This may be direct, as in some cases of distance, capacity, area, and volume, or indirect through inference, as in the\n- cases referred to.\n\nThe development of mathematical insight, therefore, must perforce\ntake the form of study of relative amount or ratios, as manifest in geometrical units, which can be easily and accurately constructed.\nThe meaning\nand use of ratios must depend\non keen discriminations of equality and\nability to produce and reproduce representative forms.\nElementary\nmathematics should, therefore, lay a firm foundation\n\nin accurate\n\nimaging\n\nand frequent reference to sensible objects as the interpreters of significance.\nThe first quantitative notions of children are, of course, crude and ill-\n\n"}
{"page": 650, "printed_page": null, "text": "640\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nAll progAdequate recognition of equality develops gradually.\ndefined.\nress in education is from things vaguely defined to things more clearly\nMathematical comparison begins in a qualitative stage and uses\ndefined.\nAn appropriate exercise is the securing of\nthe inflections of adjectives.\nsuch observations and expressions as: “This book is longer than that ;”\n“My box is wider than yours;” etc. Such work must be continued until\nthe idea of equality is somewhat differentiated.\nThis clarifying process may be assisted by trials at drawing, cutting, or\nmodeling things equal to presented ones or remembered ones.\nRepeated\nefforts sharpen discriminations and make later progress sure.\nAll advance\nwhatever toward a more perfect definition of imagery is toward mathematical power.\nThis work is important, for the notion of equality, equation, oneness, which constitutes the meaning of the ratio\n\n1, is the funda-\n\nmental notion of mathematics.\nWhen experience with comparing has been broad enough to universalize the ratio 2, it is as though the mind had grasped the significance\nof the proportion\n4:82::C:D::6:12::8:16, and so on indefinitely,\ndropping the terms out of sight, dropping the individual ratios out of\nmind, and holding fast to the common element of meaning as an object\nof thought.\nIt will be noticed that two terms are necessary to every\ncomparison.\nClear apprehension of this point is the key to mathematical\nthinking.\nBut there is another side to this discussion.\n‘The establishing of\nratios and universalizing them, together with the enrichment of these\nconcepts by attaching to them abundant particulars, fasten the concept\nas a bond upon the particular terms.\nThey serve, therefore, to restore a\nmissing term.\nSuppose that 16 and 8 have been seen as exemplifying\nthe ratio 2, thought of 8 and an unnamed unit which has the ratio 2 to\n_the unit 8 must supply the name 16 for the larger unit, because 16 is an\nindispensable part of the equation 16 =2 X 8, and this equation must be\nthought as a whole or not at all. Of course, the 16 must be remembered\nas the\n\nproper\n\nassociate\n\nof\n\n8, but\n\ngeneral\n\nnotions,\n\nuniversals,\n\nratios,\n\norganize memory and hold particulars as examples, enriching the individuals by putting ideality or meaning into them.\nAppeal to organic\nmemory is easy, sure, and natural, because it is in harmony with mental\ngrowth.\nMere memorizing of arbitrary symbols, on the other hand, kills\ninvestigation, originality, and rationality.\nWe may reduce drill to a minimum through interest, spontaneity, selfexpression, and varied repetition, but we cannot escape it entirely. These\nneedful visual forms must be fixed upon those sight centers which we are\ntold are located in the cortex of the posterior part of the brain.\nThis is\ndone by visualizing or recalling sight images.\nThis so modifies and\norganizes nervous tissue that the presence of any two figures in conscious-\n\n"}
{"page": 651, "printed_page": null, "text": "ict\n\nDepartment]\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nMATHEMATICS\n\nAND\n\nEDUCATION\n\n641\n\nness brings up their customary associate in the equation. © This is\nmechanical, truly. That is the reason it is good.\nThe aim of all education is the mechanism or habit which makes for freedom.\nThat which is\nto be shunned as intellectual poison is the mechanism which does not\noriginate in intelligent action and spontaneous expression.\nIn this specific and definite representing of the terms of a fundamental equation lies the answer to any question that may be asked about\nthese terms.\nThis embraces all that is classed under the so-called fundamental rules.\nAll the problems of arithmetic are of two types: first,\nknowing the two terms compared, and finding the ratio ; second, knowing one of the terms and the ratio, and finding the missing term.\nUse\nof these principles breaks down all the artificial distinctions that have\nbeen raised in the subject of arithmetic and have tended to obscure clear\nthinking.\nThis paper should not be closed without reference to the part that\nphysical activity plays in intellectual development.\nIt will be pretty\ngenerally conceded that the children in our schools sit still too much.\nMore stirring about would develop better breathing and quicker circulation.\nThe brain would probably receive more blood per second in common with the rest of the body, and its power would be correspondingly\nincreased.\nBut there are other than hygienic reasons for motor activity\nin the schoolroom, and they lie at the very base of all intellectual\nactivity.\nWill is co-ordination of motor activity.\nIt becomes possible only\nbecause of the power of representing the outcome of impulse.\nThis\nrepresentative power is intellect.\nIt grows by representing more and\nmore remote or abstract ends of action.\nEffort to develop intellect\nshould, therefore, regard motor development as its basis, its origin, and\nits end.\nThought exists asa link in the circuit of intelligent action,\nintermediate between sensing and doing.\nSensations of all kinds are so\nclosely interwoven with motor experiences that a large part of our ideas\n— possibly all—are sensory-motor.\nRibot,the eminent French psychologist, says: ‘“‘ Attention always acts upon muscles and through muscles.\nThere is no perception without motion.\nAll sensorial organs are at once\nsensitive and motor.”’\nThe bearing of motor training upon education is expressed by\nanother psychologist thus: “Elements are held together in memory\nbecause held together in action.”\nThe training of judgment is evident\nin a game of quoits or of ball; but we do not wish to train athletes. The\nend set up for achievement must ever be removed further and further, as\nachievement becomes easy ; so that attention is directed more and more\nto pure abstractions.\nAction is influenced by desire. Desire is for a\nrepresented end. The means to that end are selected by judgment.\n\n"}
{"page": 652, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n642\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nHence, judgment must deal much with motor signs. Significance of presentation depends largely upon motor signs.\nWe should have, in\nThe application of these observations is obvious.\nand a thorough\nschool\nin\nrelaxation\nof\nperiods\nfrequent\nto\naddition\ndevelop discrimto\nattempts\nplay,\njoyous\nwith\nwork\nearnest\nmingling of\nand molding,\nmodeling,\ndrawing,\nCutting,\ndoing.\nof\nmeans\ninations by\nfirm founand\nsure\na\nfurnish\ngrades,\nprimary\nthe\nin\ngames\ntogether with\nintelligent\nto\neye\nand\nhand\nsubordinate\nthey\nwhile\ndation for insight,\npurpose.\n\nDISCUSSION.\nW. H. SKINNER, Nebraska City, Neb. — The arrangement for discussion of a paper\n\npresupposes one of two things, or both of them, vzz., either that the paper asserts something that it should not assert, or that it has left something unsaid. But I find myself left\nto the disadvantage of being compelled to say the same things Mr. Colwell has said, and\nof being unable to say them as well. It is, however, a noble characteristic of great truths\nthat they may be repeated without loss of intrinsic value.’\n1. Then\n\nlet me\n\nrepeat what\n\nhas been\n\nsaid, vzz., that we must teach, not numbers,\n\nbut quantity ;for number is only a part of the truth involved. In the history of elementary\nmathematics we have gone through very distinct periods. We have at one time taught\n“figuring.” At another we have taught the ultimate truths of mathematics, without connecting these truths with facts, and the result of such teaching was a mathematical vocabulary, without a mathematical experience.\nThen, again, we have taught the facts of\nmathematics, without connecting these facts with the ultimate truths of mathematics.\nThat is our shortcoming today. We use objects, present facts, but do so in such a narrow\nfield of view that the pupil is not led further than isolated facts ; he reaches no great fundamental truth by his experience. For illustration, it is not enough that we lead a pupil\nto see that the sum of the three angles-of a particular triangle is equal to two right angles ;\nthat isolated fact is of little service to him, if he stop there. To gain valuable knowledge\nhe must proceed to the ultimate truth that lies beyond that fact, and see that the sum of\nthe angles of amy triangle is equal to two right angles. That is the ultimate truth that\nmakes his study of any value to him, This illustrates the narrowness of our present\nteaching of mathematics. We are stopping short of the fundamental truths that make the\nstudy of any great service. Hence we must assent to the proposition that we should study\n“ definite relations of magnitude.”\n\n2. A second point worthy of reiterated statement is the necessity of sense-training.\nThe relations of magnitude require such acute sense-perceptions that such training should\nnot be left wholly to incident.\nIt is to the study of mathematics what interval studies are\nto music. The interval is not much in the way of harmony, but its apprehension is absolutely necessary. And not only in mathematics is this sense-training necessary ; it is just\nas necessary in the interpretation of literature and of art. Hence this training appeals\nto us, not as a narrow fact, but as a fundamental truth. But this sense-training is incomplete, unless there is trained, along with it, the power of recalling the image — visualiz-\n\ning, as Sir Francis Galton calls it, and imaging, as Mr. Speer calls it.\na fundamental truth, and hence of the greatest significance.\n3. We are now ready to study relative magnitudes.\n\nAnd this, too, is\n\nSense-perceptions are keen and\n\n"}
{"page": 653, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nMATHEMATICS\n\nAND\n\nEDUCATION\n\n643\n\naccurate. Pupils can compare magnitudes, discover relations, and state the\nratios. There\nis one more step. Ultimate truth lies in the abstract, not in the concrete. The\nchild must\n\nnow be loosed from the bonds of sense.\nTwo things enable us to do this service, v7z.,\n(a) the use of a variety of objects and forms of objects; (4) and the use of the\nvariable\nunit, as discussed in the paper.\nThe relation of magnitudes is now seen in its broadest\nsense.\nIt rises from the particular concrete object to the abstract principle, from the\nnarrow fact to the ultimate truth.\nWhen the subject of mathematics is thus taught, it becomes of broad educational\n\nvalue. Its study then\nmental activity.\n\ndevelops fower—power\n\nthat shall be useful in every field of\n\n"}
{"page": 654, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY\nEDUCATION\nSECRETARY’S\nFIRST\n\nMINUTES.\n\nSESSION.—TvuEsDAY\n\nAFTERNOON,\n\nJULY\n\n6.\n\nAt the close of the principals’ round table, President C. 11. Thurber\n\nappointed\n\nthe\n\nfollowing Committee on Nominations for officers of the department:\nPrincipal W. J. Pringle, Aurora, Ill.\nPrincipal J. Remsen Bishop, Cincinnati, O.\n\nSuperintendent L. H. Ford, Owatonna, Minn.\n\nThe meeting then adjourned.\nSECOND\nJOINT SESSION\n\nOF THE\n\nSESSION.—WEDNESDAY\nDEPARTMENTS\n\nAFTERNOON,\n\nOF SECONDARY\n\nAND\n\nJULY\n\n7.\n\nHIGHER\n\n7\nEDUCATION.\n\nThe meeting was called to order by President Joseph Swain of Indiana University,\nPresident of the Department of Higher Education.\nThe report of the chairman of the Joint Committee on College-Entrance Requirements was submitted by A. F. Nightingale, Superintendent of High Schools, Chicago, Ill.\nThe report was discussed by Dr. Nicholas Murray Butler, Columbia University;\nProfessor A. C. McLaughlin, University of Michigan, and Professor H. Morse Stephens,\nCornell University.\nDr. Nightingale read the report of the Committee of Twelve of the American Philological Association on the Study of Latin and Greek.\nMotion was made and carried that the report be accepted and included in the\nminutes.\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nOF\n\nTWELVE\n\nTO\n\nTHE\n\nPHILOLOGICAL\n\nASSOCIATION.\n\nThe members of the American Philological Association have already received, by the courtesy of the\nSchool Review (an official organ of the National Educational Association), ‘‘ off-prints’’ with an account of\nwhat the Committee of Twelve has done. This committee now begs to present the following report of its\naction:\n\nThe American Philological Association, at its meeting in Providence, in July, 1896, directed its Committee of Twelve, in accordance with a request made by the instructors of Greek and Latin in the high\nschools and academies of the United States. This Committee of Twelve was first appointed in Philadelphia, in\nDecember, 1894, to give effect to the vote of the association passed at that time, which strongly urged that at\nleast three years of study be devoted to Greek in the courses of preparatory schools.\nThe chairman of the Committee of Twelve, Professor Goodwin, of Harvard University, and another of\nits members, Professor Warren, of Johns Hopkins University, have been absent from our country during the\nlast year, and in their stead Professor Clement L. Smith, of Harvard University, and Professor Herbert Weir\nSmyth, of Bryn Mawr College, were called to membership in the committee, This committee held its first\nsession for the year in New York city, on December 31, 1896. Professor Seymour, of Yale University, was\n\nelected to serve as chairman during the absence of Professor Goodwin.\nScholars of undoubted pedagogic\nability and experience were invited to serve in auxiliary committees for the preparation of the Greek and Latin\nprogramme.\nMore than six thousand circulars of inquiry were sent to teachers of Latin and Greek, superintendents and principals of schools, and others who are prominent in educational work in this country, Nearly\none thousand replies were received to these inquiries, giving to the committee a mass of material for consideration —exact information with regard to the actual work of schools and opinions of specialists —such as had\n\n644\n\n"}
{"page": 655, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\n645\n\nnever been gathered before for this subject. Great and general interest in the undertaking of the committee\nwas evinced by the care with which most of these replies were prepared.\nThese replies were carefully tabu lated by Dr, Arthur Fairbanks, of Yale University, and laid before the committee at its meeting in New York\ncity on April 14 and 15. The committee was then in session for two days, and worked diligently. After\n\nlistening to a statement with regard to the answers\n\nto its inquiries, and to discussions on certain general\n\nquestions which were largely based on presentations of the best methods of Greek’ and Latin instruction in\nEurope, the committee divided into two sections for the preparation of the programmes for the schools. *\nThe Greek programme presented a simple problem, in view of the limited time which can be given in\nthe schools to the reading of Greek literature, and of the small amount of Greek literature which is suitable for\nclasses of beginners. The problem has been still further simplified by conference of the Committee of Ten,\n\nthe Commission of New\n\nEngland Colleges in the spring of 1896—all\n\nof these in substantial agreement with\n\neach other, and already proved by many of the most able teachers of the country. The replies to the commiittee’s circular of inquiry gave all needed information, both as to what is actually done in our schools, and as\nto what is desired.\nFrom California, Wisconsin, and Tennessee, in particular, had come letters which presented a most hopeful view of the position of the classics in the schools, and urged that the committee should\nyield to no suggestion of a weaker, less exacting course of preparation for college. The weak section of the\ncommittee was unanimous in reaffirming the position taken by the Greek conference for the Committee of\nTen, and proposed a programme which is in essential agreement with those of the Commission of New England\nColleges and Columbian Conference of 1896. This action was confirmed by the whole Committee of Twelve,\nwith its auxiliaries.\nSince the committees were composed of representative teachers and scholars, and had\nbefore them full information with regard to nearly all the schools in the country in which Greek is taught, and\nhad sought and learned the opinions of many teachers, and based their action in form on that of the most\nimportant commissions and conferences, and were of one mind in all their action— the Greek programme may\nbe considered as essentially in its final form, but suggestions are still welcome, although the committee believes\nthat most teachers who had opinions of weight which they desired to express have already beer. heard, and the\n\ncommittee desires permission to present its full report on this Greek programme later in print.\n\nThat every\n\nteacher will be satisfied no one can expect, nor that the programme will be suited to the powers of every school,\nIn some parts of the United\n\nStates work is crowded\n\ninto two years, to which three years are devoted\n\nin other\n\n_schools, Under exceptional circumstances, with earnest scholars and skillful teachers, and long school years,\nthe work of preparation for college in Greek may be done well in two years, but in general, with less earnestness and skill, this work is likely to be superficial if it is so hurried, and the Committee of Twelve is prepared\n\nstill (and more earnestly than ever) to urge the maintenance\nThe committee was not directed to prepare a plan which\n\nof a three-years’ preparatory course in Greek.\n\ncould be carried out at once in every school, but to\n\npresent the best programme which is practicable for the schools of our country under prevailing conditions—\nfor public high schools as well as for endowed academies and private fitting schools. Those who criticise the\nprogramme should endeavor to ascertain the facts and opinions on which it is based.\nThe problem before the committee with regard to a programme for the study of Latin in the preparatory\nschools is much more intricate. The length of the course is greater, and the number of works of Latin in\nliterature available for the reading of schools\n\nis three times as great as of those available\n\nfor Greek\n\nreading.\n\nThe possible number of combinations is five or six instead of one, Information from American experience\nwith regard to five-year and six-year courses in Latin is as yet somewhat scanty, although a number of schools\nof the East and of the West have adopted such programmes,\nThe Latinists of the Committee of Twelve,\ntherefore, although they present provisional programmes for discussion, yet desire to be allowed freely to\nmodify their propositions before they make their final report. They have already held one conference since the\nApril meeting of the committee, and have called to their aid yet other scholarly teachers.\nFor the reasons stated the Committee of Twelve, although it has accomplished the work to which it was\noriginally appointed, desires to be continued, and to have the programmes now presented considered as only\npreliminary.\nTuomas\n\nDay Seymour, Chatrman,\n\nCecix F. S. BANCROFT,\nFRANKLIN CARTER,\nWiLiiAM GARDNER HALE,\nWILiiAM R. Harper,\nFrancis W. KELSEY,\nGeorcE L. KitrREDGE,\nAppy LEACH,\nCHARLES FOSTER SMITH,\nCLEMENT L., SmiTH,\nHERBERT WEIR SMYTH,\n\nANDREW F, WEST.\n\nProfessor F. N. Scott, University of Michigan, proposed the following resolutions.\n\nOn motion of Professor Scott, seconded by President James H. Canfield, Ohio State Uni-\n\nversity, the resolutions were adopted.\n\n"}
{"page": 656, "printed_page": null, "text": "646\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nResolved, That a committee of six be appointed by the chair, to examine into the state of composition\nteaching in secondary schools, and to consider questions that may arise in the course of such inquiry;\nThat a joint session of these two departments be held next year for the purpose of hearing and discussing the committee’s report ;\nThat the two departments join in requesting that the association appropriate a sum of money, not to\nexceed $300, to meet the expenses of this committee.\n\nDr. Nightingale presented the following resolutions, which were adopted :\nWueEreEas, The Committee on College-Entrance Requirements, appointed at Denver and continued at\nBuffalo, has been laboriously at work for two years, and has through its reports, by correspondence, and in the\nappointment of subcommittees, awakened an increasing interest in this important subject of closer relations\nbetween the secondary schools and the colleges; therefore be it\nResolved, That the committee be continued and instructed to carry on its work to completion.\nResolved, That the committee\n\nbe empowered\n\nto add to its number\n\nfour others, two representing the\n\nSecondary and two the Department of Higher Education,\nResolved, That the members composing this joint committee of the Secondary Department and the\nDepartment of Higher Education do hereby make an earnest appeal to the Board of Directors of the National\nEducational Association to make a suitable appropriation to carry on the work of the committee, which has been\nso well begun.\n\nAt the Round Table in History Superintendent\npresented the following resolutions :\n\nA. F. Nightingale,\n\nChicago, IIl.,\n\nResolved, That it is the sense of the Round Table of History of the Secondary Department that the study\nof general history, so called, should be abandoned, and that our secondary schools, whenever practicable, should\noffer history at least four days in the week for each year in the course.\nThat the plan should consist of ancient and medizval history, modern history, English history, and\nAmerican history courses, each one year in length,\nThat, where schools can offer but one year of history, the subject-matter should be in accordance with a\npurpose to advance the highest interest of a majority of the pupils.\nThat the college requirements should be so elastic that, where but one year is given, that particular\nhistory should be accepted which has been pursued for one entire year, and which the pupil is compelled to\noffer,\n\nProfessor B. A. Hinsdale moved that Professor Nightingale’s resolutions be adopted.\nPrincipal Henry.S. Purdy, Brewster, N. Y., thought American history should be\nstudied during the first year of the high school.\nGeorge B. Aiton, of Minnesota, moved the appointment of a committee of three to\npresent resolutions on the subject next year.\n\n.\n\nProfessor S. G. Williams, Cornell University, questioned whether modern programmes\nhave room for so much history as Superintendent Nightingale’s resolutions advocated.\nMoved and carried that Professor Aiton’s motion be substituted for the resolutions\npresented by Superintendent Nightingale.\nThe leader appointed the following committee to draw up resolutions which shall\nbring before the department at its meeting next year the question of the continuance of\ngeneral history in high-school curricula :\nPrincipal E, V. Robinson, Muskegon, Mich.\nPrincipal Wilson Farrand, Newark, N. J.\nH. S. Vaile, Chicago, Ill.\n\nThe session then adjourned.\nTHIRD\n\nSESSION.—TuurspDAy\n\nAt the close of the round-table\n\nAFTERNOON,\n\nJULY\n\n8.\n\nconference a business session of the department was\n\ncalled to order by Principal Wilson Farrand, of Newark, N. J.\n\nThe Committee on Nominations presented the following report :\nFor Preszdent, George B. Aiton, State Inspector of High Schools, Minneapolis, Minn.\nFor Vice-President, Mrs. May Wright Sewall, Classical School for Girls, Indianapolis, Ind.\nFor Secretary, E.G, Cooley, Lyons Township High School, La Grange, IIl.\n\na\n\n"}
{"page": 657, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\n647\n\nThe report of the committee was adopted, and the nominees declared elected.\nGeorge B. Aiton presented the following resolution:\nResolved, That it is the sense of this department that in the English work of the secondary schools a\nlarge and open list of books for reading and study is preferable to a small required list, such as is recommended\nby the Joint Committee on Uniform Entrance Requirements in English,\n\nPrincipal J. Remsen Bishop, Cincinnati, O.; Principal Wilson Farrand, Newark,\nN. J., and Principal C. W. French, Hyde Park, Ill., spoke in favor of the resolution,\nwhich, on motion of Principal W. J. Pringle, of Aurora, Il., was adopted,\n\nThe department then adjourned.\nIpA Brock\n\nHAs.Lup,\nSecretary.\n\nPAPE KS AND esDISCUSSIONS.\nREPORT\n\nOF THE CHAIRMAN OF THE JOINT COMMITTEE\nON COLLEGE-ENTRANCE REQUIREMENTS.\n\nBY\n\nThe second\n\nA.\n\nF.\n\nNIGHTINGALE.\n\nreport of the Committee\n\nments, appointed\n\nat Denver\n\nand\n\non College-Entrance\n\ncontinued\n\nat Buffalo, is before\n\nRequireyou\n\nin\n\nthe June number of the School Review, and is published, as was the report\na year ago, without expense to the committee, through the courtesy of\nDr. Charles H. Thurber, the editor, whose memberhip on the committee\nhas been of invaluable service in enabling us, without funds, to publish\ntwo elaborate reports of our investigations in two successive years.\nThe more this subject is studied, the deeper the investigation, the\nmore widely extended the statistics gathered from secondary schools and\ncolleges, the larger the number of educational associations that appreciate\nthe situation, the greater the accumulation of public opinion aroused\nthrough the educational press, the more impressive becomes the importance, the absolute necessity, of a reform in secondary courses of study;\nand in college requirements for admission.\nMy own personal opinions are so well known; my intense enthusiasm\nfor the triumph of this cause, which involves the future of every boy and\n\ngirl in America, is so thoroughly understood; I have written so much\nand talked so many times on this subject, that it is extremely difficult to\npresent anything today that is inspirational or new.\nIf, however, I can express any thoughts that shall arouse your commendation or your criticism, excite your interest or your indignation, and\nstir this distinguished audience of college and secondary-school men and\nwomen to an intelligent and earnest grasping of the great question,\n“What ought to be provided educationally for the young men and women\n\n"}
{"page": 658, "printed_page": null, "text": "648\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nof this ‘country who surrender themselves, in their pliant and undeveloped\nyears, to the wisdom or the folly of those who make courses of study and\nThe fires are\nprovide faculties of instruction?” I shall be content.\nalready lighted, and they need but the added fuel of intellectual common\nsense to kindle a conflagration that shall consume the time-worn, the ageshattered conservatism of the past, and open. the way for new forms. of\nthought, new:lines of study, adapted to the changed conditions of society,\nthe changed ways of business, and the changed aspects of what true education means for the individual.\nWere I to present a digest of what has been written and said for ten\nyears on this subject of harmonizing college-entrance requirements, without ignoring the young people in our secondary schools who are pursuing\na course without regard to the avenues that they may open to them at its\ncompletion,itwould be condensed into the brief question, What is the\neducational value of different subjects of study? This has been the\ncasus belli between the classicists and the scientists ever since Agassiz\ntaught\n\nus how to turn\n\nthe leaves of nature, and President\n\nPorter\n\nsaid,\n\n“There is absolutely no substitute for classical study.”\nAt the end of every pitched battle the enemies have slept upon their\narms, and on every succeeding morning each has inscribed victory upon\nits banners.\nAmid this war of words, and the consequent rise of envy\nand jealousy, creating a lack of harmony in the college, and an imitative\nspirit of distrust in the secondary school, our educational progress hasbeen\n\nretarded,\n\nunity\n\nof\n\nmethod\n\nhas\n\nbeen\n\nimpracticable,\n\nharmony\n\nof\n\nrequirements impossible, and the very best interests of a great multitude\nof secondary pupils have thereby been disregarded.\nThe conflict has reached the limit of forbearance.\nA truce has been\nsettled upon, a treaty signed by which the leaders and their followers, from\ngiants to pigmies, have agreed to disagree.\nIt has always been a question\nthat no\n\nintellect\n\nshort\n\nof conscience\n\ncould\n\ndecide, and\n\nthe nearer\n\nthe\n\nhuman has approached the divine, the more conclusive has become the\nevidence that this subject admits of no solution within the limits of finite\nreason.\nThere can be no progress, however, without agitation, and, were it\nnot for the benefits of discussion, there would be no assemblies of this\n\ncharacter, no need of committees to obtain a consensus of opinion, no\ncall for investigation into the resemblances and differences of courses of\nstudy and the reasons therefor.\nYour committee has indulged in voluminous correspondence; it has\nvisited many educational associations and conferences; it has secured\nthe appointment of distinguished committees on nearly every subject\nwithin the limits of a secondary curriculum, reports from all of which are\nas yet but tentative, but which, during the next year, will deal exhaustively\n\na\n\n"}
{"page": 659, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\n649\n\nwith every study, and submit conclusions to this committee for correlation and classification.\nTo my own personal thought there is to be one important issue of all\nthis research, vzz., that\n\nthe\n\neducational value of a study is to_be\n\nbased,\n\nnot upon specific intrinsic worth of a single subject, not upon the magic\npower resulting from the pursuit of a particular study, but rather upon the\ninnate talent for and the time devoted to that study.\nA boy, endowed by nature with a love, taste, and talent for physical\nwho shall, under the direction of an inspirational teacher,\n\nphenomena,\n\ndevote the four years of his secondary-school course to the study of\nphysics by correct methods, with a proper amount of collateral work, of\ncourse, will become as great a power in the world and be as useful to himself and his generation as the boy who, fired with a zeal for linguistic\nknowledge, devotes the same time, under similar conditions, to the study\n\nof Greek.\nLet the boys change places: require the former to study\nGreek four years, and limit his pursuit of physics to one; nauseate the\nlatter with physics for four years, and confine his Greek to one; and what\nis the result?\nYou have with violence changed the course of nature;\nyou have curtailed the influence of heredity; you have discounted the\n' possibilities of a successful career; you have tried to fill the capacity of a\nsphere with a cube; you have prevented what might have been the making\nof two strong men.\n‘Talent and time, I repeat, are the elements of educational value.\nCourses of study should be so elective as to give all\npupils, under wise direction, a choice of work, and so elastic as that one\nmay pass from a study which militates against mental growth to one to\nwhich his organs of assimilation and appropriation readily respond, as\neasily and as philosophically as one changes from a harmful to a wholesome diet.\nYou may argue that wherein the endowments of nature are weak they\nmust be strengthened, that a study which is distasteful to a pupil is the\nvery study he should pursue, that by that study he may secure the gray\nmatter that is lacking.\nYou can make such a statement, I say, but you\ncannot prove it—to me.\nThere is no law, physical or psychical, in earth\nor heaven, yet revealed or discovered that can be applied in the demonstration.\nThe canons of logic will not convince, nor the refinement of\nrhetoric delude, us. The world’s history is replete with proofs of another\ncharacter.\nThe demonstration is visualized.\nThe wrecks along the shore\nof time, thick\n\nas the leaves\n\nthat strew the brooks of Vallombrosa, teach\n\nus the fallacy and the folly of an effort to improve upon or to outwit\n‘nature.\nYou\nYou can lead a horse to water, but you cannot make him drink.\ncan\nYou\nmorality...\ncreate\nnot\ndoes\ncan legislate at will, but legislation\nan\npass\nto\nconsideration,\nappropriate\ninduce your representatives, by an\n\n"}
{"page": 660, "printed_page": null, "text": "650\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nenactment that the flag shall wave over every schoolhouse, but no law\nwill make those same legislators patriotic.\nCompulsion under any circumstances is not a healthful form of govFreedom, under proper restrictions, is the first law of nature.\nernment.\nIt is the duty of educators to study mental phenomena, and to adapt their\nBut until the capacity, the\ninstruction to the needs of the individual.\naptitude, the talent, and genius of the child\n\nwhat shall be done?\nthat will not\n\nare\n\nExperiment, of course;\n\nreveal, after sixteen\n\nyears\n\nknown, some one asks,\n\nbut there are few pupils\n\nof life, certain\n\ninheritances\n\nof\n\nmind, certain aptitudes of skill, that will enable the wise educator to\nguide such pupils along those lines of thought and investigation which\nwill give to them the largest income from their possessions.\nIt took nearly 1,900 years to produce, utilize, and control the one element of electricity, while it was displaying its power to the ignorance of\nhumanity from the very origin of the species.\nHomer and Plato were\nread a thousand years ago as intelligently as now.\nHomer and Plato are\ngood reading still, but it is better for some people to study dynamos,\nwhile others read Demosthenes.\n\nSo much\n\nfor talent;\n\nhow\n\nabout\n\ntime?\n\nStudies that have been pursued from one-half year to a year have been\nweighed in their results with those that have been continuously pursued\nfor three or four years, and the linguist who occupied the throne said,\n“There is no comparison between the power derived from the one and\nfrom the other.”\nI have no disposition to turn the tables.\nI would give\nthe ancient languages all the time they have ever had, and encourage a\nmultitude to study them thoroughly, exhaustively, but I would give to\nother studies just as much time, in the unraveling of whose secrets and\nthe unfolding of whose laws equal power is to be gained—and power\nwhich shall be of still greater potentiality in the advancement of the race.\nI would have science, not only in each year of the secondary course, but\nI would give pupils whose talents seem to call for it the opportunity of\npursuing the same science two or more years.\nI would have history in\neach year of the course, and permit pupils to study it one or three years,\nmore or less.\n\nI would\n\nhave\n\nLatin,\n\nFrench,\n\nGerman\n\nfour\n\nyears, Greek\n\nthree years, mathematics three years, civics and economics one or more\nyears, and English all the time.\nI would give a unit of credit for every\nstudy pursued continuously and successfully for one year, and a fractional\nunit for a study occupying less than a year—as, for instance, drawing,\nwhich may occur but once or twice a week.\nI would make four rather\nthan five the basis of continuity, so that time may be left for vocal music,\nphysical culture, and other exercises not entering into the system of recognized credits, but which are necessary concomitants of a public high\nschool.\nI would make fifteen units the requirement for admission to\ncollege, not necessarily any fifteen units, but fifteen units consistent with\n\n"}
{"page": 661, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE REQUIREMENTS\n\n651\n\nthe principle of concentration, co-ordination, and correlation, terms which\n\nmust not be ignored in this age, and which, in all their meaningful significance, should enter into the preparation of every course of study.\nGranting that there is some wisdom in this idea of elasticity and continuity, we are brought at once to the consideration of how much shall\nconstitute a year’s work, and what shall be the order of studies.\nJust as much credit should be given to a pupil for what he accomplishes in the fourth year before entering college as in the last year, for\nhe spends just as much time, thought, and energy in the acquisition of\nhis first year’s knowledge as in that of his fourth year—and it is just as\nessential in the sum total of his preparation.\nOne vital mistake has been\nmade in our secondary curricula, chargeable somewhat to the celebrated\nand commendable report of the Committee of Ten, a mistake which must\nbe radically remedied in the adjustment of this question.\nI refer to\nthe miscellaneous arrangement of a large number of studies, running\nparallel and appearing in the course but two or three times a week.\nThis attempt to satisfy all demands, and to compel pupils to carry five\nor six studies, passing from one to the other twice or three times a week,\nis absolutely destructive of continuity of thought, conservation of interest,\n-and promise of progress.\nPupils from fourteen to eighteen years of age must pursue their work\ncontinuously from day to day, if we would give to them that power which\nis the end of all study.\nI speak from long experience, and I know that\nthe best teachers cannot preserve and enhance the interest of pupils in\nany study coming but twice a week.\nA study pursued five days in a week\nfor one year is of far more value to the young pupil than the same study\ntaken twice a week for four years.\nPupils cannot take everything in four years.\nLet them have that\nwhich is best suited to their tastes and aptitudes, that which they can\nassimilate and appropriate; for in this way only can we educate for the\nfuture.\nI shall not here express my own opinions concerning the order of\nstudies, although the subject is one of grave importance, and will require\nthe exercise of the most generous spirit of conciliation.\nIn the order of historical study, shall we begin with the ancient and\nproceed to the modern, ending with a careful study for one year of American history, or shall we reverse the order?\nIn science, shall physiography as a general introduction to this field\nof knowledge come first, or shall it be treated in a more exhaustive manner,\n\nand follow biology, physics, and chemistry?\nWill it be better for secondary pupils to pursue physics two years, or divide the time between\nShall civics\nphysics and chemistry, or have the choice of either or both?\nhisAmerican\nof\ndivision\nimportant\nan\nbe\nit\nshall\nor\nstudy,\nbe a distinct\n\n"}
{"page": 662, "printed_page": null, "text": "652\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\ntory? To what extent shall economics be a part of the secondary course >\nShall we have alarge number of subjects, desultorily pursued, with recita-tions two\n\nor three\n\ntimes a week, or\n\nfewer\n\nstudies\n\ncontinuously\n\npursued,\n\nwith not fewer than four recitations a week ? Shall a modern foreign language, pursued the same length of time as an ancient, be a full equivalent\nfor the ancient?\nShall we encourage the study of solid geometry in all\nsecondary courses, or shall we generally limit mathematics to plane\ngeometry thoroughly studied for one entire year? Should any institution\nfor any course demand a knowledge of trigonometry ? Shall the degree of\nA.B. be withheld from students who do not choose to study Greek, or\nshall not the same degree be granted to all who are worthy the benediction of the college at the end of a conscientiously conducted career of four\nyears ; or, still further, shall not all degrees be abolished save those secured\n\nby a resident post-graduate\nsome of the questions, ladies\n\nuniversity course\nand\n\nof two years?\n\n‘These are\n\ngentlemen, which, in connection\n\nwith\n\nthe printed report, you are requested to discuss this afternoon.\nI have\nbeen brief that you may speak at length. The issue of this great movement\ndepends much upon your attitude toward it today, upon the plans which\nyou formulate for our committee, and upon the final reports which we\nreceive from the distinguished gentlemen who in all lines of study have\nentered into this work with a zeal which entitles them to the gratitude of\nevery secondary teacher.\nPersonally I will not be discouraged, nor will I entertain the thought\nof defeat, for upon the success of this movement, so auspiciously begun,\ndepends the welfare of the public high school and the very highest interests of the children of the great middle class which is the soul of the\nRepublic.\nThe time is soon coming when there will not ‘be a village in all this\nbroad land without a high school, and may we not hope that this question\nwill be so definitely settled, and the relations between the secondary\nschools and the colleges become so intimate and cordial, that no graduate\nof a four-years’ course in a good high school shall find closed to him the\ndoors of any college in the Republic ?\n\nDISCUSSION.\nDr. NicHoLas Murray BuTLer, Columbia University.—The problem of the relation\nexisting between secondary schools and colleges is a purely artificial one. We shall\napproach its solution more easily if we try to examine the problem historically.\nEntrance examinations to colleges were established early in college history because\nof the circumstances existing at that time. The colleges were without a constituency.\nStudents, self-prepared or trained by private tutors and by unknown fitting schools,\n\na\na\n\n"}
{"page": 663, "printed_page": null, "text": "Decedincnt|\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE REQUIREMENTS\n\n653\n\napplied for admission. A test of the ability of these pupils seemed necessary ; thus the\ncollege-entrance examination was established as a means to an end.\nIf you examine the\nprogress of the pupil, you will find that no counterpart to this college-entrance examination is found elsewhere in his course, either at the time he passes from the primary to the\nIt is bad psychology and bad edugrammar grade or at his entrance to the high schoul.\ncation to suppose that there is an obstacle at the pupil’s sixteenth year which can only be\nI am sure that this should be done away with.\nsurmounted by an examination.\nA\npreparatory, or “ fitting,” school limits its work to the needs of the college that its pupils\nWork done in secondary schools in view of college-entrance requireexpect to attend.\nments may not always be the best work for the pupil.\nWe may agree with President Eliot when he says that the colleges which have kept\nup their entrance tests have in such instances done much to uplift and inspire the general\neducational work of the country.\nThis is a statement which, as an exception, proves the\nrule. In the vast majority of cases the opposite effect has been produced.\nFor the sake\nof broadening college influence I would do away with the entrance tests. The colleges\nare doing admirable work, but not enough of it. They need more students.\nThe public\nhigh schools will furnish them, if permitted to do so.\nWhen Columbia became a university, in 1890, we decided that the graduate of any\nreputable college should be admitted on the face value of his diploma.\nHis work after\nentrance would be determined by us. It would be preposterous for universities to take\nthe same attitude toward colleges as colleges take toward the high schools.\nThere is no\nreason why colleges should not receive pupils from reputable high schools without\nentrance tests. The objections to this come, first, from the private fitting schools, and,\nsecond, from within the colleges themselves, where the complaint is heard from certain\nprofessors that they would prefer pupils should come to them absolutely ignorant of subjects than poorly taught. This is not a real alternative, and the objection is unreasonable.\nYou in the West must bear in mind that the eastern colleges have little affiliation with\nhigh schools, their preparatory work being largely done by private “fitting ” schools.\nWhen the Committee of Ten inquired into the condition of the secondary schools of\nthe country, it was found that a very large number of subjects and divisions of subjects\n\nwere taught. There was a tendency to allow the pupil to carry from five to eight studies\nfor a few hours a week each, and to drag out the high-school course.\nThis is highly\nobjectionable.\nThe course must be rearranged so that fewer subjects are taught and\ngreater concentration permitted upon them.\nEverything must be done to make it easier\n\nfor pupils to attend college. When a new college is founded, the faculty usually wishes\nto prepare a curriculum whose requirements differ from those of every other college, so\n‘they may show their “individuality.”\nA faculty should rather consider, What instruction can we best give? When we get\nthe colleges to understand that they are not doing the best thing by isolating themselves,\nwhen they learn to feel the influence of the high school, a good work will be well begun.\n\nThe leadership in this movement belongs to the state universities\n\nof the West, and\n\nthose schools which they can influence.\nProressor A. C. MCLAUGHLIN, University of Michigan.—I come as a representative of the Committee on History, which has in charge the mapping-out of the work in\nthis subject. I was asked by the committee to appear here to try to awaken interest in\n_and sympathy for the work, as only by the co-operation of the teachers of the country can\nmuch bedone.\n\nEach committee feels its work is onerous, but that of history is especially\n\nso, since other subjects have been long accepted and methods of study recognized; but\n‘history has yet to find her place. We expect to map out a model programme.\nIn order\n\nae\n\nto do this well, we wish to go to the bottom of the affair, to agree as to methods of teach-ing, amount to be taught, when each branch of the subject should be presented, etc. To\n\n"}
{"page": 664, "printed_page": null, "text": "654\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nthis end circulars have been sent out to representative high schools to obtain data. A\npart of our committee is now in Europe studying this subject in European schools.\nThe great desire of the committee is to be helpful, to open broader vistas to the\nteachers,\nIt is evident that there will be a disagreement as to the order of presentation of subly history in the first year,\n— ancient\njects. I believe it should be treated chronological\nmedizval in the second, English in the third, and United States in the fourth. The vexed\nquestion of general history will present itself. This resolves itself into the question as to\nwhether we shall take the history of one nation for the period from the fall of Rome to\nmodern times, or study that period by episodes. The teacher who knows what he has to\nteach and has high ideals will teach wisely.\nI do not see how English or American history can be taught without that of constitutional development; hence civil government may well be presented in connection with\nthe history of these two nations.\n\nPRoFEssOoR H. MorRSE STEPHENS, Cornell University\n——I happen to be the man who\nnamed this committee, and thought I had done well, and that my work was finished, until\n\nI heard at the New York meeting that I also must serve on the committee.\nWe\nwish to have this committee embrace secondary as well as college teachers.\nIf we can\nawaken interest in the subject among secondary teachers, we shall do much.\nI deprecate the teaching of history with political economy.\nHistory is a jealous\nmistress, not a hand-maid.\n\nWhen treated as subordinate, the teaching of history is bad\n\nteaching.\nOne danger which threatens us is that we may be accused\n\nfaith; but if the teacher of history have\n\nof teaching some special\nan enthusiastic love of his work and a proper\n\nreverence for the subject, he may be trusted.\nfrom economics.\n\nLet my closing counsel be, Separate history\n\nPROFESSOR B. A. HINSDALE, University of Michigan.—I\n\nwish, in the first place, to\n\nsay that I did not understand Professor McLaughlin as Professor Stephens did. History\nmust be taught with reference to a co-ordinating of materials.\nBushels of facts do not\nmake history, material must be organized around some nucleus, arranged with reference\nto the institutional facts of countries, of races, and of the world.\n\nI think\n\nthis is what\n\nProfessor McLaughlin meant.\nLet me ask this important question: What have been the prevailing tendencies of\neducational thought in progressive parts of the world?\nI believe this question should be\nstudied carefully, thoughtfully, reverently.. Let us notice first in these tendencies the\ndemocratizing feature.\nI might speak of the secular tendency or of the scientific tendency, but I wish to mention especially the catholic tendency of this age.\nA movement\nmay be discerned at present to attempt to deal with the present need of mankind.\nAnyone who has given much attention to the subject has noticed also the changing\nconditions.\n\nIn the eastern states, under\n\nthe old régime, colleges had their own\n\nfitting\n\nschools, which did just such work as the colleges required.\nThis is largely the case in\nthe East still, although all over the country the colleges are beginning to cast off their\nfitting schools ; and this is due to the democratizing influence of the day. The establishment of public schools has brought this about.\nThe’situation is this: institutions now\ndepend upon the public high schools for-pupils.\nThis is a very important fact; especially in the West do the colleges and universities rest upon the public high school as a\nbasis.\nThere are two points of view from which the high school may be considered: first,\nit is a finishing school for those who go no farther, called the “people’s college ;” second,\nit is a fitting school for the college or university.\nThe question arises as to whether the\name school which is best for one is also best for the other.\nWe are confronted by this\n\n"}
{"page": 665, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nas a situation,\n\nPRINCIPALS’\n\nnot\n\nas a theory.\n\nROUND\n\nCollege\n\nmen\n\nTABLE\n\nshould\n\n655\n\nask\n\nthemselves,\n\nHow\n\nfar is it\n\npossible to use these schools for our purpose?\nDictation from either side is wrong,\nCareful study of the subject from both sides is necessary in order to make the high school\nthe best finishing and also the best fitting school.\nPROFESSOR\n\nCHAMBERLIN,\n\nThe\n\nUniversity of Chicago.—As teachers we consider\n\nthe individual too much, the community too little. We cannot bring the community into\nschool, so we must send educators into the community.\nThe question may arise as to\nwhether we shall tax the community to educate individuals, but we can never question\nthe right of taxing the community to educate\n\n. munity persons who are diversely educated,\n\nitself.\n\nAgain,\n\nif we\n\nsend\n\ninto the com-\n\nwe are educating the community\n\nalong the\n\ndifferent necessary lines. If we send out those who are enthusiastic for history or science,\nwe are doing more good to the community than if we send those who are poorly educated\nor half-educated in many subjects.\n\n4\n\nA phase of the report which I especially like is the tender regard whichis shown to\nthe younger subjects. The committee has done all that it could to give these younger\nsubjects opportunity to grow.\nThe beauty of the entire report is that it has considered\nall subjects which need our attention.\n\nPRESIDENT CANFIELD, Ohio State University.\nThis subject comes to us with many\nphases.\nFirst, the money which supports our educational institutions comes from the\ntaxpayers, to whom we have a duty to perform in explaining how wisely we have\nexpended their money.\nThe public demands, and rightfully, that we give to its young\npeople ability to satisfy the reasonable demands which are made upon them.\nUnder\nthese\n\ndemands we consider, first, ability to live independent\n\nability to think well;\n\nevery\n\nman\n\ndesires\n\nto be able\n\nof the community;\n\nto square\n\nhimself\n\nsecond,\n\nwith other men;\n\nthird, every man desires to do something which shall remain after him.\nWe must set\nhim right at the start, that he may be enabled to do for himself the best possible.\n\nPRINCIPALS’\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE.\n\n1. Ls t¢ desirable and possible by better correlation of studies and closer\narticulation between the grammar and high schools to fit students for college\nat sixteen or seventeen years of age?\nMrs. HELEN E. SCARRETT, Scoville Place School, Oak Park, Ill— The evident reply\n\nto the question, “Can students be fitted for college at the age of sixteen or seventeen ?”\nwould\n\nseem to be, “It can\n\nbe done, for it has been\n\ndone.”\n\nScores\n\nof instances\n\ncan be\n\ngiven, many of them in the case of eminent men and women of our own and former times,\n\nwhere preparations for college have been accomplished at even an earlier age.\nLongfellow graduated from college at the age of nineteen.\nPresident Harper of The University of Chicago graduated from Muskingum College at the age of fourteen, spent two\nyears out of college, and then graduated from Yale at the age of eighteen.\n\nIt will, of course, be objected by those who do not believe that such early preparation is desirable that these and other instances of successful early preparation for college\nare exceptions, and to be accounted for by the exceptional mental maturity of the\nstudents. They will say, as did the president of Leland Stanford University, when asked\nif he would advise sending a girl to a co-educational\n\ncollege:\n\n‘It depends on the girl.”\n\nWhether a student can be fitted for college at the age of sixteen or seventeen depends\n\n"}
{"page": 666, "printed_page": null, "text": "yo\n\n656\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nupon the student himself. The great differences in mental maturity, habits of study, and\nearly training between students of the same age all must admit ; nevertheless, I must give\nit as my opinion that by careful, thorough, and systematic work students in general can\nbe fitted for entrance to college at the age of seventeen, and in many instances at sixteen.\nLeaving to others the discussion of the necessary co-ordination of studies and of the\nrelative amount of time to be devoted to the mathematical, linguistic, and\n\nother branches\n\nrequired for admission to college, I wish to emphasize especially two things which seem\nto me essential factors in successful and adequate preparation for the years of college\nlife, _The first of these is the systematic division of time in the hours given to study and\nthe cultivation of the habit of concentrated attention during these hours.\nMuch time is\nwasted by pupils in the golden years between thirteen and sixteen in a kind of mental\nLessons which might be learned in an hour, did the pupil but concentrate his\ndawdling.\nattention, are allowed to occupy at least two hours.\n‘To teach a student to work when he\nworks and to play when he plays is to equip him with mental habits that will be of the\ngreatest value to him throughout life. Our duties in life are like articles of apparel or\nother material belongings.\nLeft lying around in disorder, they seem to fill all space, but\narranged and packed in a systematic and orderly manner, they take up a comparatively\nThis disposition to orderly and systematic apporsmall portion of either time or space.\n\ntionment of time is seldom found in the pupil as a natural faculty; hence it must be cultivated by those whose duty it is to superintend his work.\nIt is for the lack of this systematic division and use of time that so many students\npreparing for college drop from their curriculum music, general literature, and history of\n\nart. To my mind the loss of these factors in the education of the young mind is an\nirreparable one.\nProfessor John Dewey has well said that the tendency to regard the\naesthetic studies as only the frills and luxuries of education is a most deplorable one. To\nlose these elements of the higher education is to rob life of its keenest and purest sources\nof enjoyment. I care not how much nor how many of the “information studies,” as they\nare called, have been packed into the mind: that student is imperfectly educated who\nhas left out of his curriculum the study and the practice of those elements of education\nwhich teach him to feel. The student who reads so little of good literature that he\ncomes to the reading of the English classics required for college\n\nas to a dreaded\n\ntask is\n\nshut out from one of the purest sources of human happiness.\nThe student who has given\nso little time and thought to observation and study of the beautiful that he does not\nrecognize beauty when he sees it, either in nature or art, knows not of the world of pure\nenjoyment from which he is debarred.\nAnd yet, in the hurry and rush and often\nunsystematic work of preparation for college, we principals of secondary schools too\nfrequently allow all this neglect and destruction of the finest elements of life to go on,\nscarcely daring to lift our voices in protest, because the “information studies”? must be\nfinished if our student is to be accepted as ready for college.\nSome modification of the entrance requirements for college, it seems to me, is desirable in order to give more time for these esthetic necessities, if we would develop the\npupil into a harmoniously rounded mental and spiritual maturity. But that it is possible,\nby a systematic division of time and careful arrangement of hours of study during the\npreparatory period, to carry all these departments of preparatory education toa successful\nculmination at the age of sixteen or seventeen years both experience and observation\nlead me to believe.\n\nPRINCIPAL E, W. Coy, Hughes High School, Cincinnati, O.— There are two points\nto be considered in this discussion: First, is it desirable to fit pupils for college at the age\n\nof sixteen or seventeen ? My impression is that it is doubtful.\nCollege work requires\ngreater maturity of mind than the average sixteen- or seventeen-year-old youth possesses.\nSecondly, the education of a boy begins at six; ten years might seem enough for college\n\nwi\n\naere\nse\n\n"}
{"page": 667, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPRINCIPALS’ ROUND\n\nTABLE\n\n657\n\npreparation, but is it practicable to shorten it?\nThe majority of our pupils are not\nexpecting to go to college, hence, as their life training is to be obtained in the high schools\nof the country, to shorten the amount of required work would be to defraud these pupils\nof what is due to them, I think something might be done by condensing the work below\nthe high school, yet I doubt the advisability of hastening.\nPRESIDENT THURBER.— That great bugbear, the “people,” frightens us sometimes.\nThis “people” thinks we keep our boys and girls too long in school, consume too much\ntime in preparing for life. This question is, therefore, of utmost importance.\n\nPRoFEssoR A. P. BRIGHAM, Colgate University, thought that here as elsewhere\nthe golden mean is desirable. While a few boys would be able to enter college at sixteen\nor seventeen, he thought eighteen was a better age for the average youth.\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nthis discussion.\n\nT. A. Mort, Richmond,\n\nI agree in part.\n\nInd.—I\n\nIn the discussion\n\nhave\n\nbeen\n\nmuch\n\nof the morning\n\ninterested\n\nin\n\nvery lofty ideals\n\nwere presented.\nThe boy who is able to reach these ideals must have gained the maturity\nof at least eighteen years.\nI believe we may by means of the nature work in the lower grades remove the need of\nphysical geography in the high school, and by our grade work in algebra and geometry\nshorten the time required for these studies in high schools.\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nJ, A. TORMEY, Winona,\n\nMinn.—Of\n\nthe fifteen\n\nthousand\n\nnames\n\nwhich have become eminent in the history of our country a great majority have been\nthose of college graduates.\nThe important thing is that the boy go to college. While it\nmay not be desirable for men to enter the profession before their twenty-fifth or twentysixth year, it is highly desirable that they receive college training before entering their\nprofessional schools.\nObjections to college training are made on the score of lack of\ntime. If we could gain some time, might we not send more men to college ?\nPROFESSOR\n\nG. N. CARMAN,\n\nDirector of Lewis Institute, Chicago, Ill.— Of course, it\n\nis possible to enter pupils at sixteen or seventeen, if it is desirable, and it seems to me that\nit 2s desirable, for the reason suggested by Superintendent Tormey.\nBusiness men will\nnot go to college because it is so late when they have completed their preparatory course.\nWe must not think the pupil is made for the school, but the school for the pupil. All the\ntrend has been toward lengthening instead of shortening the time of preparation.\n\n2. What effect has the study of algebra and geometry\ngrammar grades upon the work done tn the high school ?\nPRINCIPAL W. H. SmILEy, High\n\nin the ae\n\nSchool, Denver, Colo.— For the purpose of secur-\n\ning the opinions of those superintendents and principals of high schools and grammar\nschools whom I had reason to believe had made trial of these subjects in grammar grades,\nI asked the following questions of twenty-five different persons, receiving answers from\ntwenty:\n\n1. How much time do your schools give to each of these subjects in these grades ?\nAlgebra?\nGeometry ?\n2. If geometery is not taught as a separate subject, to what extent and in what form\nis it correlated with other subjects ?\n3. Is less time given in the high school to either subject because of this instruction ?\n4. If the same time be given, is the quality of the work improved and the ground\n\ncovered greater ?\n5. Have you noticed any increase in power\nbecause of this instruction ?\n\non the part of students\n\nin other work\n\n"}
{"page": 668, "printed_page": null, "text": "658\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\ny\n\n6. Have you noted any loss of interest or other ill effect upon these subjects in the\nhigh school because of this elementary instruction?\n7. What value, as elementary subjects, do you attach to each study, for those who do\nnot intend to enter the high school as well as for those who do?\n\nAs indicative\n\nin a’ general way of the standing of those from whom answers\n\nhave\n\nbeen received, I will mention Principal Huling, English High School, Cambridge, Mass.;\n\nSuperintendent Balliet, Springfield, Mass.; Principal Atkinson, High School, Springfield,\nMass.; Superintendent Dutton, Brookline, Mass.; Principal Coy, Hughes High School,\nCincinnati, O.; Superintendent Speer, Chicago, Ill.; Principal Rockwood, Marquette\nSchool, Chicago, Il.; Principal Buchanan, Boys’ Classical High School, New York city.\n\nWhile the number from whom replies were requested is not large, yet, if multiplied, I\ndoubt if the inferences that might be drawn would be different, or more conclusive.\nThe\nwhole movement is still experimental, and several of those on whose judgment we habitually rely affirm that it is too soon to draw sound conclusions.\nThat the experiment is\ntentative is furthermore indicated by the extraordinary variation in time allotment, which\n\nvaries for algebra from five months to three years, and from one hour per week to three\nhours per week.\nFor geometry only three schools make report; one gives ten weeks\nlength of time per week unspecified; one gives two hours per week for two years; one\ngives five periods per week for one year, divided between algebra and geometry in the\nratio of 3 to 2.\nThe answers to the question regarding the correlation of geometry with other studies\n\nwere disappointing because of their meagerness.\nMuch true geometrical instruction is\ncertainly given in many schools, though the replies would not so indicate — in kindergarten work,\n\nin geometrical\n\nproblems, in mechanical drawing;\n\nand in arithmetic wherever”\n\nSuperintendent Speer’s arithmetical system is employed; the fundamental postulate being\nthat no rapid, intelligent handling of abstract numbers is possible, unless the sense-perceptions are thoroughly drilled in the handling of concrete geometric space units in all\ntheir relative relations. All that a teacher who has been trained in rote methods of handling abstract numbers needs to be convinced of the value of such concrete inventional\ngeometry is to see little fellows in the fourth grade easily outstrip him in the rapid and\nunderstanding solution of problems which he himself can perform only by the slower\nabstract methods of his boyhood.\nBy the answers to this question I expected to find it\nshown conclusively that geometry adapted to children in the lower grades is much more\nvaluable than algebra, both for discipline and for information. -I regret to state that\nseveral principals seem not to conceive that geometry can be attacked in any other\nmethod than by the deductive learning of theorems and demonstrations.\nThe replies to the other questions, therefore, refer for the most part to algebra.\nAll\nagree that the amount of time given to the subject in secondary schools is no less, and\nabout one-half think that greater efficiency is secured. Some have noted increased power\nin other subjects, because of better habits of work formed in these mathematical subjects.\nOne-third have noticed an increased interest in these subjects when continued in the high\nschool.\n\nOne only has noted loss of interest —‘‘because,”\n\nto use\n\nhis own words, “ poor\n\nteaching of the high-school subject in the grammar school gives a distaste for that subject.\nWhen these subjects are uniformly and properly taught, I shall attach considerable value\nto them.”\nAs to the question of such subjects being of value to all pupils, regardless of the fact\nthat only a small percentage of the pupils of the elementary schools will reach the high\nschool, I regard it as an unfortunate sign that some see little value in algebra for those\nwho do not continue on to the high school.\nAs regards geometry, the opinion is all but\nunanimous that the subject has great value, both from the point of view of discipline and\nthe practical value of its subject-matter; this in face of the fact that 90 per cent. of the\nschools are experimenting with algebra and only 10 per cent. with geometry.\n\nll,\nls\n+!\nBh\ngy\ni\n\ned\na\n\n"}
{"page": 669, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPRINCIPALS’\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\n659\n\nPRINCIPAL O. S. Westcort, North Division High School, Chicago, Ill—We are\nattempting to discuss a subject five years in advance of history. We can only give our\nviews as to what will be accomplished if this work is carried on. Such.a book as that\nissued by Professor Hill in geometry would surely be very helpful if carried by grammar\ngrades. The danger will always be what it is at present, namely, the grade teachers are\nnot prepared to teach the subjects properly, and there is so much already which must be\ndone in the higher grammar grades that we wonder where the time for all is to be\nWe have tried algebra and geometry in the eighth grade for two years. Early\nfound.\nlast fall I asked my teacher of mathematics in the high school hew she found the pupils\nwho had had the training of the previous year in comparison with those who had not.\nShe replied that they took the work up more readily. But when I asked her again in\nJune, she replied that she preferred that the grammar grades let the work alone. I agree\nwith her.\nOur pupils are not ready for college before their eighteenth or nineteenth year. Perhaps, if the pupils were older, we should have less trouble with hazing and kindred evils.\nPRINCIPAL W. J. PRINGLE, Aurora, Ill.— It seems to me that the air which we breathe\n\nthis afternoon is of a conservative quality. Cane rushes are not the worst things, although\nthere are better things. I think something should be done to enter our boys in college\nearlier. Is there a waste in grammar or high school? I think there is. There is a notion\nthat a boy could do more work before he enters college. It seems to me he might, if he\nwere hurried along a little faster. I also believe in more freedom in the high school.\nTeach self-control, and thus prepare the boy for college life.\n\nSUPERINTENDENT L. H. Forp, Owatonna, Minn.— Economy of time is economy of\nlife.\n\nWe owe it to our young\n\nforcing their growth.\n\npeople to economize\n\ntheir lives, but we\n\ncannot do this by\n\nNature requires time; let us not hurry our pupils so much that we\n\nshall have forced natures as a result. There is no question but that concrete geometry\nshould be taught in the lowest grade; the same is true of algebra and of the sciences.\nWe have had algebra in the eighth grade two years, and have found it successful.\n\nAs to the previous question, I should say it is neither desirable, nor practicable, nor\npossible, to prepare pupils for college by the time they are sixteen years old.\nSUPERINTENDENT H. A. WIsE, Baltimore, Md.— Many of our college presidents\ndesire that we send them our boys at an earlier age than we do, I believe, by enriching\nthe grammar course of study, a boy might be prepared for college at sixteen or seventeen.\nIn Baltimore algebra is taught in the sixth, seventh, and eighth grades, and geometry\nin the seventh and eighth, with satisfactory results.\n\nGerman instead of so much work in English?\nimproved ?\n\nw\n\nf\na\n\nWhy not introduce Latin, French, or\n\nWould not time be gained and English\n\nA. F. NIGHTINGALE, Superintendent of High Schools, Chicago, Il].—I believe the\nhigher grammar-grade teachers do as good work as the high-school teachers and the highschool teachers as good work as the college professors. We are too much in the habit of\nlaying the blame upon the teachers of any or all other schools than our own.\nWe should\nstop this complaining ;we waste time and energy, and delay progress.\nI believe the\nsubjects taught in the universities and colleges should be begun in the lowest grades, in\na manner, of course, adapted\n\nto the appreciation\n\nof the child; but the great trouble is\n\nthat we have been enriching the grades by piling in for a long while, while we have\ntaken nothing out. The result is that the grammar grades are congested.\nIf we should\nspend less time on political geography and technical English, we should have more which\nmight be given to physical geography and Latin. Abridge as well as enrich. By intro-\n\nducing algebra into our eighth year we saved during the first year of its trial three weeks\n\n"}
{"page": 670, "printed_page": null, "text": "~-\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nNATIONAL\n\n660\n\n[Secondary\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nin the ninth year.\n\nin the ninth year, and after another year’s trial we saved six weeks\nexpect it to do more in the future.\n\nI\n\n3. Should the high-school principal be given a voice in selecting hts asststants ?\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nHENRY\n\nP. EMERSON, Buffalo, N. Y.—At\n\nfirst reading it seemed\n\nto me that there was but one answer which could be given to this question, for it is so\nobviously true that the principal should have a voice in choosing his assistants that it\nIf the principal is large enough to be a principal, he is large\nneed not be discussed.\nenough to choose his assistants.\nThere is no doubt that in the average case the principal\ncould do better than his superintendent, but we may expect the best results when he acts\nconjointly with the superintendent.\nI have known one principal who chose those teachers whom he could easily manage;\nin such a case it would be unwise for the principal always to do his own selecting.\nHigh-school teachers should have opinions of their own; they should be men and women\n\nof character.\n\nBut, if the principal is large enough for his position,I say again, he is large\n\nenough to choose his own assistants.\nPRINCIPAL J. REMSEN BisHop, Walnut Hills High School, Cincinnati, O.—The\nquestion may arise as to why it would be well to allow the principal this power.\nI think\n\none reason is, the principal is much less subject to political influence. If he were allowed\nto nominate his assistants from such candidates as he knew to be best suited to fill the\nplace needed, much of the evil of political wire-pulling would be eliminated from the\nhigh-school work.\nAgain, the principal\n\nknows\n\nbetter than anyone\n\nelse just what\n\nsort of person will\n\nbest fill the place and do the specific work which he desires.\nSUPERINTENDENT H, A. WISE, Baltimore, Md.—I think this is a delicate question.\nIn Baltimore we have done much to eliminate the political influence below the high school\nby having a civil-service list, and giving the positions to the candidates in order of proficiency.\nPRINCIPAL\n\nE. W.\n\nCoy, Hughes\n\nHigh\n\nSchool, Cincinnati, O.—I\n\ndo not like\n\nthe\n\ncivil-service list ;so much that enters into the making of a good teacher cannot be ascer-\n\ntained by a written examination.\nPRINCIPAL HENRY S. PurpDy, Brewster, N. Y.— Most of the high schools of our\ncountry are under a different organization from those mentioned.\nThe teachers are\nelected directly by a board of education, instead of being chosen by the superintendent.\nEven in these cases, though, I believe\nhis wishes will be consulted.\n\na broad\n\nprincipal will make\n\nhimself\n\nfelt, so that\n\ns\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\nIN\n\nLATIN\n\nAND\n\nGREEK.\n\n1. Are not college-entrance requirements pitched too high ?\nPROFESSOR GEORGE M. SMITH, University of South Dakota.— Differences of opinion arise from different points of view. Some schools wish to fit a few well; others to\ndo as much as possible for the many.\nIt isa mistake to continue raising the requirements\nfor admission to college. We are overloading pupils’ minds with information instead of\n\n"}
{"page": 671, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\n:\n\ngiving them\npossible.\n\nculture.\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nROUND\n\nWe\n\nTABLE\n\nshould\n\nIN LATIN\n\nAND\n\nGREEK\n\n661\n\nkeep our secondary\n\neducation as near the masses as\n\nC. W. SUPER, Ohio University.—Who\n\nis to set the pace, the college, the\n\nhigh school, or the community?\nIn some particulars the requirements are too high, in\nothers too low.\nPut Latin and Greek more largely into college courses, and give more\ntime in high schools to English branches.\nI doubt the wisdom of requiring any modern\nlanguages for admission.\nPROFESSOR\n\nRICHARDSON,\n\nEast St. Louis, I].— Pupils have\n\nbeen defrauded of their\n\nbirthright, the right to a high-school education, by being coerced into taking Latin in\nfirst year; failing, and having to take the work over, they drop out of school.\nBegin\nLatin in the second year, and give only three years.\nPROFESSOR\n\nW. H. SMILEY, Denver, Colo.— Quantity\n\nis less than\n\nquality of work.\n\nEncourage all pupils to take some work that shall give the culture so much needed in the\ndetermination of the social problems which are pressing upon us. Let the colleges concede something to the public good.\n\n2. Ls there any better test of power\ntwofold translation ?\nPAPER\n\nBY\n\nPRINCIPAL\n\nWILSON\n\nand proficiency\n\nFARRAND,\n\nNEWARK\n\nin English than a\n\nACADEMY,\n\nNEWARK,\n\nN. J.\n\nI have been asked to answer this afternoon the question, Is there any\nbetter test of power and proficiency in English than a twofold translation?\nJ apprehend that there is more in this question than appears on\nthe surface.\nThe words deal simply with the testing of power and _proficiency, no matter\n\nhow attained.\n\nWe are more concerned, however, with\n\nthe best means of attaining power and proficiency than we are with the\nbest means of testing our work.\nAnd yet the ultimate test to be applied\nlargely conditions our work.\nI assume that the question refers mainly to\nthe test of fitness for admission to college.\nIf the college-entrance test\nis to consist of a twofold translation from Latin, or Greek, or German, it\n\nmust inevitably affect the work\nshould.\n\nof our schools.\n\nAnd\n\nit is right that it\n\nFor I hold that it is an axiom, a self-evident truth, that college\n\nrequirements should be so framed as to guide and direct the work of the\nsecondary schools.\n\n=,\nZ ed\n\nIt seems to me, then, that an adequate answer to the\n\nquestion presented to us this afternoon must also answer the question,\nWhat is the value of the practice of twofold translation in developing\npower and proficiency in English ?\nThe first proposition that I have to lay down is that twofold translation is an extremely valuable aid in increasing a pupil’s command of\nEnglish.\nIt helps his power of expression in three distinct respects.\nFirst, it increases his command\n\nof words.\n\nThe habit of considering and\n\nchoosing the best possible word to express the exact shade of meaning\nintended by the author cannot fail to produce an enlarged vocabulary\nand an increased discrimination and refinement in one’s diction.\nSec-ondly, the practice of twofold translation gives most valuable training in\n\n"}
{"page": 672, "printed_page": null, "text": "662\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n| __ [Secondary\n\nthe use of equivalent or alternative expressions, and thus induces flexibilI am inclined to think that it is in this\nity and variety of language.\nIn the third place,it\ndirection that its greatest value is to be found.\nforms in the pupil the habit of criticising his own work, of looking at his\nown expression ‘with reference to its accuracy, its clearness, its precision,\nI am not sure that it would not have been wiser to call\nits harmony.\nthis developing of the critical instinct the most important function of\ntwofold translation.\nWhen I think of the flood of bad and slipshod\nEnglish poured out upon our boysand girls in the street, at home, and\nin the press ; when I think how sweetly and calmly they assimilate and\nreproduce the worst models ; when I recall how often they say, when\n\nwe\n\npoint out arrant errors in their writing, ‘I don’t see anything the matter\nwith it ;”’ when I think of these things, I am sometimes inclined to feel\nthat the first requisite to securing power and proficiency in English is the\ndevelopment of an abnormal critical instinct.\nWe are safe, I think, in assuming the substantial truth of this first\nproposition that twofold translation is a most valuable exercise in English. But side by side with this must be placed another, that, valuable as\nthis practice is, it is still inadequate.\nWe are all probably prepared to\nadmit that translation from foreign tongues by itself would hardly give\nall the training in composition needed by our pupils.\nIt may pay us to\nconsider the question of just where it would fall short.\nIn the first place, it fails to give a clear grasp of the principles of\nEnglish sentence structure.\nOne of the most glaring faults of the ‘‘ school\nEnglish” of the present day is in the line of defective sentence structure.\nLoose, rambling, disjointed, sprawling sentences are only too characteristic of the pupils’ writing, even in many of our so-called “ best schools.”\nSomething more than mere imitation is needed to produce the desired\nresult.\n\nKnowledge is imperative.\n\nLatin and German sentences, too, are\n\nconstructed on fundamentally different principles from those of our own\ntongue, so that they are not the best models for imitation.\nSome tentative examination of the work of classical pupils who have had little specific instruction in English composition has shown a distinct tendency\ntoward looseness and weakness of sentence structure.\nDo not misunderstand me.\nI am not arguing that the study of Latin and Greek has a\nbad effect on English style. I am simply trying to point out the fact\nthat, admirable, I had almost\n\nsaid, invaluable, as is the effect of classical\n\nstudy on one’s handling of the vernacular, it is not sufficient ; there are\nsome things it does not do, some points in which it must be supplemented.\nSentence structure is one of these points, and another is the use of\nthe paragraph.\nNothing has been more significant in the rhetorical field\nof late years than the tendency to lay increased emphasis on the paragraph. Many of our soundest teachers hold that the true method of\n\n"}
{"page": 673, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\n>\"\n_\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\nIN LATIN AND\n\nGREEK\n\n663\n\nteaching English composition is to make the paragraph the unit, and to\ntreat sentences and words as component parts of the larger whole.\nBe\nthat as it may, there is practically no dispute as to the importance of the\nability properly to construct an English paragraph.\nAnd that: ability is\nnot imbibed indirectly through the process of twofold translation.\nThere is still another point to be considered in this connection, and\nthis, after all, is the vital point.\nComposition does not consist in precise\ndiction, in deft phrasing, nor even in clear and vigorous sentence formaNor does it consist in the expression in our own tongue of thoughts\ntion.\nIt consists in the formation of ideas that\nthat were uttered in another.\nThe purpose of composition\nhave shaped themselves in our own minds.\nTranslation is an excellent\nis the expression of one’s own thoughts.\nThe following the thought of a great mind, the attempt to\ngymnastic.\nexpress in English the idea that was first formulated in Latin or Greek,\nmust make it easier for one to express his own thoughts.\nIt is excellent\nThe gymnasium and the\ngymnastics, but, after all, it is only gymnastics.\nrowing machine are excellent, but one learns to row better in a boat.\nTranslation is admirable, but one learns better to compose by the practice of composition.\nEfficient as translation is, effective as the practice\nof twofold translation is, it is yet not sufficient.\nIt must be supplemented\nby study of sentence formation and of paragraph structure, and by practice in the expression of one’s own ideas.\nThe study of Latin and Greek is believed by many of us to be one of\nthe most valuable instruments of modern education.\nWe find many\nreasons for the faith that isin us. Not the least of these reasons is the\nincreased command that it gives one over his mother tongue.\nI am prepared to maintain the truth of the principle that the classical student\nneeds less formal training in English than his fellow who studies neither\nLatin nor Greek.\nSide by side with that, however, I lay down the principle that formal work in English can never be wholly superseded by work\nin the classics. Latin and Greek may be so taught, and should be so taught,\nas distinctly to increase the student’s command of his own tongue.\nThe\nbetter they are taught, the less will be the need of studying English grammar and rhetoric; but if the student is to develop to its full extent the\npower to express his own ideas, there is imperative need of something\nmore than translation alone.\nI have stated, and have endeavored to maintain, two propositions.\nThe first is that exercises in twofold translation are of great service in\nincreasing a pupil’s command of English, particularly in regard to the\nchoice and use of words, and in regard to accurate and harmonious\nphraseology.\nThe second proposition is that, excellent as these exercises\nare, they are inadequate, in that they give but little training in sentence\nformation, and none whatever in paragraph structure or in the expression\n\n"}
{"page": 674, "printed_page": null, "text": "vis\nie\n\nfo\n\nNATIONAL\n\n664\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n[Secondary\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nof one’s own ideas. From these two corollary propositions may be deduced\nThe first is that a twofold translation is an excellent\nwithout argument.\ntest of a pupil’s diction and of his ability to handle subordinate phrases\n‘The second is that it does not adequately test his control of\nand clauses.\nthe sentence, and\n\nfails to show anything whatever\n\nof his ability to con-\n\nstruct a paragraph, to arrange his thoughts in logical and forcible order,\nor to express his own ideas in clear, accurate English.\nOn these grounds, and without considering at all the interesting problem of how far a pupil’s English in translation is affected by his inability\nfully to grasp the meaning of the original, I am prepared to answer in no\nuncertain words the question that has been propounded: Is a twofold\ntranslation the best possible test of power and proficiency in English?\nNo; for it fails to test the command of certain fundamentals of composition, and shows nothing of the power to arrange and to express the\nIs there any better test of power and profithoughts of one’s own mind.\nciency in English than a twofold translation?\nYes; the orderly arrangement and expression, in proper literary form, of the pupil’s own ideas on\nsome subject well within his mental grasp.\nPROFESSOR\n\nMANCHESTER,\n\nIllinois State\n\nUniversity,\n\ncalled\n\nattention\n\nto the oppor-\n\ntunity for correlating English and Latin.\nPROFESSOR C, W. SUPER, Ohio University, Athens, O.—Pupils may be able to express\n\ntheir own thoughts in good English, but not able to express the thoughts of others.\nHow\nshall we explain the fact that the study of Greek and Latin in Germany almost destroyed\nthe writing of good German, and in England produced the greatest period of literary\nactivity ?\n\nMiss Lewis, of Iowa.—If pupils give literal translations, they are not able to give\nfree translations ; but if they give free translations, I doubt whether they understand the\nconstructions.\nMr. HEALEY, of South Dakota.— Should we not aim to bring pupils into the spirit\nof the Greek, not destroy it by Anglicizing it ?\n\nMr. VOLLAND, Grand Rapids, Mich.— Literal translation is detrimental to the production of good English.\nLet the translation be altered to make an exact expression of\nthe meaning of the Latin.\n;\nPRINCIPAL SAWYER, Minneapolis, Minn.—Is the object to increase the\nsynonyms, or to give greater power to composition ?\n\nPROFESSOR SMITH, University of South Dakota.—If\nall, they should be into correct English.\nIf we\nshould be taught to think in Greek and Latin.\n\n3. Ls wt time for Greek\nschools?\n\nPAPER\n\nBY PRESIDENT\n\nstock\n\nof\n\nwe are to have translations at\n\ndo not have\n\ntranslations\n\nmade, pupils\n\ncomposition to be discontinued in preparatory\n\nW. E. WATERS,\n\nWELLS COLLEGE, AURORA, N. Y.\nThe question which is before us for discussion touches upon the not\ninfrequent problem of the teaching of Greek.\nPresupposing, however,\n\n"}
{"page": 675, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE IN LATIN AND GREEK\n\n665\n\nthat Greek has its legitimate place in the curriculum of secondary schools,\nthe question now before us is, more precisely: ‘“‘What about the practice\nof writing English into Greek, or what we commonly call Greek prose\ncomposition ? Can we not dispense with it and put the time usually\ndevoted to it upon something else with greater profit ?”’\nThe raising of the question here must be based on the fact that in the\nminds of a great many teachers considerable doubt exists as to the necessity or the expediency of giving Greek prose composition the place which\nit has, and which it is claimed it should have.\n\nItis felt that the discipline\n\nand culture that are derived from the study of the classical languages in\nthe schools, and, notably, from the Greek, must be seized by the pupil\nwith no waste of time at all. The great majority of those who study\nGreek in the schools do so in preparation for college. And requirements\nfor admission being continually raised, and entrance examinations being\nmade more and more severe, and even the high schools and preparatory\nschools themselves offering so many attractive courses that tempt-—and\ntempt successfully —the pupil whose strict duty it is to prepare himself\nfor college, and whose labors with Greek grammar are certainly for that\npurpose, as I have just said—there is a feeling that, if anything is oldfashioned or of minor or evanescent importance, it should be cleared out,\nor forced out, from the curriculum.\nI hear some one inquiring: “Is not\nthat the case with Greek prose composition ? Can we not, by eliminating\nit from the curriculum at the same time that we carry out certain further\nchanges, introduce a new requirement, or bring some other requirement\ninto prominence?\nCan we not cut down the time devoted to Greek from\nthree to two and a half years, or even to two years?”\nI hear some one\nelse inquiring: ‘‘What is the value of the study after all? Do we not\ntolerate or advocate the study of Greek in order that pupils may acquire\nfacility in the reading of Greek?\nWhat, pray, then, is the use or propriety of our pupils’ reversing the process and trying (and, at best, trying\nwith only a great deal of failure and uncertain stumbling) to read their\nthoughts into Greek?’”’\nSome one else inquires: “Is it not something\nlike impudence to assume to acquire the ability to write Greek, a thing\nwhich we ought to know that only aGreek himself can do, one who has the\nlanguage as his mother tongue, and has absorbed the grammar from his\ninfancy?”\nAnother says: “Greek prose composition? fie! what value\ndo the colleges put on it? If the pupil can pass his entrance examination in Xenophon and Homer, or bring a certificate that he has read\nthe required amount in two authors, that is often the end of it. They\nmake little or no further inquiries about his grammar and prose composiI suppose, too, that there are further positive or interrogatory\ntion.”\nobjections to it, which may come out in the discussion of the subject. I\nwill not consider these objections in order, but will proceed at once to\n\n"}
{"page": 676, "printed_page": null, "text": "a\n666\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nexpress my judgment as to the place and value of Greek prose composition in the curriculum of secondary schools, where boys and girls are\nbeing prepared for college, and then criticise the attitude of the higher\ninstitutions towards\nfor admission.\n\nthis, a regular, but a variously valued,\n\nrequirement\n\nGreek is studied in the secondary schools entirely as a preparatory\ndiscipline; Xenophon’s “Anabasis,’’ in order that the beauties of Attic\n\nprose may be unveiled to the pupil when he enters college; the “Iliad,”\nin order that Homer and all the forms of Greek poetry may be appreciated in college. There is no cultural value at all intended in the study\nof the “Anabasis,” though many admirable teachers do feel for it and do\nincidentally make their pupils find it. With regard to Homer, the case\nis different.\nNo one can read five lines of him understandingly without\nfeeling at once that his esthetic sense is being appealed to. Yet I maintain that the study of Homer is primarily a drill by which the pupil is to\nbe enabled to read the poet, and other poets, rapidly and easily in college.\nIt is because some schools have found time to give a cultural value to the\nstudy that the cry has been raised that the time given to it should be cut\ndown.\nNow, there are no better proofs that a pupil has been successful in his\npreparatory work with a language than these: (1) That he can pick up\na bit of the printed literature of that language (not a difficult bit necessarily) and show that he is able to interpret its sense correctly ; (2) that\nhe can express some of his ordinary thoughts in the vocabulary and idiom\nof that language, and (3) can derive some correct notion of what people\nare saying when he hears that language employed either in conversation\nor in public address.\nThe test and proof do not rest in the certificate or\nthe mere complacent consciousness that he has read so and so much, but\nin his demonstration of the fact by the actual use of the language, in\nsome way or other, whose literature and grammar he has been studying.\nNow, Greek prose composition affords one of these tests.\nIt is just like\nFrench prose or German prose composition.\nAnd who would think of\nsuppressing ¢kem in the study of French or German?\n‘They imply and\nrequire the possession of a knowledge of the greater portion of the grammar and the idioms of the language studied.\n‘““Ah, but then,” you say, “what will be the use\n\nof the ‘ Anabasis’\n\nat\n\nall? Why not limit your pupils at once to your word lists and your\ngrammar lessons?”\nI reply that that would be proper enough, if the\nreading of the literature of the language and its proper interpretation were not also a requirement, and, indeed, che requirement.\nAnd to\nmeet this, there must be constant reading of original texts. This is the\nonly way, of course, to understand any Greek author’s style, or the general\nGreek style. But Greek prose composition is the test whereby is made\n\n"}
{"page": 677, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\nIN LATIN AND\n\nGREEK\n\n667\n\nsure that the pupil has some preparation for understanding an author’s\ndiction and vocabulary and the flexibility of the grammar of the language.\nThe difficulty with the subject is, as I am aware, that it is frequently\ntaught poorly.\nInstead of coming in at each exercise or recitation as\nan organic part of it, it is relegated to a fortnightly hour.\nThe “ Xenophon” is laid aside then, and a wrestle goes on with certain features of\nGreek grammar, through the medium of a certain circumscribed vocabulary. It would be far better to consolidate the common parsing drill,\nwhich constitutes a kind of aftermath to each recitation, with some serious\n\nThat is, let the translation be, as it always\nexercise in Greek writing.\nshould be, an exercise in the interpretation of the author’s style and\nLet there be reviews and\nmeaning into good, acceptable English.\nBut let this portion of the exercise be completed within twenty\nadvance.\nto twenty-five minutes.\nLet all the novelties of form and construction\noccurring in the lesson be investigated, as matters for an explanation of\nwhich the pupils understand they are accountable. Then, instead of that\nheavy drill which follows, and upon the sharpness and thoroughness of\nwhich many a teacher has made his reputation, with here a mode and\nthere a case, let there be some exercise in the vocabulary and in the\nessentials of the grammar, as the pupil sees them in the author he is\nreading, by the putting of English into Greek.\nWho will deny that ¢hzs\nmay be a most searching drill, and a test of how much of the dictionary\nof the language and of its grammar the pupil actually has in his head and\nat his command\n\nfor successful work in college?\n\nIt is, in fact, the same\n\ntest we first and naturally employ in ascertaining how much of a modern\nlanguage a person possesses.\nA young man fresh from his second or\nthird year at college tells his father that he has been reading and study‘Oh, have you? Then how would you\ning such and such an author.\nsay or express such and such an idea in your French or German?” And\nif the young man stands the test, then the hope is warranted that he\nThe purpose of\nunderstands the language—at least to that extent.\nGreek prose is to show, not that a pupil feels\n\nhe has reached\n\n“A.\nre\nSa\n\na certain\n\nemancipation\n\nfrom\n\nwith\n\nhis authors, but that\n\nthe dictionary, commands\n\nthe essentials of inflections and of constructions and of style. It is, in\nmy opinion, the best way in which he is going to prove to his college\ninstructor that he is not likely to prove himself a bungler.\nAnd now I admit my belief that colleges have been slow to put this\nhigh value upon Greek prose composition, and that their failure to do so\nlargely accounts for the feeling that it might as well as not be dropped\nout of the curriculum of the secondary school.\nNot all colleges, howIt is, then, the\never, have been slow; some have, and others have not.\nlack of a uniform recognition of the value of the subject that creates\n\nthe willingness\n\nto drop\n\nit from\n\nthe established\n\ncurriculum.\n\nLet me\n\n"}
{"page": 678, "printed_page": null, "text": "-\n\n668\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nquote from a few statements made by certain colleges regarding their\nAfter I have finished\nrequirements in the subject under consideration.\nis the general\nuncertain\nand\nmy quotations, it will be seen how vague\nprose comGreek\nof\nstudy\nthe\nvalue attached by the general college to\nposition as a subject in Greek examinations.\nHarvard College divides its subjects for admission into elementary\nIf the applicant includes among his subjects elementary\nand advanced.\nGreek, it is simply recommended that he shall have been accustomed\nfrom the beginning of his preparatory course to translate both orally and\nin writing passages prepared by the teacher on the basis of the prose\nauthors read ; that is, his Greek prose is only a recommendation, not a\nnecessity.\nHe must be able merely to translate at sight simple Attic\nprose and stand questions on the usual forms and ordinary constructions\nIf he offers Greek and Latin composition as one of\nof the language.\nhis advanced studies, it is only then that he must have a thorough and\npersistent training in prose composition.\nFor admission to Yale the case is greatly different.\nNot only is\nGreek not an elective requirement, but it is required of all applicants ; and\nof the examinations in Greek the authorities of the college consider most\nimportant those in Greek grammar, translation at sight, and composition,\nand the papers in them are read and marked with special care and strictness.\nA candidate who shows marked proficiency in these subjects is\nnot conditioned for slight deficiency in ‘“‘Xenophon.”\n‘The passages set\nfor translation from English into Greek call for acquaintance with the\nvocabulary and style of simple narrative.\nAnd teachers are advised to\nconnect exercises in Greek composition, both\n\noral and written,\n\nwith\n\nall\n\nthe Greek studies of the preparatory courses.\nProbably no college is so\nstiff in its requirements in Greek composition as Yale is. And were all\ncolleges equally insistent, there is no doubt that composition, instead\nof finding a less importance in the secondary curriculum, must find a\ngreater.\n\nAt Princeton nothing more is looked for in Greek composition than\nthat the graduate of the secondary school who applies for admission shall\nbe able to write simple sentences in Greek, in an easy continuous discourse based upon Xenophon’s “ Anabasis,” the purpose being to test\nthe candidate’s knowledge of accent, inflection, and the fundamental rules\n\nfor the syntax of the noun and verb—a purpose which can be just as well\naccomplished by an examination in the grammar.\nWere we instructed\nin the secondary schools to fulfill in our Greek prose work the simple\npurpose as enunciated in the Princeton requirement, I confess we might\nwith ample reason drop the prose work altogether; Latin composition\nhas, however, the same dignity as a requirement for admission which\nGreek prose has at Yale.\n\n"}
{"page": 679, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\nIN LATIN AND\n\nGREEK\n\n669\n\nIn Columbia College Greek prose composition is considered a mere\nappendage of Greek grammar; there is no separate examination in it;\nand any candidate is considered to be properly prepared in it who has\ncovered Jones’ exercises in Greek prose composition— exercises which,\nin my opinion, teach but little of style (and, really, composition that\ndoes not teach a narrative style is not doing its full work). Prose composition must be more than exercises for drilling grammar into a student\nto the tune of a Procrustean vocabulary.\nTurning to the Chicago University, we find that our secondary schools\nare expected to do a stricter and more advanced work in the subject in\nproperly preparing pupils for the junior college ;- for there are two examinations in the subject, the first in connection with the grammar, and the\nsentences are not easy, but “are of average difficulty, and based on the\n‘Anabasis.’””\nThe second examination is on the translation into Xenophontic Greek of a connected passage of idiomatic English.\nThe\n“Register” of the university distinctly states that the special object of\nthe elementary requirement in Greek prose is to test the pupil’s knowledge of the elements of Greek style, as well as of form, syntax, and\nvocabulary.\nFor The University of Chicago requires the securing of\nsuch facility in the reading of Greek that the college course may be\ndevoted mainly to the study of literary form and of Greek life and\nthought as reflected in Greek literature.\nThe requirements, therefore, of\nChicago and Yale are high in the matter of Greek composition.\nI have time to cite the expectations of but one more institution—the\nUniversity of Michigan.\nHere, as in one or two of the institutions I have\nnamed, the requirement in composition (Jones’ exercises, with special\nreference to the writing of Greek with the accents and to the general\nprinciples of syntax) appears to be so slight that. it seems possible to\ninclude it under the grammar requirement, which is merely the thorough\nmastery of the inflections.\nI have done enough, I think, to make the point clear that there are\ntwo distincts attitudes held by the higher institutions with regard to\nthe value of prose composition.\nPerhaps we might say that the highest\n\nt>a\n\nvalue is attached to it by Yale and Chicago, while the other institutions\nwhich I have named appear to attach to it a varying and lower importance.\nMy own attitude I stated in the earlier part of my paper.\nIt is\nbecause of this very evidently unsettled attitude of the colleges of the\nland toward the requirement in Greek prose composition that the question is natural: ‘Why hold on to it in the secondary schools, when there\nare so many other subjects that might be brought to pupils in preparation\nfor college upon whose value at least all secondary schools are agreed ?”’\nBut, in all soberness, let us first ask which of the two college attitudes is\nAre Yale and Chicago wrong, or are they right? Perthe right one?\n\n"}
{"page": 680, "printed_page": null, "text": "EDUCATIONAL\n\nNATIONAL\n\n670\n\n[Secondary\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nd\n\nsonally, I have no doubt that they are right, and that a very significant\nvalue may be given to the discussion of this matter of Greek prose composition, if this association could go before the colleges and say: ““Gentlemen, it will be a great boon to the cause of the secondary curriculum\nif you could come to some agreement, and report that agreement to us\nregarding the importance of Greek prose composition, and the objects\nyou think it feasible to attain by means of it.”\nPROFESSOR FRUESDALE, Lake Forest Academy.—The best test of a student’s mastery\nof a language is his ability to express his thoughts in that language.\nThe first thing to\nbe dropped from the Greek curriculum ought not to be prose composition.\n\n4. Ls it desirable to concentrate the study of preparatory Greek upon Attic\nprose to the exclusion of Homer?\nPROFESSOR C. W. SUPER, Ohio University, Athens, O.—The student begins with\nGreek grammar based on the Attic Greek. He studies the “ Anabasis.” Then he studies\nGreek grammar over again in Homer.\nThis violates the principle of concentration. He\nought first to read the Greek testament, as the style is simple and the subject-matter familiar. Then he should read Xenophon’s “‘Anabasis of Cyrus;” ” next he should read\nArrian’s “ Anabasis of Alexander.”\nThe ideal Greek author is Herodotus.\nThe college\nmight well spend the freshman year on the Homeric poetry. It is unfortunate that the\nGreeks seem to have made little provision for the education of children, inasmuch as\nmuch of the writing in Attic Greek is difficult beyond the comprehension of children, ¢. g.,\nThucydides.\n;\n\net\n\nPROFESSOR G. M. SMITH, South Dakota University, advocated the study of Lysias\nas giving an insight into Greek life and thought, and agreed that studying Homer was\nillogical because of the necessity of carrying along two vocabularies and two grammars.\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\nLN HISTORY:\n\nPRINCIPAL C. W. FRENCH, HYDE PARK HIGH SCHOOL, CHICAGO, LEADER.\n1. Source-study method of teaching history in high schools.\nPAPER\n\nBY\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nH.\n\nW.\n\nCALDWELL,\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF\n\nNEBRASKA.\n\nPerhaps what I shall say this afternoon will be rather along the line\nof the use of sources in the teaching of history than in full harmony with\nthe subject assigned me for my paper.\nOn every hand now in the West, and I doubt not the same is true of\nthe East, one hears the “laboratory method” of teaching history discussed.\nThis marks, I believe, the beginning of a new era in our subject.\nIt means, if I am not mistaken, that history is just ready to take on more\n\ne\na\noo~e\n\n"}
{"page": 681, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\nIN HISTORY\n\n671\n\ncompletely the scientific aspect, and to be recognized as a training as well\nas a culture subject.\nThe teaching of botany, chemistry, and physics, as well as of geology\nand zodlogy, has been modified to a great extent within the last quarter\nof a century.\nThe text-book has been replaced by the laboratory.\nThe\nstudy about things has been transformed into a study of things. The\ntext-book\n\nis now only an aid to interpretation ; it is to guide, to correct,\n\nand to help bridge over the gaps; it is no longer to be committed to\nTo a certain extent the same transformation has taken place\nmemory.\nin history. The historian’s laboratory is his library. Books have taken\nAnother change is now in\nthe place of one book, and of the lecture.\nThe material of the historian’s laboratory is underprocess of making.\nCollections of sources are being made. The old\ngoing a reconstruction.\nlibrary, consisting very largely of secondary histories, is not enough. In\nfact, if it contains only such histories, it is nearly useless for the purposes\nof the new idea.\nWe wish now to get as near as possible to the thing\nitself, to the actual living, breathing spirit of history, and to do this we\nmust get as close to the time and to the event as possible. For example,\nif we wish to understand the nullification controversy, we must have\naccess to Jackson’s “ Proclamation,” to-some, at least, of Calhoun’s letters,\n\nto the proceedings of the South Carolina convention, to Webster’s\nMr.\nspeeches, and, finally, to some of the newspapers of the time.\nSchouler may help us to understand these various documents, but he cannot, for us, put the breath of life into them.\n\nThis each person, to a great\n\nextent, must do for himself.\nIt is to be noted, in passing, that we may\nsee three steps in this development in historical teaching.\nIn the first\nstage a text was swallowed whole, and, in general, no digestion took place.\n\nThe poor child rarely wished a second dose; history was dry and hateful\nto him.\nThe second step was the library, or comparative, method, in\nThis was a great\nwhich various authors were compared with each other.\nimprovement.\n\nInterest, at least, was secured, and under a skillful teacher\n\nconsiderable training, especially when the facts were given in sufficient\ndetail, so that judgment in weighing evidence might be called into play.\nI believe that 1 am now speaking for the next stage in this evolution.\nIn the source we are going to the thing itself, or, at least, as near to it as\nit is possible to get. We are using the secondary writing largely for a\nThis\ndifferent purpose than formerly; vzz., only to aid us in our work.\nlast step does not do away with the good points of each of the preceding.\nWhatever of value in the text-book and the lecture, whatever of good in\nBut we now seek at first hand what before\nthe library, is to be retained.\n\nhad come to the student filtered and diluted till there was little strength\nleft in it, and as a result most of our historical students died young, died\nWe believe we may now begin to say to the student:\nof inanition.\n\n"}
{"page": 682, "printed_page": null, "text": "672\n\n“Come\n\nNATIONAL\n\nto us;\n\nwe\n\nhave\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nmental,\n\nethical,\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nand\n\nmoral\n\n[Secondary\n\nfood, which\n\n——\n/(\n\nwill\n\nstrengthen your fibers and prepare you for the conflicts of life equally\nYes, in\nEqually well!\nwell with the other studies in the curriculum.”\nin\nwork\na\nhas\nsome respects in a better way, for each branch of study\nNo full-rounded\neducation to perform, which no other can perform.\neducation, it is believed, can now be had which does\n\nnot\n\nembrace\n\nsome\n\nwork in history.\nBut it is my task to give very briefly some suggestions in regard to\nIn the first\nhow source study may be introduced into the high school.\nplace, we must keep clearly in mind the meaning of a “source.”\nIt is a\nrecord, in some\n\nform, made, in general, by contemporaries\n\nof the event\n\ndescribed.\nThe form may vary.\nThe value of sources will be unequal.\nThe office of historical criticism will be to determine the worth of the\nvarious sources which shall come before us for use.\nIt will be the duty\nof the skilled historian to furnish annotated compilations of sources to\nwhich the student may go. The high-school pupil cannot be presumed\nto be able ordinarily to determine the authenticity, for example, of a document;\n\ntherefore, that part of the work must, as a rule, be done for him.\n\nIn other words, it is not historical criticism which we wish our pupils to\nperform; it is, rather, historical interpretation.\n\nBut, again, as a preliminary conception we must note that there are\ntwo very distinct sides to history. There are the inner spirit and the outer\nform.\n\n‘The first is the thought, the idea, the feeling, or the emotion which\n\nprompts to action.\n‘This spirit is cause.\nIt is the living part of history.\nFrom it-flows action.\nEvents and results are its products.\nThis thought .\n—public opinion, if you will—is continuous, but always in process of\nchange.\nIt lives in various manifestations.\nOn the other hand, events\noccur, and that is the end; they never repeat themselves.\n‘This outer,\nformal side of history exists in records, the sources from which we are to\nreconstruct the past. The student from these sources seeks to know how\npublic opinion was formed, and to determine what effects it produced.\nOrdinarily it will be found that the idea itself is modified to a greater or\nless extent in the process of action.\nThis is well illustrated by Douglas\nin connection with the Kansas-Nebraska bill. The idea of the early days\nof January was greatly developed in action, and by March it had taken on\nalmost a new form.\nAn idea existed.\nThose who held it attempted to\nput it into action.\nIn doing so they met resistance, and either became\nmore intense or they compromised.\nSome of those who first opposed\nwere convinced. Thus the idea emerged from the field of strife changed.\nThe idea produced an event; the event modified the idea. Thus a new\nshade of thought was outlined ready to become the basis for future action.\nWe may in this way see the two laws at work which are fundamental to our\ndiscussion —the law of continuity and the law of differentiation.\nBoth\n\na\n\n"}
{"page": 683, "printed_page": null, "text": "\" Department]\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\nYN HISTORY\n\n673\n\nof these laws will be implied in every piece of interpretation which our\npupils are going to undertake.\nFinally, we shall need in the use of every\nsource which comes before us to perform two processes with which we are\nIn the first place, we shall have to\nalready familiar in other fields of study.\nanalyze our material to find out what we have;\n\nthen, by synthesis, we shall\n\nhave to construct our picture, that we may understand what it all means.\nPersonally, I believe that work in the sources may be introduced into the\ngrades with advantage. The sources used must be of a simpler or more elementary character than those for the high school, just as the latter must be\nchosen on a different basis from those we are to use in college and university.\n\nIam\n\nsure, also, that much of the formal part of the work, which\n\nI shall attempt to describe later, should be made. familiar to the pupils in\nthe grades, and hence any drill on it in the high school would be unnecessary. The desirability of doing source work to some extent I deem to be\nbeyond the point of discussion. How much shall be done and how it shall\nbe done are as yet open and debatable questions. The feasibility has also\nceased to be open to discussion with us in Nebraska.\nOne hundred or\nmore of our best schools have used the sources to a greater or less extent\nduring the last year—in every case, as far as I have been able to find out,\nwith results more satisfactory than those obtained from methods in vogue\nbefore.\n\nExperience, then, has demonstrated\n\nthe desirability and the fea-\n\nsibility of source study. Of course, the answer in both cases is based\nOf this I\nupon assumed premises of what constitutes desirable results.\nmay speak later, but in general it should be said that knowledge, culture,\nand mental taining have all been taken into consideration.\nIt has been said above that the object of historical study is to understand the past. We desire to know causes and their effects, purposes and\ntheir ends; in fine, to get into the spirit of the period under observation.\nThe people who lived then have left the record of their life in public and\nprivate documents,\n\nand in various\n\nother\n\nforms.\n\nNow, the advocates\n\nof\n\nthe source-study method urge that the only way in which anyone can\nget into their spirit is by coming into contact with these records.\nOne\nwho had never seen or handled a flower would have a very vague idea\nof its nature from a mere verbal description of it. In the same way,\nthe living past can be made our own only by seeing and studying it\nat first hand—no mere description can be enough.\nAfter one flower has\nbeen studied and analyzed, the student can picture to himself quite vividly\nanother from mere description; hence it is not expected that all our\nbotanical knowledge will come to us at first hand.\nThe same is true in\nour science; enough source study must be done that the method by which\nThen accumulanarratives have been constructed may be understood.\nBut it must ever\ntion may continue by making use of other men’s work.\n\n"}
{"page": 684, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n674\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n[Secondary\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nbe kept in mind that all such knowledge is more or less lacking in definiteness and in real comprehension.\nThe study of the sources,\nIs knowledge our aim in history teaching?\nand, in the long\nimpressions,\ndecided\nmore\nleave\nwill\nvivid,\nmore\nbeing\nsense what\nbroadest\nits\nin\nculture\nIs\nmore.\nretain\nwill\nmemory\nthe\nrun,\nwith the\nalong\nused\nbe\nleast,\nat\nshould,\nsources\nthe\nThen\nwe seek?\nand\ndefinite\nmade\nbe\nmay\nlatter\nthe\nthat\norder\nin\naccount,\nsecondary\nthe\nthen\nseek,\nwe\nthat\ntraining\nmental\nprimarily\nis\nit\nif\nBut\nintense.\noriginal material is almost an essential.\nAn event is before us for interpretation.\n‘The pupil is given, not\nsome one else’s conclusions to be memorized, but the record of the event\n\nitself. Memory alone is not able to solve the problem.\nThe student\nmust use his judgment; he must analyze in the most careful way every\nword and phrase; he must go over the matter from every point of view;\nhe must get it into his mind; in fact, he must live again the life of the\nvanished past. Now, all this calls for thought.\nThere is no chance for\nmere passive reception.\nThe mind must be alert, active.\nInterest will\nbe aroused, for, to a certain extent, the person is again living over the\nscene\n\nunder\n\nexamination.\n\n‘This intensive work\n\nmay, in a way, be done\n\nby a use of secondary authors, in the study of relationships.\nHow-.\never, it lacks the vital interest of the use of the sources, for then the pupil\n—in his synthetic work, at least— may feel that he isa real creator; he is\nnot dependent on the judgment of others merely.\nBesides, the work in\nthe one case is almost sure to sink into a mere study of words, and to have\nno vital connection with things.\nFrom what has been said above it seems\nscarcely necessary to repeat that the ‘‘sources”’ are not to constitute our\nsole equipment for work in the high school.\nThe best of secondary\nauthors should be accessible—the more the better.\nBut the secondary\nauthority is to supplement, to give the formal side of history, to fill in the\nconnections, to give us a basis of comparison, that we may judge the\ncorrectness of our conclusions ; while the source is to give the vital life\nto our work.\nBut, it may be asked,\n\nwork?\n\n‘The answer\n\nhow much\n\nmust vary.\n\ntime shall\n\nThere\n\nbe given\n\nto the source\n\nis no hard and fast rule.\n\nThe\n\npreparation of the teacher, the time at her command,\n\nthe sources access-\n\nible, and\n\nin each\n\nother conditions, will all come in as factors\n\nindividual\n\ncase.\nIn what years shall the work be done?\nMost emphatically, I\nanswer, in every year of the high school, from the ninth to the twelfth\ngrade, since history study must be made a part of every year’s work. The\namount of source study should increase with each year, and the character\nshould change as the pupils gain in power.\nBut perhaps the fundamental part of this paper should be on the next\nquestion, How shall the work be done?\n\nHere, I have to admit, I have no\n\n"}
{"page": 685, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department}\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\nIN\n\nHISTORY\n\n67 5\n\npatent plan.\nOn the whole, I believe that in the grammar grades, and in\nthe first year or two of the high school, the Sheldon plan of question and\nanswer, as a means of collecting the subject-matter, which is to be woven\ninto the pupil’s narrative, is to be commended.\nNow, the equipment\nEach pupil should have\nneeded for this work is simple, yet essential.\nThis\nloose sheets of paper, and a neat cover in which to arrange them.\nnotebook thus made should be divided into several sections for convenience\nof use—one division for class notes; another for notes from secondary\nwriters; a third for the readings on the sources; and, finally, a division\nfor the “analyses” and “narrative” papers.\nSuch a plan should be\ninsisted on, not only for its convenience, but also for its value as a training in form and system.\nOur source material now lies before us. The question is noted and\nthe answer worked out.\nThe proof for the answer should then be stated,\nand the page cited where it can be found.\nThis is an essential part, since\nit teaches the pupil that no assertion can be made unless the proof is\nforthcoming.\nWhen this plan is persistently followed, even for a few\nmonths, it will be found that the whole school is transformed ; proof will\nbe demanded for everything, and the bane of so much of our work—\nunquestioning acceptance of text-book statements—will be gone.\nThe\nfoundation for a higher citizenship will also be laid. But after we have\nin this way critically gathered the material for our little history papers,\nthe next step must also be faithfully taken.\nThis material must now be\nanalyzed, classified, and arranged in such a manner\n\nthat it will be logical\n\nand present the matter in such a way that the nearest approach to a reproduction of the event under discussion shall be secured.\nThis “‘outline”’\nshould be so constructed as to give ready reference to every point that is\nfound in our notes which we wish to weave into our narrative.\nIt goes\nwithout saying that each pupil should be given some scope for originality\nin preparing these outlines; yet a class criticism is always desirable.\nFinally, from the “material” gathered, following our “outline,” we are\nto write our little history.\nFootnotes for important statements should be\ndemanded, just as if the work was as important as a monograph or a\nthesis for a doctor’s degree.\nOf course, this plan may be varied from in\ndetails, and, in fact, not followed at all, and yet good teaching be done.\n\nHowever, I can say that I know of no expedient which secures such\naccuracy, careful training in form, close thinking, and splendid preparation for higher work, as the plan above outlined. We must always be on\nour guard, however, lest it sink into mere formalism, the chief danger to\nwhich it is exposed.\n\nAs we advance to the higher classes in the high school, the plan of\nquestion and answer as a means for gathering the subject-matter should\nbe used less. The pupils of the higher grades, as the twelfth, may be given\n\n"}
{"page": 686, "printed_page": null, "text": "676\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\na document, or set of documents, and asked to find out what it contains.\nThere can be\nThe mental processes used, however, are always the same.\n\nThe gathering the material, the arranging it in logical order,\nno change.\nand then the composition of the paper must be followed, whether the\nperson be the humblest schoolboy or whether he be a von Holst or a\nMacaulay.\nBut I see I have about reached the limit of my time, and only a touch\nhas been given to the subject here and there.\nI have attempted to make\nthe paper suggestive rather than complete. If some one has gained a new\nidea or a little inspiration to push the work further, this paper has accomplished its mission, for I feel that I am only an anxious searcher for truth\n\nin method as in matter, and do not claim to be ready, as yet at least, to\nlay down any dogmatic principles, from which to vary is an educational\nsin.\n\nBut I cannot close without attempting to summarize the advantages\nwhich those of us who have been working along this line believe\nexist. Negatively mere memory work is almost wholly avoided, and passive receptivity on part of pupil is impossible;\n\nwhile the teacher, also, is\n\nforced to be alive and to work.\nUpon the positive side many advantages\nare gained.\nAccuracy and definiteness are secured.\nNearly all who have\ntried the method claim that the tone of the whole school is raised in this\nrespect. There is a marked improvement in form.\nMethodical work\ncan be secured as in few other subjects of study. Possibly too much\nattention may be given to this side of the work, yet I believe that few\nteachers will deny that our pupils are generally very careless in form;\nhence a training in this respect will improve their chances of future success in life. Without exception teachers report greater interest, especially\non the part of many who before seemed to have no ability at all for historical work.\n\nOf course, one of the main claims\n\nmade\n\nis that the judg-\n\nment is cultivated.\nThis is peculiarly true for all topics which, like\nhistory, deal with probabilities, not certainties.\nBut above all and everything else it is found that the spirit of research is aroused.\nThe desire to\nfind the truth is awakened.\nInvestigators are created, and the fact is\nestablished that the only way to find the truth is by going to the head of\nthe stream —to the source itself. Thus a greater degree of broadmindedness, a keener moral sentiment, a nobler ethical standard, as well as a\nbetter intellectual training, are secured. If these claims be not chimerical,\nmay we not hope that a new enthusiasm will seize us as history teachers,\nand carry us forward till we have come nearer the goal we all seek\n— perfection?\nPROFESSOR A. MORSE STEPHENS, Cornell University, spoke of the advantage to be\ngained by knowing what method was pursued by teachers of secondary schools. The\nCommittee on History would be glad to obtain such information.\nHe asked if the\n\n"}
{"page": 687, "printed_page": null, "text": "tio\nna\na\nati\n\ni\n\nDepartment]\n“source\n\nROUND\n\nmethod”\n\nwas\n\nTABLE\n\nIN HISTORY\n\npossible in the secondary\n\nschools,\n\n677\n\nand said\n\nhe would\n\nthink\n\nimpossible on account of lack of libraries and trained teachers of history.\n\nit\n\nPRoreEssor L, E. WoLFe, High School, Kansas City, Mo.—The purpose of teaching\nhistory is to prepare for civilization.\nI should say that the only wise way to teach it is by\nthe laboratory method.\n\n2. College-entrance requirements, with special reference to the problem\nof the ordinary public high school of the central West.\nPAPER\n\nBY\n\nDR.\n\nE. B. GREENE,\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF\n\nILLINOIS.\n\nI wish to preface what I have to say by assuming that studies required\nfor admission to college should generally be such, in amount and character, as to provide the best training available, under existing local conditions, for the average secondary-school pupil, whether preparing for\ncollege or not.\nCollege-entrance requirements ought, instead of discouraging, as they have too often done, to encourage every effort to\nsecure a balanced high-school course.\nI should, at least, wish to apply\nthis test to college-entrance requirements in history.\n_\n\nI should\n\nlike, then, to consider, in the\n\nbarest\n\noutline, what changes\n\nare desirable in the position of history in the programme of the ordinary\npublic high school of the central West.\nIt seems clear that certain conditions prevailing here call for greater\nemphasis upon a right teaching of history.\nEspecially significant is the\ncomparatively limited scope and almost unavoidably inferior quality of\nclassical\n\ninstruction (I am not, of course, speaking\n\nhere\n\nof the best city\n\nschools).\nThis is accompanied by depreciation of what we may call the\nhumanistic side of the high-school course.\nIn all but a mere handful of\nthe high schools of Illinois no Greek is taught.\nIn a majority of those\nschools the teaching of Latin is so mechanical as to exert almost nothing\nof that humanizing influence which is the strongest argument for classical\nstudies.\nNor are these conditions merely temporary.\nThe teaching of\nLatin will be improved, but probably Greek will never find general\nacceptance in the high-school programme.\nYet the end sought in the\nold discipline of the “tere humantores, the ideal of a liberal culture, is\none which, in these days of the practical and the materially useful, we\nmust be careful not to neglect. We may condemn the narrowness of the\nold discipline, we must respect its lofty idealism.\nWe must emphasize,\nnot\n\nless, but\n\nmore,\n\nthose\n\nstudies\n\nwhich\n\nillustrate\n\nthe\n\nideal, universal\n\naspects of humanity, ‘“‘the things that are unseen and eternal.”\n\nWe have\n\nnot forgotten the old ideal, though we work\n\ndifferent\n\ntoward\n\nit through\n\nmeans.\nTwo subjects, which are taught and can be well taught in almost every\npublic high school, which have to a marked degree this humanizing value\n\n"}
{"page": 688, "printed_page": null, "text": "‘\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nNATIONAL\n\n678\n\n—which,\n\ntherefore,\n\ndemand\n\nliterature and history.\n\nthe\n\nmost\n\nASSOCIATION\n\ncareful\n\n[Secondary\n\nare English\nattention—\n\nI wish here particularly to emphasize the impor-\n\ntance of Greek and Roman history, taught, not as an exercise in learning\nby rote, nor yet mainly as an exercise in scientific historical method, but\n\nwith the humanistic motive in the first place. The pupil who reads\nPlutarch, even in translation, may well catch such a glimpse of the\nHellenic spirit as was not always attained by the boy who plodded\nthrough the “ Anabasis” or the “Iliad” as through some willfully bewildering puzzle.\nSome substantial results of this sort are certainly attainable, if a year\nof four or five exercises a week can be given toancient history. They are\ncertainly unattainable in the single term allotted in the common generalhistory course to the immense field from the building of the pyramids to\nthe days of Augustus and Constantine, somewhat as Cook’s tourist covers\nEurope in a summer vacation.\n\nFor medizval and modern\nme distinctly unfortunate.\n\ntimes the general-history plan seems to\n\nA very serious criticism, which is not new, but,\n\nin my judgment, has never been successfully met, is that this supposed\nsuperior comprehensiveness, which I believe to be generally delusive,\ninvolves necessarily a broken, and hence unsatisfactory, treatment of the\ndevelopment of any particular people, failing thus to bring forth that best\nfruit of scientific historical study, the sense of historical continuity. Limits of time prevent any illustration of this fact, which must be obvious to\nany careful teacher.\nAnother result of insistence upon general history has been comparative neglect of English and American history.\nSome wise men, indeed,\nconsider it a great triumph if they can relegate American history from\nthe high school to the grades.\nIf the year of Greek and Roman history\ncould be followed by a second year of English and American history, it\nwould be possible to give the average high-school pupil some useful conception of the development, first on British and then on American soil, of\ninstitutions still familiar to the pupil, in modified forms, in the life of his\nown people. Here, somewhat more than in the ancient history, we ought\nto emphasize the scientific aspect of the study, to give elementary training in historical methods, and to awaken the sense of historical continuity. The practical value of these studies, as a preparation for citizenship,\nis sufficiently obvious.\nOne practical advantage of the simpler subjects over the more difficult\ngeneral history is the comparatively abundant, easily accessible, easily\nintelligible material available for teacher and pupil. The conscientious\nteacher of continental history needs to work a considerable literature,\noften in foreign languages, not generally accessible; but in the study of\nGreek history Grote, Curtius, and Plutarch are ready to hand in almost\n\nae\no\nge\n\n"}
{"page": 689, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\nIN HISTORY\n\n679\n\n»any good town library.\nIn English and American history the advantage is still clearer.\nCertainly this is a consideration not to be ignored,\nif the teacher is to be a real student, not a mere hearer of lessons.\nI should like, if there were time, to examine the claim that the general-\n\nhistory plan gives a really sounder knowledge of what are called the great\ngeneral movements of European history than can be gained in a careful\ncourse in English history, broadly taught.\nTo give but one simple illustration: Some people seem to think that, without a course in general history, the high-school pupil would go out into the world without ever having\nheard of Napoleon.\nYet, what sort of teaching of English history would\nthat be which should fail to impress upon the boy’s mind something of\nthat Titanic struggle between the land power and the sea, power ?\nMy study of the situation in Illinois leads me to believe that more\nthan two years in history is not possible in the average high school.\nA\ntwo-years’ course seems at least possible.\nA year of Greek and Roman\nhistory, followed by a year of English and American history, will, I\nbelieve, yield better results than the present general-history plan or some\nextension of it. The humanistic value of acquaintance with the remoter\npast of Greece and Rome will be combined with the practical value for\ncitizenship of studying movements and institutions closely related to our\npresent national life.\n3. An ideal course tn history for secondary schools.\nPAPER\n\n+\n\nBY\n\nPRINCIPAL\n\nE.\n\nV.\n\nROBINSON,\n\nMUSKEGON,\n\nMICH.\n\nIt is happily no longer necessary to adduce arguments to prove that\nhistory is the peer of any subject, both in informational and educational\nvalue.\nThis is now generally conceded.\nAnd substantial agreement has\nalso been reached regarding the best methods of instruction.\nBut opinions still differ not a little as to what constitutes an ideal course of historical study.\n.\nIt may be well, before entering upon a discussion of the unsettled\nproblems connected with this question, to enumerate briefly the points\nwhich may now be regarded as settled. These are, it is believed, somewhat as follows:\n1. That historical study should be continuous during the last four,\nand preferably six, years of the elementary school.\n2. That, in an ideal curriculum, at least three exercises per week\n\nshould be devoted to history throughout the secondary school.\n3. That the history of Greece and Rome should be taught, because of\ntheir contributions to the modern world, and the striking simplicity and\npower of their leading personalities and forces.\n4. That the history of England should be included, because of its inti-\n\n"}
{"page": 690, "printed_page": null, "text": "680\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nmate connection with American history, and because the world is indebted\nto England for constitutional government and the modern system of\nindustry.\n5. That, for many and obvious reasons, a thorough study of American ©\nhistory and civics should be made in the last year of the course.\nThe chief matter still under discussion is the advisability of teaching\ngeneral history. The Madison conference cast its commanding influence\nfor the substitution of French or German history, and this proposal has\nbeen approved by the New England and New York conferences.\nYet\nexpressions of radical dissent are heard, both from the rank and file of\nhigh-school teachers and from recognized leaders of educational opinion.\nThus Professor Salmon, in a recent article entitled ‘“ Unity in CollegeEntrance History,” makes a strong plea for the retention of general history. Professor Hudson, representing the University of Michigan, has\nurged that general history be given in preference, if need be, to English\nhistory. And even President Adams, who was chairman of the Madison\nconference,\n\ndeclares\n\nin the introduction\n\nto his “ Manual\n\nof Historical\n\nLiterature,” in most felicitous and emphatic words, that a general outline\nof the subject should be secured before proceeding to the detailed study\nof special nations or epochs.\nThe reason usually assigned for this proposed substitution is the diffculty of teaching general history successfully.\nIt is apt to fall into the\nScylla of mere routine memorizing, or, if this be avoided, into the\nCharybdis of vague and meaningless generalities.\nThis is a real difficulty, but experience shows that it is not insuperable.\nIt is no uncommon thing to hear teachers maintain that their pupils grow in intellectual stature through the study of general history more than through\nany other one subject; and this is frequently corroborated by the pupils\nthemselves.\nA more important reason for the opposition to general history is suggested by the following passage in the report of the Madison conference:\n“Fortunately the subject of history, like that of natural science, is one in\nwhich the educational advantages may be obtained without covering the\nwhole field.” This indicates that the discarding of general history is a\npart and a result of the attempt to transfer attention and emphasis from\nthe informational to the disciplinary side of the subject; the assumption\nbeing that the very incompleteness of the knowledge thus attained will\ntend to concentrate attention on the educational effect of the exercise.\nBut, however desirable this object may be, it is at least open to question\nwhether the means adopted will not injure rather than promote the cause\nof historical study.\nIn the first place, can we afford to have people and pupils feel that\nthe knowledge acquired in the study of history is a matter of no moment ?\n\n"}
{"page": 691, "printed_page": null, "text": "aey\nqurkng\n\nDepartment]\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\nIN HISTORY\n\n681\n\nIs not the attitude of the public towards purely formal studies, which are\nridiculed as mere “intellectual gymnastics,” a sufficient warning of the\ndangers inherent in this procedure?\nMorever, waiving this question of\nexpediency, is it true that the informational value of history can be safely\nneglected?\nAre we justified in sending pupils out into life with an\nimperfect and distorted conception of what has actually happened in the\nworld, and, consequently, of the forces which are operative in the present\nand destined to control the future?\nIn order to break the force of this objection, it is suggested that\nFrench or German history be “so taught as to elucidate the general\nmovement of medieval and modern history.’’\nIf this could really be\ndone, there would be little room for controversy.\nBut is it psychologically possible?\nIs it not rather in conflict with the precepts of sound\npedagogy, no less than the teachings of experience?\nLet us consider a moment just what is involved in this proposal.\nLess than a generation ago history was either not taught at all in\nAmerican colleges or was taught as a side issue by some overworked\nprofessor in another department.\nThe marvelous change which we see\ntoday is due, above all, to one cause: the doctrine of the unity of history;\nthat is, of a progressive development pervading the entire course of\nhuman events.\nIn the words of Professor Sloane: ‘The doctrine of the\nunity of history has been so emphasized that the consequences are simply\nrevolutionary.\nTo accept the doctrine of unity is to admit that no\ncountry is more than one wheel in the series which moves the hands on\nthe dial plate of human progress.\nWe no longer study nations, but\nepochs.\nWe have found the movement of the race more majestic than\nthat of nations or individuals.”\nAnd President Adams says:\n‘The\nhistory of civilization is one continuous story of development. Before this\nfact all artificial distinctions between different periods of history and\ndifferent kinds of history fade away.”\nNow, it is precisely this fundamental doctrine of unity which is\nignored in the new programme.\nOne wheel—to retain Professor Sloane’s\nmetaphor—is to be substituted for the whole series; the study of separate nations is to displace that of human development; and the artificial\ndistinctions between different kinds of history are to be restored.\nCould\nanything be more reactionary? —The old text-books in logic used to cite\nthe case of a man who carried about a single brick as a sample of the\nhouse\n\nwhich he wished to sell; is not this a fallacy of exactly the same\n\nkind?\nIn both cases the logical error consists in the substitution of a\npart for the whole, forgetful of the fact that the whole contains something\ndifferent from and superior to any or all of the parts. Outside of mathematics it is seldom true that the sum of the parts is equal to the whole.\nFor this reason a pupil might study in succession each of the great\n\n"}
{"page": 692, "printed_page": null, "text": "682\n\nnations,\n\nNATIONAL\n\nand\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nyet at the end\n\nof his course,\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\naccount\n\nof the artificial\n\non\n\nseparations and groupings thus occasioned, be unable to form any correct\nSomething very like\nconception of the general movement of history.\nthis actually happened in the case of a boy of unusual ability who had\nstudied both French and English history, but was unable to grasp them\nin their relations to each other or to the rest of the world, until he studied\n\ngeneral history ; then he declared that it seemed as though the sun broke\nthrough the fog, and he saw in their true relations things which before\nhad been confused and distorted.\n_It would\n\nseem,\n\ntherefore,\n\nfrom\n\nthis point of view,\n\nto\n\nbe almost\n\na\n\ntruism that the only way of really “elucidating the general movement of\nhistory” is to study the general movement of history, not as a mere\nappendage to the history of France or Germany, but as being fer se the\nchief subject of historical study.\nAny other treatment must fatally\nobscure the unity and perspective of history, by giving to one nation the\nprominence which belongs rightfully only to the common achievements\nof all nations.\nIn view of this fact, what is to be said of the claim that equal or\ngreater disciplinary results may be obtained from a limited portion of\nhistory ?\nBefore answering this question, a distinction must be made between\ntechnical and general discipline: the one being best attained by the\nintensive study of parts, the other by the extensive study of wholes.\nIf\nthe object of historical study be the mastery of the processes of historical\ninterpretation and criticism, it is perfectly true that the history of some\none nation would be preferable to general history.\nNot only so, but a\nsingle period would be better still, and a single document, studied intensively month after month, would be best of all. But such intensive study\npresupposes maturity of mind, which cannot be expected in secondary\nschools, and a wide knowledge of the subject as a whole—the very thing\nit is now proposed to get along without.\nMoreover, even were this not\nthe case, such technical skill would be relatively useless for all pupils not\ndestined to become scholars by profession.\nAnd the chief function of\nsecondary schools is not the training of scholars, but the education of\nmen and citizens. The discipline demanded of history as of all other\nsubjects\n\nis, therefore, not technical, but general.\n\nIt is that training\n\nof\n\nthe mind and heart which will be most valuable in the most difficult and\nmost neglected of all fine arts—the conduct of one’s own life.\nIf this is true, it is difficult to escape the conclusion that the cutting-up\nof history into a number of longitudinal strips, of which the pupil could\ntake only a small part, would diminish both the informational and the\neducational value of the subject.\nCan the interest of the pupils be\n\n"}
{"page": 693, "printed_page": null, "text": "Se\ni\n\nDepartment]\n\nsustained\n\nROUND\n\nwhen\n\nthey\n\nsee\n\nTABLE\n\nonly\n\nIN HISTORY\n\nsnatches,\n\nhere\n\nand\n\ndrama, while the rest goes on behind the scenes?\n\n683\n\nthere, of the great\nthey follow with\n\nCan\n\nequal certainty the relations of cause and effect, when the one or the\nother usually lies in regions beyond their gaze?\nCan their judgment\nreceive a training of equal value, when the materials for comparison are\nlargely denied them?\nCan the moral uplifting and purification, which\nconstitute so large a part of the value of history, take place, when the\nunity of action is destroyed, so that they are no longer able to recognize\nthe justice of the Nemesis which overtakes nations as well as individuals ?\nFinally, can the study produce the deepest and most abiding impressions\non mind and character, when the pupil sees but dimly, at uncertain intervals, the sublime procession of the ages—the slow, but absolutely sure\nand irresistible, advance of human progress out of the measureless past,\neven to the present?\nTo all these questions it seems to me that but one answer can be\nmade, and that an answer not favorable to the elimination of general\nhistory from the course.\nIn the arrangement of courses of study local conditions must be taken\ninto\n\nconsideration.\n\nBut,\n\nin\n\ngeneral,\n\nsome\n\nsuch\n\narrangement\n\nas\n\nthe\n\nfollowing would possess distinct advantages :\nNinth grade, ancient history, three periods per week.\nTenth grade, medieval and modern history, three periods per week.\nEleventh grade, English history, three to five periods per week.\nTwelfth grade, American history and civics, five periods per week.\nNo doubt, the objection will at once be raised that it is impossible to\nteach this amount of history and, at the same time, meet collegiate\nrequirements in other branches.\nAt present, this is unfortunately true.\nBut the time is surely at hand when the many who never enter college\nwill no longer be sacrificed to the few who do—or, rather, to the antiquated requirements which the colleges still maintain. If they cannot be\nbrought to modify these, then so much the worse for the colleges.\nBut\nthere are encouraging signs of progress all along the line. Last fall Dr.\nTetlow nearly secured important action in this direction on the part of\nthe New England Association of Colleges and Preparatory Schools, and\nmuch is expected from the National Committee, of which Dr. Nightingale\nis chairman.\n\nThe\n\ndifficulty is, therefore, in a fair way\n\nto be removed.\n\nFor the present it may be met, in all except the smallest schools, by\noffering college-preparatory pupils the required studies, and, at the same\ntime, giving to others that training which will best fit them for life.\nThis is not only the chief function of secondary schools, but their impera5\ntive duty.\n\n"}
{"page": 694, "printed_page": null, "text": "hesty\n\n684\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nROUND\n\nHARRIET\n\nMISS\n\nTABLE\n\nHIGH\n\nL. KEELER,\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nIX ENGLISH.\n\nCLEVELAND,\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nO., LEADER.\n\n1. Are secondary schools getting the best results from present methods\nEnglish and composition ?\nOUTLINE\n\nOF\n\nDISCUSSION\n\nBY\n\nGEORGE\n\nB, AITON, STATE\nMINNESOTA.\n\nINSPECTOR\n\nOF HIGH\n\nin\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nSITUATION — Deficiencies in:\n1. Eye and hand:\nPenmanship and appearance on the page.\n2. Features requiring thought and becoming largely automatic :\nSpelling, capitalization, punctuation, paragraphing.\n3. Thought work requiring :\n\n(a) Culture — choice of words.\n(6) Logical training\n— syntax.\n\n*\n\n4. Thought proper —literary content.\n5. Expression — literary grace.\n\nCAUSES —\n1.\n\nIlliterate homes :\n(z) Naturally and persistently illiterate, in spite of continued opportunity.\n(2) Foreign unschooled element\n— honest, industrious, of hopeful potentiality, but\nnot at present literate.\n\n(c) Decadence through :\n(a) Separation from literary influence.\n(8) Abeyance of family reading, especially scriptural reading.\n2. Influence of an undignified, careless press.\n. Spirit of the times.\n4. Neglect due to:\n\n(a) Crowding by information subjects.\n(4) Wrong theory that English would incidentally take care of atself.\n(c) Wrong estimate of literature as dilettant.\n(Z) Real want of knowing how to proceed.\nREMEDY — Attention to:\n(a) Mechanics.\n\n(6) Material.\n(c) Dynamics.\n\n2. College-entrance English.\nPAPER\n\nBY\n\nDR.\n\nRICHARD\n\nJONES,\nWHAT\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nTHE\n\nCOLLEGES\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nSTATE\n\nOF\n\nNEW\n\nYORK.\n\nWANT.\n\nAt the thirty-third convocation of the University of the State of New\nYork\n\none\n\nof the members\n\nof the committee which\n\nselected\n\nthe books\n\n"}
{"page": 695, "printed_page": null, "text": "ee\n\nDepartment]\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\nIN ENGLISH\n\n685\n\nupon which the college-entrance examinations in English are now based\nsaid : “ Theone defect of English teaching in our schools is its unrelatedness, disjointedness, its vagueness of aim, its uncertainty of method.”\nAnd, enlarging upon this theme, he observed that “what the colleges\ndesire in the work of the secondary schools is unity of effort and harmony\nRequesting the principals of the state to make, as the basis\nof method.”\nof their work in English, the books selected by the committee which he\nrepresented, he urged them to get their courses in English “into consonance with the college systems,” to get into “‘ harmony with the spirit of\nthe English work being done now in institutions below you, above you,\naround you.”\nWith the view of rendering some assistance to secondary schools in\ntheir present effort to get “into consonance with the college systems,”\nthe following letter was sent to professors of literature in various parts of\nthe country :\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF THE STATE OF\n\nALBANY,\n\nMy DEAR Sir:\n\nAsa\n\nNEW\n\nYORK,\n\n16 November, 1896.\n\nresult of the co-operation of colleges and university men with\n\nthe principals of academies and secondary schools, we have now college-entrance\nrequirements in English substantially uniform throughout the United States, 2. ¢., the\nrequirements are uniform as to the texts upon which these examinations are based.\nA\npressing problem yet remains, however, vzz., how the texts thus chosen are to be studied,\n\nand what isto be the nature and the extent of the preparation upon these texts required\nfor entrance to college.\n\nThe subject of English as a college-entrance requirement\n\nbeing\n\nso new, many teachers are, as a matter of course, somewhat uncertain as yet in regard to\n\nmethods of teachingit andthe goal to be aimed at.\n\nWill you not, therefore, kindly send\n\nus a sample set of examination questions on the texts for the present school year (1896-97),\nsuch as will indicate to teachers of English in secondary schools the kind of preparation\nyou require for admission into your freshman class? And if, as is probable, these questions are a compromise between your ideal and your recognition of the present limitations\nof candidates, will you not send in addition a set of questions such as you hope to ask as\nsoon as preparatory schools are more able to meet your ideal?\nSelections from the sets\n\nof questions received, with comments and generalizations based upon these questions,\nwill be published by the University of the State of New York.\nThe publication will, presumably, be of interest to college and university men as a means for comparing requirements\n\nand\n\nideals, and will, it is believed, prove genuinely\n\nand\n\nsubstantially helpful to\n\nteachers of literature, especially in college preparatory and secondary schools.\nI shall be glad if you will add any suggestions, either on the subject of preparation\n\nfor college-entrance examinations\nmethods in the study of literature.\n\nin English, or on the general subject of aims and\nHoping for your co-operation and advice, I am,\nSincerely yours,\nRICHARD JONES.\n\nA\n\nDIVERSITY\n\nOF\n\nOPINION\n\nAMONG\n\nCOLLEGE\n\nMEN.\n\nThe replies indicate a wide diversity of opinion among college and\nuniversity men as to the nature and extent of the preparation on these\nuniform texts which may be required of candidates for college. Indeed,\n\n"}
{"page": 696, "printed_page": null, "text": "686\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nit would appear impossible at present for any secondary school to get\n‘“‘into consonance ” simultaneously with the college systems of the country. For, though the aims of individual colleges in their entrance\nrequirements may be perfectly definite, the aims of the colleges, collectively considered, are not; and on the supposition that the adoption of\nuniform texts implied some uniformity in the treatment of these texts,\nthe teachers of English in secondary schools, who must attempt the diffcult task of preparing classmates for these various kinds of entrance\nexaminations, are justified in some sense of disappointment that the winter of their discontent is not yet made glorious summer on account of the\n“vagueness of aim” and “uncertainty of method ” which prevail in the\ncollege-entrance examinations in English, notwithstanding the adoption\nof uniform texts.\nAs, for example, to select a few of the more\n\nextreme cases of diversity,”\n\nsome of these pupils will be required at Harvard chiefly to demonstrate\ntheir ability to ‘write English ;” or at Cornell, in conformity with Professor Hart’s view that compositions based upon literary models should\nbe the sole test of the candidate’s capacity in English, to give the action\nof “‘Comus” in about 150 words, arranged in two paragraphs of seventy‘five words each.\nOthers will, at the University of Pennsylvania, give\n“the lesson ”’ of ‘‘ Comus,” and will tell in what act and\n\nscene\n\nthe chief\n\ncharacters of the ‘‘ Merchant of Venice” appear together, and why they\ndo not appear together in any other scene.\nAt Trinity still others will\nindicate ‘the correct and incorrect” pronunciation of a list of words,\nand name two or three words sometimes wrongly pronounced which they\nhave learned to pronounce correctly.\nAt Rochester candidates will\ndefine and give the etymology of many words, and will “ show definitely\nwhy the following statement is true: .... ‘as civilization advances,\npoetry almost necessarily declines.’’”?\nThey will also tell how old\nMacaulay was when he wrote his ‘‘ Essay on Milton.”\nAt the Teachers’\nCollege they will give ‘the dramatic purpose ” of Antonio’s intercession\nwith Shylock after the time of the bond has expired, and will be required\nin general to show some elementary power in literary criticism.\nAt the\nUniversity of Indiana, also, they may be asked to explain ‘“ foreshadowing,’ “local color,” and ‘‘ dramatic suspense,” and to discuss the need of\nthe fifth act of the ‘‘ Merchant of Venice.” At The University of Chicago,\nand at several other institutions, they will be required to point out the\n*To guard against a possible misapprehension, it should, perhaps, be distinctly\nstated that the purpose of this discussion is not to advocate uniformity, but merely to\ndirect attention to existing conditions.\nMany of the diverse, unconformable questions\nmentioned here and elsewhere are most suggestive and stimulating.\nIt is apparent, how-\n\never, that they are not compatible with the “unity of effort and harmony of method ”\nwhich is urged by the colleges.\n\n"}
{"page": 697, "printed_page": null, "text": "he\nod\n—\n—\n\nDepartment]\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\nIN ENGLISH\n\n687\n\ngrammatical errors in incorrect sentences.\nAt the University of PennsylCandidates have been asked at Cornell to name\nvania they will parse.\nthe members\n\nof the Spectator Club, and to describe three of them, but, in\n\nview of Professor Hart’s proposition to regents’ schools that ‘‘ compositions upon subjects taken from the books read as literary models” shall\nbe “the sole test of the scholar’s capacity in English,” one must conclude\nthat it was the description of these three members of the club, and not\nthe bit of literary history, which the examiners had prominently in mind.\nAt Wesleyan University, in addition to minute questions on the prescribed texts, candidates may be asked whether they think Rosalind overbold and unwomanly in her talk with Orlando, and whether Portia gives\nBassanio any clue to the right casket when he makes his choice—a question set by Johns Hopkins also. A discussion of these topics would certainly enliven the English recitations in a secondary school.\nYet, if two\nor three members of the class are preparing to enter the University of the\nSouth, the wise teacher will “scant” any “ excess” of this kind of joy,\nand will turn to a careful study of every difficult word or unusual grammatical construction in the prescribed texts, for in the examination the\ncandidates will be called on to “‘comment on ‘ to come,’ ‘ L’allegro,’ 1. 45.”\n- They will also comment on “Angel,” ‘ Lycidas,” 1. 163, and on the\ngrammatical peculiarity of “‘Comus,” 1. 48.\nLITERATURE\n\nOR\n\nCOMPOSITION ?\n\nThe chief considerations suggested by the entrance-examination questions of the colleges are: (1) Which shall the secondary schools emphasize,\nliterature or composition ? (2) How shall the literature that is taught as\nliterature be taught?\nHarvard, Cornell, and Dartmouth expressly state that ability to write\ncorrect English is considered of more importance than a knowledge of\nthe prescribed texts. Cornell and Dartmouth treat both lists exactly alike,\ni. é., as containing subjects for themes, no direct questions being set on\neither list. Harvard, however, sets questions on the books for “study,”\nthe answers to which may, indeed, be judged, to some\n\nyy\n\nessays.\n\nThe\n\nanswers to Wellesley’s\n\nessays.\n\nSeveral\n\nextent\n\nquestion were doubtless\n\nat least, as\n\ngraded\n\nas\n\nother colleges, 7. ¢., Yale, Columbia, Brown, Johns Hop-\n\nkins, and Chicago, set no questions on the books prescribed for “‘reading,”\nbut suggest topics for themes based on these books.\nSome of these colleges, however, perhaps all, do not treat these themes\nas themes merely, but insist upon some indication of passable knowledge\non the part of the essayist of the subject-matter of the prescribed texts.\nPossibly the greater attention now given to English in the secondary\nschools has enabled Professor Briggs also to modify the position which he\nheld in 1887, vz., that if the boy can “write English,” “he may pass the\n\n"}
{"page": 698, "printed_page": null, "text": "688\n\nNATIONAL\n\nexamination,\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nthough, with Julius Cesar\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nfor his subject, he declares\n\nthat\n\nThe composiMarc Antony loved Cesar less and Rome more.” ....\ndescribed in\nbe\nmay\nrequirements\nnce\ntion element in some college-entra\nOn\nnothing.”\nsomething,\n“’tis\npurse,\nthe words of Iago concerning his\nthe\n\nother\n\nclass\n\nhand, candidates for the freshman\n\nHarvard\n\nof either\n\nCornell find English composition to be, indeed, like good name\nand\n\nwoman,\n\n‘the\n\nimmediate jewel of their souls.”\n\nProfessor\n\nor\n\nin man\n\nBriggs, of\n\nHarvard, writes: “In general we lay more stress in our examination on\nEnglish composition than on minute knowledge of the prescribed books.\nOur first question is, ‘Does the candidate write English?’” ....\nHOW\n\nSHALL\n\nLITERATURE\n\nBE\n\nTAUGHT\n\nP\n\nUnanimity of opinion on the question as to the chief end in view in\nsecondary-school instruction in English, vzz., whether it be composition\nor literature, 7. ¢., ability on the part of the student to write English or to\nunderstand and appreciate the great English already written, being manifestly not to be hoped for at present, there remains to consider the second\nquestion: What method or methods for teaching literature are suggested\nby the entrance examinations of the colleges ?\nThere is obvious uniformity of method on the part of a number of the\ncolleges in their treatment of the books prescribed for “reading,” but\nwhat is the approved method of study on the books prescribed for\n‘“‘study’’? Shall these be conned “ word by word”\nand “line by line,”\nor shall an appreciation of the “significance and spirit of the whole”’ be\nthe goal of endeavor ? Shall the secondary-school pupil be required to\ndefine, to parse, to give the etymology and the grammatical construction\nof the more difficult words of the “‘ Merchant of Venice,’ to comment\n\non\n\nthe italicized words in the passage, ‘‘ Now, infidel, I have thee on the hip,”\nto discuss the meter, and to scan\n\nthe more\n\ndifficult lines;\n\nor shall he be\n\ntrained to state clearly the argument of Shylock and that of Portia in the\ntrial scene, to tell whether our sympathy is aroused for or against Shylock\nand why, and to give what he considers to be the principal idea in the\nplay ?\nFUNDAMENTALLY\n\nDIFFERENT\n\nMETHODS\n\nBY\n\nCOLLEGES.\n\nTHE\n\nOF\n\nSTUDY\n\nSUGGESTED\n\nSome illustration of the variety in the questions set by the colleges\nhas already been given.\nNor is this variety confined to minor matters of\nunimportant detail. Methods of study fundamentally different are suggested to the secondary schools by the questions of Cornell and of Columbia, for example, or of Cornell and of Rochester.\nCornell will ask the\ncandidate to give (usually “in two paragraphs, about seventy-five words\neach”’) Webster’s statement of the object of the monument or the substance\n\n"}
{"page": 699, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\nIN ENGLISH\n\n689\n\nof the argument between Portia and Shylock, but will not ask him to\ndefine ‘“‘sycophancy”’ or any other term, nor to explain the sense of “hard\nfood for Midas,” nor to tell what Macaulay means by “ Augustan delicacy\nof taste.”\nThese questions, admirable as they are for testing the faithfulness of the candidate’s study of the prescribed texts, are not compatible\nwith- Professor Hart’s doctrine that compositions based upon the books\nread as literary models shall be the “sole test’’ of the candidate’s capacity\nin English. An adequate impression of the difference between the methods\nof study suggested by Cornell and by Rochester is not easily given, unless\nthe lists of questions are compared side by side.\nHarvard and Yale also require different methods of preparation upon\nthese uniform texts.\nHarvard suggests to teachers of English that these\nbooks “ should not be studied word by word, or line by line, as if they were\nin a foreign tongue.\nPupils should, of course, be made to understand\nwhat they read as they go along; but attention should be fixed, not on\nunimportant details of substance or of style, but on the significance and\nspirit of the whole.\nIn studying a tragedy of Shakespeare, for example,\nfar less time should be given to the discussion of details than to the march of\nevents, the play of character, the main lines of the plot, the significance of\nthe whole as a work of genius?’’ And, therefore, Harvard requires of the\ncandidate for college entrance a clear statement of the argument of Shylock\nand that of Portia in the trial scene, and his opinion of the treatment\nShylock receives throughout the play. Furthermore, the candidate’s paper\nwill be judged largely by its effectiveness as an essay and by the correctness of its English.\nYale, however, insists upon a more minute knowledge of the details of\nthe prescribed texts.\nProfessor Cook distinctly disavows a willingness to\npermit Marc Antony to love Cesar less and Rome more, however faultless\nthe English in which it. be done.....\nColumbia’s questions on the\nbooks for ‘‘study,” like Yale’s, imply a somewhat minute knowledge of\nthe details of the text.\n\nTo what extent, then, does Harvard’s\n\nsuggestion\n\nthat these books should not be studied ‘“ word by word, or line by line,\nas if they were in a foreign tongue,” express the opinion of college men ?\nWhat study of words and of the exact meaning of difficult passages do\nthe colleges in general recommend ?* The following—Columbia, Yale,\nRochester,\n\nUnion,\n\nTeachers’\n\nCollege, Brown,\n\nWesleyan, Rutgers, Johns\n\ntIt is true, paradoxical as it may appear, that a reader may grasp the thought of a\npassage\n\nas a whole when\n\nhe cannot\n\ndefine\n\nall the words\n\none by one, or does not even >\n\nunderstand them all; it is equally true that he may define and understand the words one\nby one and fail to grasp the whole thought.\n\nboth of which\n\nare\n\nharmful when\n\ncarried\n\nThe mind may take either one of two views,\n\ntoo far: it may overlook\n\nsmall points in the\n\ngeneral drift or substance of the passage, or it may be so intent on small points that it\n\nfails altogether to grasp the drift or substance. (Hinsdale, “Teaching the LanguageArts,” p. 99.)\n\n"}
{"page": 700, "printed_page": null, "text": "690\n\nNATIONAL\n\nHopkins, University\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nof the South, Chicago, Nebraska,\n\n[Secondary\n\nStanford, Toronto\n\n(University College)—all require something at least of this “ word-byThey all call for the\nword” preparation on the college-entrance texts.\nmeaning of italicized words in given passages, as for example,\nAll in a robe of darkest grazn.\n\nAnd storied windows richly dghz.\nAnd sadle stole of cypress lawn\n\nOver thy decent shoulders drawn.\n\nVarious\n\nother linguistic requirements\n\nare\n\napproved\n\nby one\n\nor more\n\nof\n\nthese colleges, such as a rule for the correct use of shad/ and w/t, or illus-\n\ntrations of the correct use of a list of words not found in the prescribed\ntexts, or parsing, or the correction of examples of ‘ bad English,” or\nanswers to questions on formal grammar and rhetoric, or a personal confession as to whether the candidate ever uses the word “pants.”\nIn the entrance examinations under consideration the following colleges ask no questions whatever on the meaning or the use of individual\nwords; they require no definitions, no etymologies, no syntax, no parsing, no correction of incorrect use, no interpretation of difficult passages:\nHarvard, Cornell, Wellesley, Williams, Tufts, Swarthmore, Indiana, and\n\nKnox.\n\nPennsylvania, Dartmouth,\n\nand\n\nTrinity would\n\nalso\n\nbe included\n\nin this list, were it not that Pennsylvania requires parsing, and Dartmouth and Trinity the correction of examples of incorrect use.\nThe colleges in the first group which require somewhat of the\n“ word-by-word” preparation may, as a matter of course, also set questions bearing upon “the significance and spirit of the whole’’—as,\nindeed, some of them do. Several colleges in the list set but a single\nquestion implying this ‘“‘word-by-word and line-by-line’’ method of\npreparation, the examination as a whole somewhat conforming to Harvard’s ideal. ‘These may possibly have found the golden mean, or possibly may not yet have found a consistent method of expressing by means\nof examination questions their ideal of secondary-school study of English.\nAnd yet, difficult as this method of expressing ideals may be, it is\nmanifestly a matter of prime importance to secondary schools that in\nthese entrance examinations college men shall, so far as possible, indicate\nan approved method of study.\nComments on “yon grey lines that fret\nthe clouds” imply a preparation widely different in method and in interest from that required to indicate “the dramatic center of the play,” to\nexplain “the need of the fifth act,” to tell “what each of the following\nscenes contributes to the development of the play,” and to give “the\nprincipal idea of the play.” What is the approved method of preparation\non these uniform texts?\nA singular interest attaches to the entrance examination of the Uni-\n\nMie\nAud\n\n"}
{"page": 701, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\nIN ENGLISH\n\n691\n\nversity of the South because of the irreconcilable methods of study suggested by this examination and by the address of Professor Trent at the\nBuffalo meeting of the National Educational Association, July, 1896. . . .\nThere is undoubted educational and disciplinary value in the closest\nstudy of certain masterpieces of literature, such as will cultivate in the pupil\na habit of endeavoring to apprehend clearly the exact meaning of every\npassage\n— indeed, of every word ; such as will, in short, give him the ability\nto understand language.\nAnd yet, if there be any measure whatever of\ntruth in the proposition of Horace E. Scudder that ‘“ between the ages of\nsix and sixteen a large part of the best literature of the world may be\nread, if taken up systematically in school,” there must manifestly be some\nlimit to the time spent upon the grammatical peculiarities of ‘‘Comus.”\nBut the teacher who, following the spirit of Harvard’s advice, has passed\nlightly over Hamlet’s\n\nline, ‘“‘ For, O, for, O, the hobby horse\n\nis forgot,”\n\nin order to dwell more at length on the comments of Goethe and Coleridge and Werder as to the significance of the whole as a work of transcendent genius, and who turns now to Milton’s great poem, purposing\nhere also to pursue a similar study of the significance and spirit of the\nwhole, is perplexed to find that the colleges require of his pupils but two\nof the twelve books of “Paradise Lost,” a poem whose purpose is to\njustify the ways of God to man, and which presumably then contains an\nargument, a movement of thought.\nThe poem is thus more than a mere\ncollection of discrete episodes, and yet apparently the Committee on\nCollege-Entrance Texts does not expect him to direct the attention of his\npupils to the significance of the whole, to insist upon their keeping ever\nclearly in mind the movement of thought in the poem, and thus gaining\nin the end a clear conception of the ‘“ height of this great argument ” and\nof the poet’s solution of the problem he has proposed.\nHas the modern\nworld, then, so passed on to other modes of thought that the secondaryschool pupil is not to be urged to climb to the height of this great argument, but\n\nis to be advised\n\nto read\n\ntwo\n\nbooks of the “‘ Paradise Lost”’\n\nmainly for the music of the incomparable blank verse?\nOr shall he be\ntrained to write vivid themes on Satan and his crew?\nOr shall he parse\nman’s first disobedience, and comment on the mor¢a/ taste which brought\ndeath into the world and all our woe ?\nSUBJECT-MATTER,\n\nFORM,\n\nAND\n\nSTRUCTURE.\n\nMany of the questions set by the colleges were evidently intended\nmerely as tests of the candidate’s knowledge of the subject-matter.\nIndeed, some college men distinctly disapprove of any attempt at formal\nliterary criticism in the secondary schools.\nAnd yet questions on matters\nof fact lead imperceptibly on to considerations of form and structure,\n_that\n\nis, to a more\n\nor less formal\n\nliterary criticism.\n\nRochester\n\nsets a\n\n"}
{"page": 702, "printed_page": null, "text": "692\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nquestion respecting the introduction, body, and conclusion of Macaulay’s\n“Essay on Milton,” and asks whether the discussion respecting Charles\nThis question is certainly justified\nthe First mars the wxzty of the essay.\nby the suggestions of the committee in regard to the study of “form and\nBrown asks how the stories are jozned in the play of the\nstructure.”\nJohns Hopkins also asks how Shakespeare has\n“Merchant of Venice.’’\nmade the two stories one.\nYale asks for “the dramatic center” of the\nplay, the Teachers’ College for the “dramatic purpose” of Antonio’s\nintercession with Shylock after the time of the bond has expired. Wesleyan asks for the purpose of the first act and the last act, and why the\npassage\nThere’s not the smallest orb which thou beholdst\nBut in his motion like an angel sings\n\nwas\n\n‘‘put\n\nhere\n\nrather\n\nthan\n\nearlier.”\n\nPennsylvania, after\n\nthe question,\n\n“In what act and scene do all the chief characters appear together?”\nasks why they do not appear together in any other scene.\nUniversity\nCollege (Toronto) requires the candidate to give the main impression\nwhich the poet is attempting to produce upon the reader in the first\ntwenty lines of a given passage from the “ Lady of the Lake,” and to\npoint out the means which the poet employs to attain his end, and to\nstate whether the succeeding five lines enforce or weaken this impression,\nand to tell how far the parts of the poem which treat of the flight of the\ndeer, the funeral of Duncan, and the episode of Blanche contribute to\nthe main story. Toronto also asks the purpose of the introduction of the\nsongs in the “‘ Lady of the Lake,” and what each of certain scenes in the\n“Merchant of Venice”’ contributes to the development of the play. The\nUniversity of Indiana requires definitions and illustrations of “ foreshadowing,” “local color,” and “ dramatic suspense,” and asks how each canto\n\ndevelops the plot of ‘“ Marmion,” and the need of the fifth act of the\n“Merchant of Venice.”\nDartmouth suggests an essay on “ The literary\nmethods of Defoe as shown in the ‘ History of the Plague.’ ”\nAssuredly, the student is now fairly launched upon the uncertain sea\nof literary criticism, and yet, assuredly, no one\n\nwould question the intel-\n\nlectual stimulus given by the foregoing questions, and the heightened\ninterest in the study of literature resulting therefrom.\nStill other questions, not all distinctly questions of literary criticism,\nsuggest stimulating topics for class-room discussion, such as Union’s\nquestion why so many people like “ Evangeline,’ or how the “Tales of\na Traveler” differ from the magazine stories of today.\nExpressions of\nthe candidate’s personal opinion are often called for. Columbia asks the\ncandidate to criticise two passages and to say-which passage he prefers\nand why. Wellesley asks for a “candid opinion, with full explanation\nand support,” and for nothing else. Williams asks whether Shylock was\n\ned\n\n"}
{"page": 703, "printed_page": null, "text": "he\n\nDepartment]\n\nROUND\n\nfairly treated\n\nand\n\nTABLE\n\nIN ENGLISH\n\nfor the candidate’s\n\nHarvard, too, asks for the candidate’s\n\n693\n\nopinion of Shylock’s\n\ndaughter.\n\nopinion of the treatment\n\nof Shy-\n\nlock, and Wesleyan asks whether Shakespeare makes us pity Shylock at\nlast. The Teachers’ College requests the candidate to point out the ways\nin which our sympathies are turned for or against Shylock, a form of\nstatement which suggests a method of study conducive to intellectual\ndiscipline and yielding definite results.\nRochester’s question as to the age of Macaulay when he wrote the\n“Essay on Milton” suggests to the secondary-school student the importance of a chronological study of an author’s work.\nIf the significance\nof this question be perceived by him, he will now begin to distinguish in\nall his reading between the early work of a youthful poet, pluming the\nwings for a lofty flight, whose Weltanschauung was then, perhaps, an\nemotion\n\nrather\n\nthan\n\na thought, and\n\nthe later, matured view of life, the\n\nchastened judgment, of the silver-haired sage.\nNo longer will Milton be\nto him indifferently Milton, whether the lines be a portion of a rhetorical\nexercise done within college walls or the majestic music of the ripened\nstatesman-poet, who, having taken part in the struggle for liberty of\nthought and liberty of unlicensed printing, is now attempting themes\n“‘unattempted yet in prose or rhyme.”’ A poet’s later work, his Locksley halls sixty years after, may possibly be less poetic, notwithstanding\nthe greater weight of thought ; or possibly his poetic powers may develop\ncontinually\n\nto the\n\nend\n\nof life.\n\nRochester’s question, then, suggesting\n\nthe importance of the chronology of an author’s work, gives to the young\nreader a hint of a method of study which will enable him to follow and\nto understand the development of the author’s spirit.\nAnd yet, suggestive and stimulating as are many of these questions\nwhich deal with the “form and structure” of the college-entrance texts,\ntouching thus upon the boundaries, at least, of formal literary criticism,\nthere is, as yet, manifestly, no\n\n‘“‘system’’ of instruction in English, uni-\n\nformly recommended by the colleges, with which the secondary schools\nmay get “into consonance.”\nThe adoption of uniform college-entrance\ntexts was a step toward the desired harmony of method.\n‘There still\nremains, however, to determine\n\nthe nature and\n\nthe extent of the prepa-\n\nration upon these uniform texts which shall receive the uniform approval\nof college men.\nTHE\n\nEND\n\nIN VIEW\n\nDETERMINES\n\nIt is certainly true, as Professor\n\nTHE\n\nCHOICE\n\nOF TEXTS.\n\nJacobs, of Brown, has written, that\n\n“English teaching should be wider than any examination,” and yet, since\nthe method of secondary-school study approved by the college professor\nmay to some extent be inferred from the character of the entrance-exam-\n\nination questions which he writes, and since there is so great variety in\n\n"}
{"page": 704, "printed_page": null, "text": "694\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nthe questions set by the colleges, notwithstanding their desire for harmony of method, there would seem to be practical wisdom in his suggestion that there is need of “a model course of instruction in English\nwhich shall set forth the aims of such instruction, and which shall be the\n\nFor while\njoint product of college men and of secondary-school men.”\na complete and thorough-going dead level of uniformity in the method of\nteaching literature in the secondary schools is by no means to be desired,\nyet, if the movement to secure college-entrance texts in literature uniform\nthroughout the.United States be a wise movement, then there must fol- low a substantial agreement in regard to the end in view and the method\nof attaining this end, for the end in view determines, or should determine, the choice of texts.\nEven the masterpieces of literature are not all\nequally adapted for these various methods of study.\nOne selection lends\nitself readily to the purposes of the teacher of composition, it supplies\nsatisfactory material for themes ; another selection suggests inspiring and\nnoble thoughts, thoughts too deep for tears or too delicate and evanescent for unpoetic expression and for juvenile themes ; while still another\nEnglish classic, because it Aas exquisite form and structure, will be wisely\n\nincluded in the prescribed texts —if the study of artistic form and structure, “of the relation of the parts of a literary art-piece to the whole,”\nbe a proper study for secondary schools. What is the end in view? Not\nuntil this question is satisfactorily answered can there be a wise choice\nof texts for secondary-school study and an intelligent treatment of the\ntexts thus chosen.\n\nROUND\n\nSAMUEL\n\nT.\n\nTABLE.ON\n\nDUTTON,\n\nTHE HIGH\nFACTOR.\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAS tAgSOCIAG\n:\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nBROOKLINE,\n\nMASS.,\n\nLEADER.\n\n1. The high school as a democratic institution.\nDr. C. H. THurBeER, The University of Chicago.—\nThe high school is not only a\ndemocratic institution, but it is he democratic institution of our educational system.\n\nWe\n\nall know of its representative character; we know how the children of the higher classes\nof society mix with those of the lower, indifferent to rank. Children are born democrats.\nThe public high school is nearer and dearer to the hearts of the people than all other\ninstitutions. Theoretically the high school recognizes diversity of aims, but practically it\noften does not. The high school is too likely to be a slave of its course of study, which is\nexpected to prepare for the higher institution of learning. There is the tendency to dritt\n\naway from commercial\n\ncallings, a tendency which must be checked.\n\nThe cause of this\n\nS\n\n"}
{"page": 705, "printed_page": null, "text": "el\ni\n\nel\n>\n\nDepartment]\n\nTHE\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAS A SOCIAL\n\nFACTOR\n\n695\n\ncondition of affairs does not lie in any desire to follow such a line of work. We have\nsimply drifted into our present condition.\nThe idea was once prevalent that only professional men needed the higher education.\nTo counteract this wrong tendency we should\nintroduce more practical studies, history of commerce and industries, politics, economy,\ncivil government, and the study of the Spanish language, which is coming to take such\nan important part in commercial transactions.\n\n2. The relation of the high school to the home.\nPROFESSOR C. C. RouNnDs, New York.—In studying the relation of the school to the\nhome, we study also its relation to the community.\nWe must consider making a living\nin order to make a life. Such an adjustment of environment should be made as will\nenable the child to live and pay for his living.\n\nStudy of physical laws necessary —that which concerns\n\nthe mind more\n\nnecessary.\n\nSocial and economic laws must be investigated, if we would understand our relations to\nour fellow-men.\nThe law of right and wrong is needed as soon as the child knows the\nmeaning of the word “ought.’”’ Home goes into and culminates in the school. The\n\nschool is a society, representative of the world.\n\nIf all parents were\n\nfitted to be parents,\n\nif all homes were good homes, all schools might more easily be good schools.\nThere is great need of ethical training in high schools.\nThe pupil should learn that\nhe can no more violate a moral than a physical law. He should be trained to a reverence\nfor authority. A flag on a schoolhouse will not answer the purpose.\nA well-ordered\nschool makes a well-ordered state.\n\nThere is no pleasanter subject or study than that of ethics, and it should have a\nregular place and time on the programme from the lowest grade up.\nThe school must supplement the family and must have the state in view. We grieve\nover the condition of affairs in Europe; we blush at the weakness of Christian monarchs.\nWe can’t reform Europe, but we can set our own house in order.\n\n3. The high school in tts relation to the community.\nPRINCIPAL\n\nW. J. PRINGLE, Aurora, Il]—- Dr. Rounds has just said that there should\n\nbe in our high-school curriculum a fixed time and place for the study of ethics. I question\nthe wisdom of this. The study is interesting, but I do not think it will make a man better.\nIn order that an emotion amount to anything either right or wrong, it must be followed by\naction.\nEthical training is so intimately connected with ethical actions that we must\nteach ethics all the time.\nBut to the subject in hand, “the relation of the high school to the community.” The\nconditions today are widely divergent from what they were fifty years ago. Then the\naverage man lived on a farm, he was a local man, his needs were more circumscribed.\nThe average man of today is cosmopolitan, he must know more of the world.\nCourses\nof study should be correspondingly broader for the citizen of this day. I believe in greater\nfreedom and greater elasticity of school curricula, in order to bring into the school a larger\nproportion of the youth of the country. There must be more incentives to bring and keep\nthe boys in school.\nIn proportion to the number we may be able to enroll in our schools\nwill be our influence upon the community.\nThe very best I can advise is to have the\nschool so constructed on the inside that the boys and girls will love it, be loyal to it, and\n\ngladly carry its influence with them into their homes, and thus affect the community.\n\n*\n\n"}
{"page": 706, "printed_page": null, "text": "696\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\n4. The high school as a training place for citizenship.\nPAPER\n\nBY\n\nPRINCIPAL\n\nJ.\n\nREMSEN\n\nBISHOP,\n\nCINCINNATI,\n\nO.\n\nThere are three things which especially make for good citizenship:\nWithout virtue, by which I here mean\nvirtue, honesty, and self-support.\nclean living as regards the relations of the sexes, there can be no security.\nThe man or woman—I refuse to believe that there is really any distinction between man and woman in this matter—-who has cast away the\nsweet and fragrant flower of virtue may be likened to a bark upon the lake\nThis ship might thereafter, on its\nhard by that has lost its anchor.\nvoyage, through favoring winds and absence of storms, reach its haven in\nsafety. But let a storm wind rise when she is near a lea shore, and nothing short of a miracle will save her.\nWithout honesty, in which should be included truthfulness and honorableness toward our fellow-man in all our dealings with him, the fabric\nof society would fall apart. ‘Trickery in business, in politics, and in\nsocial relations, unless confined to those whose natural or acquired moral\nturpitude unfits them for honest dealing, would soon destroy confidence\nin the general probity of our Anglo-Saxon race. It is needless to point\nout that with the loss of this confidence, never shaken by a small number\nof exceptions to the general rule of honesty, would depart much of the\nhappiness that still falls to the lot of the honorable man or woman.\nWhen such sentiments as, “Do your neighbor or you will be done by\nhim,” are uttered in a tone that is not all jest, we are nearing the danger\nline in this regard.\nThe ability to support herself or himself—for here again women no\nlonger hide behind their sex—alone gives assurance that a man or woman\nwill not be likely to join the apparently growing forces of discontent.\n‘This is not, under present conditions, a simple matter.\nThe solving of the\nproblem how to direct the development of the boy’s or girl’s powers, that\nhe or she may find a niche in the structure of society, more nearly concerns our schools than even the question of reaching more successfully\nthe moral nature.\nIn the everlasting conflict of “sense at war with soul” it is the chief\nduty of the teacher, as captain or lieutenant, to see to it that the young\nrecruit is armed and trained. The young soldier must fight his own battle for his soul’s victory.\nThe teacher and the parent cannot do his\nfighting for him; but a certain kind of preparation gives almost perfect\nassurance of victory. I will briefly outline the general character which I\nthink should mark the training. The young are imitative and enthusiastic. If moral men and women of this age and of former ages are held\nup to them\n\nas noble\n\nexamples\n\nof good\n\nand successful\n\nlives, and\n\nif, in\n\n"}
{"page": 707, "printed_page": null, "text": "i\n\nDepartment]\n\nTHE\n\nHIGH SCHOOL\n\naddition to this, their enthusiasm\n\nAS A SOCIAL\n\nFACTOR\n\nis kindled to emulate\n\n697\n\ntheir lives, much\n\nhas been accomplished towards moral training.\nA habit of admiration for\nwhat is pure and good in human nature, implying a disgust for what is\nunclean and base, is gradually formed; the will of the young pupil assisting, under the stimulus of enthusiasm, in the completion of the process.\nAs soon as the habit of admiring and imitating what is best, and of\nrejecting what is worse, becomes subconscious in this person’s nature,\nwill\n\ninterferes\n\nwith\n\nthis\n\nsubconscious,\n\nand,\n\ntherefore,\n\nperfectly\n\naiding,\n\nmotive force toward virtuous and honest living.\nIt seems to me that\nevery high-school teacher, formally or incidentally, should aim to start,\nfoster, and complete this process of moral training in the case ot every one\nof his pupils.\nThe unconscious influence the teacher ever exercises over\nhis pupils will assist.\nThe environments and relations of some of his\npupils outside of school will defeat his effort, but where other influences\nare favorable, or even reasonably negative, he will succeed.\nIn succeeding, he will have done what the Savior of mankind\n\ncommissioned\n\nevery\n\nman to do. He will have saved souls from vice and iniquity and consequent misery, for honor and purity and consequent happiness.\nAll credit\nto the high-school teachers of the land, who, I believe without exception,\nare, as grace has been granted to each, training the young to win victory\nin that grim “‘ war of time against the soul of man.”\nJust what the high school can do to direct the development of a boy’s\nor girl’s powers, that he or she may at once begin to earn a wage suited to\nage and condition, is now being carefully considered.\nIn the use of the\nmanual training high school and the business high school, or business\ncourse in the high school, we see the first practical effort to solve this\nproblem.\nWhile I have no quarrel with manual training and business\ncourses, and\n\nfeel that\n\nthe movement\n\nwill reach a wide\n\nextent, I do\n\nnot\n\nthink these courses the best preparation for citizenship.\nIf our high\nschools, with courses sufficiently elastic to allow for individual bent in the\npupil, should graduate their pupils at sixteen years of age, I believe they\nwould be doing all that could be done by this class of schools toward\ntraining for citizenship.\nSixteen is not too advanced an age at which to\n\nbegin at the bottom of any business or manual trade ladder, while the\nliberal instruction of the high school gives a certain power of ezsthetic\nand intellectual comprehension that must add to a man’s efficiency as a\nsmall factor and to his enjoyment of his own existence.\nI would\nstrike at the traditional grading of schools.\nDestroy the foreboding and\nirrational gap between lower school and high school, and graduate\nat least nine-tenths from the public-school system at sixteen years of\nage. I am conscious that this is an unpopular view of the subject,\nand that teachers with reason are complaining that the pupils in the\nhigh schools are too young to grasp their subjects. The fault may be\n\nSey\n\n"}
{"page": 708, "printed_page": null, "text": "698\nwith\n\nNATIONAL\nthe subject\n\nor with\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nthe\n\nmanner\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nof presenting it, and not with the\n\nage of the pupil.\nNoble work has certainly been done by our high schools; splendid men\nand women owe the incentives that made them so to the loving, wise, and\nIf now, owing to the close\npatient training of the high-school teachers.\ncompetition of the age, when the machine does the work of many men,\nand it is hard to tell just what service society really requires of the young\non the threshold of active life, if now the high school must set backward\nits beloved work a year or two years, the sacrifice will cheerfully be made.\nA true patriotism, such as actuates every public-school teacher, never\nhesitates when individual prejudice conflicts with the demands of our\ncountry’s welfare.\n\nThe high schools have trained those who in city, town,\n\nor hamlet bear the burden and heat of the day. Without the slightest\ndoubt, modified or unmodified, they will continue for all time to render\nthis inestimable service to our country and to mankind.\nProFessor A. S. Downine, Albany, N. Y.—I\n\nwish to emphasize\n\nthis statement as\n\na fundamental principle that education is formation.\nIt is not a drawing-out nor a\nbuilding-up, but a formative process.\nWhen girls and boys enter the high school, they bear the print of the teacher’s hand.\nNow the work of the high school is to train these pupils for citizenship by teaching them\n\nself-control.\n\nThe pupil is to work freely, the teacher overseeing and correcting.\n\nand girls should issue from\n\nthe schools as self-controlling men and women.\n\nBoys\n\nNo one is\n\nvirtuous without self-control, no one is honest without self-control, no one works constantly\n\nwithout self-control.\nIt is the imperative duty of the high-school teacher so to discipline\nhis pupils as to cultivate this quality. Pupils should be allowed to act freely, but when\nthe teacher finds that the boy is going wrong, then the teacher must control him, until he\nhas learned to control himself.\nI have known of a whole community being changed by the wise training of the\npupils of the high school. If we train our pupils to self-government, we are giving the\nbest possible training for citizenship.\nThe second topic of the syllabus suggests that this citizen-training be carried on\nthrough the study of local history and local institutions.\nIf we can awaken an enthusiam for their own environment\n— city, state, country—\nwe shall do much.\nWe should try to do this and to teach the pupils that it is a sacred\nduty to work for the institutions of their own locality.\n\n5. High-school extension.\nJames L. Hucuss, Inspector of Schools, Toronto, Canada.— The greatest problem\nof the century is the co-ordinating of forces around the child. This is the great purpose\nof education.\nTeachers are at the center of the movement; they should be the guiding,\ndominating influence. In cities and towns I think the high school the best co-ordinating\ncenter for the movement.\nThere are two ways in which the high school may work:\nFirst, downward through the teachers and pupils of the higher grammar grades; through\nthe teachers by helping them toward better methods, through the pupils by inspiring\nthem with a desire for higher training.\nIn Toronto we have the university assist in this\nwork.\nThe pupils of the higher grammar grades are frequently taken to the university to\nlisten to a lecture by one of our special professors; thus they are stimulated by a desire\n\n<<\n\n"}
{"page": 709, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAS A SOCIAL\n\nFACTOR\n\n699\n\nto gain a higher education for themselves by having an interest in the higher studies\naroused.\nSecondly, the high school may work outward.\nBy its night courses in literature, history, or science it influences directly the older members of the family. These\nhigh-school extension courses may follow any lines of thought, and for them the best\navailable lecturers should be secured.\nThis country is democratic, whether we be ruled\nby a queen,\nas on our side, or by a president, as on yours; we are all democratic, and we\n\nare socialistic.\n\nI use the term in its better sense.\n\nourselves for the work our country demands of us.\n\nWe ought, therefore, better to prepare\nIt would, therefore,\n\nbe well\n\nto teach\n\ncivics, and kindred subjects, in these high-school extension courses.\nA wonderful study\nfor today is the effect of foods and their value, as nutrition. Ventilation and sanitation\nwill be gladly received. Child study under the head of mothers’ meetings\n— though they\nshould be parents’ meetings — will be popular; and very many other subjects, which will\nsuggest themselves, all of which wiil tend toward the co-ordination of society.\n\n"}
{"page": 710, "printed_page": null, "text": "EDUCATION.\n\nOF HIGHER\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nSECRETARY so MING\nFIRST\n\nSESSION.—\n\n( JOINT SESSION\n\nSECOND\n\nThe\n\ndepartment\n\nmet\n\nWEDNESDAY,\n\nWITH\n\nSESSION.\n\nSECONDARY\n\nES:\n\nJULY\n\n—TuHuRSDAY,\n\nin Milwaukee -Downer\n\n7, 1897.\n\nDEPARTMENT.)\n\nJULY\n\nCollege\n\n8.\n\nat 3 P. M., with\n\nPresident\n\nSwain of Indiana University in the chair. In the absence of the Secretary, Professor\nRobert J. Peters, of Missouri Valley College, was appointed secretary pro tempore.\nThe President announced the following Committee on Nominations of officers for\n1898 :\nPresident James H. Baker, University of Colorado, Chairman;\nUniversity ;Chancellor Snow, Kansas State University.\n\nProfessor A.\n\nT.\n\nOrmond,\n\nPrinceton\n\nPresident James H. Canfield of Ohio State ae delivered an address on “ The\nPractical Value of College Training.”\nThe discussion was opened by Chancellor G. E. MacLean, University of Nebraska,\nand continued by Professor A. T. Ormond, of Princeton University, and Chancellor Snow,\n\nKansas State University.\nPresident Henry Wade Rogers, Northwestern University, read a paper in support of\nthe following resolution :\nResolved, That the state should exercise supervision over degree-conferring colleges through some\nproperly constituted tribunal having power to fix a minimum standard of requirements for admission to or\ngraduation from such institutions, and with the right to deprive of the degree-conferring power such institutions not conforming to the standard so prescribed,\n\nThe discussion was participated in by President R. H. Jesse, University of Missouri;\nPresident James H. Baker, University of Colorado; Chancellor Snow, University of Kan-\n\nsas; President\n\nKing, Cornell College, Ia.; Professor\n\nChancellor MacLean, University of Nebraska;\n\nFellows,\n\nUniversity of Chicago;\n\nProfessor Ormond, Princeton\n\nUniversity;\n\nProfessor Buck, lowa College; President Henry Wade Rogers, Northwestern University.\nA motion was passed to amend the resolution by inserting the word “ institutions ”\nfor “colleges,” and the resolution, as amended, was adopted unanimously.\n\nA motion was passed that the. officers of the Department of Higher Education be\nrequested to enter upon an investigation looking toward the possible formation of a\nnational association of colleges and universities in the interest of proper standards for\nhigher education, and to report at the next annual meeting.\nBy motion, the following resolution, introduced by Chancellor MacLean, University\nof Nebraska, was referred to the Executive Committee of the National Educational Association :\nResolved, That it is the sense of this department that in the English work of the secondary schools a\nlarge and open list of books for reading and study is preferable to a small required list, such as is recommended by the Joint Committee on the Uniform Entrance Requirements in English.\n\nThe Committee on Nominations submitted the following report for officers for 1898 :\nFor Prestdent, Dr. R. H. Jesse, President Missouri State University.\nFor Vice-President, Professor A. T. Ormond, Princeton University.\nFor Secretary, President Henry Wade Rogers, Northwestern University.\n\n700\n\n"}
{"page": 711, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSUPERVISION\n\nOF DEGREE-CONFERRING\n\nINSTITUTIONS\n\n701\n\nThe report of the committee was adopted, and the nominees declared duly elected.\nAdjourned,\n\nROBERT\n\nJ. PETERS,\n\nActing Secretary.\n\n[The editor regrets that from the valuable papers and discussions of this department\nonly a single paper and a report of but one discussion\n\nwere furnished\n\nby the department\n\nsecretary for publication.]\n\nPA\nSTATE\n\nBY\n\nbio\n\nUNL)\n\nDISCUSSIONS,\n\nSUPERVISION OF DEGREE-CONFERRING\nINSTITUTIONS.\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nHENRY\n\nWADE\n\nROGERS,\n\nEVANSTON,\n\nNORTHWESTERN\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nILL.\n\nMr. Freeman, the English historian and Oxford professor, publishing\nhis “Impressions of the United States,” declared that one of the first\nthings that impressed the stranger was the amazing number of universities and colleges existing here. After stating, ‘‘ We can hardly be wrong\nin inferring that the degrees granted by some of these institutions cannot be worth very much,” he goes on to say: “Now, my feelings make\nme most loath to say a word in any federal country against the powers of\nthe several states, but it is surely not unreasonable to hint that the right\nof granting degrees should be assumed only by authority of the federal\npower. For a degree is surely a national thing, or, rather, it is something\nmore than a national thing. It ought to be—I donot say whether it anywhere is—something like knighthood in old times, a badge of scholarship which should enable a man to take his place among scholars in any\nland to which he may come.’”’ Mr. Freeman seems to have been led to\nmake these observations by the fact, to which he directs attention, that in\n\nthe one state of Ohio there were thirty-two institutions with authority to\ngrant degrees.\nIt is easy to imagine that his feelings on this subject\nwould have been not a little intensified, and\n\nhis convictions very consid-\n\nerably strengthened, had he known that in the single state of Pennsylvania, which has not generally been regarded as sinning in these matters,\none hundred and twenty institutions have authority to confer degrees.\nHow many institutions there are in the country as a whole which have\nlike authority I have not ascertained.\nThe number is certainly large\nenough to afford good and sufficient reasons for reflections of a serious\ncharacter.\n\n"}
{"page": 712, "printed_page": null, "text": "702\n\nNATIONAL\n\n[Higher\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nIn the first place, we must concede that there is no disposition\non the part of the American people to transfer to the national government any part of the powers now vested in the state governments.\nIn the second place, there appears to be no adequate reason for supposing that, if the federal government were possessed of the power\nadvocated by Mr. Freeman, the educational standards of the country\nIt cannot\nwould be any higher than they are under existing conditions.\neven be said with any degree of certainty that there would be a uniform\nlaw, under which institutions of learning would be incorporated, unless\nthe constitution should be so amended as expressly to require it. Whatever reform is to be accomplished will have to be wrought out by the\nindividual action of the states.\nThe difficulty under which we labor in this country is not due to the\nfact that the states, rather\n\nsubject of education.\n\nthan the United\n\nStates, are\n\nin control\n\nof the\n\nIn Germany control over the universities is not in\n\nthe empire, but, as in this country, is in the several states.\n\nThe only dif-\n\nference is that in Germany the states exercise their rights of supervision,\nwhile in the United States, as a rule, they do not.\n\nIn this country it is usual to provide in the state constitutions that\nthe legislatures shall pass no special act conferring corporate powers,\nbut shall provide by general laws for the organization of corporations.\nThe practice is, therefore, to enact a general law, which commonly provides that any three or five persons may be incorporated as a college or\nuniversity on filing in the proper office a certificate stating the name,\nobject, number of trustees, and place of location of the institution, and\nthat it shall have power to grant such literary honors and degrees as are\nusually conferred by such institutions.\nIn some states the degree power\nis granted without any restrictions, while in a few instances, as in Michigan and Minnesota, it is given, provided “the course of study to be pursued in such institution is in all respects as thorough and comprehensive\nas is usually pursued in similar institutions of the United States.”\nThis\nlast provision is very well in theory, but in practice does not always afford\nthat protection against abuses which it was intended to secure.\nUnder laws like these institutions are incorporated as colleges and\nuniversities that are without endowment,\n\nand, in not a few instances, are\n\npermitted to confer degrees, although the conditions prescribed for\ngraduation are not higher than those prescribed for admission by institutions of high rank.\nInstitutions whose total endowment is not equal\nto the necessities of an academy of the first rank presume to confer the\ndoctorate of philosophy on non-resident students and have more candidates enrolled for that degree than they have college students in actual\nattendance. The degree of Doctor of Civil Law is being dishonored ina\nmanner that deserves the utmost censure.\nA law school announcing\n\n"}
{"page": 713, "printed_page": null, "text": "Meare\nee\nNie\nii\n\nDepartment]\n\nSUPERVISION\n\nOF DEGREE-CONFERRING\n\nINSTITUT TONS\n\n703\n\nthat it has for its object “the promotion of a higher standard of legal\neducation” belies its pretensions by its prostitution of that high degree.\nThese are the conditions which it prescribes :\n1. The candidate, if he possess “a good common-school education,”\nis admitted to the school, and at the end of two years obtains his degree\nof LL.B. (although law schools of the first class now require three years\nfor that degree).\n2. Having received the degree of LL.B., he spends one year longer\nin the school and obtains the degree of LL.M.\n3. Having received the degree of LL.M., he continues for a fourth\nyear and then obtains the degree of Doctor of Civil Law, although he has\nno knowledge of a single foreign language, is unfamiliar with English literature, with the natural sciences, or the higher mathematics.\n\nTaking into\n\nthe account the amount of time spent in previous preparation, this\ndegree can be obtained in less time than is’ required for the degree of\nBachelor of Arts.\nAnd yet, on the advisory board of this school may be found the\nnames of a senator of the United States, several of the judges of the\nsupreme court of the state, a bishop of the church, and the president of\n‘an academy of sciences.\nOne cannot help wondering how men of their\nprominence can lend themselves to such an enterprise.\nThey are not\nquite consenting to the sale of the degree, but they are certainly consenting, whether they are aware of it or not, to its woeful prostitution.\n\nThe cause of professional as well as of academic education suffers\nfrom the want of adequate state supervision.\nProfessional schools have ~\nbeen established, generally in the large cities, which are governed by\npurely commercial standards.\nWe have in this country schools of law,\nmedicine, dentistry, and pharmacy that appear to be organized and conducted for the purpose of making money.\n‘They are stock corporations,\nthe stock being generally held by members of the teaching force, the\nteachers being chosen, not for their fitness for any particular chair, but\nbecause of their willingness and ability to put up the money that is\nneeded.\nThe shorter the course of study, the cheaper the class of\nteachers; the less expended for books and apparatus, and the easier it is\nmade to be admitted and graduated, the greater the number of students\nbecomes and the larger the amount of the dividends paid.\nMen who\nmake merchandise of professional education have low professional and\nscholastic ideals.\nThey are inclined to receive all students who apply\nfor admission, without much regard to their previous preparation or\ntheir moral character.\nThey allow the students thus admitted to continue in their school without being concerned greatly as to the manner\nThey graduate them after an\nin which they apply themselves to study.\nattendance for the allotted period, without scrutinizing too closely the\n\n"}
{"page": 714, "printed_page": null, "text": "oe\nen\n\n704\n\n;\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nextent of their ignorance, and confer upon them a degree which in\nThis sort of thing,\ntheory is supposed to stand for high attainments.\nSuch a\nimpossible in Europe, should be made impossible in America.\nof\ntendency\nThe\ncondition of affairs is demoralizing beyond question.\nof\nIt destroys the value\nit is all in the direction of low standards.\nIt imposes on the public a class of educational charlatans, and\ndegrees.\nworks injury to the students whom it falsely pretends to educate.\nIt\nmultiplies the difficulties in the way of those institutions that are\nA\nendeavoring to do their work according to the highest standards.\nfaculty of law, or medicine, or dentistry, or pharmacy that is conducting\na school on any such basis as that described ought not to have authority\nto confer degrees.\nThere should be no hesitancy in declaring that the\ninterests of education, and, therefore, the interests\n\nof the public, require\n\nthat, when the state does not exercise a power of supervision and does\nnot establish a minimum standard of admission and graduation, it should\nwithhold from every stock company the power of conferring degrees.\nI\ndo not desire to be understood as intimating an opinion that no school\ncan be worthy of public confidence which is conducted by a stock\ncorporation paying dividends to its members, but only that the danger\nfrom schools of this class is so great that it is not wise, in the absence of\nstate supervision, to intrust them with the degree-conferring power.\nWhile here and there a dividend-paying school may exist with. high\nstandards and be worthy of confidence, the influence of the great majority of schools conducted for the purposes of revenue is so bad, from an\neducational point of view, that the state would be justified in withholding\nfrom them all degree-conferring power.\nThe state of New York has recognized the evil which is connected\nwith this class of institutions, and the ordinances of the university contain the following provision :\n“No educational institution or association incorporated or conducted\nas a business enterprise, so that any part of its assets or income may be\ndivided among stockholders or members, shall have university membership, or share in any grant of public money, or publish itself as holding\nits charter from, or having any connection with, the university, except in\nwords for the use of which it has written permission from the regents.\nIf subject to university supervision, it shall use the words ‘Chartered as\n\na stock (or business) corporation,’ or some other descriptive word or\nphrase accepted by the regents as sufficiently indicating its proprietary\ncharacter, wherever the fact of its incorporation is printed.\n“This group shall include all corporations holding limited charters\nfor the university, and also every association or institution under university supervision not so organized that all its assets and receipts from\n\ntuition or other sources must be used solely for the benefit of the public\n\n"}
{"page": 715, "printed_page": null, "text": "xan\n2By\nee\neee\nbees\n\nDepartment]\n\nSUPERVISION\n\nand without\n\nOF DEGREE-CONFERRING\n\nINSTITUTIONS\n\nprofit to stockholders, officers, or teachers,\n\nbeyond\n\n795\n\nreason-\n\nable compensation for services actually rendered.”\nState supervision justifying state recognition of diplomas must be a\nsupervision that extends impartially over all the degree-conferring institutions of the state, and which is exercised by prescribing standards and\nby seeing that those standards are honestly conformed to.\nSpecial\nprivileges based on a supervision that extends to less than the whole no\nstate should think of granting.\nIn some states the diploma of a professional school is accorded\nrecognition by allowing the one to whom it has been granted to practice\nlaw,\n\nmedicine,\n\ndentistry,\n\nor\n\npharmacy,\n\nas\n\nthe\n\ncase\n\nmay\n\nbe, without\n\nrequiring any examination as to professional knowledge.\n‘This is a\nmistake and in itself tends to lower educational standards.\nA school\nwhich knows that its graduates will have to take the examination by the\nstate will be ambitious, if the examination by the state is at all what it\nought to be, that those whom it has trained and graduated should not\nonly pass the state’s examination, but that they should rank as high as\nthose who have been graduated from other schools.\nThe state’s examination furnishes a constant pressure upon these schools in the direction of\n‘thorough work and higher standards.\nBut irrespective of the effect upon\nthe schools, it certainly is quite indefensible that a state which exercises\nno supervision over the schools, which does not prescribe a minimum of\nrequirements\nfor admission and graduation, and which does not ascertain\nfor itself wpon inspection the thoroughness of the work done, should\naccord to the graduates exemption from the examinations required of\npersons proposing to practice law, medicine, dentistry, or pharmacy.\nThe state, in the absence of its own supervision, is without any adequate\nguarantee that the work of the schools is so thoroughly done as to\nentitle any and every person holding a degree to be at once allowed to\nenter upon professional practice.\nThis want of any sufficient guarantee\nis especially true when stock companies are allowed, without supervision,\nto confer, and I had almost said to sell, their degrees.\nBut there is no\ngood reason why diplomas may not be accepted in lieu of examinations\nin states which really exercise supervision over the degree-conferring\ninstitutions.\nIt would, however, be most unjust and unworthy to accord\nto the diplomas issued by a state university any special privileges, simply\nbecause it is an institution under state control, and any attempt of that\nkind might very properly arouse resentment to the prejudice of the\ninstitution\n\nconcerned.\n\nThere\n\nmight\n\nbe, in the same\n\nstate, institutions\n\nunder private control doing as good, if not better, work.\nTo attach to\nthe diplomas of the state university, because of its state character, any\nspecial privileges would manifestly be unfair, and the thought of it is not\n\ntoo to be entertained.\n\n©\n\n"}
{"page": 716, "printed_page": null, "text": "eng\n+\n706\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nThe Jaisses-faire policy which is responsible for the existing abuses\nwhich characterize our educational affairs is not in favor in the state of\nThat state has set an example which deserves to be followed\nNew York.\nIts legislation on this subject has been\nby other American states.\nwisely framed.\nThe legislature of that state, at its first session after the\nclose of the Revolutionary War, created the University of New York and\nplaced the same in the control of a board of regents composed of men\nof the highest character and distinction.\nThe University of New York\nis not a teaching body. It includes and has supervision over all the colleges and academies of the state, although each has its own board of trustees for the management of its individual affairs.\nThe regents of the\nUniversity of New York are elected by the legislature of the state, and\nno person can be at the same time a regent of the university and a trustee\nThe laws\nor officer of any one of the colleges or academies of the state.\nof New York confer upon the regents authority to incorporate universities, colleges, academies,\n\nand\n\nother\n\neducational\n\ninstitutions, with\n\nsuch\n\npowers and subject to such limitations and restrictions “as the regents\nmay prescribe in conformity to law.” They are also given the right, for\nsufficient cause, to suspend or revoke the charter of any educational\ninstitution.\nUnder a law passed in 1892 it is provided that, ‘‘No institution shall\nbe given power to confer degrees in this state, unless it shall have\nresources\n\nof at least $500,000;\n\nand\n\nno\n\ninstitution\n\nfor higher education\n\nshall be incorporated without suitable provision, approved by the regents,\nfor buildings, furniture, educational equipment, and proper maintenance.’ Under the ordinances of the university it has, however, been provided that, “if the regents are satisfied that public interests will be promoted by such incorporation, that suitable provision has been made for\nbuildings, furniture, educational equipment, and proper maintenance,\nand that the institution has resources of at least $100,000, if it is a college, $50,000, if an academy,” then a charter may be issued to it. But\n\ninstitutions incorporated under this provision are not given degree-conferring powers.\nThe state of Pennsylvania has recently followed the example of her\nsister state. In 1895 the legislature of that commonwealth passed an\nact creating a college and university council, and conferred upon it full\nauthority to decide upon the advisability of chartering new institutions.\nNo institution can now be chartered in that state with power to confer\ndegrees, unless its assets amount to $500,000 for the exclusive purpose of\npromoting instruction, and unless the faculty consists of at least six regular professors, who devote all their time to the instruction of its college\nor university classes. The council has adopted uniform entrance requirements, which are obligatory as a minimum on all the collegiate institu-\n\n&\n\n"}
{"page": 717, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSUPERVISION\n\ntions of the state.\n\nOF DEGREE-CONFERRING\n\nINSTITUTIONS\n\n70%\n\nAnd no baccalaureate degree in arts, science, philoso-\n\nphy, or literature can now be conferred by any institution in the state on\nany student who has not completed a college or university course covering four years.\nIn America we are too easy-going about many things, and we have\nmuch to learn from a study of European methods and the legislation of\nforeign states.\nAmerican degrees are discredited in Europe because of\nthe want of supervision of the degree-conferring power.\nThe constitutional provisions against special laws and making it\nnecessary to incorporate under general statutes do not prevent the state\nfrom establishing all needed restrictions for the safeguarding of degrees.\nThere\n\nshould\n\nbe established\n\nin each\n\nstate\n\na council\n\nof education,\n\nwhich shall be intrusted with powers similar to those vested in the regents\nof the University of New York, and it should be composed of the most\neminent men in the state, without any reference to political considerations.\nNo degree-conferring institution should be incorporated without\nthe approval of the council of education, which should be indorsed upon\nor filed with the certificate of incorporation.\nThat council should have\nthe right to fix the minimum standard of requirements for admission and\n‘graduation, and the conditions under which degrees may be conferred,\nand the degree-conferring power should be withheld from all institutions\nnot complying with the regulations established.\nSuch legislation should\nbe made applicable to all institutions thereafter incorporated, as well as\nto those already incorporated, when the state has reserved the power to\nmodify the powers conferred.\nIt could not be made to apply to institutions already incorporated in cases where the state has not reserved power\nto do so.\nThere appears to be no good reason for doubting the constitutionality\nof the proposed legislation.\nNo constitutional provision is violated by\ncreating a council or commission, and giving it the power to decide the\nquestions which otherwise would be left to each institution to decide for\nitself. The principle that legislative power cannot be delegated is not\ninvolved.\nOn determining the questions submitted to it, the council is\nno more engaged in acts of legislation than would be the institutions\nthemselves or the individual incorporators.\n‘Cannot the legislature,”\nasks the New York court of appeals, “‘confer upon a commission the\npower, upon the application of individuals, to make the same determination for the individuals which they could make for themselves?”\nThe\ncourt answered\n\nthe question\n\nin the affirmative, and\n\nso, I believe, would\n\nthe courts of the country generally.\nMay\n\nwe\n\nnot\n\nhope\n\nthat,\n\nin the several\n\nstates,\n\nlegislation\n\nmay\n\nbe\n\nobtained which shall protect the universities of the country from the evils\nwhich exist from the failure to exercise a supervision deemed essential by\n\n"}
{"page": 718, "printed_page": null, "text": "708\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nWe Amerieans need to rid ourselves of the notion\nEuropean states?\nthat a “ go-as-you-please”’ policy is good enough for us. The time has\ncome when institutions doing only preparatory work should not be permitted to confer university degrees, and when professional schools established as money-making manufactories should be deprived of the right\nto sell degrees.\n\nDISCUSSION.\nPRESIDENT JAMES H. BAKER, University of Colorado.— The state should exercise\ncontrol over degree-conferring colleges, because (a) the country is developed beyond the\nperiod when crude expedients for higher education are necessary; (4) the majority of\nthe states provide, at public expense, higher education of a good standard, making colleges of inferior grade unnecessary; (c) the state should guard the people against the\ndeceptive claims of institutions not properly equipped to maintain work according to the\naccepted standards of the country; (d) for practical considerations, as well as reasons of\nsentiment, a degree should be such as to merit the respect of genuine scholars; (e) proper\ncontrol would reduce the number of unnecessary colleges; (/) the kind of degrees\nshould be subject to control, and the abuse of honorary degrees should be regulated; (g)\nin this matter the advantages of freedom and competition are more than offset by the\ndisadvantages.\nTo this end (a) there should be a national association of colleges and universities,\nthe conditions for membership in which should be a reasonable standard as to income,\nequipment, faculty, admission, graduation, and use of honorary degrees; (4) an effort\nshould be made in each state to conform to the requirements of the national association.\n\nh\na\n\n"}
{"page": 719, "printed_page": null, "text": "NORMAL\n\nDEPARTMENT.\n\nDe Gn Pawn oovil NUBo;\nFIRST\n\nSESSION.—WEDNESDAY,\n\nThe first session of this department\n3 o’clock.\n\nmet\n\nJULY\n\n7, 1897.\n\nin the Normal School, Milwaukee, Wis., at\n\nAlbert G. Boyden, of Bridgewater, Mass., President of the department, occupied the\nchair.\n\nJ. N. Wilkinson, of Emporia,\n\nKan., was\n\nasked to report the discussions\n\nof the\n\nsession.\nPresident Z. X. Snyder, of Greeley, Colo., Chairman of the committee appointed at\nthe Buffalo meeting to report upon the present condition of normal schools in our\ncountry, and upon means of improving and unifying normal work, read the report of the\ncommittee.\nPresident Snyder, President Seerley, and President Pierce, of the committee, contrib-\n\nuted to the explanation\n\nand defense of the report.\n\nThe report was further discussed by\n\nPresident Cook, of Illinois, and others.\n\nPresident Cook moved that the committee be continued and be requested to formulate minimum requirements necessary to constitute a true normal school.\nPresident Taylor offered the following substitute for Dr. Cook’s motion, which, after\nsome discussion, was adopted, as follows :\nResolved, That the report be accepted, and the committee continued, with instructions to go on with the\ninvestigation on the lines proposed, and also to submit a course of study with minimum professional instruction\nfor the state normal schools of the United States.\n\nDr. Boone moved that it be the sense\n\nof this department that the National Educa-\n\ntional Association appropriate the sum of five hundred dollars ($500) to meet the expenses\n\nof this investigation.\nUpon motion\n\nCarried.\n\nof President Snyder, Presidents\n\nBoone, Cook, and Lyte were\n\ncommittee to wait upon the trustees of the association and endeavor to secure\nappropriation.\nThe President appointed the following Committee on Nominations :\n\nmade\n\na\n\nthe above\n\nJno. W. Cook, E. A. Sheldon, Albert Salisbury.\n\nSECOND\n\nSESSION.—FRIDAY,\n\nJULY\n\n9.\n\nPresident Richard G. Boone, State Normal College, Ypsilanti, Mich., read a paper\nupon the subject, “How Can the Normal School Most Effectively Accomplish Its\nPurpose ?”\n\nThe paper was discussed\n\nby Albert Salisbury, State\n\nNormal\n\nSchool, Whitewater,\n\nWis., and others.\n\nThe Committee on Nominations then made the following report:\nFor President, H. H. Seerley, Cedar Falls, Ia.\nFor Vice-President, Rose C. Swart, Oshkosh, Wis.\nFor Secretary, F. B. Palmer, Fredonia, N, Y.\n\nBy a unanimous vote the Secretary was instructed to cast the ballot of the department\nfor these officers, and they were declared elected.\n709\n\n"}
{"page": 720, "printed_page": null, "text": "mm\n\nNATIONAL\n\n710\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Norma\n\nOn motion of Z. X. Snyder, of Colorado, A. G. Boyden, Bridgewater, Mass., was\nplaced upon the Normal Committee, vice Larkin Dunton, Boston, Mass., resigned; and\nthe President was instructed to fill the vacancy occasioned by the resignation of Miss\nThe President appointed R. G. Boone, Ypsilanti,\nMarian Brown, New Orleans, La.\nMich.\nE. A. STRONG,\nSecretary.\n\nAdjourned.\n\nPAPERS\nREPORT\n\nAND.\n\nDISCUSSIONS.\n\nOF NORMAL-SCHOOL\n\nCOMMITTEE.\n\nThe committee appointed one year ago at Buffalo to report on the\nreport of the Buffalo meeting has the honor to submit the following:\nTHE\n\nBUFFALO\n\nREPORT.\n\nIt is thought best here to state the Buffalo report, that all may have a\nclear understanding of the report about to be given. It is as follows:\nI, That there be inquiries (1) as to their control; (2) management; (3) maintenance ;\n(4) variations that exist on account of geographical location; (5) course of study, comprehending academic and professional work; (6) model or practice school; (7) kindergarten work; (8) the effect upon public schools of the country; (9) recognition of\ndiplomas in states other than the one in which issued; (10) the consideration of any other\nlines pertinent to normal schools.\nII. Your committee recommends the appointment of a committee to make a printed\nreport on the above to the Normal Department at its next annual session.\nIII, The nature of such printed report to determine if it be of sufficient importance\nto present the matter to the general association for a thorough investigation.\nRespectfully submitted,\nZ. X. SNYDER, Chairman, Greeley, Colo.;\nN, C. SCHAEFFER, Harrisburg, Pa.;\nH. H. SEERLEY, Cedar Falls, Ia.\n\nThe committee appointed is as follows: Z. X. Snyder, Greeley, Colo.,\nChairman; Nathan C. Schaeffer, Harrisburg, Pa; Homer H. Seerley,\nCedar Falls, Ia.; Edward T. Pierce, Los Angeles, Cal.; Mrs. Delia\nLathrop Williams, Albany, N. Y.; Frank M. McMurry, Buffalo, N. Y.;\nLarkin Dunton, Boston, Mass.; Miss Marion Brown, New Orleans, La.\nThe work of the committee was distributed as follows:\nTo N. C.\n\nSchaeffer, Inquiries 1 and 2; to Mrs. Delia Lathrop Williams, Inquiry 3;\nto Homer H. Seerley, Inquiry 4; to Larkin Dunton, Inquiry 5; to Frank\nM. McMurry, Inquiry 6; to Miss Marion Brown, Inquiry 7; to Z. X.\nSnyder, Inquiry 8; to Edward T. Pierce, Inquiry 9.\nReports have been made upon all these inquiries, with the exception\nof 3 and 5. No. 5 has, however, been partially investigated in Inquiry 8.\n\n~\n\n"}
{"page": 721, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF NORMAL-SCHOOL\n\nSUBCOMMITTEE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\n711\n\nREPORTS.\n\nFollowing are the reports received from various members of the committee :\nINQUIRIES\nCONCERNING\n\n1 AND 2.— N.C. SCHAEFFER.\n\nCONTROL\n\nAND\n\nMANAGEMENT\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS.\n\nA brief summary of the report is :\nI. That as a rule the external affairs of the schools are under the control and management of a board of trustees usually appointed by the governor and confirmed by the\nsenate.\n\n2. That there is a general unanimity among state superintendents and principals of\nthe normals that the plan is good.\n3. That, in addition\n\nto the external\n\ncontrol\n\nof the affairs, the trustees\n\nselect\n\nthe\n\nteachers and delegate to the faculty or its head powers that must be exercised by those\nhaving internal control.\n\n4. That usually the wishes of the principal are consulted in the selection of his colleagues.\nHowever, if this right is not accorded to him either tacitly or by statute, there\nis constant danger of friction and discord in the faculty.\n5. That, to increase the efficiency of control and management, more money, less\npolitics, limitation of the power of local trustees, the vesting of greater power in the head\nof the faculty, and the raising of the standard of admission, are necessary.\nINQUIRY\nVARIATIONS\n\nTHAT\n\n4.— HOMER\n\nH. SEERLEY.\n\nEXIST\n\nIN\n\nNORMAL\n\nBECAUSE\n\nOF\n\nGEOGRAPHICAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nUNITED\n\nSTATES\n\nLOCATION.\n\nI sent the following letter to every state normal school in the United States, and have\nhad answers from many of them. It was apparent that not much thought had been given\nto many of the replies. I append, however, an abstract of the letters which will give\nyou the notions that you will need to gain in addition to this report.\nPresident State Normal School:\nDzar Sir: The Normal Department of the National Educational Association has entered upon an investigation of state normal schools, with the purpose of coming to a more definite understanding of the province\nand work of this class of schools, I am asked to make a subcommittee report on the subject “‘ Variations that\nExist in Normal Schools on Account of Geographical Location.”? Will you please tell me:\nx. To what extent your courses of study are statutory ?\n2. In what ways the work of your school is modified by local or state conditions ?\n3. What are the limitations of the school in its founding act ?\n4. What favors are granted to your graduates by law ?\nPlease give me these facts and other information that will enable me to come to a fair knowledge of the\n\nconditions existing in state schools in the United States, at your earliest convenience, so that I may get the\nsummary before the general committee in a short time.\nYours truly,\nHomer H. Seervey, President.\n\nSUMMARY\n\n©\n\nas5\ncae\nae\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nSTUDY.\n\n1. Almost all of the normal schools of the United States are founded for the sole\npurpose of preparing teachers for the state that establishes them. Most of these schools\nare conducted on the theory that normal-school education has no right to exist on the\nsame general theory that state universities exist—the general welfare of the people of\nthe United States, and the bettering of the entire teaching profession.\n2. Such a theory in the foundation acts makes these schools more provincial than\nthey should be, and, therefore, keeps them limited to the field of preparing elementary\n\n"}
{"page": 722, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n712\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n[Normal\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nteachers for the lowest grades of schools, and does not insure them the patronage of the\nbest and most promising students, since these necessarily go to the colleges and universities for far more\n\nextended\n\nand\n\ncomplete\n\ncourses, and there is left to the state normal\n\nschools a class of students that do not seek large provinces, and cannot\ntheir preparation for life.\n3. There\n\nis, because\n\nof these\n\nthings, large variation\n\ninvest much\n\nin\n\nin the courses of study, as the\n\nfield of thought in the organization of such schools is not the world, but the district or\nstate, and hence everything is bent to make the courses such as these probable districts\nIf a school is located in a district or section where there are meager\nneed or demand.\nprivileges through public schools, it becomes a low-grade school, like the public schools\nthemselves.\n4. It is apparent, also, that the most\n\nadvanced\n\nnormal\n\nschools\n\nthat do not try to\n\nmeet this need for rural teachers are not supplying the common schools with teachers.\nThe assumption, therefore, is taken that a normal school must not get above educating\nthe rural school-teacher, if it fills its province.\n5. The colored normal schools in the South are nearly all industrial, and are an\nattempt to suit the provincial demand to supply the negro with skill in workmanship, as\nwell as ability and scholarship to teach the ordinary school.\nThe white normal schools\nare not of this class, but maintain a course of instruction that is adapted to a provincial\ncondition.\n6. The system of normal schools in the Middle Atlantic states show that they are\nschools with a variety of courses, to suit not only a teacher\n\nclass, but also another\n\nclass\n\nthat is seeking secondary education alone. This places professional studies in a minimum and academic studies in amaximum relation. This is notably true in the great\nstates of Pennsylvania and New York.\n;\n7. The New England normal schools have a special professional character that is\nnot yet known elsewhere.\nThey are peculiar in their organization and management, and\nare distinct from those found in any other part of the country.\n8. The north central state normal schools form a part of the entire system of public\neducation, and are gradually growing to be more and more of a factor in general education. They assume to provide for three classes of students: (a) the common schoolteacher now authorized to teach; (4) the high-school graduate; (c) the college graduate.\nThey are commonly recognized by the university as fitting schools, and students who\ngraduate from them do not lose more time on a university course than they would if they\nsought to take a professional course in pedagogy in a year after getting their college\ndegrees.\n\ng. There is another class of normal schools which profess to do no academic work,\nand to be purely professional schools. This is particularly the case with the New York\nNormal College (Albany).\n10. There is another class of normal schools that claim to be colleges in fact, such\nas the one at Troy, Ala.\n\n11. There is also large variation in this class of schools in the recognition given to\n\ngraduates.\n\n(a) In some\n\nthe states make the course of study, pay all bills, examine the\n\nstudents, and in the end confer the right to teach anywhere in the state without examination, (4) In others there are no favors of any kind granted graduates of these schools,\n\nthey being required to be examined by the common authority, the same as other persons.\nnot thus educated.\n(c) In still others the school diploma is authority to teach. (2) In\n\nstill others the diploma is not conferred until success in teaching is proved by actual\n\nexperience.\n(¢) In some others cities and towns do not even accept state certificates\nand normal-school diplomas, even where the laws permit them to do so.\n12. There is also large variation in the training in actual teaching through a practice\n\n"}
{"page": 723, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nschool.\n\nschools value\n\n(a) Some\n\nOF NORMAL-SCHOOL\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\n713\n\nthis work as the best thing in the course of study, and\n\nothers consider it neither a guide nora help. (4) Some give much, some little of such work.\n(c) Some allow this work to form the greater part of the course of study, and some give\nit hardly any consideration at all, and do not care for it.\n13. There is also large variation in the amount and kind of professional work\nrequired. Some put history of education in the first year, at the time of pursuing the\ncommon branches.\nOthers give history of education as a concluding didactic subject in\nthe fourth year of the course.\nThe same thing is true of psychology and school management.\n\n14. In conclusion, I do not see how these variations could be either more\n\nmarked or\n\nmore definite if the plan was to put forth as many theories and experiments as the human\nmind could invent.\nThere is no typical state normal school yet developed.\nIt remains\nfor the future to develop it. There is no typical course of study for teachers to pursue to\nget a certain preparation for the business.\nThere are no single ideas that are common\nto all schools that are called by the name “normal.”\nThese schools are wonderfully provincial, and are not managed by the states to be any broader in conception or plan.\nThere is scarcely any reciprocity between schools of this class, and very little faith in one\nanother’s work.\nThere is a confusion that makes meetings of persons at work in different states, or at the National\n\nEducational Association, entirely unsatisfactory, since there\n\nis no disposition to get together and formulate any plan that will unify their professional\nefforts, but a constant disposition to show peculiarities and specialties, and oppose others\nin their notions just as peculiar and provincial. Until there is a change in this policy and\npurpose, the normal school will remain an indefinite and unsolved problem.\nRespectfully submitted,\nH. H. SEERLEY.\n\nTHE\n\nINQUIRY\n\n6.—FRANK\n\nOF\n\nPRACTICE\n\nRELATION\n\nTHE\n\nM. McMURRY.\nSCHOOL\n\nTO\n\nTHE\n\nNORMAL,\n\nETC.\n\nI have been considering for a good while what I should do in regard to the suggested inquiry touching practice schools. For the points needing investigation I would\ngive very little for the expression of opinions that might be gotten together by circulating\na suitable list of questions.\nThe answers in such cases are given too hastily to be worth\nmuch.\nConsequently I choose, as my report, to formulate a few serious questions in regard\nto practice schools, with the suggestion that a committee of picked men be appointed to\nincrease this list, if necessary, and to draw up an argumentative reply to the same. This\nseems to me especially important, as the practice school was largely regarded as the very\ncenter of a normal school at our meeting in Buffalo last summer, and the relation of the\nnormal faculty and students to it is, therefore, a matter of fundamental\n\nimportance.\n\nF. M. McMurry.\n\nx\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nINQUIRY\n\nREGARDING\n\nPRACTICE\n\nSCHOOLS.\n\nSuggested that a select committee be appointed to report answers\n\non the following\n\nquestions (others to be added by committee, if considered necessary):\n1. Should each member of a normal-school faculty be held directly responsible for a\nportion of the instruction given in the practice schools ?\n2. Is it advisable for each professor in a normal school himself to conduct a recitation with children occasionally, allowing students and other professors to be present with\na view of offering searching criticism later?\n\n3. Should\n\nprofessors in a normal\n\nschool instruct their students by essentially the\n\nsame method as the latter will be expected to employ in the instruction of children?\n\noEeenS.\n\n"}
{"page": 724, "printed_page": null, "text": "29t\n@e\n\n714\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nSen\neee\n\nEEE\n\n4. Should most of the observation of teaching that is done by students precede or\nfollow their practice teaching?\n5. Should much time of students be spent in the observation of teaching ?\n6. Should a student in his practice teaching assume full charge of a room, or should\nhe hold only one recitation per day ?\n7. To what extent is it important in critic work that a large number of persons\nobserve and criticise at length a single recitation?\n\nINQUIRY 7.— MISS MARION\nKINDERGARTEN\n\nWORK\n\nIN\n\nRELATION\n\nBROWN.\nTHE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL.\n\n=\n\n5\n\n=,\n\n=\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\nNumber of circulars sent out,\n\nTO\n\n140\n\n72\n:\n2\nE\n:\nz\n=\nNumber of replies received,\nNumber of state normal schools with kindergarten department,\n15\nNumber of city training schools with kindergarten department,\n.\n5\n.\nNumber of state normal schools without kindergarten department,\n36.\nse\n4\nNumber of city training schools without kindergarten department,\n=\n9\nNumber of private normals with kindergarten work, = 3\nNumber of schools with kindergarten work for observation,\nQuite an elaborate circular was sent out by this subcommittee. The following would\nseem to interest this body most :\nQuestion 13. At what age are children admitted to kindergarten practice class?\nAnswer: Three to six. Majority admitting at three to four years.\nQuestion 14. Do you promote to primary grade by age or development ? Answer:\nMajority promote by development.\nQuestion 15. If attached to normal school, what is the relation of the kindergarten to\npractice class ? Answer: In majority of cases the kindergarten seems to be for purpose\nof observation by normal classes.\nQuestion 16. Relation of kindergarten training to training in normal school ?\nAnswer: Number of indefinite answers.\nMajority reply, a co-ordinate department, or\nsustains a very close relation.\nQuestion 17, What is done closely to relate kindergarten to primary work?\nAbout\nequally divided between an effort by specific work closely to relate them and no effort to\ndo so.\nQuestion 18. Have you a special kindergarten library ? Answer: Majority report a\nspecial kindergarten library; some reporting it as small.\nRest report it as incorporated\nin normal library. Three answer “no.”\n\nINQUIRY\nWHAT\n\nEFFECT\n\nHAVE\n\nTHE\n\nNumber of circulars sent out,\n\nNumber of answers received,\n\n8.—Z. X. SNYDER.\n\nNORMAL\n\n-\n\n-\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\nHAD\n\n-\n\n-\n\nON\n\n-\n\n-\n\nPUBLIC\n\n-\n\n.\n\n-\n\n-\n\nEDUCATION\n\n-\n\n-\n\nThe questions and answers are given below:\n1. Do normal-school graduates do better work than those of same\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n?\n\n300\n\n256\n\nage and experi-\n\nAnswer: Yes, 213; no, 18; not answering, 25.\nence who are not graduates?\n2. Has the normal school dignified teaching?\nAnswer: Yes, 207; no, 19;\n\nnot\n\nanswering, 30.\n3. Do you give preference to normal graduates in the selection of your teachers?\nAnswer: Yes, 201; no, 37; not answering, 18.\n4. Has it been the influence of the normal schools that has led the universities and\ncolleges to establish chairs of pedagogy?\nAnswer: Yes, 101; no, 27; probably, 64;-\n\nnot answering, 64.\n\na\na\n\n"}
{"page": 725, "printed_page": null, "text": "tho\nLees\n\nDepartment]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF NORMAL-SCHOOL\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\n715\n\n5. Are you in favor of the city training school, and why?\nAnswer: Yes, 147; no,\n85; not answering, 24.\n6. Taking all things into consideration— importance of the work, tenure of position,\n\nsalary, etc.—is the course of work offered by the normal school sufficiently extensive and\nintensive?\n\n7. Are\n\nAnswer:\n\nthere\n\nYes, 78; no, 130;\n\nenough\n\nnormal\n\nnot answering, 48.\n\nschools?\n\nAnswer:\n\nYes,\n\n90; no, 131;\n\nnot answer-\n\ning, 35.\n8. What has been and what is the effect of the normal schools upon elementary Sau\ncation?\nAnswer: Good, 206; bad, 10; not answering, 40.\n\ng. Make\n\nsome\n\nsuggestions, the adoption\n\nAnswer: Higher admission, 68; more\nfaculties, 7; not answering, 97.\n\nof which would\n\npractice, 37; more\n\nIo, Should they do academic work ? Answer:\n\nINQUIRY\nRECOGNITION\n\nOF\nTHAN\n\nDIPLOMAS\nTHE\n\nSTATE\n\nOTHER\nIN\n\nThe following questions were addressed\n\nT. PIERCE.\n\nSTATE\n\nWHICH\n\ntheir efficiency.\nwork, 47; better\n\nYes, 74; no, 154; not answering,\n28.\n\n9.— EDWARD\nOF\n\nincrease\n\nprofessional\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nWERE\n\nISSUED.\n\nTHEY\n\nIN OTHER\n\nto the state superintendents of the United\n\nStates.\nThe answers have been inserted :\n1. Are diplomas from normal schools of any other state than your own recognized in\nyour own state\n\n? Answer: Yes, 15; no, 21; conditional yes, 5.\n2. If so, to what extent?\nIf all states are not recognized, name those that are.\n“Answer : Michigan recognizes Pennsylvania, New York, Indiana, Delaware, and Wisconsin; Wisconsin recognizes New York, Illinois, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Kansas,\n\nand Michigan;\n\nNew York recognizes by reciprocity.\n\n3. If none are so recognized, state reasons\nstandard, 6; no need, 4; “tit for tat,” 2\n\nwhy?\n\nAnswer:\n\nNo\n\nlaw, 14; unequal\n\n4. Do you think it would be well to have comity of states in this matter?\n\nAnswer:\n\nYes, 31; no, 4; not answering, 14.\n\n5. If such a plan were adopted, would it not be necessary for the normal schools in\nthe several states to have courses of study approximately equivalent ? Answer: Yes,\n36; no, 3; no answer, I0.\n\n6. Would it not be well for the authorities in the several states to recognize diploma\nfrom certain approved normal schools in all of the states?\n\nAnswer: Yes, 31; no, 5; not\nanswering, 13.\n7. What plan would you suggest to make normal-school diplomas national in their\nsignificance and legality?\nAnswer: Legislation, 4; N. E. A. control, 2; reciprocity, 4;\nequality of course, 4; interstate committee, 3; not answering, 29.\n\nIn this preliminary report the committee has not deemed it its province to discuss to any great extent the merits or the demerits of the findings in the different inquiries investigated, but to present to the department its investigations showing that there is a field for investigation out of\nwhich great good would accrue to the normal schools and to education in\ngeneral.\nThere are many problems connected with normal-school work that\nBut few educational\nneed more attention than has been given them.\nare all experiThey\nsolution.\nproblems, if any, are capable of exact\nmental.\nThe process of interpretation is tentative.\n\n"}
{"page": 726, "printed_page": null, "text": "716\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\n1. Inquiries Nos. 1 and 2, Control and Management, indicate considerable unanimity in regard to control and management, with the suggestion that there should be less politics, more centralized power in the head\nof the school, less influence of local members of boards of trustees.\n\nIt will\n\nbe.readily recognized that the above suggestions are significant facts. A\nsystematic study of the above inquiries setting forth the best remedies is\nwhat will help the entire cause.\n2. Inquiry 4. Variations that Exist among Normal Schools on Account\nof Geographical Location.\nYou will observe that the report made by President Seerley is clear\nand succinct.\nThis investigation indicates a distinct segregation on\naccount of geographic location, and probably a tendency still further to\nsegregate.\nEvery geographic center is a part of the national life and\nforce, and it would seem\n\nthat there should be some common\n\nground, that\n\nis sufficiently marked, upon which to unite.\nAn A.B. degree from a reputable institution of learning means so much training—not necessarily\nthe same subjects, but so much training.\nNow, it would seem that some\nsort of standard should be established, that the normal schools might\ncommand more respect as a factor in public education and thereby accomplish more good.\n3. Inquiry 6. What is the Relation of the Practice School to the Normal and to the Public Schools?\nThe report of Dr. McMurry is sufficient to indicate its importance.\nThis is a problem in normal-school work in which the conditions are not\nclearly set forth as yet, much less a solution reached. It would seem that it\ncertainly should be the center of life in the normal school.\nIt should be a\nveritable pedagogical laboratory.\nThere has been too much contentment\nin normal schools in regard to the practice school. It is quite a machine.\nIt needs investigation and some sort of practical interpretation given it\nby this body.\n4. Inquiry 7. The Relation of the Kindergarten Work to the Normal\nSchool.\nThe investigation of this inquiry shows a very indefinite conception of\nThe lethargy\nthe kindergarten as a department in the normal school.\nwith which the normal school takes hold of movements is one of the reasons why it is seemingly relegated to the rear in educational development. No normal school can claim to be abreast the times in educational\nsentiment, opinion, and character that has not a well-developed kindergarten department.\nAn exhaustive and keen report on this inquiry and\nsome action toward universalizing the kindergarten will be very beneficial\nto our department and education.\n5. Inquiry 8. The Effect of Normal Schools on Public Education.\n\n(a) An effort was made to determine the opinion of educational men\n\n"}
{"page": 727, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF NORMAL-SCHOOL\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nTalay\n\n— superintendents and principals—on the work of normal graduates, on\nthe influence of the normal schools on teaching, and on the preference\ngiven to normal graduates.\nThere seems to be a decided opinion in\ntheir favor.\nYet 15 per cent. and over were very positive in the opposite\nview.\n(2) Investigations were made as to the number of normal schools.\nTrue, in this they were influenced by local conditions ;but the fact is significant that in those populous states where there is but one normal school\nthe unanimous opinion is that there are not enough.\nThe opinions were\nmade quite emphatic in very many instances.\nEven in the states having\nseveral schools many thought there were not enough.\n(c) In regard to what would increase the efficiency of the schools various Opinions were given, but chief among them were: A better practice\nschool,\n\na\n\nhigher\n\nstandard\n\nof\n\nadmission, better\n\ntrained\n\nfaculties,\n\nand\n\nstronger professional courses.\n(z) On the question of academic training there seem to be a very\ndecided sentiment and opinion that they should not attempt it. Make\nthe admission such as to eliminate distinct academic work, is the judgment of a great majority.\nFrom the foregoing your committee is of the opinion, and it so recommends, that the Normal Department ask the general association to make\nan appropriation to meet the expenses of a committee, whose duty it shall\nbe to make a thorough investigation of the normal-school problem in all\nits phases and submit the same to this department.\nRespectfully submitted,\nZ. X. SNYDER, Chairman, Greeley, Colo.;\nN. C. SCHAEFFER, Harrisburg, Pa.;\nHomer H. SEERLEY, Cedar Falls, Ia.;\nEpwarp T. Pierce, Los Angeles, Cal.;\nFrank McMurry, Buffalo, N. Y.;\nMiss Marion Brown, New Orleans, La.\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nA. R. TayLor,\n\nof Kansas,\n\ninquired whether\n\nItem 1, in Dr. Schaeffer’s\n\nreport, brought any information as to the desirability of continuing the present plan of\nappointing boards of control.\nPRESIDENT SNYDER, of Colorado.—The plan is good, and there is no special desire\nfor change. The criticisms are given in the fifth item. The local trustees are said to\nform attachments for individual members of faculties, and to support them because of\npersonal friendship.\n\n"}
{"page": 728, "printed_page": null, "text": ".\n\nee\n<\n718\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nSTATE SUPERINTENDENT EMERY, of Wisconsin.—Did the inquiry learn whether\nthese influences operate on the principal as well as the resident regent ?\n\nPpEsIDENT E. O. LyTeE, of Pennsylvania.—Is the board better as a continuous body,\nwith terms expiring at different times?\n\nPRESIDENT SNYDER.—They should be appointed to long terms, six or eight years,\nand one or two should go off at atime.\nPresident Pierce, of California, could give information about that.\nPRESIDENT PiERCE, of California.—By our new law there are to be four local\nboards, one for each of the four normal schools, and these, in conjunction with the gov-\n\nernor\n\nand the state\n\nsuperintendent, are to elect the presidents.\n\nelected, he becomes a member of the local board.\n\nAfter the president is\n\nHe nominates to the local board all\n\nteachers elected by it. After two years of service, teachers are elected for four years, and\ncan be removed by the general board on charges.\nSo little power have the local boards\nthat, whereas our board wrangled last year for a whole day on the election of teachers,\nthe entire work was done last week under the new law in fifteen minutes.\nPRESIDENT DoBsON, of Missourii—Does\nfor all the schools?\n\nthe board make\n\nthe same course of study\n\nPRESIDENT PIERCE.—No, sir. It fixes a maximum and a minimum length of time\nfor each subject.\nConsiderable freedom is exercised by the various schools for the\narrangement of studies, one school putting a subject in the first term and another the\nsame subject in the last.\nPRINCIPAL E. A. SHELDON, of New York.— Should any limitations be set upon the\nnumber of pupils that should be admitted ?\nPRESIDENT R. G. Boone, of Michigan.—\nWas there any time to investigate cost, the\namount of money appropriated per capita, the financial side ?\nPRESIDENT SNYDER.— That\nbeen ill.\n\nitem was\n\ngiven to Dr. Dunton, of Boston, but he has\n\nPRESIDENT Cook, of Illinois.— There are things of great importance we are not\ntouching.\nOneof the most important is touched by President Seerley\n— whether it is\nadvisable to have uniformity, whether we are not in a stage when it is better that the\nschool should be provincial rather than uniform. These precious minutes are getting\naway, while we are discussing the boards and other items that can be studied from\nstatistics.\nTaking Topic 14,1 think we want just as many experiments and theories as the\nhuman mind can invent. Who has clearly developed a plan for a normal school that can\nbe handed out here ? We do not yet know what a normal school is to be. For my part,\nIam thoroughly opposed to control by one board for all the normal schools of the state;\nI would have as many boards as there are schools.\nWe want competition developed.\nNormal schools under a central board will not allow to each an opportunity to show its\nsuperior right to exist. I regard this diversity in the country as a very hopeful fact, and\nso it must continue until many of us know more than we can now know.\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nSTRONG, of Michigan.— Is not what is said here of diversity in normal\n\nschools said also with equal truth of universities ?\nPRESIDENT SEERLEY, of lowa.—The section criticised is a statement of fact, not an\n\nargument.\nThere seemed to be a call to find out what was the general trend of thought,\nand I selected catalogues and wrote letters. Paragraph 14 reports that there is no uniformity and no trend toward uniformity. We have a problem in Iowa that is not the\n\nLy\n\n"}
{"page": 729, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF NORMAL-SCHOOL\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\n719\n\na\nee\n\nproblem in Massachusetts nor the South.\nI was impressed, in looking the matter up, that\nthe schools of one section resemble one another, but differ in general from the schools of\nother sections.\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nTHOMPSON, of Massachusetts.—I would like to say just one word from\n\na state where they have only one board.\nleast\n\nso far as our\n\nI can\n\nstate is concerned, that we\n\nhardly agree\nshould\n\nhave\n\nwith\n\nPresident\n\na different\n\nCook, at\nfor each\n\nboard\n\nschool.\nIf any state is to accept diplomas from eyery school under its control, there\nshould be unity. Mrs. Alice Freeman Palmer, of our normal-school board, says she does\nnot believe that all the schools should be the same.\nThe board lays down certain lines,\nand then itis left to the principal to differentiate. These things vary in different states.\nThe plan that President Cook commends for Illinois would be bad for Massachusetts.\nPRESIDENT SALISBURY, of Wisconsin.— It seems to me that this report on Inquiry 4\nmight have been headed historical rather than geographical.\nBrother Cook is addicted\nto separate boards for each school, we in Wisconsin to a single board.\nOur state charities were formerly under several boards.\nThey are now under one. We had a propo.\nsition to bring the normals and the university under one board.\nIt would be a waste\nof time for us to fall upon one another in a discussion of this matter.\nDr. Seerley’s word provincial seems to have a little sting in it. Thatis a disrespect-\n\nful word.\n\nI believe that in one sense every normal school should be provincial.\n\nThere\n\nis one sentence in this Paragraph 14 that weighs a little upon me:\n“ There is scarcely\nany reciprocity’ ”? and “very little faith in one another’s work.”\nWhy should there be so\n\nlittle faith in one another’s work ?\nPRESIDENT TAYLOR.— In the development of any idea it seems necessary that we\nshould have more or less of this diversity that has been mentioned.\nOur friend has suggested that he discovers the same difference of opinion among university men, but there\nis a general agreement as to what a university should be. I recall that a friend of mine\nwas elected to the presidency of a normal school that had nothing professional but the\nperfunctory reading of a very small work on pedagogy.\nWhen I compare that with the\nwork at Bridgewater, or Oswego, or northern Illinois, I find that the normal schools are\nranging all the way from the very low to the very high grade. Now, is it not possible\nfor us to come to some kind of an agreement as to what should constitute, in a general\n\nway, a normal school? I believe it would be very unfortunate for us to agree upon all\nparticulars; yet, at the same time, something of agreement would seem desirable.\nWe have a good many people coming to our state holding credits for two or three\nyears in a normal school or presenting diplomas, and when they come from Pennsylvania,\nfor instance, or from New York, these credits differ in significance. When coming from\na state university, their credits do not have such indefinite values.\nI made a report on this same question at the Topeka meeting, and when Principal\nGray made a similar report before this section at Chicago on this subject, we heard pleas\n\njust as strong for diversity and just as strong for unity as now, but the matter was dropped,\nand here we are at the same thing again. I think this discussion comes from a felt need.\nIs it not possible to have something more definite ? I meet a man not familiar with the\nnormal\n\nschool, and he asks me what is its work.\n\nI do not believe that uniformity means\n\ndeath; I believe that a certain definiteness of idea is worth having.\n\nI believe it can come\n\nfrom this afternoon’s discussion, and from the continuation of this committee’s\n\nwork.\n\nPRoFEssOR GRAY, of Minnesota——The question is what constitutes pedagogic\ntraining, and if this body would reduce to form the definition of a diploma that would\nhave the indorsement of this body, we might gather round a common notion. The\nNational Association of Medical Societies has declared that medical colleges not reaching\na certain standard shall not have a recognition. Now, there is certainly talent enough in\n\n"}
{"page": 730, "printed_page": null, "text": "720\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nI do not see how_ we can get on any\nThen, if there be normal\nground.\nthis standard, we bid them God speed. I would urge that this\n\nthis body to define what shall constitute a minimum.\ncommon ground until we define what is common\n\nschools that can exceed\nbody proceed to define.\n\nPRESIDENT LytTE.— This Section 14 by Dr. Seerley does not give me much concern,\nbut 6 and 12\n\nI feel contain\n\nvery much\n\ncriticism, and, I think, just criticism.\n\nI do not\n\nbelieve that either New York or‘Pennsylvania puts academic before professional studies.\nIn Pennsylvania we must do what Dr. Snyder calls academic work, what we call scholastic\nAnd we have yet to find a student coming to us well enough prepared to dismiss\nwork.\nall his academic work.\nI think there are a good many schools in Pennsylvania that regard the work done in\na model school as the best work.\nThe school with which I am connected regards the\nmodel school as the center. If there is this variety in the practice work, I think it is very\nnecessary that we should define in some way what constitutes a minimum amount of\ntraining. I find a difference in catalogues and a difference still greater in the attainments of pupils. I find many universities in Pennsylvania whose graduates would not be\nadmitted to the entering class of a normal school.\n\nI am written to once in a while with respect to other normal-school diplomas.\nPennsylvania has no law to recognize them, and no state authority could accept them\nwithout a formal examination.\nPRESIDENT BooNE.— Are there in the Pennsylvania normal\ning to teach ?\n\nschools any not intend-\n\nPRESIDENT LYTE.— Yes, in some schools separate classes are formed for them.\nour school most expect to teach.\n‘\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nMcConatny,\n\nLouisville, Ky.— The\n\nJn\n\ndiscussion has been too lim-\n\nited. I donot think there is any one method by which you can make a good teacher.\nI think this provincialism is a good thing, because through this variety of work somebody\nmay discover a better thing than we have known.\nAt the same time, I think you could\ndefine the minimum of academic and of professional work.\nI want to know the effect of\npassing these pupils through the practice school, how much practice they should have in\nthe two-years’ course ; also, what kind of professional studies they should\n\nhave.\n\nPRINCIPAL PRETTYMAN, of Maryland.— It seems to me that this department is where\nwe must distinguish what will create this system of comity between the states. If we are\ngoing to have a profession, there must be an amount of preparation therefor. All these\nquestions hinge upon the proposition that a committee shall report a minimum of professional study, the least that can be recognized.\nIf that shall be set up, then it will be an\neasy matter to receive the diplomas from other states.\nThe experiment was tried in New\nYork, and when they decided on reciprocity, the superintendent was authorized to recognize certain diplomas, but he found he must study each school. There is no such comity\nin teaching as in law and medicine.\n\nI, therefore, hope, sir, that this committee will report\n\nto the next meeting.\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nCook. —I\n\ncontinue this committee\n\nwas about to rise for the purpose of making the motion to\n\nto formulate\n\na minimum course, a course which must be attained\n\nas a minimum to secure recognition by this department.\nI shall not regret if there be a\nsharp distinction between the state schools and those private schools that call themselves\nnormal schools for the one reason that they want to get the patronage of those who wish\nto teach.\na\nPROFESSOR\n\nRounps, of New York.— As to whether\n\nthere should\n\nbe academic edu-\n\ncation in normal schools, I wish that question could be postponed for a few years.\n\nWhen\n\n"}
{"page": 731, "printed_page": null, "text": "Derarinent]\n\nACCOMPLISHMENT\n\nOF NORMAL-SCHOOL\n\nPURPOSE\n\n721\n\nthe normal school sends out a class, it is responsible for the academic training, no matter\nI have worked in two states where throwing out\nwhere that education has been attained.\nall academic work would have killed the normal school.\nEven if the high school is in\nreach of all students, to require all to prepare there would be about the same as requiring\nthat all Milwaukee people living in reach of Hotel Pfister should board at that hotel. Let\nloeality settle where the academic education comes from.\n\nIs it not settled now that practice teaching is a necessary part“of a normal school ?\nIt is only a short time since we settled it. Now it may be decided that any one of several\nplans can be accepted, it will be shown that there are several plans now in use that we\ncould not accept.\n\nI like that word\n\n“minimum,”\n\na minimum\n\nof scholastic training, of\n\npractical training; the minimum of necessity, the maximum of opportunity.\nLet us mean\nsomething, and then we have the right to recognition from universities and from all\nauthorities.\nHaving lined up to that point, we are ready to advance to something still\nbetter.\nPRESIDENT HARVEY, of Milwaukee.— Suppose this committee goes on and does this\nwork, what will it effect ? Whom are you going to affect, what are you going to reach?\nIt seems to me, gentlemen, you are simply wasting time. To say that this shall be the\nwork, which would\n\nallow\n\na school\n\nto call itself a normal\n\nschool, is absurd.\n\nWhen you\n\nhave got it done you will print it, and we will go on doing just the same work as before.\nIt occurs to me that if this body of normal-school people agree on something as to how to\ndo work, it will be more to our advantage.\nThere is a great difference between the kind\nof work possible in Massachusetts and in other localities —as,\n\nfor instance, in Wisconsin\n\n_— just as there is a great difference between the work possible now and what was possible twenty-five years ago. There is a difference between what is possible in the older\nstates and what in the new.\nIf you are going to cut off a normal school because it cannot\nequal the standard of older states, you are doing a wrong thing. The showing of what\nshould be done and /ow it should be done is the thing of most value.\nPRESIDENT CooK.—I\ntrust I am not trespassing upon the department by saying a\nword inreply.\nI do not regard this as a matter of very great moment.\nGreat heavens!\nWhy talk about wasting time?\nThis department has chiefly occupied itself in wasting\ntime since it was organized.\nSurely the requirements of a normal school may be made\nsufficiently definite to meet all possible objections. It is not worth while to make a fight\non that ground. We have plenty of timber to put into these very things. Let us proceed\nwith the work, and formulate a standard.\n\nHOW-MAY\n\nBY\n\nTHE\n\nRICHARD\n\nG.\n\nNORMAL\nSCHOOL\nLIS PURPOSE?\nBOONE,\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nYPSILANTI,\na\n4\n\nSTATE\n\nBEST\n\nACCOMPLISH\n\nNORMAL\n\nCOLLEGE,\n\nMICH.\n\nThe relation between teaching and learning is made clear through a\nNot\ncomprehension of the relation between learning and education.\nSome\nvalue.\nevery process of acquisition has a creditable educational\nlearning seems to confer no\n\npower,\n\nand\n\ndoes\n\nadd\n\nmental\n\nimpediment.\n\nOccasionally real education does result in spite of accumulations of inforIt is always helped on by any learning that takes hold upon\nmation.\n\n"}
{"page": 732, "printed_page": null, "text": "2) 2.\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nMere passive\nfirst-hand experience and involves a personal reaction.\nonly. -If by\nsort\nreceptiveness has educational results of a rudimentary\ncumulative\nand\ngathering\na\nlearning, therefore, is meant simple acquisition,\nprocess, much taking in and little using, education is learning in an incidental way only. If, however, by learning is understood that positive and\naggressive seizing of knowledge, inquisitive, experimenting, testing, using,\napplying, and the accumulating of interests, and the storing of questions\nheld\n\nfor answer,\n\nthen\n\nlearning\n\nand\n\neducation\n\nare\n\ncorrelative\n\nterms,\n\ncoextensive in use, and having a well-defined likeness of meaning.\nTeaching may be described as causing to learn in this larger sense:\nestablishing in the child a habit and the courage of independent attack.\nEvery learner, to the extent that he is a real learner, becomes an invader,\n\nas the scientist is an investigator.\nHe lays siege to the world of thing\nand force and spirit, and has faith inhimself.\nThe effectiveness of learning is measured less by what is actually discovered or acquired or accumulated than by what one aspires to know or discover, and the effort put\nforth to know or discover or use.\nTeaching is the process of giving this\ntrend to mind, and especially to child mind.\nBut no teacher can give\nthis who does not himself possess it. One indispensable quality of the\ntrue\n\nteacher,\n\ntherefore,\n\nis that he be\n\nhimself\n\na learner.\n\nHe\n\nmust\n\nbe\n\nfamiliar with the way over which he would lead his pupils.\nHe must be\na learner, aggressive, independent, alert, resourceful.\nWhatever the\nyoung candidate knows or doesn’t know of subjects academic or professional, as he leaves the school, he has need to have well fixed\n\nthe habits\n\nof the student to be interested and growing; and no normal school, of\nwhatever grade, can be held to have realized its purpose that has failed in\na measurable degree to accomplish this as a professional result.\nTo this end the normal-school faculty should themselves be students,\nmore\n\nor\n\nless\n\nscholarly,\n\nbut\n\nstudents;\n\nlovers\n\nof\n\nlearning,\n\nfresh\n\nand\n\ninterested, inquiring and creative. As the vitality of a tree is attested by\nthe fresh branches it sends out, the new wood it is making, the pushingdown\n\nof its roots, and, in general,\n\nits reaching\n\noutward\n\nand\n\nupward, so\n\nmust the teacher of teachers be judged by the new fiber he is making and\nthe strengthening of the old. Once learning ceases in the teacher, teaching deteriorates.\nThis year to follow last year’s lessons, to add no new\nreferences, not even once to have substituted a new topic for an old\none, or to have changed their order asa larger vision gave a new sequence,\nto have had no larger vision, to be satisfied with the old book rather than\nrisk a new one, to perform the same experiments and no others, means in.\ntime sterility, if not something worse.\nAn institution’s board of control\ncan do no more effective service for its students than to make it easy for\nevery teacher to carry on related studies for himself parallel with his\nteaching.\n\nIt is, perhaps, true, as has been\n\nsaid, that ‘‘ only investigators\n\n"}
{"page": 733, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nACCOMPLISHMENT\n\nOF NORMAL-SCHOOL\n\nPURPOSE\n\n728\n\ncan be or are great teachers.”\nThey must be interested in problems to\nbe solved, which they are attempting to solve, as a condition of really\neffective sympathy with children for whom it is made the business to\nsolve problems.\nThe stolid plodder, all of whose days are alike, has\nlittle in common with the ambitious, restless, planning, questioning,\neager student, or the pushing farmer, or the lawyer who is climbing;\nand doubts their sanity. No teacher has a right to be a plodder of such\nsort.\nIf he would be helpful to growing youth, he also must grow.\nBefore applying for admission to any normal school, a young teacher has\na right to ask: What are the instructors doing for themselves and their\nprofession?\nWhat are they contributing to pedagogical insights? Are\nthey informed as to what is doing in the profession elsewhere?\nAre they\nmoving along and upward, and do they carry their classes with them?\nIf their own lives are becoming daily and yearly richer, their teaching\nwill probably show a corresponding improvement, and the students will\nprofit by the freshness and vigor of the leadership.\nFor a like reason, also, the school as an institution must be relatively\nless of a teaching agency, and more and more of a laboratory; less a\nplace where formal and, perhaps, traditional lessons are to be communi‘cated, and more a means of stimulating an interest in questions of education and the school, and in conditions and means of learning.\nThe\nremark applies to all kinds of schools, but bears with particular force upon\nschools for the training of teachers.\nHere, more than in the college or\nthe university, more than\n\nin law or medical\n\nschools,\n\nmore\n\nthan\n\nin the\n\ntheological seminary, it is a fatal policy to seek to turn out students from\nany exclusive course of indoctrination.\nThe normal school should be a\nlaboratory where every grade of learning, in its order, is brought to the\ntest. Throughout the course there should be some hours, daily, where\nstudents and teachers work together. A normal school must contribute\nthe means and conditions for cultivating the student spirit touching\nschool questions.\nGraduates of such a school will be turned out students by habit and\nspirit; but not scholars.\nThey will be lovers of good literature, alert and\ninterested to question its inner significance ;aspiring to be masters of the\nsciences of life and society; in sympathy with nature’s ways, and eager to\ndiscover their meaning—well on the way to be scholarly, but not yet\nlearned.\nThey must believe in learning and the regenerations of a liberal\nIn their minds, when they come to teach, there must be no\nscholarship.\nhalf-hearted assent to the doctrine that a generous education pays: pays\nin pocket and mind and heart. It must be seen by the teacher, and must\nbe made to appear in her teaching, that the coming farmer is made a\nbetter farmer to the extent that he is made a better man;\n\nwife, the mechanic, the physician\n\nso of the house-\n\nand the dealer, the office holder and\n\n"}
{"page": 734, "printed_page": null, "text": "724\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nthe teacher has need\n\nthe voter, the teacher and the professional student;\nto believe\n\nin behalf of all these\n\nwholesome\n\nclasses, in the\n\n[Normal\n\neffects,\n\nand\n\nupward tendency, and multiplied opportunities for gain and effort, incident to a large and accurate training in the schools, and an acquaintance\nwith the\n\nresults of science, and\n\nthe achievements\n\nof man\n\nthat\n\nendure.\n\nThe scholar has many chances in life of coming to the top, where\nunschooled man hasone.\n\nthe\n\nThe teachers-to-be of our children must see this,\n\nand make the vision effective in their teaching ; else teaching misses its aim.\nBut that this belief may take hold upon her children, it must first\nhave found effectual lodgment in her own experience.\nShe must believe\nin its saving influence for herself and for hers.\nShe must daily practice\nit. It must be apparent in her conversation.\nHer library will show it.\nIt will shine out in her manners.\nHer faith in its power to uplift and\nrefine\n\ncoarse, rude\n\nyouth, and the badly born\n\nand\n\nthe ill-conditioned,\n\nmust be unshaken.\n‘That the much-beholding of culture is doing its perThe first step\nfect work in her stimulates a like free course in others.\ntoward the professional teacher has been taken when one has given or has\nacquired a fixed and serious habit of inquiry, a sane and chastened\ninterest in the busy life that environs us; when studies are pursued, not\nbecause they lead to certificates and diplomas merely, and save one from\nharassing examinations, and are required by boards of education, and\nappear in the school’s published courses ; but because they are open doors\nStudies\ninto an interesting ew world, and promise coveted relations.\nthen become privileges.\nNot every student is a teacher, much less every\nscholar.\nBut the real student has already two admirable qualities that\nmake teaching easy: (1) a full mind, and (2) a growing, filling mind.\nThis, I take\n\nit, applies\n\nto\n\nall the work\n\nof the normal\n\nschool, both\n\nIt is no less true of technical and special\nprofessional and academic.\nschools than of the college and university that the end to be coveted is an\nabiding bias toward learning and skill and right living; and not the\nIt would seem\npossession of any specific learning or deftness or virtue.\nto be sound pedagogy, not less than safe theology, to set the mind brooding upon questions of life, in a guided and sober way, rather than learning\ncreeds.\nTeachers are made professional by sending them out concerned\nto understand professional problems, not through grounding them in\naccepted theories.\nThis, as I see it, can in no other way be so well\naccomplished as by setting them to study educational problems, not\nlearning the conclusions of those who have studied them.\nTo this end\nintending teachers in the normal school will take advantage of every\ncontribution that really assists in the solution —but acceptrthem warily\nas solutions.\nIf the purpose of the school were to confer upon its\ngraduates a sure way of carrying on instruction, a recipe that should be\nvalid for all time, a dozen books of formule and device might be named\n\na\na’\n\n"}
{"page": 735, "printed_page": null, "text": "vi\n\nDepartment]\n\nACCOMPLISHMENT\n\nOF NORMAL-SCHOOL\n\nPURPOSE\n\n125\n\nthat would well repay mastering.\nIf the work is done in the spirit of\nconferring any sort of specific or formulary, indoctrinating students with\nthe thought of any exclusive school, or setting up hard and fast lines\namong\n\ndevices, as if any treatment were fixed and free from revision, and\n\nthat teachers are to be manufactured in such way, that fault would seem\nto be the same in kind.\nBut if the purpose of the school be to make somewhat self-reliant\nteachers, students of pedagogy and the art of instruction, growing teachers, whom every day finds more skillful, whose success is to be viewed\nthrough the perspective of years, and whose value to the state and to\nthemselves steadily increases, there will be neither attempt to make disciples, as if this school contained the only pedagogic wisdom, nor any\nclap-trap of device to catch the public eye, and hoist a would-be teacher\ninto immediate recognition.\n‘‘ As he who knows but one language or one\nreligion knows none well, so he who knows but one system of education\nknows none well.”\n‘In every field it is the comparative method that\ndoes the best work.’”’\n‘One of the teacher’s highest endowments is versatility; and to create this power ought to be one aim of professional\ninstruction.”\nNormal schools can well afford to take positive grounds against any\nform of the fallacy that teachers can be manufactured to order, that they\ncan be filled up with an all-sufficient theory, or equipped with any sure\nspecific of recipe and formula that assures them of success.\nThe best the\nmost efficient normal school can do is to have given them a safe start on\nthe way, to have endowed them with right habits of pedagogical study,\nand a sound interest in these questions.\nThe test of a normal school is\nwhat its graduates do, or come to do in the next ten years ; not how they\nteach, alone; but what have they contributed to their profession?\nDoes\nthe influence of the normal school follow them into higher studies? or\nare they satisfied with being graduates and holding certificates?\nOf a\nnormal school it may reasonably be asked: How many of its graduates\ncontinue their studies subsequently, either academic or professional, in\ntheir own school or elsewhere, with teaching in view?\nWhat provision\ndoes the institution make for advanced pedagogical study?\nIn their\ncourse, shorter or longer, do they catch the spirit of the student and\ncrave the opportunity for further preparation?\nDo they become home\nstudents?\n\nFollow the aluinne\n\nfor a decade, and find where\n\nthey have\n\nstudied and what they have studied. How many of them all have received\nsuch an insistent bias forthe work that teaching has become their mission?\nTo have justified the work of the normal school, it is not enough that\nthey be made students merely, but students\n\nof pedagogy.\n\n‘They\n\nare\n\nbe teachers, lovers of teaching, interested in the art of teaching,\n\nto\n\nstu-\n\n"}
{"page": 736, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sall\nee\nas\n\n726\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\ndents of its principles, acquainted with its history, in sympathy with the\nchild and in touch with child life, and alert to the significance of children’s\n‘This, as\ninterests and instincts in the institutional life about them.\nI see it, is the task set the normal school to do; to select from such as\n\napply those who betray a fitness for the training, make clear to them their\npower and give them faith in themselves for this service; and let its own\nteaching be such as to show the unfit—unfit either by nature or training\n—the unwisdom of their choice.\n‘To have prepared a few score persons\nwell, so that they are really impressed with the gravity and dignity and\nprivileges of the work to be done for the children and in the schools ; who\nhave no thought that their training is complete ; whose studies planned and\nin prospect outnumber and outweigh the studies done; who believe in\nnormal schools, and have acquaintance with and revere some real speci-mens of living and teaching on high planes, and feel growing within\nthemselves a like power—will do more to win among people respect for\nteachers and their professional training than a school in every county, if\nit be a pretense, and work expedients, and conceal a meager culture with\na veneering of device.\nSummarizing the points of the paragraph, it may be said that the normal school that would have the most wholesome and far-reaching influence upon its students, and through them, upon the profession, should :\n(1) Resist the ever-present temptation to “method-cramming,” that\n“specific and fatal disease’ which Ziller ascribes to normal schools as he\nknew them, and from which, in this country, they are not\n\nby any means\n\nso free as they might be.\n(2) But it should equally avoid the narrow proselyting spirit that\nseeks to indoctrinate students, making them disciples of a school or a\nsystem,\n\nand\n\nnot\n\ninterested, open-minded\n\nlearners, and\n\ncautious\n\nWhat one of our own number has called “ the intolerant\none method ”’ is always to be shunned.\n\ncritics.\n\northodoxy of\n\n(3) The school should further seek to endow it graduates with right\nhabits of study, and a vigorous and far-seeing interest in questions of\nschooling and child training, rather than in artificial resources and a\nprescriptive order.\n(4) In fairness to the children of the state and the public welfare, the\ncourse of instruction should be made a process of selecting among candidates, weeding\n\nout, not the slow and the unfavorably conditioned, but the\n\nincapable and the unfit. Whatever their scholastic and other qualifications, students who fail to give unquestioned evidence of a sympathetic\ninsight into child life and processes of training should be advised to try\nsomething else.\nBoth the administration and the instruction of a\nnormal school should be such as to exalt the dignity and the attractiveness of the teacher’s work with whatever age of children, and freelyas\n\naa\n\n"}
{"page": 737, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sees\nee\n\nDepartment]\n\nACCOMPLISHMENT OF NORMAL-SCHOOL PURPOSE\n\n727\n\nindorse such as discover the professional temper.\nBetter fewer people of\nthe right quality, with a minimum preparation, than large classes indiscriminately certificated without regard to personal and professional fitness.\nPedagogical preparation, not less than other technical training,\nhas this element of exclusiveness, being selective and critical, and must\nreserve the right, in the interest of the state’s wards, to’ close its doors\nagainst the unfit.\nAs a companion thought to what has been said of the student habit\nas a quality of the successful teacher, it will be evident that normal\nschools which are really intended to make /eachers, and not disciples of\nan institution, must employ courses greatly extended beyond the rudiments of history and the sciences, methodology, and pedagogics, with\nwhich most of us are now content, and must be ready to contribute to a\nmany-sided interest in the subject-matter of schools and education. What\na recent writer delights to call “ the intolerant orthodoxy of one method”\nmay, or may not, be properly characterized by the phrase, but it must be\nadmitted it often stands for a narrow and unsophisticated view of a very\ncomplex process.\nWhen education, not to say teaching, meant to master\nthe three R’s, the preparation for teaching was a simple thing. When\n‘these and other subjects were seen to be the means of culture, and education was recognized as a mental process, the problem was complicated.\nAlong with the doctrine of an indifferency of means within certain limits,\nleaving the teacher an option in his choice of subjects, method became a\nthing of abstraction, and the effectual training of teachers a difficult task.\nWhen to this conception there was added the comparatively modern\ninterpretation of education as being a social as well as an individual process, and schooling, as fitting one for preparation in an interminably complex conventional and institutional life, the preparation of teachers came\nto take on the character of a highly developed profession.\nIf there be\nremembered, also, the emphasis currently put upon the cultivation of the\nsensibilities and the moral and physical natures along with the intellectual, an appropriate question of the normal schools would seem to be:\n“‘Who is able for these things ?”\nIn the preparation of teachers, therefore, relatively more emphasis\nmust be put upon the racial and social aspects of education.\nThe great\nproblems of the day are distinctly social problems. They not only claim\nmore attention from the platform and the pulpit and the press, but they\nTheir solution is\nseem, of all human interests, farthest from settlement.\n\nbeyond legislation, because they concern the heart and human instincts.\nThe church cannot effect it alone, primarily because the problem concerns\nso many whose interests lie beyond the direct influence of the church;\nbut also because, except with a small per cent. of its membership, it has\nto do with adult conditions only. The solution must come from the\n\n"}
{"page": 738, "printed_page": null, "text": "“We\nol\n\n728\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nHow to get along with\nschools; and must start with the earliest years.\ninitiative, and safely\ninternal\nthe\nand\nself-respect,\nothers, and save one’s\nconventional restricand\nlife,\nof\nmachinery\nthe\nby\nresist being dominated\ngrades. Indeed,\nlowest\nthe\nof\nteaching\nand\ntions, concerns the curriculum\nto the extent that lessons of co-operation fail of mastery in the grades\nand among children and youth, and the youth slip into manhood selfish\nand suspicious, and improvident, and ambitious beyond their condition,\nany social reformation is either impossible or transient.\nThe schools\nmust be trusted to make real any coyeted social improvement.\nIf the subject-matter of the elementary courses should remain just as\nat present, there would\n\nstill be need\n\nof teachers who\n\ncomprehend\n\ntheir\n\nenlarged function.\n‘Teachers who understand the use of the elementary\nsubjects as giving information merely, or as means towards further-study,\nor as furnishing a guide to conduct, and are able to administer the course\nto these ends, have\n\ndone much.\n\nBut\n\nthe teacher\n\nherself will have need\n\nof far more extensive knowledge, and especially knowledge of type-forms;\nwill have need to have acquired for herself right habits of study and its\nnecessary tools, and to be familiar with the conditions and limitations of\nconduct, both social and personal, for which.schooling is to furnish a\nguide. And as a large part of conduct concerns one’s social relations, in\na conventional way, or in matters of business, or in civil affairs, or in\ndomestic intercourse, or, finally, in ethical and religious interests, the\n\npreparation of the teacher must be made to include, as it appears to the\nwriter, an increasingly larger element of training on this side, and the\nintroduction of more work in the so-called humanities.\nHence the\nimportance attached to the historical and ethical courses; studies of man\nand his achievements; the conditions in person and environment under\nwhich he has attained and held his best culture and power; historic\ninstances of both at their best estate; geography in the larger and\nmodern\n\nsense;\n\neconomic\n\nscience,\n\nfixing\n\nman’s\n\nrelation\n\nto\n\nnature,\n\nhis\n\ndependence upon it, and his use of it, through following up his inventions\nand discoveries, and their relation to his comfort and happiness and efficiency ; art and its development, including the social and intellectual\nconditions that have helped it on, or hindered it; the institutions and\nregenerations of religion and the church ; the general philanthropy and\npublic responsibility for individual conditions; the civil government\nand its relation to the common welfare.\nAnd all of these should be\nstudied not at all, or alone, because they are history, or science, or art,\n\nor religion ; but because they make clear this larger relation of the individual to society, and its institutions; his dependence upon them and\nhis use of them; and the possibility that the school and intelligent\ninstruction may fit him for a richer participation in their power and privileges. They become professional subjects, and should be pursued by the\n\n"}
{"page": 739, "printed_page": null, "text": "Yet\nce\npte\n<<\na;\n\nDepartment]\n\nACCOMPLISHMENT\n\nOF NORMAL-SCHOOL\n\nPURPOSE\n\n729\n\nyoung teacher for professional ends.\nThey constitute the more comprehensive psychology, the psychology of the community, comprising an\ninsight into the forces and processes and conditions of culture and\nimprovement in bodies of people, organizations, and neighborhoods.\nChild study for the teacher must be made to include, or be supplemented\nby, a like study of communities also, of social groups, and organized life,\nAnd\nand the individual as he appears in combination with his fellows.\nevery training course, whether longer or shorter, should be made to\ninclude its proportioned view of these subjects, as a sound basis for the\nmore detailed and pedagogical and critical studies of the elementary\ncourse, and the order of presentation.\nIt will be seen, also, how important\n\nit is that the teacher be familiar\n\nwith and habitually employ the general principle of evolution in the\ninterpretation of social and culture questions.\nIt vitalizes most investigations to carry them on in the perspective of their antecedent investigations.\n\nAnd, ina particular manner, this is true of all matters of education.\n\n“There is no phenomenon so stupendous, so bewildering, and, withal, so\ninteresting to man as that of his own evolution in society.” Here is the\nreal process of education.\nTo comprehend the aims and means and\nsteps in schoo! education, where individual growth is directed, requires an\ninsight into the processes of racial growth which, for the most part, is\nundirected.\nEvolution has been described as “the natural directory of\nthe sociologist, a guide through that which has worked in the past to what\nmay be expected to work in the future.”\nIt is not less a guide for the\nindividual, and even more\n\nsignificant\n\nfor the teacher.\n\n‘“‘ Here, for each\n\none, is a new and impressive summons to public action, a vocation chosen\nof nature, which it will profit him to consider, for thereby he may not\nonly save the whole world, but find his own soul.” And this process of\nself-orientation\n—“ finding one’s own soul’’—is a fundamental one for\nhim who would teach.\nIt was the scholarly Professor Caird who said: ‘The study of the\nhistorical development of man, especially- in respect to his higher life, is\nnot only a matter of external or merely speculative interest ; it is closely\nconnected with the development of that life in ourselves.\nWe learn to\nknow ourselves, first of all, in the mirror of the world; or, in other words,\n\nour knowledge of our own nature and its possibilities grows and deepens\nwith our understanding\n\nof what is without us, and, most of all, with our\n\nunderstanding of the general history of man..... It is only with a\ndeepened consciousness of the world that the human spirit can solve\nits own problem.....\nThe inner life of the individual is deep and\nfull just in proportion to the width of his relations to other men and.\nthings; and his consciousness of what he is in himself as a spiritual being\nis dependent on a comprehension of the position of his individual life\n\n"}
{"page": 740, "printed_page": null, "text": "‘es\nCr\nBe\n/\n\n730\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nin the great secular process by which the intellectual and moral life of\nHence, the highest practical, as\nhumanity has grown and is growing.\nconnected with the new extenare\nmen\nof\ninterests\nwell as speculative,\nsion of science which has given fresh interest and\n\nmeaning\n\nto the whole\n\nhistory of the race.”\nIt is not meant, of course, that the normal\n\nschool\n\nshould\n\ninclude\n\nin\n\nits instruction a formal study of evolution ; but that such school relations as\nare made subject to study shall be so employed as to establish in teachers a\nhabit of historical interpretation, a keen appreciation of the developing\nprocess, sensitive to dynamic relations in mind and heart; a conviction\nthat whatever has virtue in human interest for the individual or the community is part of an unfolding series; and that, in the improvement of\nmankind,\n\nor the individual man, in school\n\nor out\n\nof school,\n\nwhile\n\none\n\nseries may be broken, the break only gives place to another series.\nThe\nprinciple of becoming —the new from an old, the heterogeneous from a\n— is everywhere present.\nless heterogeneous\nThe general history of culture, the development of educational doctrine, the growth of the elementary course, the origin and progress of the\nschool and its organization, the expansion of the world’s store of science,\nliterature, art, history, and industry, available\n\nfor the youngest children,\n\nare subjects of study for which the normal school should give every\nteacher a lasting introduction.\nSound insight here must form the only\nenduring basis for intelligent perception of pedagogical truth throughout\nthe school.\nNot only will more emphasis be put, in the normal school, upon the\nracial and social aspects of education, and, therefore, upon historical and\n\nethical courses, and upon the principle of evolution in the interpretation\nof social and culture’ questions, but a new importance will attach to constructive and creative exercises.\nWhatever throws upon one the necessity\nof an independent use of material, or encourages resourcefulness in initiating or handling or applying experience, or arouses invention, or cultivates skill, or makes for leadership,\n\nor intelligent and fearless criticism,\n\nbelongs to this group of constructive and creative exercises.\n\nThey are\n\nvaluable\n— invaluable — as instruments of education for anyone, whether\n\na\n\nin general culture or technical schools. But they are also valuable in the\npreparation of one who is to teach the arts which they represent.\nIn a\nmuch higher sense, however, they are useful in all teachers’ courses in\nfixing correct conceptions of the learning process, and so the teaching\nprocess, and the conditions and coveted results of a wise system of training. Any system of professional schooling that magnifies discipleship,\nor minimizes original quest and free performance, is of doubtful value to\nthe teacher.\nOn the side of training, however, most normal schools maintain depart-\n\na\na\ne\n\n"}
{"page": 741, "printed_page": null, "text": "aUe\n—|\n\nDepartment]\n\nACCOMPLISHMENT\n\nOF NORMAL-SCHOOL\n\nPURPOSE\n\n731\n\nments for observation and practice.\nBut here, again, it is submitted as\nthe doctrine of this paper that the most effective process of fitting to teach\nlies in the intelligent effort to teach or observe good teaching, with an\nopen mind, eclectic and eager, groping and growing, using every means\nof helpful direction and re-enforcement, testing and comparing, estimating in an impersonal way one’s own successes and failures, experimenting up to one’s best insights ; all thé time anxious to find a right\nway for the practice, rather than copying another’s way or adopting his\ninterpretations, however excelfent they may be. Better to have tried and\nlost than to have won without the trying; for what is so won belongs to\nAnd the need of the teacher in trainthe surface only and is transient.\ning is for an abiding zeal, intelligent and full of faith, that thrives with\ntime.\nThe training school obviously comprises three somewhat distinct func-\n\ntions: (1) as a test of educational\n\ndoctrine; (2) as a test of pedagogical\n\npractice ; and (3) as an exposition of accepted doctrine and practice,\nThis last compasses the most immediate need, most felt, and most urgent.\nThe temptation is always strong to give teachers some specific for present\nuse and local distinction; a way of doing things, a body of rules and\nformule.\nBut I am persuaded that, whatever the practice of the schools\nwe represent, the most of you will agree with me that better than a way\nof working for the teacher, who is a student, is a clear notion of what is\nto be accomplished.\nThe bias of normal schools, 2” practice, is toward\nthis third function; and it seems to the writer unfortunate that it is so.\n\nLet us not forget—\nwe shall not, probably; but let us not so teach as that\nothers can forget—that normal schools exist for the establishment of a\ncorrect conception of education among intending teachers, and conferring\nupon them a disposition and resourcefulness to work out their conception\nwith children.\nThis is not something to be passed upon and established by any one\nor any group of us. We shall not settle it by thinking upon it simply;\nmuch less by working our own points of view alone, The final questions\nof education lie outside the field of dogmatism.\nThere is need that every\none of them at some time be made the subject of test; just as hypotheses,\nhowever probable, debatable theories, new or recent inferences, are first,\nand often, and always with any accessions of light upon related questions, submitted in the laboratory for verification.\nThis, you are aware,\nis done, not when there is doubt alone, but where the probabilities are\nTouching gravity, and electricity,\nstrongly in favor of the hypothesis.\nand\n\nthe vegetable\n\ncell, and\n\nnerve\n\ncurrents,\n\nand physiological\n\nfunctions,\n\nnothing is taken for granted that can be brought to the test of experiWhy should the attitude be different toward spiritual growth, its\nment.\nmeans and conditions?\n\ntoward standards of efficiency, motives\n\nand pur-\n\n"}
{"page": 742, "printed_page": null, "text": "s\n\n732\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nObviously every\nposes in education, and the elements of wise teaching?\ntraining class connected with any teacher’s school is a mark of the conIn the\nviction of the similarity, if not the identity, of the two problems.\ntraining school, among other functions, educational doctrine must be\nbrought to the test.\n\nHere, and throughout\n\nthe institution, there\n\nshould\n\nbe the freest discussion of educational problems, in a philosophical and\ncritical way, with a minimum of personal bias, and a strong rising above\nprovincialism and expediency. |\nTeachers of adult classes have many opportunities for detecting lines\nof strength and weakness in elementary teaching, and should be helpful\nin reviewing methods.\nBut a larger service will come from them and\nfrom us all when, freed from dependence upon mere scholastic standards,\nwe shall find our first real duty to be, not projecting and perpetuating\nour own pet theories, but the effort to establish and make clear to teachers, ourselves included, a reasonable and working\n\nconception, tentatively\n\nheld, of what education, as directed in the schools, aims, or should aim,\nto do for the individual and for the community.\nThe training school,\n\nonce comprehending such question, should be left free and unhampered\nto give it a fair trial and submit an answer.\nEvery one of us is interested\nin seeing how supposedly sound educational doctrine sustains itself,\nrecovers or fails at the hands of authoritative teaching.\nGiven this clear picture of the function of teaching, the means to be\nused and the steps to be taken, both become important.\nFor the accomplishment of an educational result there may be several sets of means\navailable.\nUsually this is the case.\nIf there is any one principle of\npedagogy, more than another, for which the reader stands, it is that pedagogical training does not mean the mastery of any fixed and unquestioned way of doing any part of the work of instruction.\nThere is, so\nfar as he has been enabled to see, no set and exclusive, unmatched right\nway of conducting any lesson, or developing any desired mental habit,\nor giving any worthy moral bias. ‘There are, nevertheless, right ways\nand wrong ways of most undertakings.\nAmong right ways some are\nbetter than others-—more productive of good or more economical.\nThis\nis a better way for one teacher, that for another.\nWith one group of\nchildren a practice fails that has had marked success with others.\nA\nhabit of critically estimating the effectiveness of the several ways of reaching a result, rather than the mastery of any plan, or scheme of lessons, or\n\nsequence of steps, or form of questioning, is the subject of trainingschool practice. ‘There must be something more than the ability to compare devices and teaching directions; the school must fix she habit of\ndoing so, and cultivate a sense of appreciation of the better way, and why\nit is the better way, and a disposition to choose the better way successively\n— better ways, and the best way——at whatever cost of preparation\n\n——\ne\n\n"}
{"page": 743, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nACCOMPLISHMENT\n\nOF NORMAL-SCHOOL\n\nPURPOSE\n\n733\n\nand inconvenience and time, if only the quantity and quality of results\njustify.\nOmitting from the present consideration the candidate’s practice teaching, of so vital significance in his training, this may be said: If graduates\nare sent out from our normal schools in sympathy with the practice\nas well as the theory of their chosen profession, growing, mentally and\nmorally alert to its dignity and the value of its public\n\nservice, interested\n\nin and on the road to a larger knowledge and surer skill—the school\nmay be said to be well on the way towards realizing its purpose.\n\nDISCUSSION.\nPRESIDENT\n\nALBERT\n\nSALISBURY, State Normal School, Whitewater, Wis.— If “ brev-\n\nity is the soul of wit,’ we who “discuss” papers must be witty perforce. Confined to so\nnarrow limits, our views must be hinted at rather than expressed.\nThe question, “How\nthe normal school may best accomplish its purpose,” involves an earlier question, What\nzs the purpose of the normal school?\nAs bearing upon this question, some things said\nby John Cotton Dana in the Popular Science Monthly for July, 1897, concerning the\npublic library deserve consideration, being equally pertinent here. Slightly paraphrasing\n\nhis language, we may say: The public owns the normal school. The means of its support are taken by force from the pockets of the general public. This fact sheds much\nlight on the question of normal-school management.\nIt means that the normal school\nmust be fitted to public-school needs. It must do the maximum of service at the minimum of expense.\nThe American public-school idea implies an army of teachers.\nBut no great proportion of the human race are teachers by birth or natural instinct. To secure even moderate qualifications in so large a body of teachers as is necessitated requires adequate\nprovision and machinery for converting such material as can be had into as competent a\nteaching force as human possibilities will allow.\nThe normal school is charged with this task of converting raw material into acceptable teaching force. It is, therefore, pre-eminently a practical agency, aiming at definite,\npractical results in the interest of the whole community.\nIt follows that we must keep near the earth in our study of the normal-school problem. We do well to analyze and philosophize and ponder the ideal; but we must ever\nreturn to the practical questions: How can normal schools best serve the interests of the\ncommunities by which they are supported?\nHow can the “greatest good to the greatest\nnumber” be realized in their administration ? The answer involves considerations of\nquantity as well as guality. The problem is not simply how we shall most perfectly prepare a few for the work, but, also, how we shall present to the state large numbers made\nmore fit for the handling of its children than they would otherwise have become.\nNo exception can be taken to the main proposition of Dr. Boone’s paper. It is true\nthat the good teacher must be, first of all, a good learner, of an inquiring mind. Nothing\ncan be done for teachers of greater value than to make them “concerned to understand\nprofessional problems.” The “abiding bias to learning and skill and right living ” is the\nBut here we just\nbest thing that we can give to anybody, whether teacher or otherwise.\npossession of\n“the\nwithout\nbias\nthis\ngive\nto\npossible\nit\nIs\nproblem.\npractical\nthe\nreach\n\n"}
{"page": 744, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n734\n\n[Normal\n\nIs it possible to give aptitude and power,\nany specific learning or deftness or virtue”?\nof actual learning; and if so, ow is\nmastery,\nintellectual\nof\noutcome\ndirect\nexcept as the\nit possible ? We believe that it is, in a sense, both possible and desirable; but can anyone formulate or describe the process? This seems to me the practical point of attack.\nBut we must do more than develop the inquiring mind in our pupil. He must be\nI believe that learning, scholarship,\ntaught to Jove and honor the teacher’s vocation.\nmay be carried to such a point as actually to destroy, or prevent, real teaching power.\nThe ruling interest becomes an interest in philosophic abstractions and systems rather\nthan an interest in embryo human character and its development.\nThe proposition that the normal school must be “relatively less a teaching agency\n\nAll depends upon\nand more a laboratory’? seems to me to be a questionable inference.\nIf it is meant that the normal school\nwhat is really meant by the term “laboratory.”\nshould be an educational experiment station, [ must enter my dissent.\nThere is need of\neducational experimentation ;but this function would seem to be more in the line of university work, when\n\nthe universities wake\n\nup to it, as a few are doing, notably, The Uni-\n\nBut it would be extremely unfortunate for the normal schools to send\nversity of Chicago.\nout a callow brood of experimenters, thinking that nothing has been settled in all these\ncenturies in the way of educational theory or practice. Normal-school graduates should\ngo out, not as dogmatists, neither as iconoclasts, but with a reasonable faith in the best\nIn short, I believe that the relation of\nthat has thus far been discovered and formulated.\n\nnormal schools to the public requires that they shall be somewhat conservative in their\npolicies; not hide-bound, nor blindly conservative\n— heaven forbid! but wisely and cautiously progressive, remembering how many things educational innovators have to\nunlearn.\n\n—\n\nIt is, indeed, time to lay more emphasis upon the function of the normal school as a\n\nselective agency. It should not be content to train simply those who come to it unsought.\nIt should look out and reach out through all its territory for promising youth who can be\ndrawn under its influence. The teaching mind should be sought out and enlisted; there\nis no superabundance of it anywhere.\nBut still more urgent is the obligation to weed\nout “the incapable and unfit,” before they shall fully and permanently inflict themselves\nupon the children of the land as teachers “‘ for revenue only.” In Wisconsin it has been\nordained by the regents of normal schools that any unpromising student may be eliminated “by notice from the president [of the school] that in his judgment such person\nwill not become an apt and suitable teacher.”\nThis is simply the logic of the situation.\nThe normal schools have no right to boost stupidity and woodenness into the teacher’s\nseat, though they are now doing it to a considerable extent.\nTime permits me to touch upon but one item further. If the state normal school has\nany right to exist at all, it exists for all the people. It should carry itself to all the people. It must multiply and distribute itself so as to come within easy reach of those willing to submit their talents to a course of pedagogical training. The normal school can\nnever accomplish its true mission in those states whose policy is to build up one great\nschool instead of a system of schools widely distributed and wisely co-ordinated. You\ncannot bring the prospective teachers of a great state to one normal school; you must\ncarry the normal school to the teachers.\n\nDr. E. A. SHELDON, of Oswego, N. Y., continued the discussion, giving high praise\nto many points in the western plan. He expressed especial admiration for the western\nplan of receiving well-accredited graduates of good high schools without examination.\nThis made the normal school an integral part of the public-school system, just as the high\nschool itself is. _He thought it right to accept good high-school preparation at its\naccredited value, as well as all preparation in the common branches that had been\nadequately reviewed in the high school. He was not so sure that our normal schools\n\nme\n\n"}
{"page": 745, "printed_page": null, "text": ":XKoa\noe\ntS”\n*\nee.\nvl \\\n\nDepartment]\n\nACCOMPLISHMENT\n\nOF NORMAL-SCHOOL\n\nPURPOSE\n\n735\n\nwere meeting the need of teachers for the rural schools.\nHe would have three classes of\nnormal schools—\none to prepare teachers for the district schools, one to prepare teachers\nfor the grades below the high school, and one to prepare teachers for the high schools.\nHe also thought that most normal schools are too large to make it possible to secure the\nrequisite amount of practice teaching. He would keep the membership of a normal school\nbelow 350.\nPRESIDENT\n\nPIERCE, of Los Angeles, Cal., was of the opinion that teachers of rural\n\nschools need as high preparation as teachers of the city schools. He would make the\nexamination of teachers more stringent, and so avoid the great surplus of incompetent\ncertificated teachers.\nPRESIDENT SALISBURY had found that high-school graduates do not know commonschool subjects well. In the main, they have not reviewed them adequately in the high\nschool.\nSome agreed with Dr. Sheldon that the unity of our public-school system still\ndemands that these graduates be received without examination and credited in full for\nthe work done there.\n\n"}
{"page": 746, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL\nEDUCATION.\n\nSECRETARY SaMINU TES,\n\nTHURSDAY,\n\nJULY\n\n8.\n\nThe meeting was called to order at 2: 45 P. M. by President Oscar Clute, Lake City,\nFla., President of the department, who read an address on the subject, “ The Head and\nthe Hand.”\nThe Committee on Nominations was named\nW. H. Chandler,\n\nMadison,\n\nas follows:\n\nWis.\n\nJ. L. Snyder, Agricultural College, Mich.\nH. H. Seerley, Cedar Falls, Ia.\n\nA paper was read by Edward O. Sisson, Director of Bradley Polytechnic Institute,\nPeoria, Ill., on the subject,\n‘Some Mental Results of Tool-Work.”\nDiscussion\nA. H. Chamberlain, Director of Sloyd, Throop Polytechnic Institute, Pasadena, Cal.\n\nby\n\nPresident W. D. Parker of State Normal School, River Falls, Wis, read a paper on\n““Some Possible Relations of Normal Schools to Manual Training.”\nThis was discussed\nby President Homer H. Seerley of the lowa State Normal School, Cedar Falls.\nThe Committee on Nominations reported as follows :\nFor Preszdent, Edward O, Sisson, of Peoria, Ill.\nFor Vice-Prestdent, Wm. R. Lazenby, Columbus, O.\nFor Secretary, Judson E. Hoyt, Menomonie, Wis,\n\nOn motion, the Secretary was instructed to cast the ballot for the persons named,\nwhich being done, they were declared elected.\nThe following resolution was presented by Professor George Robbins:\nResolved, That a committee of five be appointed by the chair, to inquire, first, what influences tend to\npromote, and, second, what influences retard, the progress of manual and industrial training in schools; which\ncommittee shall present the results of its investigations in a written report at the next annual meeting.\n\nThe resolution was adopted, and the following were named as the committee :\nProfessor George Robbins, John Worthy Manual Training School, Chicago.\nPresident J. L. Snyder, Michigan Agricultural and Mechanical College,\nPrincipal A. J. Rogers, East Side High School, Milwaukee, Wis.\nSuperintendent J. E. Hoyt, Stout Manual Training School, Menomonie, Wis.\n\nThe meeting then adjourned.\nJupson\n\nE. Hoyt,\nSecretary.\n\n736\n\n"}
{"page": 747, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department |\n\nTHE\n\nHEAD\n\nPino\n\nAND\n\nNw\n\nBY\n\nOSCAR\n\nCLUTE,\n\nfJIEAD\n\n737\n\nADDRESS.\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nPRESIDENT FLORIDA\nCOLLEGE, LAKE\n\nProbably no well-trained\n\nHAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS:\n\nPRESIDENT’S\nTHE\n\nTHE\n\nman\n\nAGRICULTURAL\nCITY, FLA.\n\ncan\n\nconverse\n\ngood mechanic without being convinced\nsense of the word, an educated man.\n\nHAND\n\nAND’ MECHANICAL\n\nfor a short time with a\n\nthat the mechanic is, in the true\n\nThat is, his mind has been\n\ntrained\n\nto think and act correctly.\nHe knows the qualities of the materials with\nwhich he works, and is able so to use those materials as to produce the\ndesired results. He will show clearly the points wherein the materials are\ngood or bad, he will state clearly what the good workman\n\nmaterials, and he can\n\nuse the materials in the most\n\ncan do with the\n\nefficient\n\nmanner\n\nfor\n\nmaking any product in his line that is desired.\nThat is, the good\nmechanic observes carefully, he compares accurately, he judges correctly,\nand his hands work with skill. Now, observation, comparison, judgment,\nthe ability to do, are powers of the mind.\nIn the mind of the good\nmechanic these powers have become well trained, though his days in the\nordinary school have been few or none.\nIf we find the mechanic a welleducated man in some respects, though he has not been a student in any\nschool, there must be something in his daily work which has educated\nhim.\nIt is worth while to consider this for a few moments.\nThere is a very close dependence of the head and the hand upon each\nother.\nOften the commands of the head cannot be executed unless the\nhand be strong and well trained.\nAlways the hand is powerless unless\nthe head issues commands, and guides every effort. I sharpen my pencil\nto facilitate writing only by the head using the hand to give movements\nto the knife. The carpenter can make a box when his head is able to\ndirect the hand to saw, and plane, and hammer correctly. The horticulturist by brain-work controls hand-work.\n\nHe\n\nclears\n\noff trees, removes\n\nstumps, plows, plants, fertilizes, cultivates.\nAfter years of care he gets the\norchard, fragrant with bloom in the spring time, filled with the melody of\nbirds, laden in after months with fruit more luscious than apples of\n\nHesperides.\nThrough the painter’s head flow visions of entrancing\nbeauty, and his brain guides his skillful hand in the effort to reproduce\nthe vision.\n\npare.\n\nHe stretches his canvas, puts some bits of color on his palette,\n\n"}
{"page": 748, "printed_page": null, "text": "738\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Industrial\n\ntakes in hand his ready brush, and soon upon these few square feet of\ncanvas gleams forth the grass of June, brooks dash through the meadows,\nmighty trees hold aloft their verdant arms, and the deep sky bends above\nin glowing beauty, while everywhere through the picture there is a subtle\npresence that cannot be told in words, but by which the artist’s hand\n\nhas\n\nfaithfully expressed what his soul has seen.\nIn your\n\nhome, as twilight\n\ncomes\n\non, before\n\nthe lamps are\n\nlit, your\n\ndaughter sits at the piano.\nShe is one whose ear can catch the melody\nof humming bee and singing bird, of roaming brook and wind-swept\ntree, of the rolling thunder among distant mountains, and of the tumultuous seas when smitten by the tempest’s power. She can read and appreciate the scroll whereon some master mind has written the symbols to\nguide her hands upon the keys. The piano is dead before her, just a\nbox\n\nof wood, holding\n\nan\n\niron\n\nframe\n\nwork,\n\nacross\n\nwhich\n\nare\n\nstretched\n\nsome wires that may be struck by the hammers when the keys are touched.\nHer hands touch the keys, and at once the piano wakens into life. From\nthe vibrant wires come strains as varied as the thoughts, passions, and\naspirations of the player. To him who has the hearing ear the music\nbrings the sounds of bee and bird and brook; of sighing grass and\nwhispering pines and raging sea; of mighty tempests sweeping through\nmountain gorges ; of reverberating thunder that falls from riven skies; of\nthe songs of progress, of war, of victory, of triumph ; or, in calmer hours,\nhe hears the gentler strains of love, aspiration, and worship.\nThus everywhere, in all departments of human thought and activity, the\n\ntrained hand is the willing and efficient servant of the trained mind.\nIt is\nthe delicate instrument which the head uses to do much of its finest work.\nA large part of education has to do with the training of the hand to\nfollow accurately the commands of the head.\nIn its efforts to guide the\nhand the head itself is trained.\nWriting, drawing, painting, playing\nupon musical instruments, laboratory work in all the sciences, are but\nexamples of this training of the hand and the head together.\nWhile this\nhas always been the case, it is only in recent years that hand-training has\ntaken a recognized and honored place in courses of education.\nAfter a\nlong process of evolution, during which it has passed from ideal to ideal,\neducation today recognizes that hand-training is an important factor in\nhead-training.\nLeading educators everywhere are advocating it and\n\nintroducing it into courses in their schools. The manual training school\nof Washington University in St. Louis was one of the first to adopt a\ncomplete course in manual training, and has been one of the most successful in carrying it out. Tulane University in New Orleans has not been\nfar behind.\nThe Manual Training School in Chicago has done service\nthat has attracted the attention of the country.\nMany other schools,\nnorth,\n\nsouth,\n\neast,\n\nand\n\nwest,\n\nand\n\nin countries\n\nbeyond\n\nthe\n\nsea,\n\nhave\n\noe\n«\n\n"}
{"page": 749, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nHEAD\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nHAND\n\n59s\n\napplied it. Wherever carefully adopted and wisely carried out, the sweep\nhas been triumphant.\nThe students are interested, look upon their work\nwith delight, get their other lessons better, remain longer at the schools,\nare better trained in mind as well as body, and obtain that skillful control of the hand that is invaluable to them, whatever their calling in life\nmay be, and that gives them ability to enter any of the mechanical pursuits with much better chance of success.\nIn spite of this general success, there are some who fear. They fear\nespecially that manual training schools will turn out men and women\nwho in some way will be lacking in power of thought, in force of will, in\nbusiness, and literary and moral perception.\nThe fear is groundless;\nthe results already reached by manual training schools prove this. Yet\nthis fear is an honorahle one; it is grounded in the desire to secure such\neducation\n\nas shall make able and\n\nmoral\n\nmen\n\nand women.\n\nIt, therefore,\n\nshould receive our respectful attention.\nEducation should do for us at least two things.\nIt does much more\nthan this, but certainly it should do this much:\nFirst, it should teach us facts about many things; that is, it should\ngive us knowledge.\n\n_ Secondly, it should teach us to think and to act clearly, correctly, and\nforcibly ; that is, tt should train the mind to have strength, power, force\nin all the ways in which the mind acts.\nIt may be truthfully claimed that manual training teaches facts, gives\nknowledge.\nBut on this I will not enter now.\nIn the other direction—\nthat of developing power in many of the faculties of mind—manual\ntraining has superior merits.\nLet us see.\nAll educators are familiar with the difficulty of getting pupils to give\nclose attention.\nThe mind wanders from the subject before it; flits from\nsubject to subject, dwelling only a moment on any one.\nOnly by overcoming this inattention can the student be led to knowledge and power.\nManual training in the kindergarten, the drawing room, and the shop aids\nwonderfully in fixing the attention.\nThe student is easily led to attend\nto that which interests him.\nHe is interested in tools and in the things\nhe can make by their use.\n\nHe\n\nthus forms the habit of attention, and\n\nhe\n\nfinds that, in proportion as he holds his mind intently upon his work, that\nwork becomes easy and pleasant.\nHe begins soon to attend carefully to\nother lessons and other work, and the habit of attention is strengthened.\n\nBy and by he is able to concentrate his mind upon any subject and to\nhold it there for a long time.\nAnother difficulty which educators meet is the inaccuracy of pupils;\nthe spelling, the reading, the drawing, the writing, the laboratory work\nare inaccurate.\nUnless accuracy can be substituted for inaccuracy, the\n\nstudents’ lives will be failures.\n\n"}
{"page": 750, "printed_page": null, "text": "74°\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Industrial\n\nThe boy or girl at work with tools soon comes to realize the necessity\nof accuracy.\nThe saw must be guided exactly on the line; the plane\nmust\n\nbe\n\ncarefully set; the chisel\n\nmust\n\nnot\n\nrun\n\ntoo deep;\n\nthe block of\n\nwood must have its corners square, it must be neither too large nor too .\nsmall, even by a hair-breadth; the pieces that make the joints must fit\neach other perfectly, or the joint shows gaps that will condemn it. It is\nat first a grievous thing to find the work of a day or a week thrown away\nby the teacher with a zero mark, because it is not accurate.\nBut this\nsteady rejection of inferior work, coupled with the pleasure the student\n\nfeels when a piece of work is accepted, leads to such care as brings, after\na while, accuracy in every piece of work.\nIf accurate in the shop, he will\nbe accurate in other exercises.\nThe habit of accuracy is formed.\nHe is\ndiscontented with himself unless all his work and all his lessons are well\ndone.\nThis habit, carried into all the work of later years, gives him an\nimmense advantage.\nImpatience is one of the most common causes of failure in life. We\ncannot wait for the slow but sure process of nature.\nWe would learn all\nmusic, all mathematics, all chemistry, in one term.\nWe would recover\nfrom the most serious illness in a day. We would reform the city, the\nstate, the nation, in a single effort.\nWe cannot endure delay.\nWe\ndespair of success if our efforts do not bring immediate and large results.\nFinding that the work in hand must be accomplished slowly, we give it\nup and begin something else, expecting that this can be done with immediate success.\nAfter a time we find that this, too, moves slowly, and it\nis given up for some enterprise around which our glowing imagination\nthrows a charming halo of speedy results.\nNo one thing is followed\n\nlong, hence in nothing do we really succeed.\nNow, the student who is\nbeing educated through the hand finds himself at every turn trained to\npatience.\nHe begins, perhaps, with saw and plane and square to make\na small piece of wood smooth and true.\nHe smiles a little derisively\nwhen the teacher gives him a task which seems so simple.\nHe begins\nconfidently.\nBut the tools are new to his hand and will not move just\nright. Somehow that special piece of wood is most difficult to shape.\nAfter a much longer time than he expected he finishes the work and\ntakes it to the teacher.\nHe is surprised that the teacher promptly rejects\nit. The teacher applies the square, and lets him see how untrue are the\nsurfaces and angles. With another block he is again set to work.\nThe\nderisive smile has disappeared, but he is still sure that a task so simple can\nbe done quickly.\nHe works now somewhat more slowly and carefully.\nWhen the work is done, it is taken somewhat less confidently for examina-\n\ntion. Again the teacher’s practiced eye, and the relentless square, show\nimperfections.\nSo it goes from day to day, until at length the head gets\npower to guide the hand with greater steadiness, and the eye can see\n\n"}
{"page": 751, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nHEAD\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nHAND\n\n741\n\nmore accurately.\nBy and by the exercise is accepted.\nAs the work goes\non from term to term, from year to year, the student becomes more\npatient and more painstaking.\nHe thus in time becomes more patient\nwith the limitations, the difficulties, with which he will surely meet in life.\n\nA common remark about a person is, ‘‘his judgment is poor,” or “his\njudgment is good.”\nIfthe man is not able to compare fact with fact,\ncondition\n\nwith\n\ncondition, and come\n\nto a rational conclusion\n\nas to what\n\nshould be done, or should not be done, we say he lacks judgment.\nif\nhe does so compare, and does come to well-grounded conclusions, we\nsay his judgment is good.\nIn the exercises of manual training schools\nthere is constant need for comparing and judging.\nAt every point the\nstudent must compare tool and material and work and result with the\npattern and the ideal, and judge as to whether it is right, in good condition, well\n\ndone,\n\nor ill done.\n\nHe\n\nthus\n\nslowly comes\n\nto recognize\n\nthe\n\nimportance of slight differences and slight resemblances, and to give them\nweight in the judgments he forms.\nWhen, in after years, he finds himself surrounded by conditions that demand swift comparison and prompt\ndecision, his training does not fail him.\nHe is equal to the emergency.\nAs arule he will then find that he sees the end from the beginning, and\nthat his swiftest judgments have been wise.\nThe\n\nleader\n\nin business,\n\nin education,\n\nhave perfect control of self.\n\nin religion,\n\nin politics,\n\nmust\n\nIndeed, the merely successful man, if he be\n\nnot a leader, must not be wanting in self-control.\nHe who fails in this\nfails of the highest material success, and he fails especially in the cultivation of that noble inner force we call strength of character.\nIn the\nexercises of the manual training school there is not a movement, not the\nuse of a tool, not the simplest\n\nexercise, that does\n\nnot require control of\n\nself. Let the boy become a little excited, and fail to control the head and\nthe hand, and in a moment his joint is ruined, his pattern for casting is\nspoiled, or the casting itself is rendered useless.\nLet the girl even for a\nmoment allow her attention to wander, and her unsteady hand has made\na false stroke, and the carving on which she has spent many days is marred.\nThat one false stroke cannot be remedied. To keep the carving now would\nbut remind her for years of the thoughtless second.\nShe throws it sor‘ rowfully\non the fuel heap, and, as the lines around her mouth assume a\nfirmer tenseness, she determines that the next carving shall not be spoiled\nby the one moment in which self-control failed.\nHow happy will it be\nfor boy and girl if this training of the shop, added to the training of the\nclass-room and laboratory, shall in the end give them control over their\nbest friend and their most dangerous enemy, the self!\nI have spoken thus far of the manual training acquired in the shop.\nAll that has been said in its favor applies with equal force to the training\nin the garden, the orchard, the farm, and the barn—the garden and the\n\n"}
{"page": 752, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n742\n\nfarm, in their varied\n\nkinds\n\n[Industrial\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nof work, in the noble\n\nmaterial\n\nbody, vivified\n\nand directed by the noble mind in which dwells the power of close attention, of perfect accuracy, of unconquerable patience, of rational judgment,\nAnd may we not believe that such qualities of\nof thorough self-control.\nmind will result in that pure and noble character which is the highest\nexpression of humanity ?\nI once attended\n\nthe dedication of a beautiful church, which had been\n\nbuilt by a wealthy gentleman as a memorial to his father and mother.\nwe\n\nentered\n\nthe edifice, which\n\nartisan\n\nand\n\nartist had\n\nstriven\n\nAs\n\nto make as\n\nbeautiful as possible, we saw at the opposite end of the church, high over\nthe pulpit, a large window of stained glass. Its left half showed a young\nand sturdy blacksmith at his anvil. Its right half showed a young and\nbeautiful woman at work with a spinning wheel.\nI learned that the two\nfigures were portraits of the father and mother in their younger days, when\nthe father had been a workman in a machine shop, and the mother a\nspinner in a cotton mill. They had done fruitful work, they had honored\ntheir calling. With their savings the father soon owned a small machine\nshop; later he owned many mills and accumulated a large fortune, which\nThe\nenabled the son to enjoy all things which money will command.\nson’s own early life had been spent in the work of the mills.\nWhen,\nafter years of active leadership in the great world of industry, the father\nand mother passed on, the son was not unmindful that it was the hand\nwork of his parents in their early life, guided by heads in which were\ntrained mental powers, that had laid the foundation of the fortune that\nSo, when he built in\nnow put him among the most wealthy of the land.\ntheir memory,\n\nhe put, in the place where all who entered the church must\n\nsee, their portraits engaged in the honored labor of their younger days.\nThat magnificent church, and many other philanthropic works, had come\nfrom the hands and the heads of the young workman and his wife. Now,\nall the results of their labor, and that of the son also, were consecrated\nto mental and spiritual uses, and so were uplifting humanity.\nLet the clear head guide the hand; let the skillful hand obey the\nhead; then let the wealth which their joint labor wins minister wisely to\nhuman needs.\nSo shall both hand and head be servants of the Most High.\n\nMENTAL\nBY EDWARD\n\nRESULTS\n\nO. SISSON,\n\n:\n\nFROM\n\nDIRECTOR\n\nBRADLEY\nPEORIA, ILL.\n\nThe title of this paper was framed\nintellect,\n\nsensibility, and\n\nMANUAL\n\nmoral\n\nnature.\n\nTRAINING.\n\nPOLYTECHNIC\n\nINSTITUTE,\n\nwith the intention of including\nIt soon\n\nbecame\n\nevident,\n\nhow-\n\n"}
{"page": 753, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMENTAL\n\nRESULTS\n\nFROM\n\nMANUAL\n\nTRAINING\n\n743\n\never, that my own power and time, and the limits of the paper, were inadequate, not only for treatment of the triple subject, but even for any one\ndivision of it. Hence I may be allowed to substitute for “‘ Mental Results”\nthe topic “Intellectual Results,” and, even after that limitation, it is with\n\ngreat hesitation that I present a paper which is necessarily brief and crude\nMoreover, the demands of brevity have sometimes\non so-_great a topic.\nenforced a dogmatic form of expression which does not well suit a subject\nof such difficulty.\nIt is not necessary, in this audience at least, to emphasize the fact\nthat the term “manual training” must shut out technical and trade shop\nwork, neither of which can need any defense.\nThe reason for the paper, aside from personal bent, is found in the\nfollowing opinion: Manual training has won its way into many schools\nwhere its only claim can be general educational power—such are the\nmanual training high schools and similar schools, under whatever name.\nFar more schools, in other points similar to these, have no shop work.\nThe logical conclusion seems to be either that this training has no right in\nthe former schools, or it ought to be also in the latter. Which is true can\nonly be decided by determining the general educational value of the shop\nwork.\nNow, the development of skill of hand and eye by the work*will\nbe denied by no one.\n\nIf, then, we can\n\nshow that it gives also an oppor-\n\ntunity for thought growth, its claim to a place\n\nmade\n\ngood.\n\nin the curriculum\n\nwill be\n\nWe do not claim that shop work will infallibly produce\n\nthinkers—some so-called shop work is more likely to make blockheads ; but\nso is some\n\nLatin, and some\n\nscience, and\n\nsome\n\nmathematics.\n\nWe do not\n\nnow speak of what shop work must inevitably do, nor even, great though\nthat is, of what it is doing, but of what it may do; and I apprehend that the\npicture will be Utopian enough.\nBut the educator, if any man, must “hitch\nhis wagon to a star,” and first he must see the star.\nThere is another instrument of education so much resembling the shop\nthat a parallel between them cannot be out of place. I mean, of course,\nthe laboratory ; and in this would be included the field work of the geologist and naturalist.\nThe laboratory has fought its battle and won its\nground —the shop has its place largely yet to win. So much have these\nin common that no hard and fast line can be drawn between them.\nIt\nis true that the general proximate aim in the laboratory is the discovery\nof physical facts, while that of the shop is the accomplishment of physical\nends ; yet, in all except professional and technical work, the ultimate aim\nof both shop and laboratory is the development of power in the student.\nMoreover, the mechanical and constructive side of laboratory work merges\n\nThe essence\ninto the experimental and investigating side of shop work.\nat first\nlearning\nand\nthings\nwith\ncontact\nis\nof both shop and laboratory\n“new\nthe\nof\nparts\nas\nthemselves\nshow\nand\nhand; here they perfectly agree,\n\n"}
{"page": 754, "printed_page": null, "text": "744\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Industrial\n\nSome specification of the comeducation,” in the best sense of the word.\nmon intellectual results of shop and laboratory may be in place.\niN\nFirst, these methods of education employ, and cultivate, sense-perception, and all raust agree that the great majority of our ideas are constructed of the material gained by sense-perception.\nThe boy peering into the test tube or crucible, or scrutinizing the\nswaying balance, and the boy laying the try-square to the board which he\nis planing, or watching when his iron shall be hot enough to strike, or\nfeeling the decreasing effect of equivalent blows upon the cooling mass—\nthese both differ from the book student, in that they gain ideas direct\nfrom things through sense; or we might better call these intellectual\nacquisitions, in the language of Locke, impressions, the marks or images\nmade by the things upon the mind.\nHere, then, in shop and laboratory,\nthe student is gaining new material wherewith to build his mind. .\nAfter perception, logically, comes conception.\nConcepts are either\npatch-work structures of misfit ideas suggested by words, or they are\nmental counterparts of the real thing which. has acted upon the mind\nthrough eye, hand, ear, and other sense organs.\nThe latter variety are\nborn in the actual world, and in the shop and the laboratory, because\nthese are parts of the actual world.\nConstructed in the presence of the\nobject, they are in accord with reality, and have a fullness of detail never\nfound in the patched-up conception; in other words, they are true; built\nof sense impressions, they are vivid and permanent; belonging to actual\nthings, they are of practical value.\nWhen we remember that judgment\nand reasoning depend absolutely upon concepts, the great importance of\nconcepts becomes evident.\nPerception and conception, as a matter of fact, unite in a process which\nwe call observation ; a process which is, perhaps, the foundation of the\ndifference between a man and a stone.\nShop and laboratory develop this\npower, and test it. Words from a book may be repeated in parrot fashion,\nbut the description in words of what has happened under the eyes proves\nthe mental process.\nJudgment and reasoning are based upon conception; as the character\nof the concept is improved, so the basis for good thinking is increased.\nParticularly is this true when the conception is made fuller and more in\naccord with the thing.\nII,\nThere are, however, differences of great importance between shop and\n\nlaboratory, and we must now note some of the peculiar characteristics of\nthe shop work.\n\ntna\nsf\n\n"}
{"page": 755, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMENTAL\n\nRESULTS\n\nFROM\n\nMANUAL\n\nTRAINING\n\n745\n\nFirst comes the large activity of the student in all processes.\nThe\nwood or iron is shaped and molded under his forceful hand— purpose,\nvolition,\n\neffort, on\n\nhis part, and, lo, the vainly resisting\n\nstuff is turned\n\nThe possibilities of thought crowd here beyond our\nto his conception!\nenumeration—the perception of change, the conception of cause and\neffect, and the relation of equivalency or correspondence, the great\nethical idea that to understand and obey nature is the only way to control\nher.\n\nHere, also, we are tempted\n\nto wander whither we must not go, into\n\nthe field of moral ideas and the growth of character.\nIdeas which were\nmingled with action at their birth have the maximum of vividness and\nSuch ideas, moreover, have more fullness; they growin a\npermanence.\nDuctility and malleabilkind of interchange of action and perception.\nity cease to be mere words; they represent what they should, logically\nand etymologically, namely, an experience—an actual memory of a\ndrawing-out, or a beating-out;\nwith a hundred details, moreover,\nThe conception\nentirely lacking in the non-experimental conception.\n\nformed is no longer that of the thing inert, but the thing changing in\nresponse to human effort; and how vitally important it is to know of\nthings, not only what they are, but what they will do in response to a\nstimulus.\nSecondly, the objects dealt with in the shop are close to everyday life.\nThe laboratory seeks to penetrate the secrets and hidden places of matter\nand force; the shop deals with them on their face. The latter, no less\nthan the former, deals with these two fundamental physical concepts—\nmatter and force;\n\nnot, indeed, in the dim regions where the line between\n\nforce and matter seems to be fading away, the favorite ground of the physicist and chemist, nor when they enter into a mysterious compact to produce the phenomena of life and furnish the biologist’s problem; but\nrather under the terms of raw material and labor meeting for the satisfaction of human wants, a problem in which lack of abstruseness and mystery\nis atoned for by tremendous ethical and economical interest.\nThere are in this connection four important concepts developed, to\nwhich I wish to devote some space; namely, the material, the implement,\nthe process, and the finished product.\nFirst, that of mazteriai—the stuff or “‘stock.”’\nIt would be possible,\nall the sciences\nalmost\nintroduce\nto\nsource,\nits\nto\nby tracing the material\nBut the shop\nmineralogy.\nand\nbotany\nof nature, especially, of course,\nstrength,\ntexture,\nits\ncondition;\nwork is chiefly interested in the present\ncome\nmay\nHere\ntool.\ntothe\nforms, and the readiness with which it yields\nhard—impenetrability,\nmatter\nthe study of all the physical properties of\nness, tenacity, brittleness, ductility, malleability.\n\nWhat\n\nan endless study\n\nFriction and adhesion\nis here of cohesion in all its forms and degrees!\nare no less exemplified whenever one material is to be attached to another.\n\nwelfheS\nz\n\nPs,\n\n"}
{"page": 756, "printed_page": null, "text": "iamsna\n746\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Industrial\n\nAll these qualities are to be studied, not abstractly, but with a view to the\naccomplishment of some practical end. The physicist asks: “ What is the\nintimate structure and essence which underlies the forces of attraction\nThe mechanic asks: ‘Under what controllable conand repulsion?”\nditions do these forces act and vary? In what quantity are they found,\nand how can I make use of them ?”’\nNext comes the concept of the ¢mplement—itself material—not to\nbe used as a component part of the final result, but to work its influence\nupon it. There may be noted three divisions here: First, that implement\nwhich comes\n\nin direct contact with the material, and which cuts, abrades,\n\nmolds, perforates, grinds, polishes, and the like. This is the tool. It is\na piece of matter found or formed by man to aid him in working his\nwill on other matter.\nIts chief functions are the concentration, accumulation, or distribution of force. But often, to secure the best results from\n\nthe tool, the material and the tool must be moved with respect to each\nother in a specially complex, or a specially forceful, or a specially delicate manner.\nMan then devises a combination of levers, wheels, cogs,\nbands, and the like, to secure the desired motion—this\n\nis a machine.\n\nIt\n\ngrasps material, or tool, or both.\nA complex motion is often gained by\nan interesting co-operation of man and machine: the machine furnishes\none definite motion of tool or material, the man supplies the more varied\nadjustment of stuff or tool. A notable example is the turning lathe, with\nits ceaseless whirl ever in one simple circle, the gouge and chisel, which, in\nthe workman’s hand, carry the graceful curve from the mind to the work.\nTruly a noble conception!\n\nThe dull matter of the machine has been, as\n\nit were, endowed with at least one thought, and has been taught to do at\nleast part of the work of an intelligent being. This is the second form\nof the implement.\nBut the machine demands power in such quantity that its development has necessarily been contemporary with the growth of devices for\nutilizing the non-human forces of the world.\nThese are chiefly the steam\nengine, and, in a less, but increasing, degree, the dynamo and motor.\nI\nknow of no name for this third type of implement.\nAfter the material, and the implement, comes the meeting of these\ntwo in the process —the hand driving home the nail, the vise tightening\non the block within it, the chisel meeting the swiftly revolving bar of\n\nD5,\nAs\nma\nge\n\nwood.\nWhat law of force is not illustrated here?\nHere are levers,\ninclined planes, rods, wheels, and all their combinations in action; here\nare velocity, inertia, friction, moments, reaction at every turn, generation,\ntransmission, modification of force.\nTime fails us to do more than thus\n\nhint at what the shop can do along these lines. Force in the infinite, and\nin the infinitesimal, at lightning speed, and at an invisible snail’s pace —\nyet equally sure and relentless!\nHere, surely, is a veritable laboratory\n\ne\n\n"}
{"page": 757, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMENTAL\n\nRESULTS\n\nFROM\n\nMANUAL\n\nTRAINING\n\n747\n\nof statics and dynamics, with every law printed in clearly legible\ncharacters.\nI can only touch upon the fourth great conception of the shop — the\nmanufactured article. To the ordinary man it is a mere chattel, to be\nused and worn out; to the shop-trained mind it tells a story of human\nlife, thought, effort, achievement; hardly an angle or a curve but speaks;\nevery cross-bar and brace has a meaning; the oaken wainscot is again\nseen growing in the forest, and the great iron gates before the palace are\nknown as the lineal descendants of pig iron, or even of the black rock\nin the bowels of the earth.\nI might well have spoken of pure, logical products of tool work —\ncausation and the geometry of space; but the above concepts seem to me\nthe real contribution of the shop to the mental treasury.\nThe danger of\neducation in all ages seems to be the same—a tendency to become\nesoteric and far removed from daily life. Such was the learning of the\nschool men of days gone by; there is not wanting a fear that modern\nscientific\n\nresearch,\n\nwhich\n\nentered as the herald of the new and practical\n\nlearning, is erring in the same direction.\nPerhaps some of the fondness\nof the physicists for ether and atoms which have never been seen, and of\nthe mathematicians for what are by definition ‘impossible quantities,” is\nno wiser than the love of the medizevalist for discussing how many angels\ncan dance on the point of a needle.\nA great body of educators call themselves humanists, and, surely, any\nman might gladly enroll himself with the true humanists; but, after all,\nare Plato and Virgil and Browning the humanities any more than the\nthings which occupy the effort of a majority of civilized mankind and\nunderlie the life and coinfort of all?\n\nDISCUSSION.\nA. H. CHAMBERLAIN,\n\nThroop Polytechnic\n\nInstitute, Pasadena, Cal.—The\n\npaper\n\nto\n\nwhich we have just listened certainly outlines the intellectual results of manual training\nin a most clear and forcible manner.\nIt shows, as it ought, a high conception of the value\nof the workshop in the educational arena.\nIn this discussion I can hardly do more than\napprove the stand taken, and perhaps add a few additional thoughts.\nIn the first place, however, one difference of opinion: To admit that manual training has a right to be in manual-training high schools and some other institutions is not,\nunder the existing conditions, to admit its right to be in all schools similar to these in\nmost points. Not all schools or communities are yet ready for it. Manual training, if\npoorly taught, will certainly fall into disrepute. The curriculum is now overfull, and if\nmanual training is to stay and become part of the daily programme, its exponents must be\nmen and women who thoroughly understand its value and are capable, not only of teaching their own subject, but of teaching the other subjects as well. They must see clearly\nOf such\nthe relations between manual training and the traditional lines of book work.\n\nteachers there is still a comparatively small number.\n\n"}
{"page": 758, "printed_page": null, "text": "748\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Industrial\n\nThe patch-work conceptions suggested by mere words and a tangible something, a\nIn no departcorrespondence to the real object, have been spoken of and compared.\nment of school work, so far as I know, as in the shops is the great value of the latter\nSuch conceptions\nbrought out, and nowhere else is there such opportunity for its growth.\nare in all respects true. A mistaken or wrong impression gained in the shop, and incorporated into, or made a part of, some piece of constructed hand work, can readily be\ndetected and the defect shown the pupil, where, in some other line of work, it might pass\nunnoticed.\nAs to the comparisons made between shop and laboratory.\nThe true shop is, in the\nbroad sense, the true laboratory.\nIn the true shop the student is not only to construct his\nmodel of wood,\n\nto make the joint, to temper\n\nor draw the piece of metal; but he must\n\nknow why he goes through each process as he does, and understand the effects on the\ncompleted object, should some other method be employed.\nIn the true shop the student\nmust not only construct, he must\n\nexecute\n\nas well.\n\nAlong\n\nthe line of mental\n\nresults\n\nof\n\nmanual training, let me read the answers to four of several questions sent out some time\nago. These answers come from supervisors and teachers of manual training from all\nparts of the country—teachers of grades and high-school classes where manual training\nforms part of the regular programme; principals of manual and technical schools;\nnormal-school and college men, and prominent educators, who, by observation and\nexperience, are qualified to speak on the subject.\nOf course, the answers are boiled down, some of the typical ones only being given,\nbut covering, as they do, such a wide field of educational thought, they should certainly\nprove most valuable :\nI. Can you trace any improvement in discipline, character, etc., to the manual\ntraining work ?\n“Improvement in manners, earnestness of thought, and promptness.” ‘ Decidedly.”\n“Those who take manual training are superior, as a class,in both respects to those who\ndo not.”\n“ Boys reputed bad settle down to amore sedate view of the school relation.”\n“Promotes self-respect by opening new lines of power, and thus discipline is easier.”\n“ Stimulates to a sense of responsibility and a degree of well-founded self-respect, which\nare incompatible with the puerilities, conceits of the mere book students.”\n‘ Yes, generally.” ‘ Best kind of moral training, if rightly directed.” “Yes. Productive and creative activity in manual work furnishes pupils tangible proof that they are of some account\nin the world, and they are meant to control the universe by beneficent ends.”\n\n2. (a) Is the pupil’s power\n\nto grasp and retain thought strengthened?\n\n(4) Is his\n\npower of application strengthened ?\nUnanimously “yes” to both. “Yes; power to grasp and apply thought in action\nis strengthened.\nForesight, care, and perseverance are increased.\nMere memory is but\nlittle exercised.”\n\n3. In what way do you see a manifestation that the mental machinery of the child is\nbeing improved ?\n“ By increase of power to understand drawing, solve problems, and master difficulties. Thought is led into healthful lines. Proud to be able to do things in the home.\nInventive power is strengthened.”\n“In every way.” ‘More logical reasoning; more\nexact; grasps abstract conceptions more readily.\nLaboratory experiments in science\nwork\n\nare performed\n\nmore\n\nintelligently and\n\nrapidly, accomplishing\n\n25\n\nper cent. more\n\nwork.”\n“Student is more logical, and consequently has a better verbal expression, manifested in the manner in which any line of mathematics or science is attacked.” “In his\ngeneral attitude toward his other lines of work, and his actually increased progress.”\n“Learns to apply knowledge and to think concretely.”\n‘Develops judgment, perseverance, observation, accuracy, and application.”\n‘In love for manual work, in habits of\n\nes\nP=\n\n"}
{"page": 759, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\n&ELATION\n\nOF NORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nTO MANUAL\n\nTRAINING\n\n749\n\naccuracy and neatness, in persistent effort for the accomplishment of a given aim.” “For\nhealthy physical, mental, and moral training,there is nothing better for the child from\nfour to eleven years of age than continuous manual training, connected with the arts—\nmodeling, painting, drawing, etc.”\n4. Do you think as much is accomplished in the book lines as if no time were\ngiven to manual training ?\n“Yes,more.\nThe modern languages and music are taken up with more vigor.” “A\nmoderate amount of manual training work increases the amount of work done in the\nbook line.”\n“‘Time is unquestionably gained by increased powers of application and\nstimulation of interest.\nPupils are less apt to waste time dawdling.”\n‘‘ Theoretically,\nyes; but much depends upon the effective co-operation of the regular teacher.”\n‘The\nchange of work inyigorates the worker, and there is, therefore, no loss in accomplishment.”\n‘Yes, more.”\n‘Yes, if time is judiciously distributed between academic and\nindustrial work.”\n‘‘ Manual training, combined with the other arts, is the best possible\nmeans of training the constructive faculty or the constructive imagination of the child.”\n“Pupils learn more readily from books, and retain what they have learned more tena-\n\nciously than their less fortunate fellow-students.”\nThe intrinsic value of the article made in the manual training workshop is slight,\nbut the energy working through the tool and manifesting itself in the finished object\nshows to the observant teacher characteristics of the boy never before known to exist in\n\nhim.\n\nA finished piece of work is viewed with much satisfaction by the student.\n\nthe relation of cause to effect; his conceptions\n\nof form are\n\nHe sees\n\nincreased, and he sees\n\nthat\n\n- only that is beautiful which is made for good and true purposes ; that color, shape, and\nmagnitude are, indeed, of a secondary consideration, when compared with the creative\nidea and execution of the object.\n\nSOME\n\nBY\n\nPOSSIBLE\n\nW.\n\nD.\n\nRELATIONS\nOF NORMAL\nMANUAL\nTRAINING.\n\nPARKER,\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nRIVER\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nFALLS,\n\nTO\n\nWIS.\n\nThis paper contends that manual training has such intrinsic merit and\nhas made for itself such actual place in a variety of schools as logically\nto demand the preparation of teachers for such schools by normal schools.\nThe normal school has sought to prepare persons for teaching whose\nqualifications in science and literature at the time of entrance were yet\nlargely to be made.\n‘This proceeding has the disapproval of experienced\nteachers, and its like in the other professions has invited the earnest protest of lay and professional writers. While the conditions of sixty years\nago showed immediate need for teachers at the hands of American normal\nschools, then first operated, normal management seemed to be justified\nin graduating persons of meager institutional preparation laid in method.\nNearly the same length of time has been employed in teaching that management\n\nthat\n\nthe child\n\nis more\n\nthan\n\na mere reader, a calculator, and\n\na\n\nwriter, and that management is now invited to aid the child in expressing\n\n"}
{"page": 760, "printed_page": null, "text": "750°\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Industrial\n\na large body of truth that finds acceptance through his persistent wish\nto draw, to construct with his hands objects of beauty and of utility.\nNormal management now finds difficulties in changing procedure,\nthus showing a historic conservatism that is well or ill according to its\nalertness to reform from within, or to its willingness to await compulsion\nfrom without.\nPsychology itself has taken more vital forms of late years, and,\nthrough its applied pedagogy, normal management has learned the\nimportance of studying anew the meaning of all manual effort that may\nbe introduced into institutions ; and it may be said that new stimulus\ntherefrom has already come to many schools.\nThis industrial section of the National Educational Association has\nelicited and put on record ample outlines of manual courses of study,\nand has named the grades of schools that should practice in them.\nIts\ndiscussions have shown abundantly the belief of eminent men that the\nleading purpose of institutional manual work is the immediate reaction\nupon the moral and intellectual well-being of the operator, derived\nthrough attention and through manual habits that are created in childhood and maintained in youth.\nNormal schools may be pleased to remain seminaries, though invited\nby lower schools to inaugurate pedagogic laboratories for observing, for\nenabling introspection to realize itself in the outer world.\nBooker\nWashington’s account of his colony at Tuskegee tells the tale of social,\nas well as of economic, education. The wish to construct many forms, as a\nsequence of earlier tendency to analyze them by destroying them, may\nwell lead\n\nto the view of John\n\nFiske, as repeated\n\nby Dr. Butler, wherein\n\nthe protracted period of plastic childhood is stated by Fiske to have\nafforded time for “‘ converting our forefathers from brute creatures into\nhuman creatures.”\n‘It is babyhood that has made man what he is.”’\nWhether or not Herbert Spencer’s uniform answer to varied questions\npleads for changes in the practice in normal schools, there can be no question of preserving the child’s symmetry by employing the intelligent hand\nin verifying truths by the construction of objects and by delineation of\n\nforms.\nDr. Harris is pleased to say that ‘‘ There are a number of branches of\nstudy, such as drawing, manual training, physical training, and the like,\nwhich ought to be taught in every well-regulated school.”\nJohn Stuart\nMill says: “The test of real and vigorous thinking is successful application to practice.”\nDr. Bain included under the title of “mechanical\ntraining” “the command of the bodily organs for all the ordinary purposes of life.”\nA brief example may suffice here for justifying the introduction of\nmanual work in aschool: It may be claimed that development through\n\nnoel\nAy\nao\n\n"}
{"page": 761, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nAEZLAT/ON OF NORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nTO MANUAL\n\nTRAINING\n\n751\n\nthe mind-hand is a tonic for performance in ordinary school study\n—not to say that manual and literary work are admissible during\ngreater time than either when pursued alone.\nDr. Belfield, of Chicago,\nhas, during thirteen years, steadily maintained that young men make at\nleast as rapid progress in the academic-manual course of study as they did\nformerly in the separate academic course of a breadth equivalent to the\nacademic side of the academic-manual course, thus making a clear gain\nof the manual side of study and a certain other increment gained in\nbuoyancy of spirit.\n\nProfessor James, of Omaha, testified\n\nto like results\n\nin the city high school.\nDenial will scarcely be made of the sustained\nstimulus coming through the restful alternative offered chiefly by manual\npractice after work that is chiefly mental, when periodicity with proper\nintegration is observed.\nThus the concession of the effect of such combination in common schools logically carries like effect innormal schools\nin their effort to prepare teachers.\nNot the least value of manual training in any school is the tonicity of discovery by the introduction of the\nlearner to the living practice of a large line of truths that relate to\nmaterials that have, heretofore, been unknown\n\nto school practice.\n\nWhen\n\nschools perform, under the titles of zodlogy, geology, and psychology,\nrelevance to the mechanics of anatomic and botanic structure will be provided through the mechanism of manual training ; and allusion to the\nexternal in known terms of the manual will make psychology find its constant corrective in the object. The normal school that teaches in typical\nforms in any set academic branches, making it the pleasure of learners to\ndiscover illustrative relevancy of the emphasized type, will thus save time\nwhich may be used for manual training, as in botany and zodlogy the\nconsideration of functions leads to noble suggestions in the name of\nclassification — just as the doctrine of the kindergarten gifts leads to wide\nrelevance of gift forms everywhere ; just as “ man intuitively feels that\nhis unrealized self lies in the objective world, that there is a community\nof life between himself and that world,” in phrase of Professor Arnold\nTompkins.\nHence, if objection is made to further inclusion in normal\nor other curricula, the aggregate in such courses may be made constant by\nteaching in types and by omitting multitudes of extensions by name,\nunder the belief that concentration in a few branches for a few lines is\nadmissible whenever the spirit of teaching accommodates to the learner’s\npresent status.\n\nNearly all normal\n\nschools have introduced\n\ndrawing, with permitted\n\ndifferentiation of free-hand and~ mechanical, between the sexes; it is\nbelieved that as readily can construction through tool work in wood and\npaper for all pupils —culinary and needle work for girls, metal and gen-\n\neral engine construction for boys\n— be introduced.\nAn encouraging sign for manual work is found in Wisconsin, in the\n\n"}
{"page": 762, "printed_page": null, "text": "-\n\nacs\n\n752\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n[Industrial\n\nstatute, passed in 1895, that provides for the establishment of manual\ntraining departments in high schools, for supervision, and for qualifying\nteachers therein, and for furnishing two hundred and fifty dollars’ aid to\neach school, though not to exceed ten schools in the state may be so\nFive schools are already operating under this law,\naided in any year.\nThe history of this movement\nand with satisfaction to local people.\nwill interest at another time, but it may be remarked now that this\ndemand for teachers must, in part, rest upon normal schools.\n\n—\n\nThe range of desired manual training is revealed by a glance at the\nprospective use of the hand in civilization.\nThe art which every sane\nperson should acquire is shown in his necessary touch with personal\nbelongings, with food, clothing, domestic furniture, and other common\nobjects; and such touch ought to attract attention of school children.\nThis minimum enlarges itself greatly when the persons are to act and\nthink in community.\nTheir language is heightened in power, both in\nreceiving and interpreting truths, by the use of delineation in varied\nforms, by writing, by cutting with several tools, and by joining for constructive purposes in paper, wood, fabrics, and\n\nmetals ; and\n\nby cooking,\n\nsewing, and draping.\nFrom kindergarten through twelfth grade appropiate manual instruction should be the pleasure of every child in his own interest, in order\nto make him a more intelligently co-operative citizen, though permitting\nhim to do what he wants to do to his betterment.\nIf schools purpose\nhaving pupils find the unknown through its discoverable relevance to the\nknown, even admitting Dr. Payne’s placement of the unknown within,\nand the known without; if the belief is tenable that self-activity alone\nmakes individual progress possible ; if the purpose of education “is to\ncarry us to a knowledge of ourselves in the work,” as named by Matthew\nArnold, then manual training will be included in any worthy system of\nschools; for manual skill of any kind may be heightened by institutional\neffort. Hence the normal schools must fit teachers to deal with manual\nwork, since their graduates are to organize courses of study, are to execute work thereunder, and are to be expositors of plans therein, for the\ninformation of school officers and of the general public.\n“Fail to the skillful, cunning hand;\n\nHail to the cultured mind !\nContending for the world’s command,\nHere let them be combined.”\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\nee\nee\ne\nS\nR\n<\n\nHoMER H. SEERLEY, Cedar Falls, la.—The day has passed when argument is necessary to establish the importance of manual training as a part of an elementary education.\n\na\n\n"}
{"page": 763, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nRELATION\n\nOF NORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nTO MANUAL\n\nTRAINING\n\n753\n\nThe day is even here when the means and methods of its introduction are leading quesfor discussion and solution.\nThe people of the United States are ready to do\n\ntions\n\nanything that is rationally possible to accomplish the bettering of the chances for pros.\nperity and success for their children through public education. They are dissatisfied with\npresent results, and are waiting patiently and hopefully for the thinker who can solve the\nproblem and show them how to make elementary education more effective and more\npractical. That there is need of training in industry for every child who is born into this\nprogressive civilization is an accepted fact, but the way to secure this desired end is not\nThere is no doubt but the country boy, with his industrial training obtained\nyet solved.\non the farm, even when short in intellectual education through inefficient and badly conducted rural schools, has more chance in the struggle for success in life than the city boy\nwith no industrial training, even though he attended the best public schools and have the\n\nOne needs but to investigate the\nbest chances the age affords for intellectual education.\nrecord of successful men to learn that training in some industry is an essential factor to\nThe city boy has an environan individual’s success in any of the present-day vocations.\nment that is naturally against a training in any form of industry, unless there is some\nTo learn to work,\nco-operative effort like the public-school organization to give it tohim.\nto acquire the disposition to be industrious, to get such a training as to make one ready\nto do and efficient in doing, ought to be the privilege of every child that comes in contact with public education.\nI am led to believe, therefore, that rural schools, with\n\nall their\n\ndeficiencies, are not\n\ndepriving the children they serve of this sort of training to the extent that city schools\n‘do. There is no doubt but the rural schools could be so modified in the courses of study\nthey offer and in the character of instruction they give that they could better serve the\nchildren that they are organized to teach. There is necessity for the rural school-teacher\nmore clearly to understand the industries of the farm, and to unite more closely to the\nregular studies the life of the country, but it is also much more true that the education of\nthe cities and towns should be thus combined with the industrial life that the children in\nthe schools of these cities and towns must afterward live. This much from the economic\nside of the problem.\nBut there is another side to the problem, that of training and discipline, both of which\nare obtainable through such modification.\nLearning to work with economy of expenditure and effort, learning to work skillfully and rapidly, is a great training in mental discipline and mental activity, and in no way can this particular kind of skill and economic\ndevelopment be given except through exercise in manual industry.\nBut our problem today is not so much these as the relation of normal schools to the\npublic schools in the aiding of the solution of the question of proper teacher supply—\nfurnishing such persons as are able actively to lead in this work in all schools. There is\nno doubt, if there is no state agency in the training of teachers to teach manual industry,\nthat the progress in these desirable lines will be very slow. These state normal schools\nhave a province in public progress and development that must not be overlooked, and\nthey must be enlisted in this work and be thoroughly in sympathy with it before much can\nbe done to hasten the day when a complete education for a child is obtainable in a public\nschool. Normal-school students go at once to the work of teaching in public schools,\nand, if they were taught in these lines themselves, they could become an immediate factor\n\nin developing and popularizing the work.\n\nThe states could give great aid to this indus-\n\ntrial training by at once opening a manual training department in each normal school,\nand by offering two lines of instruction: first, a course in general training suitable for all\ngrades and kinds of schools, which would constitute a part of the course\n\nthat every stu-\n\ndent graduating from a normal school should be required to take; and, second, a course\nthat was intended to prepare persons to do special work as instructors in cities and towns\n\n"}
{"page": 764, "printed_page": null, "text": "754\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Industrial\n\nThere is a danger that,\nwhere such instruction is put into the hands of a special teacher.\nif the advocates of this work as a part of public school educational effort stop long\nenough to settle the forms that are essential and best, there will be several generations of\n\nchildren neglected and ignored that could have been at least partially trained if some\nform had been zealously undertaken.\nThere must be more or less experiment in these\nnew attempts. There will be much difference of opinion and much variation in the plans\nundertaken.\n\nThere should be, however, serious efforts in every field, whether or not these\n\nattempts are more than approximations toward a desired end. These experiments can be\nmade at the normal schools more cheaply and universally than anywhere else, and can be\nthoroughly tested there with actual children in every grade of public-school work, so that,\nbefore long, some of the normal schools will certainly develop a system of training that\nwill be known to be possible to be accomplished, and that will show such evident results\nthat it will be acceptable to the general public. There is no question but the advocates\nand the instructors in present-day manual training will be somewhat disappointed at these\npreliminary efforts of the normal schools, as these schools will not go to the full measure\nof instruction that the majority of these workers now think essential and important; but\nthey can be satisfied of one thing, that the normal schools will occupy the middle, conservative ground in the effort, and will be able finally to accomplish the purpose of their\nattempts through securing some actual training in industry for the pupils in the public\nschools.\nAll things are of slow growth, if they continue long. All things are of slow\ndevelopment that are to be of lasting benefit, and, for this reason, a moderate and a continual progress toward an ideal condition, an approximation toward an ideal state of education and training, is all that should be sought. To the securing of this very much\ndesired state of affairs there can be no more useful, nor more effective, agency than the\nstate normal schools, and their full duty to public education will not be met until they are\naggressive factors in the further development and complete application of industrial\ntraining.\n\n"}
{"page": 765, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF ART\n\nEDUCATION.\n\nSe ChE oie oo vlINO LES,\nFIRST\nThe\n\ndepartment\n\nwas\n\nSESSION.—WEDNESDAY,\ncalled\n\nto order\n\nJULY\n\n7, 1897.\n\nby the President, Mark Maycock, of Buffalo,\n\nN. Y., who opened the meeting with a few well-chosen remarks.\nMiss Harriet Cecil Magee, of Oshkosh, Wis., read a paper, “ Drawing in Normal\nSchools\n— Problems Solved and Unsolved.”\nD. R. Augsburg, of Salt Lake City, Utah, delivered an illustrated address on the\n“Expression of Lines.”\nThe following Committee on Nominations was appointed :\nMiss Mary Thompson, Miss Florence Hines, Miss Skinner, Miss Hattie White, and Miss Stratford\n\nSECOND\n\nSESSION.—THourRsDAY, JULY 8.\n\nThe department was called to order by the President at 3 P.M.\nJesse H. Brown, of Indianapolis, Ind., gave an address on “Principles of Diawing\nfor Illustrations.”\nMiss Lillie M. Godden, of Chicago, Ill., read a paper on ‘“‘What Do People Want in\n\nthe Way of Drawing?”\nThe paper was illustrated with blackboard sketches.\nThe Committee on Nominations reported as follows:\nFor President, Miss Harriet Cecil Magee, Oshkosh, Wis.\nFor Vice-President, D. R. Augsburg, Salt Lake City, Utah.\nFor Secretary, Miss Florence Browning Himes, Albany, N, Y.\n\nThe report was adopted, and the nominees declared unanimously elected as officers\nfor the ensuing year.\nAfter passing a vote of thanks to the local committee for its many courtesies, the\ndepartment adjourned,\nD. R. AUGSBURG,\nSecretary.\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nOPENING\n\nBY\n\nMARK\n\nM.\n\nMAYCOCK,\n\nDISCUSSIONS.\nREMARKS.\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nOF\n\nART\n\nDEPARTMENT.\n\nThere are two features of elementary art that have not yet received\nthe attention they merit. * One of these is the systematic use of drawing\n755\n\n"}
{"page": 766, "printed_page": null, "text": "[Art\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n756\n\nas an aid in teaching other subjects, and the other is the value of certain\nlines, forms, and colors as aids in expressing feelings and emotions.\nRightly to use art as an interpreter, it must tell its story in a simple\nway, it must not lose force by unduly emphasizing many things, and it\nmust be clear in the one thing it is expected to say, and truthful in its\nstatement.\nexecution.\n\nFurther, it should be without effort at artistic finish or labored\n\nIllustrative drawing may be given a much broader scope than is now\naccorded it; this is particularly true of geographical drawing, which is\nnow confined almost exclusively to maps, but which may profitably be\nextended to most of the common descriptive features of geography.\nIn nature study, including the study of insects, and in the higher subjects, nearly every branch offers opportunities for impressing special\nfeatures by the aid of drawing.\nIn the realm of decorative art we have made less advancement than\nin either pictorial or geometrical drawing, and it is for that reason that I\nwish to call attention to the positional and associational value of lines\nand forms as elements of decorative and pictorial composition.\nBy decoration we understand not merely a change, but an improvement, in the appearance of an object.\nIt is not simply covering one\npiece of hideousness with another that is possibly still worse, or merely\nchanging\n\nit in form, color, or texture.\n\nmiscuous combination of beautiful\nment;\n\nNeither\n\ndoes\n\nit mean\n\nthe pro-\n\nelements for the purpose\n\nof enrich-\n\nbut true decoration means, rather, a thought or mood\n\ngiven form,\n\nin order to produce a similar thought or mood in others.\nThe language of decoration and its influence are learned\n\nfrom\n\nthe\n\nexpression of lines, forms, and colors, as derived from the fact that\n\ncer-\n\ntain\n\nwill\n\ncauses\n\nproduce\n\ncertain\n\neffects,\n\nand,\n\nwhere\n\none\n\nis, the\n\nother\n\nusually be found.\nA straight line conveys the impression of permanence and stability;\nit is the leading line in all primitive structures built for protection and\nconvenience, and, on account\n\nof its comparative\n\nease\n\nof adjustment\n\nof\n\nrectilinear parts, it is the prominent line in the architecture of all nations\nlacking in mental and physical activity; it is also the line in nature of\nobjects or parts requiring longitudinal resistance, such as the trunks of\ntrees, stems of plants, and many of the bones. When in an upright position and with suitable width, the straight line gives the impression of\nsupport and security.\nThus trees that endure the most are those that are\nstraight and upright.. From daily contact with this principle we have\nlearned that straight upright lines express strength and stability, and the\ndecorator who wishes to convey this expression in his work relies on this\n\nprinciple, and gives the effect of stability by the generous\n\nstantial upright lines.\n\n2\n\nuse of sub-\n\n—?\n\n"}
{"page": 767, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nOPENING\n\nREMARKS\n\n757\n\nThe expression of horizontal lines is that of quietness and rest, if too\nnumerous, producing sluggishness; they are the lines in nature that\nseem to have no end; the position is that of rest or decay. The prevalence\n\nof these lines\n\nin the sunsets, moonlight\n\nviews, prairies, and\n\nfields\n\ngives them their well-known peaceful effect.\nWhile the horizontal line expresses peace, rest, or decay, roundness is\nthe expression of quiet life. It is nature in her satisfied mood, without\nan excess of life and without much motion.\nThese are not the forms either in the animal or vegetable kingdom\nthat reach out into exposed places; but they prefer rather to be of the\nmany than to stand alone.\n.\nThere is also a class of objects that at once convey the thought of\nspirit and motion, forms that have life and activity in every line. These\nare the angular forms in nature, and the more acute their angles are, the\nmore life and motion are expressed. Birds that are noted for swiftness of\nflight, animals of activity, and boats constructed for speed, all possess\nthis feature in a marked degree.\nA slanting line leads the eye in its own direction, and a row of slant_ing parallel lines will carry the eye in the direction of their slant. If these\nslanting lines be opposed by lines of similar slant, the eye, in attempting\nto follow both directions, will be carried toward the meeting point of these\nlines.\nNot only have form and direction an expression, but size is also to be\nconsidered, for there is size of grandeur, size of stability, size of activity,\nand size of insignificance, all of which are active elements in giving\nexpression to constructive design and decorative enrichment.\nAs no style of decoration has existed without color, and\n\nas color aids\n\nso much in giving expression to decoration, it becomes an important element in the expression of ornament.\nExperience has taught us that colors are warm or cold, advancing or\nretreating, soothing or exciting, and cheerful or gloomy, and rightly to\nuse colors decoratively it is necessary to know their expression and\nvalue.\nWe must know the effect, also, that one color has upon another,\nand the hues, tones, and quantities that will best harmonize.\nMore than is necessary is said about the refining influences of art, and\nnot enough about its underlying principles. Not that I object to refinement, or doubt that art is refining in its influences any more than I doubt\nthat science or literature are refining, but the need of elementary art work\n\njust now is not refinement or taste so much as a knowledge of the esthetic\nvalue of the competent elements of art.\nFor if every line has an expression of its own, and every position of\na line conveys a thought peculiar to itself, and every form is the germ of\nan idea, then elementary art is a science which must be viewed from its\n\n"}
{"page": 768, "printed_page": null, "text": "758\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\npsychological and scientific sides, as well as from its esthetic standpoint.\nBut beyond its educational value and its esthetic worth, the crucial test\nof the value of our work is its effect upon the minds of our pupils.\nIf\nthe impression our work produces is frivolous and enfeebling in its tendency,\n\nour effort\n\nis wanting\n\nin its vital element, but\n\nif it is wholesome\n\nand uplifting, then it must be good, and we are in some measure meeting\nthe demands of the better side of education.\n\nDRAWING\n\nBY\n\nIN NORMAL\nAND\nMISS\n\nHARRIET\n\nSCHOOLS— PROBLEMS\nUNSOLVED.\nCECIL.\n\nMAGEE,\n\nOSHKOSH,\n\nSOLVED\n\nWIS.\n\nG. F. Watts, who has been the interpreter of more spiritual beauty\nthan perhaps any other living English artist, says in the catalogue of his\nlast exhibit in the New Gallery, London, that the object\n\nof much\n\nof his\n\nwork has been ‘“‘to suggest in the language of art modern thought in\nthings ethical and spiritual.”’\nIs not this in a humble manner the object of art training in our normal schools today? Is it not to suggest in the language of schoolroom\nart “‘modern thought in things ethical and spiritual”’ ?\nThe new education is most surely ethical and spiritual; and it is the\nspiritual that must mold and inspire the spiritual in all our educational\nwork.\nIn art we call this motive power by different terms— feeling,\nthought, inspiration ; and unless the material expression reveal something\n\nof this, we say that the results are dead, dry, and inartistic.\nHow shall the students in our normal schools be imbued with this\nspiritual quality, is a problem that confronts us today.\nIt is a problem\nthat each of us has met on the threshold of our teaching. It is is one we\nstill wrestle with after years of experience; and it is one that we must\nleave at the last unsolved, unless\n\nwe\n\nfind the solution in our\n\nown soul.\n\nNo one can solve it for us. It must be wrought out in the smelting furnace of our own individuality, and imparted by means of our own personality. You must do it in your way.\nI must do it in mine.\nWe cannot\ndo it in the same way. It is wrong for us to think even for a moment\nthat we can do so by any set plan or method.\nTo use the words of Longfellow, put into the mouth of Michael\nAngelo,\nItis the gift of God, and must be used\n\nUnto His Glory;\nor, as Robert Browning said of music,\n\nae\ne\n\n"}
{"page": 769, "printed_page": null, "text": "AY\n\nDepartment]\n\nDRAWING\n\nIN NORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n759\n\nThe finger of God, a flash of the will that can,\nExistent behind all laws: that made them, and, lo, they are!\nAnd I know not if, save in this, such gift be allowed to man.\n\nThe pictorial element in schoolroom art is another unsolved problem.\nWe are, too many of us, slaves to the real.\n\npoint in life called by Philip Gilbert\nreality.”\nAs a rule, educators\n\nare\n\nnot\n\nWe have not yet reached that\n\nHamerton\n\nconsidered\n\n“emancipation\n\nartists;\n\nthough\n\nsome\n\nfrom\nmay\n\nadmit that the greatest educators have had the artistic impulse to a greater\ndegree than the least. If we consider these two classes, I think we shall\nfind that the artist\n\nis an\n\neducator, and\n\nthe educator\n\nis an\n\nartist in the\n\nhighest and broadest sense.\nFor an artist is an interpreter, a revealer of\nabstract beauty by concrete examples.\nWhat other is the educator?\nWhat were the elements of greatness in the teaching of the geatest teacher,\nJesus of Nazareth, who ‘“ taught as never man taught’?\n1. He taught spiritual abstraction by concrete methods.\nThe lilies\nand the sparrow, the grain by the wayside, and the tares in the meadow\nfurnished him teaching material.\n2. He was the great interpreter, for he understood both the language\nof humanity and the language of divinity.\nEvery true teacher is an interpreter.\nEvery true artist is such, also.\nBut to impart this power of interpretation, to teach this subtle language\nso that those taught shall become like interpreters, was given in full\nmeasure to Jesus Christ, and to him only. Yet to do some little part of\nsuch a mighty work is the commission of everyone who enters the classroom of a normal school and stands in the sacred office of a teacher of\nteachers.\nOne may have that artistic insight that enables him to see in nature\nand commonplace objects about him a beauty hidden to vulgar eyes ; and\nhe may be possessed of sufficient technical training to express what he\nfeels and sees in a graceful and skillful manner; but no amount of mere\ntechnique will ever give to normal students the power to interpret to the\nminds of children the truth and beauty of the things about them.\nChildren are too imaginative to have an accurate memory, and the\nteacher who makes much of technique deals too much with memory and\nnot enough with imagination.\nOur normal students must be “emanci- _\npated from reality,” and trained in imaginative memory.\nFor it is upon\nthe control and education of imagination and memory that the artistic\npowers largely depend for their highest and best development.\nSeveral\nyears ago, in Paris, some interesting experiments were made along this\nHis experiments were undertaken for the\nline by M. Lecoc Boisbaudran.\npurpose of ascertaining how far the artistic memory may be cultivated.\nHis account of these experiments astonished the most experienced artists\n\n"}
{"page": 770, "printed_page": null, "text": "760\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\nWhat may have been done in this direction here in America I do not\nknow, but I am convinced that the training of the artistic memory has\nYet I do fear that in our\nnot been wholly neglected in our schools.\nnormal schools not enough attention has been given to the training of\nimagination and memory, the two working in unison.\nWhen I began my teaching in the West, I was impressed with the sluggish manner in which the imagination of the normal students worked.\nBut after a time I found that, while it may be true that the imagination\ndepends much upon the environment, that young men and women reared\nin alevel, inland country have less vivid imagination than those reared\non the seacoast or among the mountains; yet the arousing of the imagination of the student, be it much or little, depends largely upon the\nteacher.\nThat teacher, to be successful, must\n\npossess\n\nin himself\n\nthe power to\n\nawaken and inspire images otherwise unformed, and so to open the\nmind’s eye and turn its gaze upon things hitherto unknown.\nHow imaginative memory may be cultivated isa fitting question.\nSo\nmuch has been made of object drawing from geometric solids and common and familiar objects that one may justly ask :Does such work control\nand cultivate imagination and memory?\nWe would answer that in our\njudgment, deduced\n\nfrom experience, it does do this to a certain extent,\n\nbut not altogether.\nIn fact, one has said and said truly that ‘When we\nkeep children drawing from objects, learning always to reproduce what\nthey see before them, are we not virtually exalting means toanend?\nAre\nwe not giving them a graphical vocabulary, without encouraging them\nto say anything with it? While to encourage a child to use his graphical\nvocabulary, attained through drawing from objects, to express his artistic\nconceptions, is to lead him into the world of art and to relate him to it.’’\nObjects having three dimensions must be drawn so as to suggest the\nthird dimension and cause the mind to image the part not visible.\nBut\nare we not in danger of calling upon our students to study only the part\nseen, and to dwell upon the facts of appearance until they represent them\nas baldly as they do the facts of form in constructive drawing?\nThus\nthey are educated away from artistic feeling and representation, and the\nimaginative memory is not roused or cultivated.\nSubjective drawing is better for young children than objective.\nIt is\ntrue that there are minds to which the ‘subjective always makes a stronger\nappeal than the objective.\nThis, however, is not perhaps general with\nadults, and object drawing must be given to such persons at the beginning of their work and continued till they recognize what they see. Later\nthey come into the subjective work, having, as it were, learned back to\nchild sight.\nIn the case of children much imaginative drawing should\nbe given before and in connection with object drawing.\nBut the adult\n\naad\nSe\ni\nea\nx ©T\n\n"}
{"page": 771, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nDRAWING\n\nIN\n\nNORMAL\n\nwho comes into the school untaught\n\nmust\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n761\n\nbe taught, first, to draw from\n\nobjects until he has, to a certain degree at least, mastered the alphabet of\n\nform language.\nWhen in possession of this, he may be set free to express\nBut one who dwells\nhis own thought by means of the new language.\nupon technical drill for its own sake is like a writing master as compared\nThe material results are conwith the inspirational language teacher.\nventional and not according to nature.\nIf the convention is dwelt upon\nin this way for its own sake, the life is not represented.\nTo bring the mind close to nature is most essential in this department of work.\n“°Tis life of which our souls are scant,\nMore life and fuller than we want.”\n\nIt is form and movement that must be expressed in a bold, spirited\nmanner.\nIt is not the quality of the line used for this expression upon\nwhich the soul of the student must exercise itself so unceasingly.\n“I\nthink our lines are better than yours,” said a student of one school to\nanother.\nHe did not say that the line was more expressive of form and\nmovement.\nPoor young man, he did not get beyond the mere fact of\nthe line. His educational horizon in art was evidently not much broader\nthan the line in which he modestly rejoiced.\nWith children this is especially necessary, and normal-trained teachers must be taught that the objects to be presented to the little child\nmust be brought directly from life, the life of the child. A loving interest is at once excited, which will express itself in line and outline, giving\nto the crudest work\n“That touch of nature that makes the whole world kin.”\n\nRead to children poems and stories of the known, not wholly of the\nunknown, something at least that touches upon his limited experience.\nIt is absurd to attempt to teach empirically from facts that have never\nentered the experience.\nRead to a little child such a descriptive poem\nas the “Old Oaken Bucket,” and you will probably secure as illustrations of\nmental images a series of such drawings as those described by Mrs. Lucy\nFitch Perkins in her paper on “ Imagination and Drawing.”\nThe drawings referred to consisted of three circles and a number of spots dotted\nabout on the paper.\nWhen asked what these were, the child replied that\nthe first circle was the ‘“‘old oaken\n\nbucket,” the second\n\nbucket,” the third circle ‘the moss-covered\nloved spots that my infancy knew.”\n\n“the\n\niron-bound\n\nbucket,” and the dots “the\n\nFor the cultivation of imaginative memory by means of drawing and\nthe kindred representative arts the teacher must go from the known to\nHe must so teach that glowing mental images shall be\nthe unknown.\nIf such concepts are formed, they will find fitting expression, for\nformed.\n\n"}
{"page": 772, "printed_page": null, "text": "re\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n762\n\n“No beauty, nor good, nor power\nWhose voice has gone forth, but each survives\nFor the melodist,\n\nWhen eternity affirms the conception\nOf an hour.”\n\nThere are other problems in drawing in normal schools that call for\nconsideration; for example, mechanical drawing, color, composition,\nsketching from life, and a broader and more thorough study of the history\nof art. Whether in our short course of thirty or forty weeks, of three and\none-half hours per week, we should attempt to cover more than the work\nof the eight grades, and omit the high-school work entirely, is a question\nof importance.\n\nWhen the normal school is situated so that the majority of its students\nhave had years of training in drawing before they enter the normal\nschool, then advance work may be carried on with assurance of success,\nthe elements having been mastered.\nBut when only an occasional\nstudent in even our large high-school contingent has received the slightest instruction in drawing before entering the normal school, the problem\nassumes a different aspect and must be solved in a different manner.\nThen it seems to us that the most we can do is to teach our students\nthe\nRECOGNITION\n\nIn the “Florentine\n\nOF\n\nESSENTIALS.\n\nPainters of the Renaissance,”\n\nby Benard\n\nBeren-\n\nson, the author makes a statement regarding painting that is equally\ntrue of any pictorial representation, no matter what the medium.\nHe\nsays that, ‘Setting aside those elements in painting which it has in common\n\nwith\n\nliterature, that is to say, all the elements\n\nof association\n\nand\n\nsentiment, the suggestions of pleasant scenes, attractive types, and the\nemotional states induced by these; setting aside all, in fine, that we call\npoetic in a picture as not being specific elements of enjoyment capable of\nbeing afforded by painting, and by nothing else, the art of painting is\ndifferentiated from all other arts by the: fact that on a surface of two\ndimensions it represents objects that have three, and it represents movement by means of objects actually motionless.”\nBut how do we realize form and movement?\nEvery physiologist\nand every teacher of young children knows that the realization of form\ncomes through touch, and that, too, through active touch or the muscular\n\nsense.\nExercises in handling and grasping are given to young children\nin order that the correct idea of form may be developed in the child’s\nmind.\nWork in clay modeling and the manipulation of other plastic\nmaterials are carried on for the purpose of completing form ideas.\nThe\nthought, then, that one\n\ncan\n\nenjoy\n\npictures\n\nby touch,\n\nby the\n\nmuscular\n\nsense, “sounds,” as one has said, “as comic as to say that our enjoyment\n\n"}
{"page": 773, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nDRAWING\n\nIN NORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n763\n\nof music comes to us through the sense of smell.”\nNevertheless, if we\nconsider the working of the imagination in the senses, we shall readily\nsee that, although “crude finger tips are not in question, the sense of\ntouch does lie at the bottom of the matter.”\nWe know that it is largely\nby means\n\nof touch\n\nthat\n\nwe\n\nlearn\n\nto appreciate\n\ndistance,\n\nsolidity,\n\nand\n\nmotion ; and paintings, whose peculiar task it is to represent objects of\nthree\n\ndimensions upon a surface that has only two, must, therefore, call\nthe sense of touch to its aid; and “those pictures which succeed in\narousing the imagination of touch are the only ones which solve the\nproblems peculiar to their art, and are, consequently, the pictures which\nwe must regard as great art.”’\nThe work of the Florentine artists, from Giotto to Michael Angelo,\n\nwas almost exclusively devoted\nment, and\n\nMr. Berenson\n\nto the human\n\nwould have us think\n\nfigure in repose or movethat this accounts\n\nfor the\n\nhold the art of this school has upon us.\nThe artists of this period\ndevoted themselves to the rendering of form and movement, “the specific\ntask of the art of painting.”\nIn the representation of form and movement the artist must represent\nthem in such a way that we shall realize them more readily than we do in\nactuality.\nThis is why\n“We love\nFirst when we see them painted, things we have passed\nPerhaps a hundred times nor cared to see.”\n\nTo illustrate this fact to a class of students a few months ago, I\nplaced upon a stand a group of objects represented in a water-color\ndrawing on the wall.\nI asked the class which afforded them the greater\nenjoyment, the reality or the representation.\n‘They answered that it was\nthe representation.\nThey realized that the form was represented in the\npicture in such a manner as to rouse their imagination of touch and to\n“stimulate to an unwonted activity psychical processes never tending to\npass over\n\ninto\n\npain.”\n\nDrawing\n\nmust,\n\ntherefore, select\n\nor invent\n\nthose\n\nsurfaces and those articulations “which shall startle our ideated sense of\ntouch and muscular tension into unwonted activity,’ for from such\nideated sensations most of our pleasures arise; and the chief problem of\ndrawing in normal schools will be solved when our normal students find\nthemselves in the possession of the ability so to represent form and\nmovement that those that look upon the representation shall have this\nideated sense of touch roused and stimulated into unwonted activity.\nThen shall the art of our public schools afford pleasures that are\nThen shall drawing fall properly under the\nexhilarating and life-giving.\nlife and re-enforces personality,” confirm“enriches\ncategory of art which\nprinciples that strengthen ond develop\nvital\ning our hold upon those\n\nselfhood to its fullest and freest activity.\n\n"}
{"page": 774, "printed_page": null, "text": "764\n\nNATIONAL\n\nTHE\n\nBY\n\nD. R. AUGSBURG,\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nEXPRESSION\n\nSUPERVISOR\n\nOF\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\nOF LINES.\n\nDRAWING,\n\nSALT\n\nLAKE\n\nCITY,\n\nUTAH.\n\nExpression is the language of spirit expressed through form.\nEverything has expression which gives rise to some thought or feeling. Because\nthe limbs and leaves of a certain tree droop we call it the weeping willow.\nThe somber color and peculiar moaning of the pine trees give an expression of sadness and a feeling of lonesomeness.\nThe oak tree expresses\nsturdiness, the hickory tree is tough, the elm is graceful, and the maple\ncheerful.\nThus each tree, as well as each shrub and plant, has an\n\nexpression peculiar to itself.\nAnimals have expressions, which we speak of almost unconsciously :\ngreedy as a pig, stubborn as a mule, gentle as a dove, strong as a\nhorse,\n\nfleet as a deer, the patient\n\nox, the ferocious\n\ntiger, the active cat\n\n—are all expressions which characterize these animals. .And to prove\nhow true these expressions are, exchange one for the other and speak of\nthe gentle pig, the ferocious dove, the active ox, the stubborn cat, the\ngentle tiger, and we see at once how unfitting the expressions become.\nIf we were walking through a forest and should suddenly come upon\na snake, instantly there would be a feeling of revulsion.\nWhy is this so?\nA snake is really both beautiful and graceful, its every movement is the perfection\n\nof grace, and\n\nits color\n\nis beyond\n\ncriticism; yet to all of us it is\n\nrepulsive in the extreme.\nWhy is this?\nSimply because the snake gives\nexpression to that which is disagreeable to us, to that which is sneaking,\ncreeping, crawling, crafty, and treacherous.\nWe have no such a feeling\nwhen we see a bird.\nI know it is impossible to separate the so-called expression of form\nfrom thé expression of spirit, or to make an analysis of either.\nIt cannot\nbe done, nor is it desirable that it should be.\nOur aim is merely to\nchoose some of the most familiar form elements and\n\nto illustrate, not all,\n\nbut some of their leading expressions.\nLet us begin with lines. Lines are divided into three general classes\n—the straight, the curved, and the angular.\nThere are three kinds of straight lines—the vertical, the horizontal,\nand the oblique; each having an expression widely differing from that\nof the others.\n\n;\n\nThe vertical line expresses strength, life, stillness; the horizontal line\nexpresses weakness, death, repose; the oblique line expresses action.\nWhen a line is said to express a certain quality, it is not implied that\n\n"}
{"page": 775, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nEXPRESSION\n\nOF\n\nLINES\n\n765\n\nit expresses that quality exclusively, or that it will express it under all\nconditions.\nOther lines and combinations of lines may express the same\nquality, but in a less degree.\nTHE\n\nVERTICAL\n\nLINE.\n\nThe vertical line is pre-eminently the line of strength.\nIt suggests\nI have heard people say\nstrength.\nThe strong are vertical, upright.\nthat they would not dare to ascend the leaning tower of Pisa, thus unconsciously condemning the oblique structure as appearing weak.\nTHE\n\nHORIZONTAL\n\nLINE.\n\nThe horizontal line is the line of weakness.\nIt is the weakness of this\nline that limits the powers of man to throw a bridge across Lake Michigan.\nHe cannot erect vertical, that is, strength lines high enough, nor\nget material strong enough, to support the weakness of such a long horizoutal line as this span would make.\nThe vertical line, being the line of strength, suggests life. Life is the\nvital element of strength and has made the vertical line possible. I\nalmost dare say that there can be no vertical line without the aid of life.\nThe vertical is the natural position of life.\nPlants grow upward.\nThe\nword growth implies a vertical direction.\nOn the contrary, the horizontal line, the line of weakness, suggests death.\nA landscape composed of\nhorizontal lines is a desert.\nA forest of trees is expressive of life.\nLet\nsome mighty tornado sweep through it and level it to the ground, and it\n_ expresses death and desolation.\né\nTHE\n\nOBLIQUE\n\nLINE.\n\nThe oblique line is the line of action; it may express other qualities,\nbut first of all it expresses action.\nThe vertical line of stillness and the\nhorizontal line of repose are connected by the oblique line of action.\nTHE\n\nCURVED\n\nLINE.\n\nThe curved line is the line of grace and beauty.\nThis is the most\npleasing of lines, and is to the beautiful what the vertical line is to\nstrength.\nThere is scarcely a piece of decoration that does not contain\nit in some form or other. All of the lavish foliation derived from the\ncelebrated acanthus leaf is in like manner modifications of the single and\n\ndouble curve.\nIn nature the curve is the predominating line; it is met with in endIt abounds in all\nless profusion and in the most subtle combinations.\nkinds\n\nof plant growth, in leaves, buds, flowers,\n\nfruits; in trees, shrubs,\n\nand plants; in fact, it is the most abundant line met with.\n\nThe graceful\n\n"}
{"page": 776, "printed_page": null, "text": "766\nmovements\n\nanimals, are\n\nof animals, especially wild\n\n|Art\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nNATIONAL\n\never watch the flight of a large bird as it sails through the air?\nlong beautiful curves, both single and double, mark its flight!\nTHE\n\nANGULAR\n\nyou\n\nDid\n\nin curves.\n\nWhat\n\nLINE.\n\nThe opposite of the curved line is the angular line. The angular line\nBroken things\nis the awkward line, the line of confusion and disorder.\nare angular.\nPlace such antonyms as the following together:\nPlenty\n\n=\n\nFatness\n\n-\n\n-\n\n:\n\nSmoothness\nPleasure\n\n-\n\n-\n\nGentleness\n\n-\n\n-\n\nGracefulness\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\nPoverty\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\nRoughness\nawe\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\nLeanness\nPain\n\nHarshness\n-\n\nAwkwardness\n\nand it will be found that the curved line is necessary\nfirst row and the angular line the second.\nPARALLEL\n\nto represent\n\nthe\n\nLINES.\n\nParallel lines express order.\nThey are the lines of order, monotony,\nand formality.\nWhen we put the room to order, we make the lines parallel. An orderly arrangement of lumber, logs, and wood is when they\nare arranged in piles, the pieces parallel to each other.\nTrees arranged\nin rows express order.\n‘The angular line is the line of disorder.\nWhen\nwe comb our hair in the morning, we make the lines of disorder parallel,\nand order is at once established.\nIt is the angular lines about the house\nand yard that create disorder.\nThere are three forms of lines that seem to mark the hand work of\nman wherever he is found. They are the circle, the right angle, and\nparallel lines.\nThese lines are not found in nature to any great\nextent, and, even when they are found, they seem more the result of\naccident than design;\n\nbut wherever man is found, they may\n\nbe seen\n\non\n\nevery hand.\nStreets are parallel and at right angles to each other.\nThe\npavements are the same. The angles of buildings are right angles; the\nlines of the doors and windows are parallel; the arches are segments of\na circle; the trees are\n\nplanted\n\nin rows;\n\nin fact, wherever\n\nthe eyes\n\nare\n\ndirected, parallel lines, right angles, and circles are seen, lines that can\nbe made in only one way and by one unalterable rule.\nNow, go to\nnature, where man’s handiwork is not seen; here are no straight paths,\nno rows of trees, no perfect circles, few parallel lines, few right angles;\nbut in their place are the curved lines, the obtuse and acute angles, each\n\ncapable of infinite variety and combination, obeying laws so subtle as to\npuzzle the acutest mind.\n\n"}
{"page": 777, "printed_page": null, "text": "Bleparenent|\n\nDRAWING IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS\n\n767\n\nPROPORTION.\n\nNow, last of all we have proportion, possibly the most important element of all.\nThe vertical line may express strength, the curved line\ngrace and beauty, but only when they obey that indefinite law of proportion without which strength becomes cumbersome and béauty vanishes as\nif by magic.\nA form may be composed of the most beautiful lines, and\nmade with the highest skill, but if it does not contain a right proportion,\nit is weak and unsatisfactory.\nWe have tried by these simple illustrations to show the expression of\nsome of the most common\n\nform\n\nelements,\n\nnot\n\nso\n\nmuch\n\nwith a view\n\nto\n\ntheir analysis as to lead the mind to see that these elements have expression in themselves distinct from the form of which they area part. A\nknowledge of these elements may lead to higher thought and a clearer\nunderstanding of the mightier attributes of spirit in its myriad manifestations through matter.\n\nWHAT\n\nDO\n\nTHE\n\nBY\n\nMISS\n\nPEOPLE WANT IN DRAWING\nPOBLIC SCHOOLS?\n\nLILLIE\n\nM.\n\nGODDEN,\n\nCHICAGO,\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nILL.\n\nWhat do people want from drawing in the public schools?\n‘There are\nsome who insist that the public school shall primarily fit for one’s calling;\nit shall send out pupils ready to succeed as workmen or as money getters.\nIndustry in all its departments expects the public schools to fit for its\ndemands.\nHowseldom now do we hear of apprentices!\nQualified tradesmen are expected. The expositions of the last fifteen or twenty years say:\n“Improve the finish of your goods, add esthetic ornament to useful yoods\nand wares.”\nDr. Wm. T. Harris says: ‘The true general industrial education for us and all commercial peoples is the study of drawing, not of the\nmechanical or machine sort, but of the sort that reproduces analytically\nand synthetically the historical forms of the beautiful.”\nThis is good\nfor all children, for all people; laborers in the mechanical arts, in the\ntextile arts, in the trades, in the professions, in the home, and on the farm.\n\nNever before have\n\nthe children\n\nof the United\n\nStates\n\nhad\n\nsuch\n\nfine\n\nopportunities; never have they lived in such a paradise as at present,\nor in such training schools as are now seen in the East, West, North, and\nIt\nEven district schools are taking up this subject of drawing.\nSouth.\n\nis true the time was when it was almost a crime fora child to draw in\nschool, but at that time it was thought necessary to cramp a child’s activities, to ride roughshod over his sensibilities, or to lash him like a brute in\n\n"}
{"page": 778, "printed_page": null, "text": "768\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\nNow we try to study the child, to\norder to round out men and women.\nnurture and cultivate in all kindliness every faculty.\nIn the practical work of the school there is a perpetual tendency to\nlose sight of the essential matter of drawing, which is the cultivation of\ntaste. and to drift into drawing for the sake of mechanical construction.\nIt should be\nDrawing in our public schools should be educational.\npractical. It must stimulate the mind to self-activity and cultivate the\npowers of perception, conception, memory, imagination, and judgment.\nIt must, as far as possible, enlist\n\nthe intellect and the feelings, the head\n\nIt must be considered as a means of expressing thoughts,\nand the heart.\nfeelings, and desires.\nAs some one has said: ‘The trinity in practical art\nis the mind, the eye, and the hand;\n\nthe eye to perceive, the mind to con-\n\nIn short, drawing means mind\nceive, and the hand to execute or express.”\ntraining, eye training, and hand training.\nThat which the mind’s eye\ncan see clearly the hand can be taught to place or picture.\nParents and .\nteachers often cultivate false notions of education for the average child.\nHe is led to set up false ideas and worship them, and expect the upper\nTo such, to be good in drawing\nseat in the synagogue of education.\nWe do not mean to produce artists.\nmeans to be an artist or nothing.\nDrawing means infinitely more than this. Drawing in our public schools\nIt should mean a language, a\nshould be another means of expression.\nIt unites, and it is intelligible to all nations.\nuniversal language.\nThe\nhieroglyphics of the Egyptians picture to us a life of a people of four thouYes, a lansand years ago. Are not those drawings to us a language?\nguage older than script. Who can belittle it and call it only picture\nwork ?\nDrawing, if properly taught, isa means of expressing thought, not a\nmere accomplishment for the amusement of persons of leisure.\nI do not\nbelieve in placing drawing in public schools, using public money, simply\nthat pupils may be taught to make a few pictures for the beauty of them\nand call it artwork.\nArt—drawing I prefer to callit—is forusall.\nThe\nwork done in our public schools, artistically speaking, is of little value,\nbut from an educational point of view it is invaluable.\nHow many pupils in our public schools are apt to become artists or\ngeniuses?\nWe must not look for or expect to find such genius with such\ntalent or energy as the boy West had.\nHis genius impelled to rob the\ncat of her tail for bristles to make\n\nhis brushes.\n\nTrue, we do find them,\n\nbut in our public-school drawing we want to lead out the little of the\nBenjamin West there is in all pupils.\nEvery child has an esthetic side,\nto be developed or withered.\nDrawing develops the esthetic nature.\nRuskin says: “It is better and more important a thing for young pupils\nand unprofessional students to know how to appreciate the art of others\nthan to gain much power in the art themselves.”\n\n"}
{"page": 779, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nDRAWING\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n769\n\nAgain I say we do not place drawing in public schools that our pupils\nmay become artists.\nLanguage is not taught with the idea that pupils\nmay become poets or orators.\nThe work in drawing must be based on\nWe must look at\nthe ground that it is educational, that it is practical.\nDrawing does not stand alone.\nthe utilitarian side,\nIt should be, and is,\na part of every other branch.\nAll instruction in public schools should\nbe general, not special;\n\nbroad, not narrow.\n\nOur aim is to make the best\n\nbeing possible out of every pupil, to broaden and strengthen him along\nThe question should not be only what use can be made of\nall lines.\nthis drawing, but rather what power will it bring to us in the mastery\nHow often have I heard teachers say: “I can’t draw;\nof life’s problems.\nWhy, I can’t draw even a straight\nthere is nothing of the artistin me.\nline.” Anyone who has a normal brain, a hand, and an eye may be taught\nto draw.\n\nNow,don’t misunderstand me;\n\nI don’t mean that all may become\n\nIf the mind\nskilled artists, but simply that all may be taught to draw.\nand the eye can detect the difference between one inch and six inches,\nthe hand can be made to represent it. I do not know of a teacher who\ncould not master—and very soon, too—the principles underlying the\nwork in drawing, and even become skillful in light touch, in free movement, and eye training, or drawing.\n\nBee\na\n\nhv\neS\ni\n\n>\n\nDrawing is both a means and an end, and in my judgment teachers\n—primary teachers, especially\n— who neglect it not only fail to avail themselves of a very valuable auxiliary, but also neglect an essential element.\nThere is no mysticism about drawing; it is something practical.\nI want\nnone of that ethereal, fairy-finger wonderfulness about it that I have known\nteachers to wrap around drawing and call it art. Away with all such\nclouds!\nLet the sunshine of truth show us that honest hand training\nand eye training will give us the skill to draw the forms we see or\nimagine.\nAs soon as teachers can see that drawing is a language, that we teach\ndrawing that pupils may draw, and that it is to be taught in a systematic\nway, to be corrected according to certain laws as oral or written language\nis corrected (for drawing can no more be taught haphazard than matheinatics or language); and, again, as soon as parents and school boards see\nthat this education will multiply one’s practical advantages—then will be\nseen the masses receiving true mind, hand, and eye training, called drawing.\nOf course, we find poor teachers and very poor work done because teachers do not thoroughly understand the subject, and, as a usual thing, what\nthey do not thoroughly understand is easily crowded out, and everything\nNevertheless, it should\nelse is considered of a little more importance.\nschool, and every\nhigh\nand\ngrammar,\nhave its place in every primary,\nteacher should be qualified to teach it.\nHow quickly can we detect the change in a school which this esthetic\n\n"}
{"page": 780, "printed_page": null, "text": "77°\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\nstudy gives! How quickly do we see the improvement in the order,\nStep from a city school where\nneatness, and accuracy of arrangement!\nno drawing is taught to one where good work in this line is done, and\nIn the former the pupils are slower to\nnote the difference in the pupils.\n‘The\nobserve, the eyes are blind to much that is beautiful around them.\ncold;\nand\nbare\nIt is not beautiful; itis\nschoolroom shows the difference.\n\nthere is not the accuracy shown in the studies.\n-and accurate\n\nobservation, and\n\nIn the latter there is close\n\norder, neatness, and skillful\n\narrangement\n\nWe teachers do not always\nin the schoolroom present themselves.\nrealize the importance that is to be attached to our surroundings in the\nschoolroom.\nThe influence of beautiful and appropriate surroundings\ncannot be overestimated.\nIs it not true that the best and most lasting\nthings we learn are the things we learn unconsciously?\nMany of the\n-higher and nobler aspirations of pupils are awakened through the influence\nA servant girl attending a public school where\nof a beautiful picture.\ndrawing is taught was asked: ‘‘What good does drawing do you?” Her\nreply was:\n\n“Oh,\n\nI don’t\n\nknow.\n\nIt makes me work\n\nmore;\n\nfor there is\n\nsomething in me now that makes me put the rugs straight instead of\ncrooked.”\nHer esthetic nature was being cultivated, her idea of order\ndrawn out.\nSystematize this work in drawing so well that pupils may be trained\nin a true space-art education.\nThe study should enable one to express\nform, first, in solid matter, second, on a flat surface by means of outline\nand color.\nThe first we call handling, making, or modeling; the\n\nshade\n\nsecond, the object, the pictorial, or mechanical drawing.\nThere seems to\nbe a tendency to hold pupils to object drawing, and to neglect the decorative or industrial part of the subject.\nThe decorative or the industrial\n\ncertainly has its place. It should not be crowded out by the object or\npictorial work.\nI have visited schools where nothing but a little drawing\nfrom the model was given; nothing in the decorative, nothing in the\nmechanical; nothing inthe illustrative.\nWe cannot escape decorative art.\nLook where we will, we can see it.\n\nChildren delight in drawing, as they delight in anything constructive\nor imitative, and the reward for each effort to place what is seen is a\nquickened observation and a taste for form and proportion.\nI want pupils to draw from object, and not to copy from the flat or\nsome one else’s idea of form. Then to draw from memory.\nIdeas of\nform must first be obtained by observation before they can be elaborated\nby the imagination. A little child sees few difficulties and fears nothing,\nbut puts bravely on the paper his mind picture ; the older pupil’s self-con‘sciousness arises from his knowledge and ability to criticise and his inability to express as he knows the picture.\nDraw out the primary pupil in plenty of illustrative or imaginative\n\n"}
{"page": 781, "printed_page": null, "text": "4‘\n\nas\n\ntad\nes\n\noa\nr\n\nDepartment]\n\nDRAWING\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n771\n\ndrawing. and by the time the pupils reach the grammar grades there will\nbe nothing the eye and mind can picture which the hand cannot express.\nWe\n\nneed\n\nmuch\n\nillustrative\n\ndrawing.\n\nIt necessitates\n\nclear,\n\nconcise,\n\ndirect ideas.\nBy the illustration we see the mind picture.\nI remember asking this question in an eighth grade of a large city\nschool: “Is there anyone in this room who can tell me the position of a\ncow’s ear on her head ?”” The pupils had seen cows many times; I mean\nthey thought they had, but their seeing was not accurate.\nTheir mind\npicture was not clear. To help them I said: ‘‘ Think of the cow in front\nposition, then in side view.\nWhat is the direction of the ear from the\nhorn?”\nIn this school there was not one pupil who could give me a correct answer.\nIf those pupils had ever tried to draw a cow from a model\nor real object, they would have had a clear mental picture and could have\ngiven a correct answer.\nIt has been truly said we do not thoroughly\nknow a thing until we can drawit.\nIf the mental picture is not clear,\nthe hand, however well trained, cannot draw..\n\nDrawing should not stand alone.\nIt should be correlated with every\nsubject taught ; it should illuminate and enrich every study. Avoid all\n_ tendency to mechanical methods, which will become fixed habits and\nhinder the efficient training of the hand and eye. In object drawing look\nat the whole\n\nas a mass, at its mass of light and\n\nshade, of cast shadow ;\n\nthen make the hand do.\nIn botany, zodlogy, geography, and mathematics, what a field for\ndrawing!\nHow can we well teach those subjects without drawing ? And\nyet I have heard superintendents say: “ Drawing is all right in itself. Oh,\nyes, it has its place. But I have no place for it.”” Think of it, no place\nfor it, and yet teach language, botany, zodlogy, geography, and physics,\nand still no place for drawing!\nMake a place for it. Round out your\ntraining in every branch.\nDon’t send your pupils out of your schools as\nyou were sent out, with eyes closed to beauty and hands unskilled in\nhand language.\nFifteen minutes a day carried through the grades will\ngive a pupil a very good knowledge and a fair amount of skill. You\nwill have opened the children’s eyes to see what otherwise they would\nhave been\n\nblind\n\nto all their lives.\n\n. Then, too, notice\n\nthe effect on\n\nthe\n\npupil’s character.\nI believe boys are made a little more tender to sparrows and flies who have drawn and studied them closely. Common\nobjects become beautiful when seen through the medium of a pencil. An\nold shoe is more than an\n\nold shoe, and\n\na weed a beautiful plant, when\n\nstudied in all its parts, in all its forms, with its touches of light and shade\nand tone of color.\n\n"}
{"page": 782, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF MUSIC EDUCATION.\n\nSECRETARY'S\nFIRST\n\nsMINUTES:\n\nSESSION.— WEDNESDAY,\n\nJULY\n\n7, 1897.\n\nThe session was called to order at 3 o’clock by the President, F. E. Howard,\n\nSuper-\n\nvisor of Music, Bridgeport, Conn.\nE. G. Ehlmann, of Milwaukee, rendered a violin solo.\n\nMiss S.. Lillian Byington, Supervisor of Music, Moline, Ill., read a paper on “ The\nDevelopment of Rhythm.”\nThe audience was favored by two selections by the Roney Quartette, of Chicago.\n\nFrederic A. Lyman, of Syracuse, N. Y., read a paper on ‘‘ Eye and Ear Training as\nRelated to Sight Singing.”\nF. W. Westhoff, Decatur, Ill., read a paper on ‘‘ High-School Music.”\nOn motion of P. C. Hayden, Quincy, IIl., the following committee was ap pointed by\nthe chair to report at the next session a plan for forming a national federation of music\nteachers in order to bring all these teachers into closer sympathy with this department of\nthe National Educational Association :\nP. C, Hayden, Quincy, Ill.\nF. W. Westhoff, Decatur, Ill.\n\nMrs. Gaston Boyd, Newton, Kan.\n\nThe President appointed the following Committee on Nominations :\nFrederic A. Lyman, Syracuse, N.Y.\nC. H. Congdon, St, Paul, Minn.\nMiss S. Lillia Byington, Moline, Ill.\n\nSECOND\n\nSESSION.—THurRspDay,\n\nJULY\n\n8.\n\nThe department met in round-table session, and discussed the following topics:\n“* Music in the Normal Schools.”\n‘* Music in the Rural Schools.’’\n** How the Music Department of the National Educational Association Can be of More Assistance to the\nPublic-School Music Teachers of the Country.”’\n\nTHIRD\n\nSESSION.—Fripay,\n\nJULy\n\n9.\n\nMr. Robert Stockweather rendered a bass solo.\n\nF, E. Howard conducted\n\nan exercise in singing with a class of children from the\n\nMilwaukee public schools.\nP. C. Hayden, Quincy,\nreport of the committee,\n\nIll., Chairman\n\nREPORT\n\nof the Committee\n\nOF COMMITTEE\n\nON SCHOOL\n\non School Songs, read the\nSONGS.\n\nAfter considering on all sides the problem presented, and consulting with several members of the associ-\n\nation, your committee determined to ask the assistance of all music teachers in compiling a list of songs. Our\ncircular was ready to send out January r, but a brief correspondence with President Howard revealed the fact\nthat only $r5 had been allowed the section for its entire expenses of printing and mailing circulars and programmes, Having by this time discovered that a complete report could not possibly be made at this meeting,\n\n772\n\n"}
{"page": 783, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSECRETARY’S\n\nMINUTES\n\n773\n\nwe decided to hold our circular and to send it out with the programme of the section meeting issued by the\nPresident. In this way is explained the very late appearance of the circular letter asking for lists of children’s\nsongs.\nLists representing five or six hundred songs have been sent in response to this letter. Some lists were\nvery full. Miss Hall, of Boston, a member of this committee, sent a list of over three hundred classified songs,\nand Miss Caroline V, Smith, of Winona, Minn., sent a large classified list. We wish to thank those who\nhave sent lists for their prompt response to the Jetter of the committee.\nWe wish also to request everyone\npresent who has not sent a list of songs to do so at once, naming the composer, and publisher when possible.\nA small list of good songs may prove more valuable than a large list of songs selected less critically, We shall\nbe glad to receive many small lists.\nIt may be of interest to know the principles of selection which will be applied in the work of this committee. In the first place, the topics treated in the poems must be of a nature to interest the child. In the treatment of those topics a story should be told or a thought unfolded in a manner suited to the child’s nature, and\nthe literary character of the words must be unquestioned.\nThe most perfect literary production that can be\nwritten byjthe most brilliant poet is none too good for the children, if it is written in the atmosphere of the child\nworld.\nNature poems should predominate ; the earth and all it contains, the changing seasons, the flowers, birds,\nrain and sunshine— anything the child has known or may know about the natural world, if written in a child\nspirit, will give expression to wholesome child-like emotions.\nWe should have no one-verse songs in such a\ncollection as your committee has in view. A fact may be stated in one verse, but it takes three or four\nverses to tell a story. The literature of all the songs should be even better than the literature of the reading\nbook, and the words should be entirely suitable for language study both in thought and diction.\nOur greatest lack is in suitable songs for special occasions, notably Thanksgiving, Lincoln’s birthday,\nand Arbor day, The committee makes a special request that the list may be made as strong as possible in\nthis particular.\nIt is not necessary for me to attempt to define the position the song should occupy in the musical training\nof the child. There has been a change of sentiment favoring a better and more genera] use of the song, and\nthe present movement among our educators is in that direction.\nIt is the hope of your committee that a worthy, useful, and somewhat complete report may be made if\ncontinued another year.\nP. C, Haypen,\nChairman of the Committee on School Songs.\n\nOn\n\nmotion\n\nof O. E. McFadon, of Minneapolis, Minn., the committee was continued\n\nand instructed to make as complete a report as possible at the next meeting.\nof Miss Caroline V. Smith, of Winona,\n\nMinn., was\n\nsubstituted\n\nThe name\n\nfor that of Miss J. Etta\n\nCrane, of Potsdam, N. Y., on the committee.\n\nF. E. Howard\n\nread a paper on “ ‘The Child Voice.”\n\nDiscussion was led by Mrs.\n\nEmma A. Thomas, Detroit, Mich.\nMiss Anna Birchard, Anderson, Ind., who was to have discussed\n\ngave a short talk on the subject, “ How to Establish Good\nSchool Music.”\n\nMusical\n\nMr. Grigg’s paper,\nStandards in Public\n\nC. W. Weeks, of Ottawa, IIl., offered the following resolution :\nResolved, That the thanks of the Music Section be extended to Mrs. C. D. Crane, and the ladies associ- ;\nated with her on the local committee, for the many courtesies extended to this section; to Mr. Wm, Ehlmann;\n\nMr. Robert Stockweather; the Roney Quartette, of Chicago; the Ehlmann String Quartette; to the class of\nchildren who so kindly sang for us, and to the members of the parish of Temple Emanu-E] for the use of their\nbeautiful church.\n\nFrederic\n\nA.\n\nLyman,\n\nSyracuse,\n\nN. Y., offered\n\nthe following\n\nresolution,\n\nwhich\n\nwas\n\nadopted :\nResolved, That, looking forward to a more complete and systematic development, and a wider field of\nusefulness and influence, of the Music Section of the N, E, A., a committee of three, of which the chair shall\nbe a member, be appointed to make such recommendations as seem wise at the next meeting of this department,\n\nFrederic A. Lyman and W. F. Heath were appointed on the committee.\nMr. Congdon offered the following :\nResolved, That it is the sense of this meeting that we should have music represented on the genera] programme\n\nnext year.\n\nAdopted.\nThe Committee on Nominations reported the following:\n\n"}
{"page": 784, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nvfe\n\n[Music\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nFor Prestdent, O, E. McFadon, Minneapolis, Minn.\nForV2ce-Prestdent, Mrs. Emma A. Thomas, Detroit, Mich,\nFor Secretary, Miss S. Lillian Byington, Moline, Ill,\n\nThe thanks of the Music Section were tendered to the retiring officers.\nMr. Westhoff read a report of the committee appointed to present a plan for the formReport adopted, and feding of a national federation of public-school music teachers.\nC. W. WEEKS,\neration formed.\nSecretary.\n\nPAPERS\nTHE\n\nBY\n\n“AND\n\nDIS@€USSIONS:\n\nDEVELOPMENT\n\nMISS\n\nS. LILLIAN\n\nOF RHYTHM.\n\nBYINGTON,\n\nMOLINE,\n\nILL.\n\nMusic is composed of two great factors, rhythm, or time, and tune.\nTune, the second factor, is dependent entirely upon the first, and\nconsists of different sounds, rhythmically produced.\nRhythm was the first to be developed.\nWhether it came from prehistoric man trying to imitate Mother Nature we know not. We know\nthat instruments of rhythm were the first to be used, and the kettledrum\nof today is but the evolution of a stick pounded against a hollow tree.\nNot a nation of the world but has this germ of the foundation of music\nstrongly marked in its development.\nGiven any number of musical sounds, and unless they are held\ntogether by this bond of accent, what impression do they leave, or what\ninfluence do they exert?\nIn listening to that matchless composition,\nthe “‘ Moonlight Sonata,” the rhythm holds us. In the smooth, flowing\nmovement of the first part the chords are so strong they would be but\ndiscords, were they not changing, or seeming to, as the measures lure\none deeper into their mysteries.\nIn the presto agitato the sounds would\nbe but\n\nconfusion\n\nof noises,\n\nwere\n\nit not\n\nfor the tumultuous\n\nwaves\n\nof\n\nrhythm that sweep with constant regularity through it.\nCareful observation, together with self-examination, indicate that this\npart of the music life is not as faithfully taught as tune. All children do\nnot inherit a natural aptitude for rhythm,\n‘Feeling for accent is\nundoubtedly a natural one, yet in practical life it is far from being\nuniversal.\nWhen the time proper, with divisions, etc., has been faithfully\ntaught, we find pupils totally deficient in the rhythm of the whole; they\nwill play or sing one measure fast, the next slow, without a clear conception\nof the time in its entirety.”\nOur work is to avoid, if possible, this tendency.\n\n"}
{"page": 785, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE DEVELOPMENT OF RHYTHM\n\n7s\n\nAs in the study of.voice or instrument we find many exercises that\nseem mechanical devices to tire us, but which eventually develop a\nfine technique, so must we work that we may awaken this feeling for\nrhythm that lies sleeping in the child’s mind.\nWe have certain established rules regarding the representation of\nmusic that divide it into measures.\nThese represent the real things of\nmusic. As “A chain is no stronger than its weakest link,” so a song is no\nmore rhythmical than its weakest measure.\nHow are we to read? Musically, the same as arithmetically, we must begin with the little “ two-andtwo-make-four” problems;\nthat is, the measure—the time-table of\nrhythm.\nThe time must be kept, and, as a result, felt, in the simple measure\nitself ; then in measures, one after the other, over and over\n— mechanically, it may be, at first, as regularly as the clock, and as unceasingly;\n\nbefore we can bring out the rhythm of the whole.\nIt is a well-known\n\nfact that our curricula are overcrowded, and each\n\nyear brings something in addition to the preceding for the regular teacher:\nThe question is this:\nHow may we economize our own and the\npupil’s time and make him master of this problem?\nCan-we train him\nto think time?\nShall we use a system of time names?\nIs it better to\nhave a pendulum before the class?\nPerhaps the ticking metronome is\nbest. Shall we keep time by individually marking it?\nNo child can be taught ‘an abstract thing fer se, and thinking time\nwithout some concrete manifestation in the beginning is an impossibility.\nA system of time names is commendable.\nThe accented note is then\ngiven a name and reality. In so far as they are only a means, it is wise\nto use them.\nWhen, as is frequently the case, time names seem to be the\nend, and are resolved into mere humdrum syllables, they should be\nabandoned.\nInvestigation shows that, with inexperienced teachers, time names are\noften a hindrance in the work, and the experienced teacher will have\ndevices of her own for bringing out this subject.\nIf the pendulum is used, we may, after hours of drill, realize that the\npupil’s head is also swinging, his foot tapping the time, as he interprets\nit himself.\nHe does not feel the rhythm it indicates, unless he has some\ninward conception of the time, which he will manifest by the accent.\n\nThe\n\npendulum simply regulates the time—does not mark the accent.\nFor a child who has not a natural feeling for rhythm we must work\nalong the outside line, through the sense of touch, combined with counting. He can feel the accent and beats when he taps lightly with his\nfinger, at the same time counting: one, two; one, two; etc.; remembering the one is stronger than the other parts of the measure.\nThe teacher may guide the child by tapping, just enough to keep the\n\n"}
{"page": 786, "printed_page": null, "text": "776\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n[Music\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nSystematic practice in this way will develop an appreciatempo regular.\ntion of rhythm.\nVery well, you say, but how about divisions of the beat? The dotted\nnote,\n\ntriplets, etc.?\n\nThe question, When should this development begin? has come to\neach of us. The first year in school?\nSurely before that. The seeds\nare sown during the cradle period of life. Every child enjoys rocking,\na swing, hobbyhorse, or anything in motion; songs with strongly marked\naccent; marching, dancing, and the many ways manifested by a swinging\nto and fro.\nIn cities where the kindergarten is a part of the public school we find\nit working along this line. In Chicago I saw one teacher who was bringing this out in a marked degree, and teaching, unconsciously, interpretation through rhythm.\nOne was chosen from the circle to act the story\nthe music revealed to her, and, as it changed from march, waltz, ‘the raindrops,” ‘‘the wind,” the little mind was very sympathetic, and the feet\n\nchanged their steps as instantly, showing the deep feeling for rhythm that\ncan be brought out in some children.\nWho has not seen girls, as well as boys, straighten up, put themselves\ninto the full spirit and rhythm of a soldier, while singing:\n“A drum\n\nthat can sound,\n\nA musket\n\nso brave,\n\nA long wooden sword,\nWhat more would you have?\nTrum, trum, trum, de dum, de dum,\n\nTrum, what more would you have ?”\n\nor the little girls prepare to rock their dollies to sleep to the lullaby,\n“Come, dolly, dearie,\nYou must be weary,\n\nWe have been busy all day.\nTo bed you must go,\nAnd tomorrow, you know,\nTogether again we will play—\nCome dolly, dearie, come.”\n\nThe songs we teach have great influence in this direction, and the\nsame thought should be carried all through the grades.\nCalisthenics aid\nmaterially in accuracy of time and development of rhythm.\nChildren are poetical, and very early in life manifest a delight in more\nthan mere nursery rhymes.\n\n‘ Paul\n\nRevere’s\n\nRide,”\n\n‘“‘ Hiawatha,”\n\n“The\n\nChildren’s Hour,” and similar gems, appeal to them; not only the story,\nbut the way in which it is told. What we wish to do is to plant the seed\nof desire in the child’s mind.\nThe work on his part will follow.\nToo much stress has been placed upon that word “develop.”\nWe\n\n"}
{"page": 787, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE DEVELOPMENT OF RYTHM\n\n177\n\nwould not, of course, do for a child what he can do for himself;\n\nbut have\n\nwe not sometimes analyzed the life out of a subject?\nThe same may\noccur in our music.\nLastly, much really depends upon the individuality of the teacher. If\nshe has this consciousness, her own personality will be one of the strongest\nfactors in revealing to the child this part of life, as well as music, that he\nmay grow to live in harmony with the world, and daily recognize this\ngreat bond that holds creation together, ever growing broader, yet\nstronger, until we come into touch with the divine.\n\nDISCUSSION.\nMrs.\n\nGAsTON\n\nBoyp,\n\nNewton, Kan.—There\n\nis no necessity of a barren exercise\n\nin\n\nconnection with the study of music. A lesson in pure technique, if properly presented,\nwill be infused with life and with intense interest. It is a principle in education that\nnothing shall be done for the child that he can be led to do for himself;\n\nso, in the devel-\n\nopment of rhythm, the child should be led from what he already knows to the solution of\n' the new problem which is presented.\nChildren are not all alike; some learn more readily\nfrom observation than do others. The nature of the child must be taken into consideration.\nWith regard to the use of songs in the lower grades, they should occupy in this branch\nthe same\nreading.\n\nrelation\n\nIt is said,\n\nas speaking\n\npieces, quotations,\n\npoetry,\n\netc., sustain to the study of\n\nin defense of the use of songs versus the study of notation, that a child\n\nmust learn to speak before reading.\nWith few exceptions the child comes to us prepared\nto study notation.\nHe has heard songs from his cradle; he has learned to sing them at\nhis mother’s knee; he has heard them everywhere as he has heard speech. He may have\nheard them and\n\nlearned them in a crude\n\nfashion;\n\nbut so has he construed\n\nhis sentences\n\nand made his wants known in language fully as crude.\nTo the degree in which a lesson in music leaves the child stronger, mentally, may be\nmeasured the success of the teaching.\nNothing tends more directly to develop this strength\nthan the ability on the part of the pupil to solve his own difficulties and accomplish his\nown work,\n\nC. H. Conepon, St. Paul, Minn.—Rhythm should not be taught by mechanical\ndevices, but through real music.\nA good song tastefully sung will give the child better\nideas of rhythm than hours spent in the tedious practice of time names or in barren\n\nexercises.\n_\n\nOnce the spirit of song is aroused, the elements of rhythm are unconsciously acquired.\n\nIt is then an easy matter to differentiate the various forms of measure and present the\nsymbols used to represent them. The child is full and bubbling over with the essence of\nrhythm, and it is now only necessary to aid him in classifying the concepts already existing\nin his mind.\nCall his attention to one thing at a time, and give him drill in reading that one thing\nat sight. Teachers are prone to introduce too many things at once, and oftentimes the\n\ntune is so difficult that, no matter how well grounded the pupils are in rhythm, they stumble and fall because they cannot think tones fast enough.\nTheir attention should be called to one thing at a time, and that should be introduced\n\n"}
{"page": 788, "printed_page": null, "text": "778\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nthrough easy tune, and many exercises or examples should be given. Six or eight exercises\nare not sufficient to develop the ability in pupils to sing the new problem at sight. Fifty\nor a hundred are required.\nThe elements of time as well as tune are taught primarily by imitation. Children\nare easily led by steps from plain measure to, first, the divided beat, and then to the beat-\n\nand-a-half note. The latter consists simply of bridging the voice from the undivided beat\nto the first part of the following divided beat. Six-eight time should be analyzed in like\nmanner, presenting one fact at a time, and developing it through easy tune.\nPhysical training and calisthenics, well taught, are a great aid in devel oping rhythm\nin children.\n\nEVE\n\nBY\n\nAND\n\nFREDERIC\n\nEAR\n\nALLISON\n\nTRAINING\nAS\nSINGING.\n\nRELATED\n\nLYMAN,\n\nOF\n\nSUPERVISOR\n\n“ SYRACUSE,\n\nMUSIC\n\nTO\n\nIN PUBLIC\n\nSIGHT\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nN. Y.\n\nThere can be no doubt that both the senses of sight and hearing are\nnecessary to the so-called act of sight singing.\nAs to which one of the\ntwo is more important teachers will disagree according as they have been\ntrained to present their work.\nIn the elementary stages of the work\nthere is no doubt in my mind that the ear is of more value.\nIn the\nadvanced stages of the work one sense is as necessary as the other.\nMusical power is first gained through the ear. The auditory nerve is\nthe tell-tale to the brain, the seat of all real impressions of tonal concepts.\nCan all children hear correctly?\nNo; neither can all children see correctly. When children fail to distinguish quickly tone progressions, many\nteachers say such children have no voice. What they mean is, they have\nno ears, or, rather, no well-defined idea of tonal concepts.\n\nThese pupils are the unfortunates, and the teacher’s ability is shown\nby the manner in which she trains them to a knowledge of tones.\nDo\nyou say that all children can be made to think tones correctly?\nNo,\nnot all; neither can all learn to spell; but, if handled by a teacher who\nis conscientious and persevering, the number may be reduced to a\nminimum.\nI wish to put in a strong plea for individual recitations in\nmusic. The teacher who simply does chorus work in music only onehalf fulfills her duty. ‘Time is no criterion of results.\nIt is not so much\na question of how much time is spent, but what is being done while\nlessons are going on. Are you making music study in your schools of\nbenefit to the individual pupil, or are you simply giving children a pleasant time during the singing period?\nCould we look deeply into the\nminds of those children who do not sing the scale accurately, what might\nwe not discover ? At least two kinds of non-thinkers are readily distin-\n\n"}
{"page": 789, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nEVE AND EAR TRAINING\n\n779\n\nguished : those who shout on with perfect abandon, wholly unconscious that\nthey are singing incorrectly, and the larger class who realize that they are\ndeficient and that quick tone thought is lacking in their make-up.\nThe\nfirst are hard to cure, the second less so. Surely, the teacher who loves\nmankind and her art will stoop down, take these unfortunates by the hand\nof thought, and assist them to rise. Do you say it cannot be done? My\nanswer is, you have not conscientiously tried it.\nRest assured of one thing: Anyone who has helped a so-called monotone, or child of imperfect tone sense, to a correct mental solution of\nthe series of sounds known as the slide or scale will ever after be the\nrecipient of cordial appreciation from such pupils, even though at first it\nis not demonstrative.\nThe rank and file of children hear more or less\ncorrectly from the start, so make simple vocal records with accuracy.\nHaving this ability, the step toward musical thought and eventual sight\nsinging is imitation of some sort. The model should be the best possible,\notherwise the child unconsciously forms a low ideal of beauty from the\nstart.\nHarsh tones are as offensive as harsh colors.\nNever was greater mistake made than that any teacher is good\n- enough for the lower primary grades.\nSome are placed there because\nthey cannot discipline higher grades. What if discipline of mind is lost\nin the attempt to get only discipline of the body? Unfortunately many\nof the regular teachers in the lower grades of our schools have not absolutely correct ears, carefully managed voices, and magnetic musical\nabilities.\nHaving taught the beautiful rote or imitative song correctly and\nmusically, many supervisors and regular teachers fold their hand with\ncomplaisance, imagining they have done all that should be required in\nthe teaching of music to the primary grades.\nRote songs please—they do not give power; they tickle the ears, but\ndo not teach a child to know tones as comparative objects of thought.\nWhite very truthfully says: “Children may be kept swinging on the gate\nof sense when they are fully prepared to make easy and fruitful excursions\ninto the garden of thought.”\nAssoon as the major scale is taught as a\nwhole, a unit of moderate musical ability has been established.\nThe child\nhas something tangible, something concrete.\nHow does he get it?\nThrough the sense of correct hearing, which in turn becomes molded\nAt this stage of the work the sense of sight has not helped.\nthought.\nThe more faithfully teachers carry out this practice of tone judgment, the\nbetter will pupils hear music from the printed page when once it is shown\nthem; not alone that, the better they will solve all other problems of\nschool or daily life. They are yaining power to do. Music is very\nmaterially aiding in the upbuilding.\nThe object of thought in music is\nthe regular succession of tones, which is heard, not\n\nseen, on\n\nthe printed\n\n"}
{"page": 790, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n780\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n[Music\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nAll tone relations must first be studied through the\npage or blackboard.\near.\nRhythmical work must primarily be done through the sense of hearing. No amount of explanation of written signs or the attempted teaching of fractions, under the guise of musical notation, will aid pupils to\nMany superacquire a knowledge of the necessary essentials of rhythm.\nshores of\nthe\nalong\ngroping\nare\nalas,\nSome,\nfact.\nthis\nvisors understand\nRhythm\n\\\nconception.\nobjective\nthan\nrather\nabstractness\nn\nand\nrepresentatio\ngained\nbe\ncan\nconception\nno\nAs\nmind.\nthe\nof\npulsing\nthe\nis first felt in\nthrough the written word, so no feeling of rhythm can be gained through\nthe abstract study of fractions.\nWhen once the object is known, the\nmind summons the thought. When once rhythm is felt, then will the picture of a measure have a meaning.\nTo sum up this feature of our topic: We may safely say that when any\nnew thought in music is presented normally and according to the plan\nlaid down in the presentation of all other subjects by the best educators,\nall impressions must first be gained through the medium of the ear.\nTherefore we must conclude that it is the ruling sense.\nHaving been carefully drilled in the act of singing tones, the child’s\nattention is unconsciously drawn toward the printed signs of music, 2. ¢.,\nmusical notation.\nWhat more simple and effectual way of recording tones\nin print has been offered than our notation?\nIt is doubtful if anything\nwill ever supersede it.\n\nAll other kinds of notation have lived for a time,\n\nthen gradually faded out of existence.\nWhen once the ear has received\nproper attention, the step between the eye and ear is very short.\nIn fact,\nthere is no step. One sense correlates with the other; the eye sees quickly\nthat the little notes indicate\n\ntones, and the voice makes\n\nthe record.\n\nSo\n\nlong as the difficulties of notation are not harder than what has been done\nthrough the ear sense, all goes well. Just the moment that the notation\nprecedes ear training, instantly confusion follows. The eye sense, instead\nof assisting, actually hinders for the time.\nWhat is to bedone?\nSimply\ndirect the attention from the printed page, until the ear sense and its\nconsequent mind sense have caught up, after which the eye again performs its proper function—that of calling up musical tones.\nTake the\nsubject of chromatics, one of the most fascinating and simple features\nof music; give one class a thorough knowledge of chromatic tone color,\nas compared with diatonic tone color, by hearing and singing; show a\nfew pictures of the problems, and let them sing the tones represented by\nthe\n\nnotation.\n\nIf the\n\nprocess\n\nbe\n\nknown\n\nby doing, turn to any key you\n\nchoose, show the same problem in any dress you like. A correct record\nwill besung.\nThe principle is as follows: If you know a man, it matters\nnot whether he wear a sack or frock coat, whether blue, black, or yellow;\n\n"}
{"page": 791, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nEYE\n\nAND\n\nEAR\n\nTRAINING\n\n781\n\nyou know him to be the same person.\nOn the other hand, attempt to\nteach chromatics by the old-fashioned way of explaining about the signs\nthat represent.\nWhen all this has been done, the child knows not how\nthey sound ; the eye sense has only served to mystify him.\nAnd what shall be said of the training of the voice per se, without\nwhich all our practice of ear and eye has been vain?\nHow many people\nhear their own voices?\nVery few. The ear must again be made the\nprominent factor in the training of that most subtle of arts, vocal expression. The eye can have but a small part in this. It may note the facial\nresult which certain tones or succession of tones produce; further than\nthat it cannot go. In order that children may learn to sing without harshness and with pure, sweet tones, they must be given a chance to hear ideal\ntone.\nPride comes in at this time and does much to establish a correct\nbasis of tone.\nGood enunciation and easy singing are as much a matter\nof pride as of practical voice exercising.\nUntil a child is made to feel\nthe dignity of fine tones, he will not continue to build them.\nThis pride\nmust be brought about through ear training.\nShakespeare says, “Speak\nthat I may know you.” Today we might say, “Sing that I may hear an\nideal tone!’’\nEnvironment has much to do with agreeableness of tone,\nand a child’s ideal of well-modulated voices comes from contact with\nthem.\nHerein is music strong as an educational power.\nIt heals the\nmind.\nHeart becomes linked to heart, and from concrete expression\narises a desire for the best that life affords.\nMusic, therefore, appeals to\nthe senses in a way which no other subject does.\nMusic lifts us out of\nourselves and lets us roam, fancy-free, in the highest realms of art. It is\na constant flight and return.\nTake away the sense of hearing and mark what follows: the ugliest\nkind of despondency and ill will, as witness the struggles of the master\nBeethoven.\nCompare.him with Bach; the first deprived of hearing, the\nother of seeing; the one drinking in new life and inspiration from his\nvery blindness, the other sinking lower into his own thoughts at his awful\nmisfortune in thus being shut out from nature’s voices.\nThink of all the people whom you have known well in your life. For\nwhom have you the warmest affection and greatest regard? Unless you are\ndifferent from the majority of human beings, it will be the people who\nhave the sweetest tones of voice; voices full of honesty, assurance, and\nkindness.\nWe shrink from the person with harshly toned voice, even\nthough it proceed from a good-looking face.\nIs there a more sorry object\nthan a beautiful face and form from which comes an ugly voice?\nSometimes it is the fault of a physical defect of throat; more often there is a\nlack of good breeding, with a liberal deficiency of ear training.\nHaving briefly outlined some of the mental processes and results\n\n"}
{"page": 792, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n782\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n[Music\n\nASSOCIATION\n\ninvolved in sight singing as related to eye and ear training, let us take an\nonward step and inquire into the character of the material we are allowing\npupils to read or sing.\nLife is too short and valuable to waste on school days with naught but\near-tickling trash. In every course of instruction there must be food for\nthought;\n\nthe senses\n\nmust\n\nreceive exercise of a healthy\n\ntone.\n\nThe book\n\nthat makes us think, and not the one that does all the thinking for us,\nis what we need.\nMany say: “It doesn’t matter what material we have;\njust as good work can be shown with one kind as another; it is the teacher\nand not the material that makes results.””\nOnly partially true is the statement.\nA man may bea very practical farmer, but he cannot get a fine\ncrop of potatoes froma brush pasture.\nA jeweler may be one of the most\nexpert, but he cannot make a fine watch from tin and brass.\n\nIf your pupils become ready readers of music, they must study something worth reading.\nIf they have something worthy of attempt, they\nwill gradually grow to love the art and search for its hidden beauties.\nThe mental problems necessary to prepare\nthe mind for this desire for\nknowledge must be many and varied; furthermore, they must be grammatical.\nAnything will not do. To put an illy composed or arranged\nbit of music before a child, as is done repeatedly in some courses of instruction, expecting him to gain correct methods and notions of art and\nlife, is like drawing the picture of the globe in the shape of a pear;\nneither the form nor the content is correct.\nSupervisors should be on\nthe alert to suppress any of this juggled harmony that is making its way\ninto the schoolrogm, because, perchance, it is cheap and encouraged by\nsome unfeeling members of school boards who know less about instruction\nthan politics. Away with such so-called music instruction!\nSad pity is\nit that the so-called educators of the country are often blindly deluded\ninto the notion that this sort of composition is just as good as, or better\nthan, the masterpieces of musical art!\nMusic must deal with determinate sounds, and it is only through the\nproper adjustment of these sounds that pure harmony and melody can\nexist. ‘There must be a triple affinity in all music that educates in the\ntruest sense.\n‘These three features must be rest, suggested motion, and\nimpelled motion.\nThe proper adjustment of the.four kinds of triads—\nmajor, minor, diminished, and augmented\n—together with their expanded\n\nchords, furnish material for this triple alliance.\nMusic that is built on\nbare poles of tonic, dominant, and subdominant is not complete.\nThe suggestions are limited and one-sided.\nI cannot go further into\nthis part of the subject at this time, as it is too large and would endanger\nmy text.\n\nHealthy rhythm must predominate in any good course of music.\n\nThe\n\n"}
{"page": 793, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\n>\n\nEVE\n\nAND\n\nEAR\n\nTRAINING\n\n783\n\nsuggestions of rhythm must also be many and varied, so that the child\nmay be constantly led to observe and conquer all difficulties.\nRhythm\nis the basis of aH music, and consequently of all expression.\nThe more\nwe study it, the greater ideas of the universe we shall form.\nHow shall\nwe study it in its fullest extent if our ears be stopped?\nEven the cadence\nis but the result of regularity in duration of particular sounds.\nThe contrasts in music are brought about more largely through rhythmical features\nthan in any other way. When it is left to move freely, then does the\npoetic element seize melody, and it acquires true liberty and independYet art in its greatest sense cannot content itself with melody.\nence.\nAll races of people delight, either consciously or unconsciously, in the\nunion of several pure melodies into a complete and perfect harmonious\nstructure. Here, again, the ear becomes the ruling sense. It is here that the\ncreative power is made manifest, and expression grows as readily as the\ntender plant under the rays of the warm sunshine.\nWhat a sorry sight it is to see children devoting precious time to listless music, to music that has no story to tell, no thoughts to suggest!\nAnd yet there are scores of pages of such so-called music being studied,\nor rather drawled out, each day. It arouses neither the true sense of\nhearing nor sight, least of all the faculties of the mind which these senses\nare supposed to help develop.\nMy plea at this time is that you, as supervisors of this grand art, look\ncarefully at your material for study and see if it is real art or only a makeshift. Will it stand a searching pedagogical test? Is it music in the\nhighest sense of the word?\nDoes it suggest pure thoughts?\nIf so, adopt\nit; if not, look until you find that on which you can rely. If it does not\ncontain these qualities, rest assured, no matter how much drill for the eye\n\nand ear is done, little of value will result.\nGiven pure music, when once\nour pupils have been trained so that they can look at the printed page\nof music and silently hear what the eye sees, then will our work mean\nsomething.\nSupervisors, do you stop with mere eye and ear training as related to\nsight singing?\nThey are but means to anend.\nMusic, rightly studied,\nmeans much more than sight singing.\nIt is only one of the rungs of the\nladder.\nAdd to it the training of the voice, the ability to think complex\nproblems in daily life, the thorough enjoyment and understanding that\nmust and do come from a well-graded course of instruction in school\nmusic, the stern, though mild, character that is wrought from close contact with its power, and the time is not far distant when the powers that\nare interested in school matters and education in general will not only\nsee the utility of music\n\nstudy, but, like the ancient Greek\n\nand\n\nRoman,\n\nthey will look upon it as one of the chief pillars of a liberal education.\n\n"}
{"page": 794, "printed_page": null, "text": "784\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nTHE\n\nBY\n\nF. E.\n\nCHILD\n\nHOWARD,\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nVOICE.\n\nBRIDGEPORT,\n\nCONN.\n\nRational voice training is based on data of two classes: the scientific,\nIf, in the\nwhich is chiefly physiological, and the experimental data.\nmusical profession, the same educational qualifications were demanded as\nare required, for example, in the medical profession, then we might\nexpect—in fact, we would positively have—greater -clarity of ideas\non the relation of scientific knowledge to practical experience in voice\nAs it is, anyone has as much right to teach voice as to saw\nculture.\nwood.\nIt naturally follows that there exists the most distressing chaos of\ntheories, fads, whims, and crazy notions on voice culture, which find their\nexpression in periodicals, lectures, etc.\n\nIt is no\n\nwonder\n\nthat the com-\n\nmon sense of musicians cries out against the pseudo-science of vocal\nquacks, and extols the good old days of the Italian masters, when pupils\nwere taught to sing, to really make tone, when voices were made to sing\nso beautifully that their possessors’ names live in history.\nYet the old\nsinging masters were guided almost wholly, if not entirely, by rules\ndeduced from experience.\nIf the tone was clear, beautiful, well poised,\nand under the singer’s control, as is the bow in the hands of a violinist,\nthen the training was proceeding along safe lines.\nIf the tone was: bad,\npinched, throaty, then training was proceeding along unsafe lines.\nWhen the parts act harmoniously together and there is a proper normal\nadjustment of all the organs concerned in the production of tone, the\nresult is good.\nBad tone follows from ill adjustment of parts concerned\nin production, and the office of the voice teacher is to correct this ill\nadjustment and bring about perfect performance of the functions.\nAs a matter\n\nof fact, practical\n\nteachers\n\nof voice, while\n\nthey\n\nfind, or\n\nmay find, extended physiological knowledge and scientific information of\ngreat value, yet, in practical teaching, they are well aware that they must\njudge as to the proper or improper action of the parts concerned in tone\nproduction by the sense of hearing.\nThe laryngoscope, which, as you\nmay know, is a system of mirrors that physicians use for observing the\nthroat, and which voice teachers have also used to observe the action of\nthe vocal bands in tone production, has, when all is said and done, con-\n\ntributed practically nothing to the voice trainer.\nWe know today little more of the action of the vocal bands in producing the tones of what are called various registers than was known a\nhundred years ago.\nTone colors guide us in determining the registers,\nbeing used as much now as ever.\n\n"}
{"page": 795, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nCHILD\n\nVOICE\n\n78 5\n\nNow, in dealing with the child voice, we are deprived of the benefit\nof any researches whatever, and must deduce our principles from general\nphysiological\n\nknowledge, and, as with\n\nadults, determine\n\nwhen\n\nthe child\n\nis using his voice rightly or wrongly by the sounds which reach our ears.\nThese facts in physiology, however, may be borne.in mind, and may\nconstitute a basis for our deduction:\nFirst, the larynx grows rapidly\nuntil the age of six years, when the vocal bands attain the length which\nAt that time the general\nthey retain until the age of puberty is reached.\nphysical changes which take place in the entire person are accompanied\nby a more or less rapid growth of the larynx, so that the vocal bands of\nthe male become twice as long as in boyhood, and the vocal bands of\nfemales\n\nincrease\n\ntheir\n\nlength\n\none-third.\n\nThere\n\nare, of course,\n\ncorre-\n\nsponding changes in the thickness, breadth, and general strength of the\nThe one point then, which emphasizes itself to us is the\nvocal bands.\nsmall size and weakness of the vocal bands in childhood.\nIt is also true that the laryngeal walls, the cartilages of the larynx, are\nin childhood lacking in rigidity, as may be easily understood when we\nrecall the danger of that dread disease, croup, to which all young children are exposed.\nDeath in this disease is occasioned, primarily, by the\ncollapse of the walls of the larynx.\nNow, as already pointed out, while\nthe vocal bands do not increase in length from six years of age on to the\nperiod of voice mutation, yet there is a constant gain in structural firmness of the laryngeal cartilages, and this, together with the increased\nelastic power and strength which each year brings to the vocal bands of\nthe children, accounts for the constant gain in the tonal strength of\nchildren from the age of six.\nBearing these facts in mind, it is just as easy for one person as for\nanother to deduce a safe rule for the use of the child voice in singing,\nviz., the voice must be used so lightly that injurious physical strain of the,\nweak and delicate organs is impossible.\nBut here we are confronted\nwith the practical side of the question, and the fact that, however familiar\nwe may be with the physiology of the voice, it is only through experimental knowledge that we are able to determine whether the voice is\nbeing strained or not, during singing.\nAt this point another principle\nasserts itself, as before mentioned, vzz., that when, in a normal\n\nthe parts concerned in tone production\nmanner, the resultant tone must be good.\n\nthroat, all\n\nare acting in a normal, healthy\nIn childhood, as in adult life,\n\nbad tones, whether nasal, or guttural, or possessing other disagreeable\nqualities to an offensive degree, are the result of ill adjustment, or wrong\naction, of the functions.\n\nIn other\n\nwords, a good tone is healthy, and\n\na\n\nbad tone unhealthy, and as the doctor tells by your pulse, complexion, and\nstaté of your tongue the particular disturbance from which you are suffering, so the teacher by the color of the tone must determine the particular\n\n"}
{"page": 796, "printed_page": null, "text": "786\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nHaving set\ndisturbance of the parts from which the singer is suffering.\nthe child\nconsider\nforth these general premises, we may now practically\nof\nexperience\nvoice, and those rules which have been deduced by the\nspecialists in this line.\nThe trainers of boy choirs in England and on the continent have for years\nunderstood and practically carried out good principles as to the training\nThese principles are equally applicable to the voices of\nof boys’ voices.\ngirls. They and we today speak of a child as possessing two voices. The\none is called the chest voice, a purely technical name which is applied to\na tone rather thick, usually coarse, and which is produced evidently by\nWhenever little chilvery full and strong vibration of the vocal bands.\nThe height of compass to which\ndren sing loudly, they use this voice.\nFirst, the age\nthey may carry this voice depends on several conditions.\nA child of six years of age will carry the thick voice\nof the pupil.\nas high as “E,” fourth space, but, as they grow older, they find more\nThen, again,\nand more difficulty in using this voice in high pitches.\nchildren\n\nwho\n\nhave\n\nlight,\n\nfirm, fluty\n\nvoices\n\nuse\n\nthe\n\nchest\n\nvoice\n\nwith\n\ngreat difficulty, possibly because there is more firmness in the cartilages\nof the larynx than is possessed by others whose voices, while sounding\nstronger, are evidently produced from weaker throats.\nThe loud voice,\nso commonly known in the schoolroom, and so foolishly admired, is\nreally, in most cases, a voice which is produced by vocal bands which are\nless elastic, strong, and much more easily injured than are the vocal\nbands of those who have much lighter voices.\nFrom the foregoing it will be seen that, as children grow older, they\nwill find more and more difficulty in using the thick voice on the upper\nnotes of their compass.\nFor instance, children of six years of age carry\nthe thick tone as high as “E,” with apparently little exertion.\nChildren\nof ten years of age, unless spurred by great urging, will cease to use it at\n“C,” while girls and boys approaching the age of mutation can hardly\n\ncarry ttcabove “G” or “A.”\nThe other voice, technically called the head\n\nvoice, is light in body,\n\nfluty in character, and utterly devoid of what is called the reed quality in\ntone.\nIt is evidently produced by the vibration of only a portion of the\nsubstance of the vocal bands.\nHow large or how small a portion is\npurely a matter of conjecture, for, until the X-ray is applied to this branch\nof physics, we shall emphatically know nothing, except conjecturally, of\nthe action of the vocal bands.\nNow, one conclusion, and one only, has been reached by specialists\nin the training of boys’ voices.\nIt takes the form of two statements:\nthose who, while paying very little attention to the theoretical consideration of registers, declare that boys must use the upper register almost\nentirely, and must take great care to sing lower tones softly; and those\n\n"}
{"page": 797, "printed_page": null, "text": ":\n\n:\nj\n\n:\nA\n\nA\n:\n\n,\n\nDepartment]\n\nTHE\n\nCHILD\n\nVOICE\n\n787\n\nwho frankly say that boys must be required to use the head register alone.\na matter of fact, as before said, it is impossible to tell, even when\na boy has been trained entirely in the head register, whether or not, when\n\nAs\n\nhe sings at pitches below “F,” first space, he uses exactly the same\nmechanical action of the vocal bands as at higher pitches, and it does not\nmatter if the tone is easily produced and is good in quality.\nThe sole criterion, then, in training\n\nchildren’s voices is the character\n\nof the tone.\nThe tone which is generally accepted as being the only one\nfor children to use, which is physically safe and beautiful in quality, is the\nhead\n\ntone.\n\nIt may be said\n\nthat, while the conservatism of bad\n\nhabits,\n\nand the popular unthinking demand for heartiness in singing, or the lack\nof thoughtful criticism on the part of principals, school superintendents,\nand others, are obstacles in the way of securing good tones from children, yet, when the habit of using the voice in the right way is once fairly\nformed, both the mental perceptions and physical sensations form the\nstrongest safeguards for its continuance.\n‘There is no teacher who has had\nexperience in training either school children or choir boys in the use of the\nhead voice but knows that it is an easy voice, and one which his pupils\nenjoy using.\nSo far as the general public are concerned, they may be\nslow to recognize the value of this light voice as compared with the more\nboisterous singing which seems to excite their admiration— whether\nbecause they love noise, or because they suppose children to be the happier the louder they shout, I do not know.\nBut, as long as the criticism\nof the musical element in any community is favorable—and it always\nwill be to the class of singing which will be secured when children use\ntheir voices properly —the general public will very soon acquiesce.\nIt will be the thought of nearly all teachers—it is the commonly\nexpressed thought of teachers today—that this matter of securing from\nchildren good tone in singing necessarily requires the use of many voicetraining exercises, and more or less method especially adapted to this\nend.\nOn the contrary, the whole secret of the child voice lies in securing a light, easy\n\naction\n\nat the vocal\n\nband.\n\nThe\n\nmatter\n\nof resonance,\n\ntone placing, and a dozen other things which are more or less important,\nneed concern us very little. Moreover, there is great homogeneity in\nthe structure of the resonance cavities in childhood.\nThere is great\nphysical homogeneity in every respect among children.\nAnd the use of\nspecial exercises to secure the proper use of the voice, or, as we usually\nsay, for training the voice, are necessarily only small in scope and few in\nnumber.\nIf good position is maintained, breathing habits will attend to\n\nthemselves.\n—that\n\nIf the voice is used lightly, if the mouth is opened properly\n\nis, if it assumes\n\nthe proper position for “‘E,” when we wish the\n\npupil to sing “E,” if it assumes another position, and the right one,\napproximately, for “Ah,” when we wish him to sing ‘‘Ah,” and so on\n\n"}
{"page": 798, "printed_page": null, "text": "788\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nthrough the various forms which constitute our vowel sounds in song—\nElaborate\nmost conditions for voice use in training will be fulfilled.\nsystems of voice culture are entirely out of place in the schoolroom. The\nvoice should be used properly in singing every scale, and every song, and\nNo special exercises are needed, except as a kind of a\nevery exercise.\nEvery chorus director knows the value of vocalizing a page\nvocal tonic.\nIt sets up good singing\nor two of music during the course of rehearsal.\naction and good tone ideas, which carry themselves over into the singing\n‘The use of some\nJust so in the schoolroom.\nof words by the chorus.\nvoice exercises at the beginning of a singing lesson will be found easily\nto set up a good standard of tone in the mind of the pupils.\nBut the\nIt may be\nvoice of the child does not lend itself to extended training.\ndoubted if the large amount of work to which special choir boys are put,\nin order that they may become soloists, is not detrimental.\nIn this connection it may be said that, where it is desired to bring\nabout the change from the use of the so-called thick voice to the use\nof the head voice, it may be necessary to adopt certain stringent rules in\nregard to the amount of power which shall be used; it may be necessary\nto require the very softest of tones, and it may also be necessary to\nlimit the range, as, for instance, to “‘E,” first line, below which the voice\n\nshall not be carried; yet these rules will be found capable of great relaxation when once the habit of using the voice in the right way is formed.\nThere is nothing intrinsically wrong in singing low, if the voice is used\nlightly, without physical strain, and the resultant tone is satisfying to the\nmusical ear.\nIt is nonsense to say a child must not sing at that pitch at\nall.\n\nHowever, the ease with which children break into the thick voice at\n\nlower pitches constitutes an element of great danger when music is taught\nby unskilled grade teachers.\nIn conclusion, let me\n\nsay that\n\nmusic in the\n\npublic\n\nschools, after all,\n\nshould be musical, and that the finest results, as far as tonal beauty goes,\nthat have ever been attained by skillful choir trainers with their boys, or\nany skillful teachers in different schools.of the country, are none too good\nfor every teacher and every school in the land.\nTo get good singing\nfrom children requires a little knowledge and a good deal of taste, and\nthe exercise of faculties that are possessed, actively or latent, by nearly\nevery teacher.\nIt is possible to teach what we call sight singing, and to do it in\nsuch a way that very few ideas of music, real music, enter into the\nlife of the child.\nPerhaps it has been the tendency among teachers—\nand a very natural tendency, due to the practical character of Americans\n—-to emphasize the strictly practical side of school music; and, on the\nother hand, there has been a strong tendency by certain educators to\nbelittle the practical teaching of notes, and to demand that school music\n\n"}
{"page": 799, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department |\n\nCHEICHELD\n\nVOLE\n\nij89\n\nshould appeal only to the esthetic side. The fact is that the language in\nwhich music is written is, in its signs and symbols, very simple.\nIt will\nbe but a short time before the skill and industry of the music supervisors\nof the United States will find short, pedagogical, and practical methods\nby which note reading will be mastered almost as early in school life as\nthe signs of speech language.\nBut, however this may be, the one thing\nwhich our profession demands at the hands of its every member, and the\none thing which the public demands of us, and which every musician\ncalls for, is that the character of our work, even in such simple particulars\nas singing up and down a scale, shall be strictly musical.\nImplying, as\nthis does, primarily the proper use of the voice, and the inculcating of ideas\nday by day, by precept, by example, and by practice, of beauty of tone, it\nwill be understood why so many of us are emphasizing, with all possible\nforce, the consideration of the child voice.\n\nWith the thousands and tens of thousands of grade teachers, more or .\nless unfitted for teaching music, who are obliged to present the subject\nfrom day to day, it may seem impossible that children throughout the\nland should be taught to sing in a proper way.\nBut it is possible.\n- There is no mystery about good singing.\nIt is easier to sing right than\nto sing wrong, as it is easier for water to run down hill than up. Consider the subject in the simplest way possible, and do not get hold of\nsome puzzling detail and magnify it. Take it for granted that your\nchildren, on the whole, prefer to do a thing in the right way.\nDo not\nget excited at unthinking criticism, which often proceeds from a desire.\nto keep busy, or appear wise.\nHold on your way firmly, steadily, good-.\nnaturedly, and, whatever the future may bring of good to school music:\nin our country, be sure you have done your share.\n\nDISCUSSION.\nMrs. Emma\n\nA. THomas,\n\nDetroit, Mich. —In\n\na large number\n\nof schools,\n\nas\n\nin my\n\nown, we have twelve minutes a day allowed for music.\nIn this time we must train the\nvoices of the children, teach them to read music, and teach them songs for pleasure, as\npatriotic songs, folk songs, etc. How to accomplish all this in so short a time is the\nproblem. I will give a few suggestions to supplement Mr. Howard’s paper.\n\nTo obtain the best results in tone production is to begin at the top of the voice and\nwork down.\nSecond, keep the throat open and relaxed.\nwith high tones. If we begin with, say, “middle C,” most\n\nAgain, sing plenty of songs\nchildren will produce what is\n\ncommonly called a “chest tone.” If a scale is now attempted, they will carry this\n“chest” or “ thick” quality up beyond its legitimate limit, causing a contraction of the\nthroat, and a forcing and straining of the voice, which make\n\nan open throat improbable,\n\nif not impossible.\n;\nTherefore, begin with a pitch on which the child cannot\n\nuse either the low or the\n\n"}
{"page": 800, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n799°\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n[Music\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nmiddle register, say somewhere about third space “C,” and when a scale is to be sung,\nIn difficult cases it will often be found necessary to begin higher.\nsing it descending.\nAn advantage of beginning high is that the tone is produced without “ throat effort”\n(throat strain), and it is possible, and easily so, to train the child to sing “with his voice,\nOf course, power is not to be aimed at at first; that will come\nand not with his throat.”\nlater, and the child who uses his high quality exclusively will be able to sing long at a\n\ntime without fatigue.\nWe must have good erect\nPosition is a very important factor in good tone work.\nposition, either standing or sitting.\nDo not combine calisthenics and singing; the voices of the children will surely suffer.\nWhere our teachers wish to have marching with music, and have no\n\nmusical\n\ninstrument,\n\nI suggest that a little choir be formed, and, standing in the front of the room, they can\nsing a little marching song while the others march.\nBe sure that the temperature of your rooms is kept even; if the air is impure, raise\nthe windows, or do something to freshen it.\nDo not have the singing lessons immediately after recess.\nNever tolerate loud,\nharsh, coarse singing. While the large majority of my teachers have pleasant speaking voices, which has so much to do with pure, sweet singing, I have labored hard with\nthose of my teachers who have not, to have them cultivate a pleasant speaking voice.\nWe all know how quickly the pupils will imitate the harsh, peculiar voice of a teacher\neither in speech or song.\nHow happy we all ought to be that the humdrum, half-spoken,\nhalf-sung recitation of a lesson in arithmetic is almost wholly something of the past!\nAgain, in teaching children the correct use of the voice, the most varied exercise of\nthe imagination on the part of the teacher is very necessary.\nThat teacher will succeed\n\nbest who can most correctly picture the child’s thought and estimate the impressions\nwhich given effects produce upon the mind.\nThe singing exercises of the schoolroom should always be earnest; even very young\nchildren’s attention can be directed to the sentiment and meaning of certain qualities of\ntone.\nShow them how the scale can be sung to express either sadness or cheer; teach\nthem to use a quality of voice suited to the meaning of the words they use.\nLet them\nknow that the eye is the “ window of the soul,” and they should express what they sing\nwith their eyes. It is always best to have the reading lessons precede the singing lessons, and if the thought and story of the new song can be brought out in the reading\nlesson, it will prove a great help to the singing. It would, also, be a great advantage to\nthe children if, from time to time, they could hear their own school songs interpreted by\nreal artists. Through the generosity and great kindness of some wealthy citizens, this is\nbeing accomplished in some cities. May it in all!\nBe very careful in the selection of your songs ; choose songs of bright, lively character,\nvarying with lullabies and songs that will appeal to the imagination.\nAbove all, our\nchildren should sing music worthy the name.\n\nHOW\n\nTO ESTABLISH GOOD MUSICAL STANDARDS\nPUBLIC-SCHOOL MUSIC.\n\nBY\n\nMISS\n\nANNA\n\nBIRCHARD,\n\nIt has been said that the mind\n\nANDERSON,\n\nIN\n\nIND.\n\nrules the world, and, in any line of\n\nthought, daily contact with master minds cannot be other than elevating\n\n"}
{"page": 801, "printed_page": null, "text": "Eh\nee\nsh\n\nDepartment]\n\nZHE ESTABLISHMENT\n\nand inspiring.\n\nHow\n\nmuch\n\nOF GOOD\n\nMUSICAL\n\nSTANDARDS\n\n791\n\nmore so is this in music, where one meets, not\n\nonly the mind, but the very personality of the author!\nI would say,\nthen, begin with the child, educate his ear by hearing the best music, and,\nwhen he has once caught its spirit, he will not be content with any but\nthe best.\nFrom the first days of our existence the ear becomes accustomed to\ngood or bad sounds. The more it hears of the better tones, the more susceptible does the ear become to them. Gounod says: “ My mother made\nme her pupil, hence my perception of airs and of the intervals composing\nBefore I could\nthem was quite as rapid as my perception of words.\nspeak I could distinguish and recognize perfectly the different airs with\nIt is a fact that we can initiate the ear to\nwhich my ears were lulled.”’\nmusical language exactly as to spoken language, and can develop the\nmusical sense in a much larger number of children than is commonly\nsupposed.\nThen let the songs that the child hears be carefully chosen and cor:\nrectly rendered in tone and expression, and thus help in forming high\nideals, and lay a foundation for future appreciation of good music. This\nwill in time help solve the problem where music is taught in schools.\nWhen music is once introduced into schools, let it be placed on the same\nbasis with other studies in the school curriculum and a portion of time\nbe set aside for preparing the music lesson, the same as for number, language, or geography.\nThis will not only increase a respect for the work,\n\nbut better and quicker results will be obtained.\nThis last year my school that did the best work was the one in which\nthe principal was in sympathy with this idea and had ten minutes each\nday set aside for the study of music lessons.\nAgain, let the music\nteachers be more active\n\nand, as much as lies in their power, interest\n\nthe\n\ncommunity at large in getting the legislative bodies to pass bills making\n_ music compulsory in all schools.\nI was greatly interested in Mr. Congdon’s report in that line, and it\nseems to me the work he is doing is worthy of imitation.\nAnother suggestion made in yesterday’s meeting seemed very practical; it was to\nhave a paper on music read before the general assembly at state teachers’\nThis will do much toward broadening the work and awakassociations.\nening interest in it. In some states—and I am proud to say Indiana is\namong the number\n— it is becoming quite customary to have music taught\nThis affords rare opportunities for the regular teachers to\nat institutes.\nacquire a knowledge of music ; for in the mind of the grade teacher, as\nwell as the special teacher, high standards of music should be established.\nWe, as teachers, can then train the pupils under our charge not only to\nthink in time and tune, but can give them the unfailing resource of an\nintelligent love of music which will be a blessing to them all their lives.\n\n"}
{"page": 802, "printed_page": null, "text": "EDUCATION.\n\nOF BUSINESS\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nSECRETARY S MINUTES.\nFIRST\n\nThe\n\nSESSION.\n— WEDNESDAY,\n\nsession opened\n\nJULY\n\n7, 1897.\n\nat 2:30 P. M., at the Spencerian College, with A. N. Palmer,\n\nPresident, in the chair.\n\nPresident’s address by A. N. Palmer.\n:\nReport of Committee on Correlation and Co-ordination of Business Branches by J. M.\nMehan.\n\nDiscussion by Mrs. Spencer, Mr. Lyon, Mr. Barnes, Mr. Rider, and Mr. Wilmot.\n\nReport ordered\n\nto be printed, and referred to the department for discussion at its next\n\nmeeting.\n\nPaper on “Course of Training in English,” by Mrs. Sara A. Spencer; on “ Shorthand,” by Isaac S. Dement; on “‘ Rapid Calculation and Business Arithmetic,” by Samuel\nH. Goodyear.\nDiscussion by Mr. Mehan and Mrs. Spencer.\nThe following motion was adopted :\nResolved, That the entire work of the Committee\nreport at next year’s meeting,\n\nof Nine be referred back to the committee for final\n\nThe following committees were appointed :\nCommittee on Auditing—E., E, Gaylord, B. B. Jones,\nCommittee on Nominations —¥. B. Richardson, E. J, Heeb, H. B. Chicken.\n\nSECOND\n\nSESSION.— Fripay, JULY 9.\n\nChas. H. Thurber read a paper entitled, “Is the Present High-School Course a Satisfactory Preparation for Business?\nIf Not, How Should it be Modified ?”\nH. M. Rowe read a paper on “ Laws and Ethics of Business, Duties of Citizenship,\n\nand Science of Wealth.”\nR. C. Spencer discussed the paper.\nE. H. Beach read a paper on “ Brains in Bookkeeping.”\nThe report of the Treasurer was adopted, as follows:\n\n“\n\nRECEIPTS:\nBalance from last report,\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n:\n\n-\n\nFrom Treasurer National Educational Association,\nBy contribution,\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n$B 0.68\n\n-\n\n-\n\n=\n\n-\n\n25)\n20.\n\n$45.68\n\nEXPENDITURES:\n\nFor printing and stationery, Executive Committee,\nFor printing report of Committee of Nine,\n\nBALANCE ON Hann,\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n$26.20\n\n-\n\n15.25\n\n-\n\n-\n\nALLEN Davis,\nSecretary\n\n$41.45\n\n$ 4.23\nand\n\nTreasurer,\n\nApproved:\nB. B. Jones,\nE. E. Gay orp,\n\n792\n\nAuditing\n\nCommittee,\n\n<<\n=\n\n"}
{"page": 803, "printed_page": null, "text": ":\n\n4\n\nDepartment]\n\nPRESIDENT’ S ADDRESS\n\n793\n\nThe following report of the Executive Committee was adopted :\nWuereas,\n\nThe Business Education Department of the National Educational Association deems it due\n\nto the public and to itself that a statement should be promulgated as to the present standard curriculum of\nAmerican business colleges ; therefore be it\nResolved, That, in our opinion, the report of the special Committee on the Correlation and Co-ordination\n\nof the Branches of Study Comprised in the Course of Instruction and Training of the Better Class of Business\nColleges presented at the Milwaukee meeting, July 9, 1897, fairly embodies and sets forth in outline a standard course for American business colleges;\nResolved, That we do not desire to discredit business and commercial schools that do not come up to\nthis standard, but would encourage them to work steadily and faithfully towards it;\nResolved, That we hold it to be a duty incumbent upon all concerned to raise this standard so far and\nas fast as the conditions of business colleges and the community render practicable ;\nResolved, That, in our opinion, the science of wealth and of human society form the true basis of business education, as they do of prosperous life and right human intercourse and relations, and that only on such\nrecognized foundation can business colleges build a system of education adequate to the demands of business\nand social interests entitling them to equal recognition with professional, scientific, and technical educational\ninstitutions, representing human advancement along important lines;\nResolved, That the Executive Committee be, and it is hereby, instructed to report to the next meeting\nof this department courses of reading of business-college students;\nResolved, That the Executive Committee be, and it is hereby, instructed to furnish to the business\ncolleges of America copies of this said report and of these resolutions through the National Bureau of Educa-\n\ntion,\n\nR. C. Spencer was\n\nappointed a committee to prepare a suitable resolution relative to\n\nthe death of Mr. L. A. Gray, of Portland, Me., ex-President of this department.\nThe election of officers resulted as follows:\nPresident, D. W. Springer, of Ann Arbor, Mich.\nFirst Vice-President, A. N. Palmer, of Cedar Rapids, Ia.\nSecond Vice-President, W. F. Lyon, of Detroit, Mich.\nSecretary-Treasurer, D. M. Willis, of Morgantown, W. Va,\nChatrman of Executive Committee, Allan Davis, of Washington, D.C,\n\nA vote of thanks was\n\nunanimously tendered to Mr. R. C. Spencer for his hospitable\n\ntreatment of the department.\nAdjourned.\nALLAN\n\nDAVIs,\nSecretary.\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS.\n\nPRESIDENT’S\nBY\n\nA.\n\nN.\n\nPALMER,\n\nADDRESS.\n\nCEDAR\n\nRAPIDS,\n\nIA.\n\nIn view of the fact that we have much important work to do and\na very limited time in which to accomplish it, I have thought that, as\n\npresiding officer, I could best subserve the interests of this body by making what your committee has been pleased to call the President’s annual\naddress somewhat limited in its scope. Had this opportunity been\n\ngiven me\n\nten, or even\n\na half dozen, years ago,\n\nI am\n\nnot sure\n\nbut that\n\nI should have felt it my duty to have advised you quite fully as to\nExercising my prethe best manner in which to conduct your schools.\n\n"}
{"page": 804, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n794\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n[Business\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nrogative as chairman, I might have felt it incumbent upon me to have\ninstructed you in the manner in which you should organize, equip,\nadvertise, and operate your institutions, regardless of the demands made\nupon you, the class of patronage you control, or your environment.\nMany things may happen in a half dozen years, and it has come to pass\nthat at this moment I feel myself less able to prescribe educational curealls to my brethren than I thought myself capable of doing not many\n\nyears ago.\nAt our\n\n.\nBuffalo meeting, last year, the correlation\n\nand\n\nco-ordination\n\nof the business branches were ably treated in a comprehensive paper by\nmy co-worker, Mr. J. M. Mehan.\nAt this time I thought Mr. Mehan\nhandled his subject well, and I stillthink so. I am in more hearty accord\nwith the spirit of that paper today than I was one year ago.\nI think the\npaper outlined a course of study and practice as broad and comprehensive as the average business training school of today can safely adopt.\nI say safely adopt, because I am not a teacher who believes it possible\nfor the business school to do the work of the college or the university.\nNeither do I believe that it is possible for us to correct in the student\nvery many of the deficiencies in his education, caused through a lack ot\ncommon-school training.\nThe exceptions I find are rare in my neighborhood where students could be induced to come to my school and pay\nmy rates of tuition for training offered them free in the public school.\nAgain, I find that students seeking literary or scientific training, on broad\nlines, seek\n\nthose\n\ngreat\n\ninstitutions\n\nwhere\n\nhundreds,\n\nand\n\nsometimes\n\nthousands, of students are all working along the same lines; institutions\nwith millions of dollars in endowments, and sometimes paying one noted\nteacher a salary equal to half the annual income of some good business\nschools.\nFriends\n\nand\n\nteachers,\n\nwe\n\nhave\n\na noble\n\nwork\n\nto do, and,\n\nwithout\n\nquestion, we will continue to do it unflinchingly.\nI am nota\npessimist,\nand, as I contemplate the horizon of my field of labor, I find myself\nbuoyed up with hope, and unconsciously taking a very optimistic view of\nthe future.\n\nAs I meet, in all walks of life, men and women\n\nwho have been\n\ntrained for the business office by business colleges, and learned what the\nshort business course has been worth to them, I cannot but believe that in\n\nmany cases we are doing more for our students in a nine-months’ business\nor shorthand course than the literary college could accomplish for them\nin a four-years’ course.\nWe take young men and women who have a fair\nEnglish education, and train them for positions, not only enabling them\nto earn a competency, but to mount the business ladder to commercial\nsupremacy, to honor, and to affluence.\nFor more than thirty years the business training schools of the better\nclass have been doing a noble work, have been strengthening their\n\n—\n\n"}
{"page": 805, "printed_page": null, "text": "\\t\n\nDepartment]\n\nPRESIDENT’S ADDRESS\n\n795\n\ncourses of study, and, during all this time, have merited and received the\nconfidence of thoughtful business men, as well as the heartfelt gratitude\nIn my brief experience as a business educator\nof their worthy students.\nI feel that my work has been accorded from business and professional men\nI find that, where thoughtful men carethe recognition which it merits.\nfully investigate the work accomplished by the best business schools,\nthose institutions receive a full measure of credit.\nI deplore the tendency to undervalue the work we are doing, to place\ntoo lowan estimate upon a course of training that enables our best young\npeople, without financial backing or influence, to establish and maintain\nthemselves in positions of responsibility and pecuniary profit.\nAs you sit here today, can you not think of a dozen young men\nwho are now honored heads of families, surrounded, not only by the\ncomforts of life, but many of the luxuries, whose upward course in business dated from the day you recommended them to the positions they\nnow occupy so acceptably to their employers and with so much profit\nto themselves ? Can you not think of a dozen young women who, through\nthe same channel, secured positions that have enabled them to main. tain themselves comfortably, and aid unfortunate parents ? Could you\nnot name young people of both sexes who have left your school for\nbookkeepers’ or stenographers’ positions, and who have, later, used the\nmoney so earned in putting themselves through institutions of higher\neducation ?\nI am a friend to liberal education, and will not knowingly place an\nobstacle in the path of any young man or young woman who desires a\ncollege course, but we, in the middle West at least, are supported by a\nclass of young people who come to us for special training in the branches\ntaught by our best business schools.\nIt is our duty to teach these young\nmen and women, without waste of time, the branches they pay for. We\nare expected in a nine-months’ business course to give them rapidity and\naccuracy in all classes of arithmetical computations; a rapid, rugged, and\neasily executed style of writing; a comprehensive knowledge of leading\nforms\n\nof accounts, as applied to the farm, the household, the shop, the\n\ngrocery, the general\n\nstore, the dry-goods\n\nwholesale house, commission\n\nhouse, the lumber\n\nyard, the\n\nbusiness, real estate, banking, etc.\n\nWe are\n\nexpected to teach these students how to write comprehensive business\nletters ; how to write and use business forms and papers; how to draw up\nlegal contracts; the laws governing business transactions, contracts, etc.\nIncidental to this we must drill many of our students in spelling and\ngrammar; for, irrespective of their former training, we find that much\nwork is these branches is needed.\nPersonally, I should like to go farther and, under the head of civics,\ngive my students sufficient training in economics and governmental\n:\n\n"}
{"page": 806, "printed_page": null, "text": "796\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\naffairs to create in them a desire to continue their researches along those\nI find, however, that the greater number of those who attend busilines.\nness colleges do not have at their disposal sufficient time or money to\nenable them to meet our wishes\n\nin all directions, and I hold it a solemn\n\nduty to teach our business-course students, in the most thorough manner\nIn a word, we must get\npossible, those branches I have particularized.\nmistake of shooting\nthe\ndown to the level of our pupils, and not make\nover their heads while aiming at the stars.\nTo me it isa most painful spectacle to witness the erudite teacher\nexpounding philosophical truths to a class of youngsters who do not\nunderstand a word he says, but who are hungering for a morsel of plain\ninstruction in the best methods of figuring interest.\nI have known business-college teachers who have made the grave mistake of attempting to\nteach their pupils higher accounting before they could correctly keep a\nsimple cash or personal account,\n\nand\n\nI have\n\nknown\n\nlarge-minded, well-\n\neducated, cultured business educators who have found it quite difficult\nto descend from their lofty heights to the level of their students’ minds\nand needs. I am nota believer in daily lectures in business-college work\non abstruse, economical subjects, even by men of the most profound\nerudition.\nShort, sharp talks, trending\nwork, are, to my mind, better.\n\nin the direction of the students’\n\nYoung teachers, beginners in our special field, I want you to stick a\npin here; I want you to remember a few things I am going to say to you.\nWhen you are engaged by the manager of a school to teach in the institution over which he presides, you are intrusted with grave responsibilities. If the school employing you has been successfully conducted for a\ndozen or more years, has a clean record for honest, thorough work, the\nconfidence of the community in which it is located and of its graduates,\nyou may safely conclude that the man who is responsible for such a condition is fully as capable as you of shaping the policy of his school.\nDo\nnot try to supersede him in your relations with pupils; do not endeavor\nto undermine the influence of your employer in his own school.\nBe\nupright, be straightforward.\nIf you think you see an opportunity to increase the efficiency of the\nschool and extend its influence, go to your employer and lay your plans\nbefore him.\nHe engaged you to teach for him because he had faith in\nyour mental endowments, your teaching ability, and your worth as a man.\nIn ninety-nine cases out of a hundred he will be glad to accept suggestions from you and consider them.\nHe may not always think it advisable, in the light of his experience, to act upon your suggestions, but he\nwill think more of you for the interest you show.\nI have in mind many\nmore things I would like to say to young teachers, but one parting\nadmonition, and I will leave you.\nDo not, after being in the employ of\n\n"}
{"page": 807, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nENGLISH\n\nIN BUSINESS\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n797\n\na school for a few months, consider yourself absolutely indispensable\nto that institution.\nYou may be an excellent teacher, but the moment\nyou consider yourself the most important factor in the school plans,\nthat moment you vitiate your power to help your employer, and make\nyourself of less value to him than you were the first day you entered\nPull with your employer, or pull away from his school, is °\nhis employ.\nmy advice.\nI trust our meeting this year will be characterized by unusual good\nfellowship ; that each member will feel free to express his opinions upon\nall subjects under discussion, and that, when we adjourn at the close of\nthis session, it will be with a pleasant memory of this convention.\nAs\npresiding officer, it is my sincere desire to be fair in all rulings and to\ngive each member his full share of the allotted time.\n\nENGLISH\n\nBY\n\nMRS.\n\nSARA\n\nIN BUSINESS\n\nA.\n\nSPENCER,\n\nSCHOOLS.\n\nWASHINGTON,\n\nD.\n\nC.\n\nThe imperative necessity for a thorough mastery of the language of\nour own country nowhere so strikingly appears as in the administration\nof its business interests.\nThe peril to home, life, property, and sacred\nhonor from a single erroneous statement is so frequently illustrated that\none is appalled to see a youth imperfectly educated in his own language\nintrusted with grave business responsibilities.\nIf it be true that business\nstatements first, last, and always require clearness, precision, accuracy,\nforce, discrimination, judgment, and skill, then we do the business world\n\na great wrong if we fail to make a thorough training in English a szne\ngua non in a curriculum for business schools.\nThe Committee of Fifteen\nwell says in justification of the large share of time claimed for language\nstudies, “language is the instrument that makes possible human, social\norganization.”\nOne who is ignorant of the properties of words, and of the laws of\nconstruction in language, does not know how to tell the truth, and cannot\nsafely be trusted to understand or to deliver a message, to send a telegram, or answer a simple note of inquiry.\nIn a single assertion, the verb\ntherein having\n\nform, voice, mode, tense, and, in relation\n\nto its subject,\n\nnumber and person, it may be ignorantly made wholly to misrepresent\nthe facts in a case.\nA punctuation mark, misplaced by a clerk, has\nCorrect punctuadefeated an act of Congress, or of a state legislature.\ntion requires familiarity with phrases, clauses, transpositions, and varied\nshades of meaning.\n\n"}
{"page": 808, "printed_page": null, "text": "798\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[ Business\n\nA course of training in English for business schools should be simple,\nThe rank and\nyet comprehensive ;condensed, yet ample and sufficient.\nstanding of schools of business in the educational world largely depend\nupon the standard of attainment in English established and maintained\nby this class of institutions.\n\n~ The National Educational Association’s Committee of Ten announces\nthe objects of teaching English to be:\n1. To enable the pupil to understand the expressed thoughts of others, and to give\nexpression to thoughts of his own.\n2. To cultivate a taste for reading, to give the pupil some acquaintance with good\nliterature, and to furnish him with the means of extending that acquaintance.\n\nThe committee proceeds to say, and we indorse and adopt it: “Every\nlesson taught should be a lesson in English throughout his school life.”\nThere can be no more appropriate moment for a brief lesson in expression than the moment when the pupil has something he is trying to\nexpress.\nA recitation in another branch may easily undo all that a set\nexercise in English has accomplished.\nIn order that both teacher and\npupil may attach due importance to this incidental instruction in English,\nthe pupil’s standing in any subject should depend, in part, on his use of\nclear and correct English.\nHe should be advised not to choose ignorant\npersons for daily companions, and thus accustom himself to ignorant\nlanguage, but to choose for associates the studious and thoughtful, and,\nas far as possible, the well-educated.\nAs to the time required for special instruction in this subject in common\nschools, the Committee\n\nof Ten recommends\n\noral instructions the first two.\n\nyears of school life, oral and written instruction in composition the third,\nfourth,\n\nfifth, and\n\nsixth\n\nyears,\n\nand\n\nnot\n\nearlier than\n\nthe seventh\n\nschool\n\nyear, that is, about the thirteenth year of the pupil’s life, formal, systematic, scientific instruction in grammar.\nOne year only of this is scientific training.\nFor the remaining one\nor two years of the grammar-school course, analysis, composition, reading\nof best authors, and continuance of faithful criticism of English by all\nteachers of all branches.\nIt is urged that training in English should\ncontinue five hours per week throughout the high-school course of four\nyears. ‘The teacher should be an accomplished specialist.\nIn submitting a course for business schools, this Committee on\nEnglish, Shorthand, and Typewriting undertakes the gigantic problem of\nepitomizing these twelve or thirteen years’ training in the best of modern\ngraded schools into a course for one or two years in schools of business.\nThose who enter business schools may have received the first half or\ntwo-thirds of the above described systematic training in English.\nIf\nso, their lines have fallen in pleasant places. Even these cannot be\nassuned to have finished English, but only to have well begun.\nOf these\n\n"}
{"page": 809, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nENGLISH IN BUSINESS SCHOOLS\n\nfew we sometimes find certified to the high school, and graduated\n\n799\nfrom\n\nthe high school, those who will spell incorrectly fifty to sixty standard words\n\nout of a hundred, and who are liable to frequent errors in construction.\nThe large majority of students entering business schools throughout\nthe country, however, have had far less instruction than these, many com-\n\ning from rural districts, or from various grades below the high school.\nIt is in their favor that they desire to use what they learn without delay,\nand are in a receptive condition to grasp and appreciate, and are sufficiently mature in mind to comprehend, a condensed course in English.\nTIME\n\nREQUIRED.\n\nThere should be set apart for and devoted to instruction and training\nin English, including spelling, systematic construction, and critical\nanalysis, not less than four periods of one hour each per week, preferably\nthe second hour each morning, after penmanship, these two topics giving\norder, color, and style to all the work that follows.\nThe fifth period of\ntwo hours on Fridays should be devoted to the reading and study of\nstandard authors, especially those famous for noble, inspiring thoughts\nand choice, eloquent language.\nThis period will be a school Sabbath,\ngiving an uplift and outlook, healthful and restful to the soul of pupil\nand teacher.\nPRELIMINARY\n\nTEST\n\nIN\n\nSPELLING.\n\nUpon entrance, the student should take an examination in spelling,\nconsisting of 100 words selected from those in common use in business,\nlegislation, domestic and foreign news, and social life.\nHe is likely to\n\nbe satisfied with the limited vocabulary he has acquired, and to object\nto instruction inspelling.\nThis test will be anillumination to him.\nFew\ncan pass at go per cent. to 95 per cent.; and a business correspondent\nshould not be liable to even from five to ten errors in a hundred selected\nwords.\nThe rank and file of students in business schools need to add to their\nvocabulary from 3,000 to 4,000 words which they have not generally, up\nto this tine, had occasion to use.\nThis can be done in dictation exer20 words per lesson, 4 lessons per week, of 20 minutes each, in 4o\n\ncises,\n\nweeks, or one scholastic year of ten months, 7. e. Words.\n\n20\n\nLessons,\n\nx\n\n4\n\nWeeks.\n\nx\n\n40== 3,200 words;\n\nand these words should immediately be used in original construction\nin the language lesson of 40 minutes that follows. No dead words, whose\nmeaning and use are unknown to students, should be carried in stock.\nThe entrance examination in spelling furnishes a standard of measurement which should be applied to subsequent monthly examinations of\n\n"}
{"page": 810, "printed_page": null, "text": "800\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\na similar character throughout the year, to test progress and encourage\nEvery error should be corrected in red ink.\"\nstudent.\nEXAMINATION\n\nTEST\n\nIN\n\nENGLISH.\n\nTo develop a candidate’s present practical knowledge and use of his\nown language, your committee recommends that the following test be\napplied without exception, the question being, not where nor how he was\n\npreviously educated, but how he habitually uses the English language:\n1. A page of straight copying matter, involving a considerable variety\nof capitalization, punctuation, paragraphing, and construction, as a running debate, rapid dialogue, quotations, titles, etc., the purpose being to\ntest mental perception, fidelity of eye, and accuracy of hand.\n2. A page of dictation of similar matter, at twenty words a minute,\nthrowing the candidate wholly upon his own responsibility as to all\ndetails.\n3. A page of errors in construction to be corrected, including twenty\nsentences, and illustrating through popular errors every law of construction. The corrections should be underscored.\n4. A page of original composition, the points being given on examination paper.\nIt may be a letter, or a brief review of a popular topic.\nA well-trained\n\nEnglish scholar, who is a candidate\n\nfor business train-\n\ning only, will not object to this examination.\nHe will enjoy it. And if\nhe passes at 95 per cent. to 98 per cent., English training in his case may\nbe made optional.\nPROGRAMME\n\nOF\n\nCONDENSED\n\nCOURSE\n\nIN\n\nENGLISH.\n\nFirst month.— Four lessons per week:\nThe nine original elements,\nsubject, predicate, adjective (or participle), adverb, object, conjunction,\ncomparison, and peculiar and irregular forms.\n\nIf a class is backward\n\nor especially deficient,\ntwo months\n\nmay be\n\ndevoted to this work, which is to be treated as a thorough review of what,\nit is assumed, has at some time been learned.\n\nEvery element must be illustrated by the student in original sentences, introducing words drawn from his new spelling vocabulary.\nSecond month.\nPhrases. — Subject-phrases, objective, adjective, adverbial, and conjunctive, introducing, in original sentences, every variety of\npreposition, and illustrating the danger of a wrong shade of meaning\nconveyed by using a wrong preposition, or a preposition in the wrong\nplace in the sentence.\nThird\n\nmonth.\n\nClauses.—Subject-clauses,\n\nobjective,\n\nadjective,\n\nand\n\n* Your committee knew a student who rose from 9§ per cent. wrong to 95 per cent. right\nunder this training in one year. He was an intelligent foreigner, it is true, but this indicates how greatly he needed that special training.\n\n"}
{"page": 811, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSHORTHAND\n\nadverbial,\n\nintroducing,\n\nin original\n\n801\n\nsentences,\n\nevery\n\nvariety\n\nof subordi-\n\nnate conjunction, and reviewing the declension of personal and relative\npronouns, illustrating the common errors in their use in clauses.\nfourth month Comparison and illustration of simple, compound,\nand complex elements, and comparison and illustration of simple, com— all illustrations being original sentences\npound, and complex sentences\nby student, introducing daily new words from his new vocabulary. There\nare seventy-five varieties of complex elements, giving grace, style, accuracy, and strength to composition.\nfifth month.\nLaws of construction and laws of punctuation.—As all\nwork done by the student in English, and in other branches, has been\ncriticised and corrected as to construction and punctuation, and has been\nreturned to him to be rewritten, he should have acquired a fair degree\nof accuracy as to habits of construction and punctuation, but for authority, for reference when\n\nin doubt,\n\nfor life-long\n\nuse,\n\nhe needs\n\na code\n\nof\n\nlaws upon these two essentials of language.\nSince copious, original illustrations on every one of these laws should\nbe required, it may be found necessary to extend the time allotted\nanother month.\nThe regular time assigned to language during the\nremainder of the school year should be devoted to abstracts and reviews\nof lectures\n\nwealth,\n\nand\n\nand\n\nlessons\n\nin ethics, civics, commercial\n\nother topics of the school\n\ncurriculum,\n\ncriticised and, if necessary, returned to be rewritten.\n\nlaw, the science\n\neach\n\nof\n\npaper\n\nbeing\n\nThere should\n\nbe a\n\nreview of the whole year’s course before the final examination for graduation, and the tests applied at the close should cover the same ground\nas those given at the beginning to ascertain whether training in English\nwas imperatively needed.\nA standard of go per cent. to 95 per cent. should be demanded for\ngraduation from either the business or the shorthand department, and\nthe standard should be the same for both departments.\nThroughout the\ncourse there should be developed in the student a love for the study of\nhis native language, an admiration for its beauties, an appreciation of its\npower.\nOne year is sufficient for the systematic course herein outlined.\nA lifetime of careful research, critical analysis, and faithful practice still\nleaves a mine of wealth to be explored.\n\nSHORTHAND.\nBY\n\nISAAC\n\nS.\n\nDEMENT,\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nSHORTHAND\n\nTEACHERS’\n\nASSOCIATION.\n\nShorthand is so large a subject and the misunderstanding of it so great\nthat I feel it is impossible to explain the one or remove the other within\n\n"}
{"page": 812, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n802\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n[Business\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nthe time allotted, and I shall not attempt either, confining myself to some\ngeneral remarks.\n\n:\n\nShorthand is a science that appeals, at times most beseechingly, to the\nAs paint is paint, whether on the canvas, showing, with\nartistic sense.\nintricate precision, the magnificent conception of the artist, or upon the\nhouse, mixing its colors with the hues of nature; so shorthand is shorthand, whether its imprint upon the page be a photograph of some impassioned utterance or a distorted image, showing dim fragments of the\nglorious ideas of the speaker.\n‘This is according to the accepted definiBut shorthand is as broad as the English language—it is a full, a\ntion.\ncomplete language.\nIt responds, in the hands of an artist, with quick\nsympathy, to all the moods, to all the passions, and submits to the monot-\n\nony of ponderous logic. It is like the trolley of the electric car, the\nthrottle of the locomotive, the sail of the ship. It is that which preserves and gives force to individual power.\nWithout it we should have\nfew great men, for their greatness would not be known; without it the\ncommerce of the entire world would not have reached its splendid proIf it were swept from existence, by some such miracle as\nportions.\noccurred at the Tower of Babel, when\n\nwould\n\nthe world recover from the\n\nshock ?\nShorthand has made England and the United States the powers\nthey are. And yet the business educator does not concern himself about\nit. He employs a shorthand teacher and advertises to teach shorthand.\n‘Does he look into the pedigree of the system?\nWhy should he?\nDoes\nnot its author claim that it is rapid? that it is accurate ? that it is easily\nacquired?\nIs that not sufficient?\nDoes he feel called upon to ascertain\nwhether it is an untried theory or a tried and proved system.\nIf he\nbe a hunter and wish to purchase a canine assistant, will he look into\nits pedigree?\nIf he enjoy driving, will his 2:30 team be scrubs or\nthoroughbreds?\nIf he desire a critical chemical analysis performed,\nwill he employ some one to do it who has had no experience in such\nmatters ?\nIn all affairs\n\nof life the business\n\neducator\n\nis most\n\ncritical, save\n\nin\n\nThere are hundreds of bicycles, some good, some medium,\nshorthand.\nsome bad; and there are many shorthand systems based on the grand\nideas of Sir Isaac Pitman, some of which are\n\ngood,\n\nsome\n\nmedium, some\n\nbad.\nWill the business educator ever come to require the author of a\nshorthand text-book to prove his theories by actual demonstration ? An\nauthor who cannot do personally all that he claims can be done by his\nsystem should not be permitted to delude the public, and the business\neducator should not be a particeps criminis in the transaction.\nPardon\n\nthis digression, for it is inseparable from\n\nhave said, shorthand\n\nis as extensive\n\nas the English\n\nthe subject.\n\nAs\n\nI\n\nlanguage, it is its\n\n"}
{"page": 813, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\ncounterpart.\n\nSHORTHAND\n\nTherefore,\n\ninstruction\n\nin\n\n803\n\nEnglish\n\nis prerequisite\n\nto, or\n\nmust\n\ngo hand in hand with, instruction in shorthand.\nThe two are so\n-connected that the latter is useless without the former: but a combina-\n\ntion is easily formed by which any defects in English may be almost\nunconsciously repaired as the-study of shorthand and typewriting is\nprogressing.\nInstruction in shorthand must be positive; there must be no doubts\narising in the mind of the student.\nLesson by lesson must be the rule.\nThe foundation must be well laid and must be weighed down —forced.\ndown to bed-rock-—before the superstructure is placed upon it. The\nprinciple or principles in each lesson must be so impressed, so indeli-\n\nbly impressed, upon the mind, before the next lesson is begun, that,there\nshall be no necessity for review.\nAnd no principle can be said to have\nbeen mastered which the student cannot instantly correctly apply.\nWhat art is there in the instruction of which rapidity is not the\n‘supreme element?\n‘The student of the piano is given the scales and is\ntold that he must acquire such a swiftness in their execution that the\npassage of time between the notes is hardly discernible.\nThe instruction upon the violin proceeds along the same lines.\nIn fact, rapidity is\nthe desideratum.\nIt may be said the elements must be first acquired.\nTrue, and they\nmust be acguired.\n‘The student should not be permitted to leave them\nuntil they are acguired; and “acquired” is a positive term—it means.\nundisputed possession, possession independent of all and everything\nelse.\nThat is, the student must fossess the elements; they have become\nhis property, independent of the text-book and of the teacher.\nAs the railroad train must proceed at moderate speed over a poorly\nconstructed, loose, and uncertain roadbed, and\n\nmay proceed\n\nat the limit\n\nof the locomotive’s speed over a roadbed properly ballasted and secured,\nso the shorthand student is compelled to write at less speed when his °\nknowledge of the elements is uncertain than when he feels the power of\npositive knowledge.\n;\nThe plan of getting the student through the text-book and into the\nspeed class, before he receives any knowledge of speed, is on a par with\n-instruction in arithmetic without examples.\nIt is quite like a change of\n‘country and of language\n—it is beginning anew; it is a return to all the\ndiscouragements passed over, with the addition of others.\nLet theory and practice go hand in hand.\nGive the student frequent\nglimpses of the road ahead, and the difficulties will be less discouraging;\n\n‘the bugbear of speed will be overcome before it can do any damage;\nfor the student will steal upon it so silently, so positively, that he will be\n-taken unawares and captured without a struggle. .\n\n<a\n\n"}
{"page": 814, "printed_page": null, "text": "804\n\nRAPID\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nCALCULATION,\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nBUSINESS PRACTICE,\nACCOUNTING.\n\nBY SAMUEL\n\n|Business\n\nAND\n\nHIGHER\n\nH. GOODYEAR.\n\nThe writer would never have chosen such a combination of subjects\n‘for a twenty-minute paper, but as he has merely by request of the committee taken the place made vacant by the inability of another to be here\ntoday, he has had nothing to do with the selection or phrasing of the\nsubject.\nAs we regard it, the subject given is a trio of subjects, each one of\n‘vital importance in a commercial course, and each one worthy of an\nextended paper and a spirited discussion.\nAs rapid calculations and business arithmetic are intimately connected,\nin fact, are but parts of the same science, we will discuss these topics\nbriefly, and leave the subject of higher accounting for another paper.\nThere is great diversity of opinion on the subject of rapid calculations.\nSome teachers in their enthusiasm for rapid calculations collect\ntogether\n\na vast\n\nnumber\n\nof so-called\n\nshort\n\ncuts, short\n\nmethods, mathe-\n\nmatical conundrums and puzzles, and drill the youthful mind in this\nkaleidoscope of figures, hoping thereby to develop rapidity.\nSuch\nrapidity, in the writer’s judgment, develops inaccuracy in the student,\nwhich is more to be condemned than slow processes.\nThe student whose mind is kept on the rack constantly to think of\nsome short cut in figures that is adapted to the problem in hand, is far\nmore likely to obtain inaccurate results than the one who uses the ordinary methods of computing and gives his whole thought to the securing of\naccurate results.\nStrictly speaking, there are but two fundamental or primary processes\nin arithmetic\n— addition, adding to or increasing ; and subtraction, taking\nfrom or diminishing.\nMultiplication is only a rapid method of adding equal quantities, and\ndivision is only a rapid method of diminishing quantities by taking away\nthe divisor a given number of times.\nEvery time that we multiply or\ndivide we are using short methods that seem like magic to the uneducated.\nAddition of columns of figures has called forth a number of processes\nfor developing rapidity ; and well it may, for more than three-fourths.of\nall computations in business consist of addition of long or short columns.\nSome people are mentally constituted differently from others.\nSome\naccountants astonish the lookers-on by adding two or three columns of\n\n"}
{"page": 815, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCALCULATION,\n\nBUSINESS\n\nPRACTICE, ACCOUNTING\n\n805\n\nfigures at once with ease and rapidity.\nOthers attempt the same method\nand fail, both in speed and accuracy.\nIt is our belief, after years of testing of all of the methods presented for acquiring rapid addition, that\nthere is only one way for the average pupil to become accurate and skillful in adding long columns, and that is by daily drill in adding numbers,\none column at a time.\nHe should continue the addition drills for a\nquarter ora half-hour each day, and not rest satisfied until he becomes\nable to glance up a column and combine its figures into totals as rapidly\nand accurately as he reads across a printed page, combining letters into\nwords and words into sentences at a speed that is marvelous when we stop\nIn\nto count the number of sounds represented by the separate letters.\nlearning to read, the student spells out each word letter by letter, making\nslow progress; but continued practice enables him to combine letters into\nThe same is true of reading figures in a column.\nwords at a glance.\nThe student may be trained to combine figures into amounts as rapidly\nas his eye can run up or down the column.\nI bave\n\nin mind\n\na brave\n\nsoldier who went\n\nout\n\non\n\nthe skirmish line,\n\nwhere he might need to fight the enemy hand to hand.\nHe carried a\n_ heavy rifle for long-distance firing, a lighter gun for shorter range, and\npistols for close range; a javelin for hurling at his enemy, a saber for\nlong\n\nthrusts,\n\nand\n\na dirk\n\nfor\n\nclose\n\nencounter.\n\nThus\n\nhe\n\nwent\n\nforth\n\nequipped for every condition he might meet, but so burdened with his\nequipments that he had little strength left for fighting.\nDo you think\nthis soldier could do as effective work as one who is armed with a single\ntrusty weapon that he can use skillfully and rapidly, and on which he can\n\nalways depend ?\nSo it seems to me is the schoolboy who has been trained in a number\nof alleged short methods in multiplication that are adapted to certain\nconditions, of combinations of figures that are easily constructed in the\nclass-room\n\nby the teacher,\n\nbut which\n\nseldom\n\noccur\n\nin business.\n\nThe\n\nyoung man tries to hold all these processes in mind, and determine which\none to use in a given case. In many instances the ordinary method,\nskillfully used, would give the result desired before the young man skilled\nin short methods would have decided which one to use. The writer\nclaims to have at least average ability in using numbers, and he has been\n_ an enthusiastic student of short cuts and rapid processes; but he wants to\nconfess right here and now that he never dares “to bank” on the results\nobtained by the short cuts until he has tested them by one of the usual\nmethods.\nTo sum up briefly, what might take longer to argue and\n\nillustrate, we\n\nare led by schoolroom experience to conclude that the best way to\ndevelop rapid calculations is to drill the student in standard methods, day\nafter day, until he shall have acquired skill and rapidity in these methods.\n\n"}
{"page": 816, "printed_page": null, "text": "806\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nPassing to our second subject, we would mark the distinction between\nbusiness arithmetic and the higher arithmetic and the practical arithmetic.\n\nThe latter two treat\n\narithmetic as the science of numbers, and, if\n\ncomplete treatises, they must give every method of computing numbers,\neven if such methods have no practical use and no commercial value.\nThe student in arithmetic is carried through the various processes, each\nprocess being subdivided into cases, with classified examples for each\ncase.\nHe may have learned a great deal about numbers, but he has not\nacquired skill in the practical processes that relate to business.\nThe province of business arithmetic is to select the parts of arithmetical science that are required in the business world, give the shortest\npractical methods of solving business problems, and provide for ample\ndrill in these methods until the student may acquire skill in their use.\nIf our idea of a business arithmetic is correct, it is not a cyclopedia of\nnumbers, not a collection of mathematical tables, not a symposium of\narithmetical conundrums and puzzles in numbers; but a practice book, a\ndrill book in methods of computing that are used by experienced men.\nSuch a book may be made small and compact, in harmony with the\nmodern idea of text-books that are to be studied from cover to cover,\ninstead of the voluminous books of reference that are better fitted to\ngrace a library.\nThe tendency of this practical age is to small text-books for study,\nwith subject-matter carefully graded and condensed.\nSuch a book\nencourages the student to master its entire contents, and not to treat it\nmerely as.a book of reference.\nThe up-to-date business arithmetic must keep in touch with business\nusages.\nA business arithmetic written fifteen or twenty years ago may be\na splendid treatise on numbers, and may afford excellent mathematical\ndrill; but as a text on\n\nmodern\n\nbusiness\n\ncalculations\n\nit maf be a classic,\n\nfitted only to grace the library.\nIf our arguments are correct, they would lead to this conclusion: the\nmodern business arithmetic should be a condensed book, containing only\npractical methods of solving practical problems; it should contain\nenough of such problems to develop skill and rapidity in their solution.\nIt should not confuse the student by introducing too many methods of\nsolution, but select only the best, and give ample drill in these.\n\nTo prepare such a book, the author should not draw too heavily on .\nearlier volumes\n\non\n\nthis subject, lest his modern book\n\nturn\n\nout to be a\n\nclassic merely in modern dress.\nHe should visit the office of the banker\nand broker, the countingroom of the merchant, the shop of the manufacturer and tradesman, and there ascertain what problems are to be\nsolved, and how men of experience solve them.\nThe successful business arithmetic should not be merely a compendium\n\n"}
{"page": 817, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCALCULATION,\n\nBUSINESS\n\nPRACTICE,\n\nACCOUNTING\n\n807\n\nof information regarding methods of solving business problems.\n\nIE it is\n\nto be used in the class-room as a text-book, it should\n\nbe educational.\n\nIt\n\nshould have in view the development of the student.\nAs business men\nhave been led by experience to adopt the practical methods they now use,\nthe student should be led as much as possible to formulate his own rules\nEvery process should be\nfrom his own experience in solving problems.\nintroduced by problems so simple that a mere child could solve them\nmentally; and from such a starting point the student should be led to the\nsolution of the more difficult problems by processes he has seemed to\ndevelop for himself. The student should be prepared to comprehend and\nNo one can\nsolve any problem that may arise in business intercourse.\nhope to be able to do this by merely learning the rules, working the\nexamples after the models given, and proving the work correct by the\nprinted answer.\nHe should be independent of rules; the principles\nshould be so firmly established in his mind that there will be no need of\nOur\nrules, or of reference to the model forms of solving problems.\nexperience warrants us in advising students to devote little time to the\nlearning of rules in arithmetic.\nIf they master principles, they can\n_ formulate their own rules. Rules committed to memory may be forgotten,\nbut principles thoroughly mastered are never forgotten.\nOne of the best means of training the mind for rapid and accurate\nsolution of problems is mental arithmetic.\nThe solution of mental problems in arithmetic develops the student’s reasoning faculties, and enables\nhim to formulate his own rule and method for solving more difficult\nproblems.\nThe ideal arithmetic should introduce every practical topic\nby the use of mental problems, and all problems, whether simple or complicated, should be practical, should have the stamp of business on them ;\nthey should inspire the student with the thought that his problems are not\nmeaningless tasks, but living questions like those he will meet when he\nenters the business world.\nEvery teacher of arithmetic, and every text-book on this subject, should\n\ntrain the student to use his judgment in the solution of every problem.\nA few moments of careful thought before starting to solve a problem will\nfrequently save the student a half hour’s extra calculation, by starting him\nright ; and, what is still more important, will often give an approximate\nanswer that will aid him in detecting an absurd answer obtained from a\nproper application of the rule, the result of inaccuracies in calculation.\nThe student should be led to use the high endowments of reason and\njudgment whenever it is possible to do so, and not allow himself to degenerate into a mere mathematical machine.\n\n"}
{"page": 818, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n808\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nIS THE PRESENT HIGH-SCHOOL COURSE A SATISFACTORY\nIF NOT,\nPREPARATION FOR BUSINESS?\nHOW SHOULD IT BE MODIFIED?\n\nBY\n\nCHARLES\n\nH.\n\nTHURBER,\n\nTHE\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF\n\nCHICAGO.\n\nIn Walter Besant’s novel “Katherine Regina” one of the characters\nis a young German clerk, a type of the young German who is becoming\nsuch a perplexing element in English commercial life. In his conversation\nwith the heroine a good deal of light is thrown upon the difference between\nthe training given in Germany and that given in England for commercial\npursuits.\nThe moral is as good for America as it is for England, and I\ncan, I think, do no better in introducing my topic than to quote Dittmer\nBock :\n“T find the memory of great English\n\nmerchants, and I find great German houses—\n\nHamburg is the place where you must look now for great merchants.\nDid you ever hear\nof the Godefroi brothers ?”\nKatherine never had.\n“They were boys who worked and looked about them.\nPerhaps they had read history\nand knew about Whittington and Gresham.\nAnd they rose and became rich; they\ndiscovered an island, and they established trade with it and planted it; they became\nrich; they founded the great German colonial empire of the future”— here Dittmer\nspread his arms — ‘“‘ which will grow and grow until it swallows up your English colonies\none after the other.\n\nI, too, shall look about the world until I discover another island like\n\nSamoa ; then I shall go there and begin to trade and to plant.”\n~\n“Tt is a great ambition, Dittmer.”\n“Tt has been my resolve since I was a child. In order to carry it out 1 have learned\nwhat I could—mathematics, languages, bookkeeping, shorthand, physical geography,\ncommercial and political history, and the present condition of trade over all the world.\n\nI know every harbor and its exports and imports, and the principal merchants who carry\non its trade.”\n“That seems a great deal to learn.”\n\n“Modern trade wants all this knowledge.\nThere will very soon be no more English\nmerchants, because your young men will not learn the new conditions of trade. In every\noffice there must be clerks who can write and speak foreign languages.\nYour young men\nwill not learn them. Then we come over— we who have learned them.\nFor my part, I\ncan write and read English, Swedish, Danish, French, Spanish, Italian, Dutch, and German:\n\nDo you think we shall be content to stay here asclerks ? No,no. Do you think that I have\ncome here to sit down with forty pounds a year? We are cheap, we German clerks. You\nsay so. Mein Gott, you will find us dear! We are learning our trade: we find out all your\ncustomers and your correspondents : we learn your profits, and we undersell you. We\ndo not go away. We remain.\nAnd presently, instead of an English house, there is a\nGerman house in its place, because your young men are so stupid that they will not Jearn.’”\nAt this point Dittmer was quite carried away, and became the American newspaper\nGerman.\n\n"}
{"page": 819, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nend.\n\n4/GH-SCHOOL\n\nCOURSE\n\nAS A BUSINESS\n\nPREPARATION\n\n809\n\n“I study English commerce\n—I study how it began and why it is now coming to an\nThe English clerk will not learn anything, and expects to be paid like an Amts-\n\nrichter at least.\n\npoor, but we can\n\nIn Deutschland\n\nwait.\n\nwe\n\nlearn,\n\nand\n\nwe\n\nare\n\npoor\n\nat first.\n\nJa wohl, we\n\nare\n\nIt is your high salaries in your army, in your navy, in your\n\nchurch, in your trade, in your administration, which\n\nruin Great Britain.\n\nEverywhere the\n\nGerman merchant drives out the English and the American.”\n\nThis is a very clear statement of the problem.\nUpon the solution of\nthis problem depends the commercial progress of our country.\nIt has been characteristic of Anglo-Saxon education, both in England\nand in the United States, that it has devoted itself almost exclusively to\nhumanistic training, to education which shall make men better, because\nbroader and more cultured citizens.\nWe have developed excellent technical schools, which train men for engineering and architecture; but these\nare essentially professions.\nIn all our educational literature, however, it\nis frequently avowed, and always tacitly allowed, that it is beneath the\ndignity of educators to undertake the task of fitting youth for a specific\nwork\n\nin\n\nlife.\n\nIt has\n\nbeen\n\noften\n\nsaid, and is widely\n\nbelieved,\n\nthat\n\na\n\ncollege education is a positive damage to one who wishes to pursue a\nbusiness career.\nThis point of view is very well expressed in letters I\nhave received from prominent Chicago business men upon this question.\nOne writes as follows:\nI have knownof cases where college training has givenits recipients such a pedantic\nturn of mind as to be an actual hindrance to the broad and liberal policy now so necessary\nto develop and sustain large enterprises and undertakings.\n\nAnother says:\nIf the young\n\nman adopts a commercial\n\ncareer with a view of making it his support\n\nand that of those who may be dependent upon him, the years spent at college would be a\nserious loss to him and,.in a measure, even unfit him for the work before him. To gain a\npractical knowledge of business, it is necessary for the young man to begin at the very\nbottom, which implies, in most\n\ninstances, menial\n\ntasks.\n\nThe boy of fifteen or seventeen\n\nyears of age easily adapts himself to these, but not so the college graduate, who would\nsurely feel a degradation in having assigned to him tasks which usually fall to the lot of\nthe apprentice.\n\nStill another gentleman says:\nThe reason why so many college men do not prove to be good business men is that\nthere seems to be a tradition against a commercial career, as compared with a professional\none.\nIf the college-bred man, after going through college, would commence where the\nerrand boy who enters an office begins, or a stock boy who goes on the stock floors—he\nwould learn all the intricacies of business by practical and daily contact.\nHe would\nmake a far better merchant, all things being equal, by reason of his superior mental\nequipment.\n\nAnother gentleman states:\n\n“1 would intersperse some business train-\n\ning with years of study.”\n\n.. These suggestions from practical business men of high standing bring\ncertain other aspects of the problem before us.\nIn its fundamental char-\n\n"}
{"page": 820, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n810\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n[Business\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nacter the high-school course of today is essentially the same as the college\ncourse, and, therefore, the objections urged against the college course, if\nthey be true, hold good against the high-school course, although to a more\nIs it not true that our whole system of higher education—\nlimited extent.\nhigh school, academy, college, and university\n\n—is calculated to turn stu-\n\nIs it not shaped from beginning\ndents aside from commercial pursuits?\nto end rather to encourage professional life? Is it common to find in\nour higher schools students who are avowedly preparing for business\npursuits ? We often hear that there is an overcrowding of the professions.\nIs not the community which supports the present system of\neducation responsible for this overcrowding?\nIn Germany and France\nit is understood that only the select few will go to the high schools and\nuniversities, and the state provides amply to train the others for their\nappropriate stations in life. There are not only schools of engineering\nand\n\narchitecture, forestry, and mining, but also schools\n\nfor the teaching\n\nof all the trades and arts, and schools for giving the training necessary\nin the broader realms of commerce.\nIn our own country all of these matters have been left to private enterprise.\nWe have a large number of\nbusiness and commercial colleges, all private schools, generally with short\ncourses.\nThey have frequently produced good bookkeepers and good\nstenographers, but is there not reason to believe that their courses have\nbeen too narrow in their scope, and that these institutions have trained\nclerks and assistants, rather than leaders and directors\n\nprises?\n\nof business enter-\n\nI do not think these schools can fairly be blamed for this, for\n\nthey have, doubtless, done\n\nthe best they could;\n\nbut I do think\n\nthe com-\n\nmunities may be blamed for not providing, at community expense, those\nfuller and broader courses of study which few can pursue at private\nexpense.\nThere has been rather too much theorizing in every department\nof the field of education and too little study of the actual facts.\nIn\nstudying a question of this kind, it would seem to be a wise method of\nprocedure to get the views of the business men themselves, who certainly\n\nought to be interested in this question, and who have most intimate\nknowledge of the facts in the case.\nTo this end, I have undertaken a\nlittle study in inductive pedagogy.\nI prepared and sent out to a large\nnumber of business men and bankers, mainly in the city of Chicago, a\nsyllabus, the names having been selected by gentlemen who are acquainted\nwith the commercial life of that city, which I will read to you in\n\nI have already received a large number of replies, many of them of the\ngreatest value. The interest taken in the question has surprised me.\nNot a few have written long, personal letters, covering five or six typewritten pages; and these are, in every instance, men at the head of commercial or banking enterprises of the largest kind.\nIt is impossible for\n\n"}
{"page": 821, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n[<<<<iiiimea:\n\nA/GH-SCHOOL COURSE AS A BUSINESS PREPARATION\noc) Ga\n\na\n\n811\n\na\n\nme, in a brief paper of this kind, to present fully the results of this investigation, but I hope to be able to give some of the most suggestive\nfeatures.\nLet me take up the answers to the questions in the order in\nwhich the questions are stated.\nIt should be premised that the replies\nare confined, in most instances, strictly to the question asked.\nA good\nmany of the replies express a decided preference for a college education\nfor all who are able to obtain it, independent of its value in business.\nNearly all of them express the belief that it is well for everyone to obtain\nall the knowledge possible.\nBut the fact is that for 97 per cent. of our\npopulation even a high-school education is out of reach.\nThe answers\nto the first question, “Should a business man have a college education, or\nis a high-school education sufficient\n?” are practically uniformly to the\neffect that a high-school education is sufficient.\nIn regard to the second question,\n\n‘‘Which\n\nis of the most value,\n\nthe\n\namount of knowledge gained in school or the discipline and control of\nthe mind?” there is no difference of opinion, the discipline and control\nof the mind being considered of first importance.\nThe replies to the third question, as to the age when it is best to begin\nthe study of business or banking, are largely in favor of beginning before\nthe age of twenty.\nIn reply to the fourth question, Latin is generally considered of little\npractical value.\n\nOne gentleman, however,\n\nqualifies\n\nthis statement\n\nin an\n\ninteresting way.\nHesays: “It would seem to me that these questions\ncannot be intelligently answered except under certain qualifications.\nThat you may the better understand what I mean, I will say that the\nwriter hereof has been the chief executive for this business for the past\ntwenty-six years, in the important departments known in trade as law, collection, and credit departments, in which a classical education is not only\nhighly advantageous, but most necessary, while in other branches of the\nsame business such education is in no wise necessary, although, of course,\nit is desirable.\nThe success of a salesman or a buyer of merchandise\ndoes not depend upon his general education.\nThe knowledge of Latin\nin a business man’s training is especially advantageous, provided such a\nman occupies an executive position, where the dictation of the correspondence connected. with the business of the firm becomes a part of his\n\nduty.”’\nIn reply to Question\n\n5, Greek is not considered\n\nof any practical value\n\nby anyone.\nReplying to Questions 6 and 7, the writers differ somewhat, though\nscarcely anyone assigns a high value to French and German, except in\nspecial cases. German is generally considered more important than French.\nIn reply to Question\n\nall those answering.\n\n8, mathematics\n\nis given a very\n\nhigh position by\n\n"}
{"page": 822, "printed_page": null, "text": "812\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nChemistry and biology are not considered of special importance,\nthough several emphasize the fact that chemistry is undoubtedly of great\nOne says: ‘A reasonable knowledge of\nvalue in certain special lines.\nbiology is of value. A sound and healthy body being admittedly a\nfeature of a successful business career, such knowledge as pertains to the\nmaintenance of health and to physical improvement is desirable.”\nOn Questions rr and 12, there is a surprising unanimity of opinion.\nNot one person fails to mark history and English exceedingly high; and,\nalmost uniformly, English is given the first place.\nPermit me to quote a\nfew opinions:\n“History, particularly philosophical history, is valuable to the business\nman.\nIt has a tendency to broaden his views, teach him the relation\nbetween cause and effect, and show him that present ills are simply repetitions.\nIt is also likely to make him conservative and less apt to be\ncarried away by booms and unsound political and business theories.”\n‘History is extremely valuable to the understanding of many financial\nproblems which, in later years, will absorb the banker’s mind seeking\nrelief from the humdrum of the counter, and at the same time endeavor-\n\ning to obtain a higher intellectual standing for his chosen profession.”\n“Should indulge liberally in history and English.\nBoth are valuable\nto the banker who wishes to reach the head of his profession.\nThis will\nbe particularly true in the future.\nAs the dealings of bankers are more\nextended with foreign countries, the more necessary enlarged education\nupon these two points.”\n“ A thorough knowledge of English is essential.\nClearness and conciseness of expression are more of a desideratum in banking than in any\nother calling. The aphorism, ‘Time is money,’ is the watchword of the\nbanker.\nEvery word must be weighed before it is uttered, and each word\nas spoken must leave no doubt as to its meaning.\nHowcan such a result\nbe obtained without a thorough knowledge of the English language and\nhow to speak it ?”\nMany say, “English is indispensable.”\n“The value of a perfect\nknowledge of the English language cannot be overestimated.\n‘The business man who can present a proposition in clear, concise, forcible English has a tremendous advantage over his, in this respect, less favored competitor.”’\n“You note the stress ] put on the study of English.\nI am still of\nthe opinion that in the pursuit of our own language we are far behind\nGreat Britain, where the better educated speak and write their language\nbetter than it is spoken and written in our own land, simply because our\neducators do not place the same importance on that study as is done in\nEngland, and, for that matter, in Germany, Austria, and France.”’\n\nIf a student\n\nof business\n\ncannot\n\ngo to college, ought he\n\nto study\n\n"}
{"page": 823, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMW/GAH-SCHOOL\n\nCOURSE\n\nAS A BUSINESS\n\nPREPARATION\n\n813\n\npolitical economy in the high school?\nThe majority of the replies to\nthis question are in the affirmative, but frequently with some qualification.\nFor example: ‘“ EmphatSome are decidedly in the negative.\nically, no.\n\nPolitical economy,\n\nas taught in the schools, is full of errors ;\n\nthe text-books inuse are those which originated among different conditions\nfrom those with which we are now surrounded. I believe it was Carey\nwho said that scientists, sooner or later, all agree, but political economists\nnever, and gives as a reason\n\nthat, no matter what\n\ntheories are advocated,\n\nthey are bound to conflict with the interests of some one.\nHence, the\ntruth can never be arrived at. Political economy is to be taken up by the\nbanker in after years as a relaxation study, and perhaps also as a means\nof cultivating and gratifying controversial tendencies.”\n‘““ While political economy cannot be said to be a. branch of banking,\nit leads the mind to a consideration of public questions that enablesit\nbetter to consider many phases of banking not directly connected with\n\nsuch study.”\nAnother answer to the question is: ‘“‘ Not if free-trade text-books are\nused.”’\n\nAnd still another:\n\n“ Not unless\n\nhe has\n\nambition\n\nto become\n\nsec-\n\nretary of the treasury.”\nAnother reply is: “If a student cannot go to\ncollege, he certainly ought to study political economy in the high school,\nand follow it his entire life, if he continues to be a merchant.”\n\n“A fair knowledge of political economy ought to be had by every\nbusiness man, the effect being similar to that gained by the study of history.\nA man who has acquired some of the principles of political\neconomy at the high school will be very apt to continue in that study\nthrough life.”\nOn the whole, the replies are emphatically in favor of the study of\npolitical economy in the high school.\nThe replies to the next question, ‘‘If a student cannot go to college,\nought he to study psychology in the high school?”\nare, as a rule, in the\nnegative.\nThere are several interesting statements which time will not\npermit me to quote.\nIn reply to the question concerning ethics, or moral philosophy,I\nmust content myself with quoting one or two answers :\n“As honesty and plain dealing are the foundation of the success of the banker, it is\nto be presumed\n\nthat\n\nthese\n\nqualities\n\nare\n\ninherent,\n\nand,\n\ntherefore,\n\ndo not require any\n\nelaboration whatever as to their radson d’étre. Consequently, a study of psychology,\nethics, or moral philosophy, as a part of the banker’s training, is not necessary.”\n“ Psychology, ethics, or moral philosophy, can be left until afterwards, and, in my\njudgment, bring best results when pursued after finishing the high school.”\n“‘The affirmative reply to Question 15 I would emphasize, for the reason that a right\nconduct in banking must often find its strongest motive in a future good to the business,\nrather than in a present advantage, and nothing will better cultivate this than moral\nphilosophy.”\n\n"}
{"page": 824, "printed_page": null, "text": "814\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nAfter these criticisms, let us consider what we\n\n[Business\n\nhave left of the model\n\nThis is\nFirst, and emphatically, English.\nhigh-school programme.\nby\nprepared\n,\nprogrammes\nmodel\nthese\nIn\ngiven first place by everyone.\n80—\nof\nout\nperiods\n11\nof\ntotal\na\nhas\nthe Committee of Ten, English\npractically one-eighth of the time. ~Is this sufficient time to give to the\nLatin, on the other hand, has 18 periods, or\nmost important study?\nThe second subject that we have left\nnearly twice as much as English.\nin these programmes is history, which receives in these programmes a\ntotal of 10 periods out of 80, or one-eighth of the total amount of time.\nIs this an adequate time allowance for this most important subject ? The\nthird subject is mathematics, which has a time allowance of 14 periods\nout of the 80 in the model programme.\nThese three fundamental studies of the present high-school course\nare cordially indorsed as desirable and indispensable in the preparation\nfor a business career.\nObviously, they should be made very prominent\nin any course of study specially devised for students of this kind. The\nother subjects of the curriculum of a high school, as it exists today, are\nevidently regarded as of indifferent value—serving well, indeed, the purposes of general education, but not specially important for the business\nlife. Shall we consider for a moment, then, what subjects ought to be\nadded to the existing curriculum ?\nAbout the value of political economy, when properly taught from\nsuitable text-books, there seems to be no question whatever.\nAll the\nbusiness men consulted upon this subject agree as to its importance.\nIt\nwould seem, too, as though there was sufficient basis for introducing some\nelementary study of ethics and moral philosophy.\nAnother subject is\ngeography, which is entirely neglected in our high-school course.\nThis\nwould, of course, take the form of commercial geography.\nOne gentleman writes that French and German should be taught, not alone for the\ndiscipline, but also for practical use. ‘The immediate future of the best\nbanking in the United States will call for much closer communication\nwith Germany and France, giving practical advantage to the banker who\nboth speaks and writes these languages.\nA number favored the addition\nof bookkeeping and commercial law, though in regard to commercial law\nanother correspondent has grave doubts.\nHe says: ‘‘ Commercial law is\na department which requires years of practice to know very much about,\nand the safe plan for the merchant is to know as little as possible about\nit, so that he will be sure not to rely on his limited knowledge when he\nhas an occasion that requires the advice of his attorney.”\nCommercial\narithmetic is recommended and this comment given: “There is nothing\nthat will help a young man as much during the first years of his banking\nexperience as being able to add or subtract accurately. In Britain a boy\ncan add orsubtract as swiftly and accurately the first day he is in a bank\n\n"}
{"page": 825, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nM/GH-SCHOOL\n\nCOURSE\n\nAS A BUSINESS\n\nPREPARATION\n\n815\n\nas an experienced clerk can in America.\nMy experience is that American boys have to learn after they enter the bank.”\nAnother correspondent recommends the addition of the history of commerce, the history of\nbanking, and the history of economics ; also the elements of commercial\nlaw,\n\nmaritime\n\nlaw, and\n\nof commercial\n\ntreaties;\n\nalong\n\nwith\n\na thorough\n\ntraining in arithmetic.\nAnother addition suggested is that of the study\nof “personal economy.’\nWe now have, in certain institutions, chairs of\nThe gentleman recommending the establishment of\ndomestic economy.\na course in personal economy makes the following comments: “It is not\ndisputed anywhere\n\nthat personal\n\nextravagance\n\nis a prominent\n\ncharacter-\n\nPersonal economy must always be\nistic of the people of this country.\nPut it in.”\none of the essentials to success in business.\nAnother careful correspondent makes the following interesting recommendation :\nI would suggest that the study of “human nature,” if it could only be reduced to a\nscience, be incorporated in a course of study, for there is nothing which so closely constitutes the key which will open the lock of success as the knowledge of human nature.\nI do not now recall the name of any science which is particularly applicable to this investigation or study, but I wish to emphasize the fact that there is no one qualification which\n\nso promptly and unerringly yields success to one’s efforts as the knowledge of human\nnature, and to know how\n\nto handle\n\nmen with whom\n\none\n\ncomes\n\nin contact.\n\nIf you will\n\npardon me for elaborating a little on this topic, I will say that I have often thought that it\nis more closely allied to the practice of medicine than to any other science. If one whose\nduty it is to control] and direct the actions of men has a knowledge, first, of the peculiarities possessed by any given man, and a knowledge also of the specific remedy. for that\npeculiarity, that subject at once comes under complete control, without realizing it, and\nthe operator in the first instance can contro] the results to be obtained.\nLike the physician, he must know what ails the patient, and he must know, next, the specific remedy\nfor that particular ailment, and, knowing these, such patient in his hands becomes as the\n\nclay in the hands of the molder.\nBy this I mean, not to control his physical movements, but to control his mental conclusions, to make him think as you think and, as a result, to do as you want him to do\nin any given business transaction. For illtstration, it is a rule of our business, in opening\n\na credit account with any new customer, to require him to make and sign a written property statement, showing his financial responsibility, and if this request or proposition is\nsubmitted in an abstract manner, seven out of every ten customers, perhaps, will refuse to\nmake and sign such statement, while, with the proper knowledge of human nature, one\ncan easily succeed in obtaining such written statement from ninety-nine out of every\nhundred customers.\nThat is what I mean by the knowledge of human nature; not a\nmagnetic or mesmeric influence, but the ability to read one so closely, after a few\nmoments’ conversation, as to be able to handle him so delicately as to secure from him\nwhatever may be sought or wanted in any given premises.\n\nStenography, typewriting, and bookkeeping are very generally recommended.\nThe last question on the syllabus was: “Do you favor the establishment of so-called ‘commercial high schools,’ with a course similar to\nIt was\nThis course you have before you.\nthat herewith inclosed?’”’\n\n"}
{"page": 826, "printed_page": null, "text": "816\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\npresented a year or two ago by Professor Edmund J. James in an address\nThere is practical unanimity\nbefore the American Bankers’ Association.\nof opinion in favor of the establishment of such a course.\n‘There is also,\nhowever, a great deal of adverse comment on the practice of undertaking\nto teach actual business transaction in school.\nThe course before you\nwould not seem to be open to criticism along this line. Some of the\nadverse comments ought, perhaps, to be stated, for they will serve as\nwarning beacons in planning a commercial course that will meet the\napproval of our business men :\n“Unless the commercial high school suggested is less theoretical, impractical, and\nshiftless than those heretofore established, it will prove a waste of time for the\nstudent.”\n*T do not believe in commercial high schools. They profess to educate a young man\nin every conceivable branch of business, going into the minutest details of every one, and\nleaving his mind in a jumble, out of which he will recognize only a few when coming in\ncontact with actual business, without knowing why or wherefore.\nMuch better give him a\ngeneral education, train his mind to thought and ready action, and trust to_his intelligence\nto pick up the details of the business that he is entering upon.”\n\n“Business methods\nbusiness.”\n\ncannot\n\nbe successfully taught by men who have never been in\n\nThe general testimony concerning the commercial high-school course,\nwhich you have before you and which was submitted to these gentlemen\nfor their opinion, is, however,\n\nmost\n\ndecidedly\n\nfavorable.\n\nSome\n\nof the\n\nopinions are as follows :\n“Think they would serve a good purpose.”’\n“T would highly favor the establishment\ncourse as you have outlined, and\n\nam\n\nvery sure\n\nof commercial\n\nhigh schools, with such a\n\nthat it would\n\nelevate the standard of the\n\ncoming merchant.”\n\n“Consider it an exceptionally good course.”’\n“The outline of the proposed curriculum, for a proposed commercial\nadapted in every way for the education of the business man.”\n\nhigh school is\n\n“T do favor the establishment of so-called commercial high schools, emphatically.\nSuch an education would, in my opinion, far outweigh the plans proposed for high-school\neducation,”\n“The\nyou\n\nestablishment\n\ninclose, and\n\nan\n\nof commercial\n\nefficient\n\ncorps\n\nhigh schools, with a course\n\nof teachers,\n\nwould,\n\nin my\n\nsimilar to the one\n\nopinion,\n\nbe\n\na\n\ngreat\n\nbenefit.”’\n\n“T think the course of a commercial high school should be shortened to three years.\nThe average age of boys graduating from grammar schools is fourteen years. Adding to\nthese the three years at the commercial high schools, will bring him, in my opinion, to the\nproper age for the beginning of the work before him.”\n\nThis gentleman, a former member of the Chicago Board of Education, presents the, following as a proper curriculum for a three-year\n.\ncourse:\n\n—\n\n"}
{"page": 827, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\n4/GAH-SCHOOL\nOUTLINE\n\nCOURSE\nFOR\n\nA\n\nAS A BUSINESS\n\nTHREE-YEAR\n\nBUSINESS\n\nPREPARATION\n\n817\n\nCOURSE.\n\n°\n\nFirst Year\n\nSecond Year\n\nThird Year\n\nRhetoric\n\nEnglish literature\n\nCommercial law\n\nAlgebra\nArithmetic\n\nAlgebra\nGeometry\n\nHistory of commerce\nStudy of commercial products\n\nAccounting\nAmerican history\n\nAccounting\nGeneral history\nBusiness correspondence and |Geography\npenmanship\nCommercial arithmetic\nFrench\nIndustries\nGerman\nFrench\nGeography\nGerman\n\nIndustrial chemistry\nTaxation\n;\n\nInternational law\nMoney and banking\nStudy of transportation\nSpanish\nGerman\nCommercial corporations\n\nCertain important questions now arise which demand discussion, but\nwhich I shall not have time to discuss.\nShould a commercial course be\nfor three years or four years?\nIn case a separate commercial course in\nhigh schools cannot be provided, should not provision be made for allowing certain commercial subjects as electives, along with the other subjects\nof the course?\nIn other words, should not the subjects of political\neconomy, history of commerce, commercial geography, history of industries, etc., be introduced, wherever practicable, and even at some expense,\n\ninto the present high-school course, as equal in value with biology, chemistry, French, German, botany, geology, physiography, and other subjects\nthat might be mentioned and which are now in all high-school courses?\nShould not great stress be laid in early years on English, history, and\nmathematics, which seem to be recognized as the subjects of the greatest.\nimportance for business life. Only a comparatively small proportion of\nthose who enter upon a high-school course finish it. The early years,\nwhich contain the most students, ought also to contain the studies of the\nmost universal helpfulness.\nAgain, the greatest question concerning the\nhigh schools of today is, Where are the boys?\nIna graduating class of\nforty there will be three boys and thirty-seven girls. Would the boys\nnot be there if the course contained some studies whose practical value\nthey could appreciate?\nWould not parents be willing to send them, and\nthe boys beeager to go? Therefore, would not the introduction into our\nhigh-school curriculum of commercial subjects, such as have been presented this afternoon, tend to attract the boys to the high school, and\nthus elevate the educational level of the whole community ?\nIn preparing this brief paper, I did not start out with a theory.\nI have undertaken to get at the facts from the point of view of the business men-~—citizens of the community who, after all, pay the bills and,\ntherefore, have a right to say what they shall have in their schools. I have\n\npresented, in the main, their answers to my inquiries. I can only regard\nit as a fortunate coincidence that they seem to agree so thorougly with my\n\n"}
{"page": 828, "printed_page": null, "text": "EDUCATIONAL\n\nNATIONAL\n\n818\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nown views. I do not consider this question as in any sense inferior to any\nquestion now before the educational public. It is a question that affects\nour whole country as vitally as any educational problem can. The world\nis changing, things are not as they were; we must adapt our education to\nthe new conditions ;we must bring the work of the schools into the closest\nI cannot close better than to quote\nrelation to the life of the people.\nsubstantially the closing remarks in one of the letters I have received:\nI cannot refrain from saying that the chief obstacle, in my opinion, to the success of\nthe young man of higher education is that he has instilled into his mind a contempt for the\nmercantile calling. If educators were to infuse a spirit of commercial ambition into their\npupils, and would emphasize the necessity for an education of usefulness by such a course\nas you are now contemplating, the choice between\n\ncommerce\n\nand the professions would\n\nbe more evenly distributed, and many a young man who thinks himself too good for\nanything but a professional life, and, in consequence, spends his years in drudgery and\ndisappointment, would achieve substantial results as a merchant\n\nand be, at the same time,\n\na far greater benefit to the community.\n\nLAWS\n\nAND\n\nETHICS OF BUSINESS, DUTIES OF\nSHIP, AND SCIENCE OF WEALTH.\n\nBY\n\nH.\n\nM.\n\nROWE,\n\nBALTIMORE,\n\nCITIZEN-\n\nMD.\n\nAll education has for its object the happiness of the individual, and\nfor its end the development of character, that he may live worthily and\nto the limit of his greatest capacity for good to himself and to society.\nAny education, or part of it, that falls short of accomplishing these\nresults is deficient and likely to be harmful.\n;\nNot all education is good education.\nIf it secures to its possessor\nonly a trained intellect and\n\nkeener use of his faculties, without the tem-\n\npering influences of an equitable judgment, personal honor and integrity,\nand a love of the truth, it fails in its mission\n\nhimself and to society.\n\nand\n\nbecomes a menace to\n\nA bank cashier who is so skilled in accounts that\n\nhe hides a defalcation, or a master mechanic who is so clever in the\nuse of his tools that he breaks a safe, can hardly be said to have been\n\nbenefited by his education.\n:\nAll education may be classed under two heads: liberal, or that which\naims at the highest development of the intellectual powers, without reference to how they may be employed in the affairs of life ; and technical,\nor that which is intended as a preparation for a special calling in life, be\nit in the professions, the arts, or business.\n\nThe general features of the former are familiar to all, being best\nrepresented in the old classical course which has been handed down to us.\n\n"}
{"page": 829, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nLAWS AND\n\nETHICS\n\nOF BUSINESS\n\n819\n\nthrough the centuries, almost from the time of antiquity.\nThe history of\neducation is a story of gradual change and evolution in the old curriculum, by the crowding-in of new subjects one by one, in response to the\nurgent needs growing out of the higher civilization and the demands of\nour commercial and industrial developments and activities.\nSlowly and\nsurely those branches which may be termed scientific have been given a\nplace, which too often has been bestowed grudgingly, until today the\nscientific subjects predominate even in what may be termed the classical\ncourse of study.\nA technical education is popularly understood to refer more particularly to the mechanical arts, but it may be properly used in connection\nwith all schools designed to prepare for the practice of any of the professions or callings, and, therefore, the business school\n\nis so classed.’\n\nThe\n\ntechnical education is evolutionary even in its short history.\nWhile liberal and technical educations are, in theory, widely divergent\n\nin their objectives, the trend of educational progress is all in the direction\nof unifying and bringing together that which is best in each.\n‘The industrial and trade schools are rapidly becoming great centers for the propagation\n\ntruths and\n\nbroader culture, and, on the other hand,\n\nmany of our oldest and most\n\nnoted universities are adding magnificent\n\nfacilities\n\nof scientific\nfor\n\ncultivation\n\nin the liberal\n\nand\n\nmechanical\n\narts and\n\nin the\n\nsciences.\nContemporary discussion, however, proves beyond question that our\nplan of modern education is still very imperfect and incomplete.\nThe\nunderlying deficiency is want of organization and correlation, that is, “a\nproper understanding of the unity of knowledge, the value of ascertained\ntruths, and the importance of scientific methods of inquiry.”\nThe business school is an outgrowth of the commercial and industrial\nrequirements of the last half century, and marks one of the incidents in\nthe evolution of American education,\nIt has its counterpart in modified\nforms in many of the European countries, but nowhere has its purpose\nbeen so narrowly defined, and its curriculum so\n\nlimited, as in this coun-\n\ntry. Beginning with the imparting of a purely theoretical instruction in\nthe simplest principles and forms of account keeping, it has grown to\ninclude only a few additional branches which are deemed necessary for the\npurely technical preparation of the accountant for his work.\nIn addition\nto bookkeeping, with but a few scattered exceptions, the curriculum comprises arithmetic, penmanship, composition, and correspondence, and the\nelements of commercial\n\nlaw, all of which, with the exception of the latter,\n\nshould be supplied in our common schools.\nbeen limited.\n\nConsequently our progress has\n\nTrue, many valuable and useful methods and systems have\n\nbeen introduced from time to time to make the instruction more practical, and better to prepare the student for the immediate duties of his\n.\n\n"}
{"page": 830, "printed_page": null, "text": "820\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nposition, but, viewed from the standpoint of broader education\n\n[Business\n\nand cul-\n\nture, but little real advancement has been made in the breadth and scope\nof the curriculum since the institution of these schools.\nFrom the standpoint of the true educator, who looks to the future for\nhis inspiration, the future of his pupils, of society, and of the nation,\nhaving in view the greatest good for all, what are the possibilities and\nShall our schools remain\nlimitations of an ideal business education?\nShall we prepare only for the bookkeeper’s trade or\npurely technical?\nHave we fully accomplished our purpose\nthe stenographer’s calling?\nwhen we can only say of our pupils that they are competent bookkeepers\nand stenographers?\nWhat ban is upon us that we can prepare only for\nIs our\nthe ‘mechanics of business,” for the “mechanism of trading’?\ntechnical training isolated from every ray of the light of liberal culture ?\nIs our only function to prepare for business and not for business life—\nfor business and living ? Are the thousands of students who close the\ndoor to further education when they pass our portals to be debarred from\nan opportunity to acquire, in this, their last school, that general knowledge which makes atruly cultivated man? Is it outside of the functions of\nthe specialization which dominates our schools to give a more liberal\npreparation for higher work, so that inquiry, research, and investigation\nshall become habits to be practiced in connection with the business of\nlife? Is ours the only technical school that is limited absolutely.to\ntechnical subjects? Are we forbidden to think of the advancement of\nour pupil beyond the bookkeeper’s desk ? Is his only preparation for\nthe higher places of business activity to be acquired catch-as-catch-can in\nthe hard school of experience?\nCan we not, at least, sow the seed from\nwhich shall spring the desire for riper culture, broader knowledge, keener\nappreciation, and that healthful desire for the higher forms of life which\nCan we claim to\nis so necessary to the full growth of the whole man?\nconduct educational institutions so long as we fail to train our young\npeople as to their duties and responsibilities in their social and ethical\nrelations and dealings with others, as well as in recording the transactions\nof business ?\n:\nIt is a part of our proper function and duty to give instruction in\nthose particular branches which are analogous to and harmonious with\nour present curriculum, but which deal with those conditions and facts\nand developments which come after the limit of advancement for the\nmere bookkeeper has been passed, when he has advanced into the higher\nmanagerial and more responsible relations of business life, not to mention the widening horizon of his social duties and responsibilities.\nThe mechanical and trade schools, which were first organized to teach\nthe trades, have almost without exception already outgrown the limits of\ntheir original purpose.\nIn the schools for bricklaying, carpentry, and\n.\n\n"}
{"page": 831, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department}\n\nLAWS\n\nAND\n\nETHICS\n\nOF BUSINESS\n\n821\n\nthe lower order of trade schools, courses of study have been added to\nprepare the young man so that, when he becomes master builder and contractor, he can intelligently proceed with his business.\nSchools of carpentry have their departments of architectural drawing and mathematics.\nThe electrical school has its department of structural and mechanical\ndrawing and engineering, with the accompanying mathematical branches.\nSchools of technology and polytechnic institutions are in most cases vast\nscientific laboratories and workshops, dealing not only with material\ntrades, but instructing in every department of the physical sciences.\nIs there no future for business schools beyond the teaching of bookkeeping ? Are not the subjects of higher business law and calculations,\npractical economics, finance, the science of government and taxation, the\nduties of citizenship, all harmonious and analogous, and in natural sequence\nto the more technical training now received, which shall come in full\nplay later in the lives of those who come to us ? Even so indefinite and\ngeneral a subject as ethics, as applied to the business and social life, is\nworthy of our careful consideration and presentation.\nAs teachers and\nmembers of society we are bound to recognize the responsibilities of our\nposition, and take our place manfully in the warfare against the ignorance and the social and political evils of our time.\nWe are, in a sense,\npublic servants, and as such we cannot close our eyes to the conditions\nas they exist.\nI am fully persuaded that, if business schools are to keep pace with\ncontemporary education and maintain a place and prestige, it must be\nalong the lines pointing towards the liberal, in the introduction of such\nbranches of science and philosophy as are in progressive touch with\npresent subjects, but which will provide a mental discipline and a rational\ncharacter growth far beyond that which is but incipient in technical subjects, and the maintaining of courses of instruction that will produce men\nof broader intelligence, riper and weightier powers and judgments than\nare supplied in a training that is purely technical.\nThe attendance of perhaps one hundred thousand young men and\nwomen under our instruction yearly, who in coming generations must,\nthrough themselves and posterity, place the seal of success or failure upon\ngovernment by the people, who must assume the responsibilities of citizenship and society, and whose preparation to solve the weighty problems\n\nof governmental\n\npolicy, finance, and\n\ntaxation, must come from\n\nus\n\nor not at all, make our duty and responsibility clear. Surely utter extinction shall be the deserved punishment, the punishment to fit the crime,\nif the business school fails to respond to these intellectual and moral\ni\ndemands which are laid upon us.\nQuoting from an eminent educator and writer: “It cannot but be\nmanifest to every thoughtful observer that one of the most discouraging\n\n"}
{"page": 832, "printed_page": null, "text": "822\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCA TIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n|Business\n\nsigns of the times is the want of honest thinking and practical common\nsense which is daily exhibited in high places and in low, in the rulers\nof nations, the dispensers of law, the managers of great enterprises, and\nso on, down\n\nto the political ‘boss,’ or, if there\n\nbe a lower level, the pol-\n\nitician of the saloon.\n“Trickery and juggling with words in absolute disregard of facts,\nplausible expressions disguising well-known facts, and the disposition to\nbuild up inequitable technicalities, in defiance of the most manifest principles of right and wrong, are the things which give daily support to the\nviews of the anarchist who regards all law, order, and government with\nhatred, and is pleased to see their representatives discredit themselves and\nbring daily distress and alarm to those who would fain believe in an\nadvancing evolution of the human race, and the millennium in even the\nfar-distant future.”\nThat there are numerous and stubborn obstacles and difficulties in\nthe way of widening\n\nthe curriculum\n\nof the business\n\nschool\n\nin the direc-.\n\ntion of the liberal is fully appreciated and freely acknowledged.\nThe\nprincipal difficulty has been of our own making, and lies in the impatience of the average student to reach the practical and to secure a position, and his unwillingness to give the necessary time and attention to\nthose lines of study which do not bear directly upon the subject of bookkeeping.\nWe cannot expect the immature youth, whose ears are filled\nfrom all quarters with the importance of practice and the depreciation of\ntheory, and whose ambition is to earn his first dollar, to appreciate the\nvalue of a well-rounded education, or to understand the advantages which\n\nwill later come to him from their acquirement.\nThis difficulty can only be overcome by continuous, patient, and combined efforts on the part of the entire commercial teaching fraternity in\nthe education of the people to a right understanding of the importance\nof this broader education.\nWe must first submit to the rather humiliating process of tearing down that which we first built, and the rebuilding\nprocess will be long and tedious and attended with difficulty, but that it\nis our only salvation is beyond question, and is a necessity that must be\nmet valiantly and with courage.\nThe first person against whom we must bring our arguments and per-.\nsuasions is the pessimist, the man who, himself being without the more.\nliberal education, is apt to underestimate its value.\nHe takes shape in\nvarious forms.\nHe is recognized in the three-months’ course school; the.\n» school that guarantees positions; the school that always prints Professor\nbefore the name of the principal and every teacher in the faculty ; the.\nschool that starts in with a great flourish and closes in six months, leav-.\ning behind an unsavory record of financial and moral irresponsibility ;\nthe school that permits its students to elect what they shall study irrespec-\n\n"}
{"page": 833, "printed_page": null, "text": "—-\n\nDepartment]\n\nLAWS\n\nAND\n\nETHICS\n\nOF BUSINESS\n\n823\n\ntive of their needs, and grants diplomas to all comers ; to say nothing of\nthe milder form of lobster-progression which insists upon pounding on\nthe same last our forefathers used forty years ago. These good people\nare not pessimists in their own eyes, but they are dead weights to the\ncause of higher education, and millstones on the neck of educational\nprogress.\nConservatism is the hoar-frost to educational advancement.\nWhile\ngreat strides of advancement are taking place in the industrial and commercial world, to the extent that they have almost revolutionized pre-existing theories of economics and of sociology, the educational world has\nbeen retarded by the ancient\n\ntraditions, and the scholastic exclusiveness,\n\nand the reverential mental attitude of teachers and savants toward the\nspirit of established precedent.\nBecause of the limitations placed upon me, I have made no attempt\nto discuss in detail the particular branches named in my subject ; what\nthey are and the ground they cover is generally well known and understood.\nIf these subjects are closely allied and come within the proper\nfunctions of the business school, as I have attempted to show, the question\n\nof importance is how they may be introduced into our courses of study\nwithout serious disarrangement of present conditions, without taking on\nthe features of an innovation, and still secure more and more\n\nto our\n\nstu-\n\ndents the benefits which shall certainly come from their consideration.\n\nOne difficulty which must first be overcome is the lack of suitable\ntexts, designed with special reference to the intelligence of our students,\nstripped of all purely scientific phraseology, with the subject-matter so\nbright that it shall attract and hold the attention and interest of the\nstudent.\nUntil this deficiency is supplied, the individual teacher must be\ndepended upon to furnish the information and secure the interest of his\npupil.\nIn presenting these subjects, the method should be by demonstration\nas far as possible, rather than by mere precept.\nPractical economics can\nbe made a most interesting and attractive subject ; it deals with things\nabout us, with conditions and facts that the student of average intelligence can comprehend and appreciate.\nIt opens up to him new fields of\ninvestigation, new thoughts.\nIt presents new views of things as to his\nmaterial and social surroundings.\nIn inculcating the duties of citizenship, a mere reading of and familiarity with civil government are not sufficient. The instruction must deal\nwith the responsibilities of the individual to his government and the\nHe must be made to feel his responsibilireciprocal relations existing.\nties as a voter, and that he must perform his integral part in conducting\nthe affairs of a true democracy with intelligence and judgment. He must\nbe impressed with the importance of political integrity and fair dealing.\n\n"}
{"page": 834, "printed_page": null, "text": "824\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nAs to the purely commercial laws, we are now well supplied with suitable texts, but for the presentation of the moral laws and ethics of business we must depend at present upon long and laborious essays and\ndiscussions;\n\nat least we\n\nhave\n\nno clear-cut\n\nand\n\nreadable\n\ntext\n\nthat would\n\nprove interesting and attractive, and at the same time suitable to the\nmental advancement of our students.\nOne most important consideration is that we may have teachers who\ncan teach.\nI refer not only to the subjects under immediate discussion,\nbut to the purely commercial branches themselves.\n‘Teachers must know\nmore than the subjects they teach. They should be encouraged toward\noriginal investigation, and should be required to keep themselves in close\npersonal touch with the contemporary development of the times in their\nspecial lines of work.\nNo teacher can produce the best results in the\nschoolroom who is not in closest and continuous touch with modern ideas\nand methods of business. Our teachers should be seen in countingrooms,\nin workshops, and in our industrial establishments of every kind and\ndescription, more frequently than they are.\nLet the latent inspiration of the true teacher be re-enforced by a keen\nappreciation of the social and economic conditions at present existing, by\na sense of his individual responsibilities as an instructor, by his love for\nhis country, by his respect and loyalty to the spirit of our institutions,\nand, above all, by a continued effort in all the directions which tend to\nproduce the highest unities for good in the whole man, and the suggestions and improvements advanced, looking to broader attainments and\nmore liberal culture, shall cease to be possibilities and become accomplishments, and business education will continue to hold its present place\nin the ranks of useful\n\neducation, and\n\nadd\n\nnew laurels to the escutcheon\n\nof its glory.\n\na\n\n"}
{"page": 835, "printed_page": null, "text": "Pie\n\nvibe\n\nOF CHEE D STEN.\n\nSBGREAARYS\nFIRST\n\nMINUTES,\n\nSESSION.—Tuourspay,\nJuLy\n\n8.\n\nIn the absence of the President, Colonel F. W. Parker, of the Chicago Normal\n\nSchool,\n\nthe meeting was called to order by Superintendent H. E. Kratz, of Sioux City, Ia., VicePresident of the department.\nThe Secretary, Miss Schallenberger, of Stanford University, being absent, C. P. Cary, of the Milwaukee\n\nState Normal School, was chosen secre-\n\ntary pro tempore.\n\nProfessor G. W. A. Luckey, University of Nebraska, presented a paper on “ Practical\nLines of Child Study for the Average Teacher.”\nThe paper was discussed by Superintendent A. K. Whitcomb,\n\nLowell, Mass.\n\nDr. Reuben Post Halleck, of Louisville, Ky., read a paper on ‘The Bearings of the\nLaws of Cerebral Development and Modification on Child Study.” Professor M. V.\nO’Shea, University of Buffalo, followed in discussion.\nDr. Colin A. Scott, Chicago Normal School, read a paper on “The Psychology of\nPuberty and Adolescence.’\nDiscussion was led by President A. H. Yoder, Vincennes\nUniversity, Ind.\n\nThe following Committee on Nominations was appointed :\nL, H. Galbreath, Normal, Il.\nJenny B. Merrill, New York, N. Y.\nJ. J. McConnell, Iowa City, Ia.\n\nSECOND\nSuperintendent\n\nSESSION.—Fripay,\n\nJULY 9.\n\nJohn A. Hancock, Durango, Colo., read a paper on “ Mental Differ-\n\nences of the Boys and Girls in the Public Schools.”\n\nDiscussion\n\nby Superintendent S. S.\n\nParr, St. Cloud, Minn.\n\nThe subject, “ Parents as Child Students,” was presented\nBourland, Vice-President\n\nI. F, W. C., Pontiac, Ill.\n\nDiscussion\n\nby Mrs. Mary Coddington\nby Dr. Jenny B. Merrill,\n\nNew York city.\nDr. John Dewey, University of Chicago, spoke on ‘Criticisms Wise and Otherwise on Modern Child Study.” Discussion was led by Dr. B.A. Hinsdale, University of\nMichigan.\nDr. C. C. Van Liew, Normal, [Il., spoke on “A National Society for Child Study.”\n\n’ The report of the Committee\n\non a National Organization for Child\n\nStudy was pre-\n\nsented by G. W. A. Luckey, the chairman, as follows:\nThe committee appointed by this department at the Buffalo meeting last year, to consider the organiza-\n\ntion of a national society for child study, begs to submit the following report:\nWe recommend the organization of a national academy of scientific pedagogy, the membership to consist of two classes, active and honorary; the active membership to be open to all who are interested in the\nsubject on approval of their names by the excutive committee and payment of an annual fee of ‘two dollars,\n\nActive members have the privilege of attending the meetings and receive all the publications of the academy.\nHonorary members shall bé elected: by the council and shall pay $25, thereby becoming life members. The\ndirection of the academy shal] be yested in a council, whose members\n\n825\n\nmust each have made, some\n\npublished\n\n"}
{"page": 836, "printed_page": null, "text": "826\n\nNATIONAL\n\nBe a\n\na\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n(Child Study\nee\nND\n\nae\n\ncontribution of scientific value in this field. Honorary members shall also be members of the counci]. Members of the council shall be elected from the active members and shall pay the active members’ fee.\nThe meetings of the council and of the academy shall be held annually in connection with the meetings\nof the National Educational Association. All active members shall have the right to attend meetings of the\ncouncil, but not to participate therein. The council shall elect an editorial committee, composed of six members and an editor-in-chief. This editorial committee shall have entire charge of the publications of the academy, with power to make such business arrangements as may be necessary. We recommend the appointment\nof a committee to draw up a constitution along the lines of this report, and to select, upon the basis of published work submitted to it, members of the council, not to exceed twenty-five in number, We nominate as\nsuch committee the following: G. Stanley Hall, Wm. L. Bryan, John Dewey, Earl Barnes, and C. C, Van\nLiew.\n\nG. W. A. Luckey,\nC. H, THurRBER,\nCommtttee.\n\nThe report of the committee was accepted and laid upon the table for future discussion.\nThe Committee on Nominations made the following report:\nFor President, M. V, O’Shea, Madison, Wis.\nFor Vice-President, Miss Sarah A. Stewart, Milwaukee, Wis.\nFor Secretary, G. W. A. Luckey, Lincoln, Neb.\n\nThe department then adjourned.\n\nC, P. Cary,\nSecretary pro tempore.\n\nPRACTICAL\n\nBY\n\nPAPERS.\n\nAND,\n\nLINES\n\nOF\n\nCHILD STUDY\nTEACHER.\n\nW.\n\nA.\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nG.\n\nDISGUSSIONS:\n\nLUCKEY,\n\nFOR\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nTHE\n\nOF\n\nAVERAGE\n\nNEBRASKA.\n\nDifferent as may be our definitions of the word ‘practical,’ I believe\nthat in general we will agree that everything which aids in making the\nindividual a stronger and better teacher, without in any way injuring self\nor others, is practical.\nThe term “average teacher” ? is more difficult to dispose of. I shall\nuse this term to include that large body of teachers generally known as\nthe rank and file, whom I shall designate as average teachers, not on\naccount of lack of ability or efficiency, but on account of numbers.\nTo\nthis class belongs the great bulkof the teachers; from this class are to\nissue the leading educators of the future, and upon this class we must\ndepend in a large measure for the direct execution of all that is good i\neducation.\nAs you are aware, the child-study movement is still in its infancy.\nIt\nhas spread with a surprising rapidity, and has been received with unexpected enthusiasm, and yet its meaning is only partially understood by the\ngreat body of educators.\nTo many the movement seems to be limited\n\n"}
{"page": 837, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPRACTICAL\n\nLINES\n\nOF CHILD\n\nSTUDY\n\n827\n\nto the study of infants, or, at most, to children in the primary grades.\nOn this point Professor Earl Barnes says:\n‘The term child study is\nunfortunate in seeming to be limited to the period of infancy.\nThe new\nmovement felt all over our country today is much wider than this. It is\nnothing less than a direct, inductive, quantitative study of the natural\nhistory of human beings.”\nIt is this broader meaning of the word that is\naccepted by every true student of childhood, be he philosopher, scientist,\nteacher, or parent.\nOne of the main purposes of child study is to know man better, and\nthis makes it necessary to study, not only his beginning, but his growth,\nmaturity, and final decay.\nThe extent and importance of this movement\nbecome the more apparent when we appreciate the fact that the one subject\nfrom which all others radiate, and into which all will finally concentrate,\nis the study of humanity.\nThe spirit of this movement is the same scientific spirit which is\ncausing such radical changes in the teaching of history, literature, language, science, etc., and is attributable to the scientific age in which we\nare now living.\nIn all these studies the thought seems to be in the direction of a better understanding of human nature, and means another step\nin the progress toward a scientific pedagogy.\nIn its broadest sense child study is limited to no age or class of individuals, but covers with equal importance the whole field of education.\nIt includes not only the studies carried on to increase our knowledge of\nthe child, but also the systematic effort made to adapt the various courses\nof study to the individual needs of the children.\nThe methods pursued in child study vary greatly, depending largely\nupon the opportunity and purposes of the persons using them.\nThey\ninclude, in the first place, the many undirected observations of parents,\nteachers, and others as the results of direct contact with children. In this\nway considerable knowledge of childhood has been gained, without a\nthought of its having anything to do with child study. But the greatest\ndifficulty with this aimless method is its lack of system and purpose;\nbesides, the knowledge gained is usually of such an incoherent character\nthat it cannot be imparted with value to others.\nMost of our dealing\nwith children is a matter of experiment; and, unwise as many of these\nexperiments prove to be, they would not seem so disappointing if the\nresults could be so utilized as to make the repetition of the experiment\n\nunnecessary.\nIn the second place, we have the method of systematic observation,\nwhich is frequently spoken of as the normal method, on account of its\nAccording to this method the\nmore common use in normal schools.\nstudent is directed to make careful observations of the various activities\nof children, the main object being to direct the attention of the student\n\n"}
{"page": 838, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n828\n\nto the personality of the child, and to enable\npictures\n\nof\n\nwhat\n\nshe\n\nsees.\n\nThis\n\n[Child Study\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nmethod\n\nher to give accurate pen\n\nvaries,\n\nof\n\ncourse,\n\nwith\n\nthe\n\nadvancement of the student from the mere recording of a single obserIt is one of the best\nvation to a careful study of many observations.\nmethods for the teacher, as it requires but little preparation, and offers\nan opportunity for much valuable study of children without in any way\nIt brings the teacher into close contact with\nattracting their attention.\n, leads her to a better\nthe child, increases her sympathy for childrenand\nunderstanding and appreciation of their individuality.\nSomewhat allied to the above method of observation, though usually\nmuch more intensive, is the method used so successfully by Taine, Darwin,\n\nPreyer,\n\nMiss\n\nShinn,\n\nMrs.\n\nHall,\n\nand\n\nothers,\n\nin which\n\nthe various\n\nactivities of a single child are carefully observed and recorded, and, perhaps, conclusions reached regarding the order of development.\nThe\nobservations generally extend over several years, and, to be valuable to\nothers, require much intelligence and patience on the part of the investigator. The importance of this plan of study is apparent, but, owing to\nthe necessity of frequent access to the child and the sympathetic relation\nwhich\n\nmust\n\nexist\n\nbetween\n\nthe\n\nobserved\n\nand\n\nthe observer, this method\n\nseems to be more particularly adapted to the use of intelligent parents.\nThe next step leads us to the experimental method, which consists of\nan extended series of experiments with specially devised apparatus on a\nfew or many children, varying in age, sex, etc. Such problems as attention, memory span, reaction time, sensibility, fatigue, etc., are considered,\n\nand the material used for comparative study. This method differs from\nthat of mere observation in that we are here able to control the conditions\nunder which the material is obtained, and\n\nthe\n\nresults, therefore, will be\n\nmore definite and accurate.\nBut on account of the possible danger to\nchildren of .ill-advised experiments, this method belongs more properly\nto the specialist and should be used with caution.\nThere is one form of\nexperimentation, however, covering arrangement of school buildings,\ncourses of study, hours\n\nof work,\n\neffect\n\nof play, health of children, etc.,\n\nthat every teacher can carry on with profit to the children as well as to\nherself.\nAnother method worthy of mention is the one used with such promise\nin many fields of investigation, especially in such subjects as. social\nand\n\npolitical\n\nscience, economics,\n\netc.\n\nIt is known\n\nas\n\nthe. statistical\n\nmethod, and consists in gathering data under similar conditions from\nthousands of persons, differing in age, sex, nationality, environment, etc.\nThe material is usually obtained by sending out carefully prepared syllabi,\ncovering single traits, like anger, fear, play, ambition, interest in nature,\netc., to a number\n\nof colaborers\n\nwho\n\nare\n\nreturning data upon the subjects desired.\n\ninterested\n\nin\n\ncollecting and\n\nThis material is then collated\n\nE\n\n"}
{"page": 839, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\n-\n\nPRACTICAL\n\nLINES\n\nOF CHILD\n\nSTUDY\n\n829\n\nin the hope of determining, through large averages, some basic principles\nfor guidance in future actions.\nThis method, as will be seen, is of great service in mapping out general\ntendencies, and in preparing the way for more specific studies to follow\nJater on.\nIt is also important in giving us the consensus of opinions on\nthe\n\nvarious\n\nsubjects\n\nunder\n\nconsideration.\n\nIts\n\nchief\n\nvalue,\n\nhowever,\n\ndepends upon the importance and workableness of the problem which the\nsyllabus covers, and upon the amount and uniformity of the material\nobtained.\nUnder the skillful direction of Dr. G. Stanley Hall or\nProfessor Earl Barnes, this method has produced some of the most valu-\n\nable literature on the subject of child study. It has also been used\nwith much profit by many a superintendent and teacher in determining\nsome of the leading characteristics of the children in their immediate\nvicinity.\nThe personal reminiscences of a class of adults, covering what remains\nof their early feelings and experiences, will be found of great aid in\nsuggesting suitable syllabi for use in the statistical method.\nBesides,\nsuch study brings us into closer sympathy with child life and furnishes\nus with the most important means of correctly interpreting the feelings\nand actions of others.\nThe farther the individual is removed from his\nearly experience, the more difficult it is for him to come into touch and\nsympathy with childhood.\nWoman, being the more stable element in\nthe development of the race and less removed from her early ideas and\nfeelings, becomes the truest interpreter and the best guide of children.\nLive over again in reminiscences your early experiences, if you would\nbecome a great teacher of the young.\nThe above methods, either singly or in combination, represent fairly\nwell the more common ones now in use.\nA more complete description\nof them, including others, is to be found in the Morthwestern Journal\nof Education, July, 1896, and in the first number of the “ Studies in Education,” by Professor Earl Barnes.\nMost, if not all, of these methods should become familiar to every\nteacher, not simply through reading about them, but by actual experience\nwith them, and yet the method used in the study of children is of far less\nimportance than the interest, sympathy, intelligence, and persistence\nwhich the teacher brings to the work.\nMany highly important lessons may be gained from the naturalist in\nhis study of plants or of animals, and yet, for the most part, the study of\nchildren is far more complex and requires a higher degree of skill.\nNo one would hesitate to destroy a plant for the sake of knowledge,\nand even the life of an animal is usually held as asecondary consideration ;\nbut how different with the child! Here every investigation should have\nfor its purpose the present as well as the future welfare of the individual,\n\n"}
{"page": 840, "printed_page": null, "text": "-830\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child Study\n\nand the work must always be carried on with the greatest care in order\nto avoid any possible injury.\nAdmitting that child study is encompassed with many difficulties, it\nis nevertheless within the ready reach of every teacher and promises\ngreater returns for the effort than any other subject.\nOwing to individual differences and the effect of local environment, it\n\nis difficult to point out specifically the more practical lines of child study.\nUnder suitable conditions any phase of child study will be found practical,\n\nand especially so if it increases our knowledge and appreciation of\nchildren.\nWhatever stimulates the teacher to originality of thought and\nenables her to become a real student is practical.\n\nFor it is in this\n\nfield,\n\nabove all others, that teachers are weak.\nThe ,many details of the profession and the way in which these have been worked out for us in textbooks and periodicals seem to mitigate against real growth and independence of thought.\nHow proportionally few real investigators are found\namong the rank and file of teachers!\nThe world has come to recognize\nthis weakness and seldom calls upon the teacher for advice pertaining to\nmatters outside of the schoolroom.\nHow different with the lawyer, who\nis compelled to gather his evidence each time from the sources, sift and\narrange it, and make out his own case, upon which he is to win or lose!\nIn this way he grows with every case he handles and becomes one of the\nleading citizens of the community.\nEverything which discourages true growth and originality in teachers\nis wrong, whether it be school board, superintendent,\n\nor periodical.\n\nDo\n\nnot misunderstand me; mere dogmatism is not originality, but the reverse.\nIf you have discovered a new fact, you will always be able to makeit clear\nto others by sufficient proof.\nI wish to mention here a second weakness, which is doubtless familiar\n\nto you all, and which is due, perhaps, to the many demands made upon\nthe teacher’s time.\nIt is the desire to get information quickly— the\nshort cuts to knowledge.\nIn our summer schools and university classes\nteachers become very impatient when placed in the libraries or laboratories\nto do intensive work.\n‘They seem to feel that this is a great waste of time,\nand wish rather to do extensive work, in order to get a general idea of all\nthe subjects.\nEveryone knows how such work destroys the student spirit\nand undermines the real power of the teacher.\nThe child-study movement seems to offer an opportunity of overcoming both of these\n\ndifficulties, unless we\n\nmake\n\nthe grave. mistake, which\n\nnow seems probable, of studying children through books.\nWith children\nall about us—in our very homes and companionship\n— if we must go to\nsecond-hand sources to become acquainted with them, I pity the profession.\nMonitors we are, and monitors we remain.\n:\nI always feel like retorting when the statement is. made that teachers\n\n"}
{"page": 841, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPRACTICAL\n\nLINES\n\nOF CHILD\n\nSTUDY\n\n831\n\nare unable to do scientific work.\nWhat are they ableto do?\nIt is true that\nthe teacher is interested in child study more from the standpoint of its\ndirect application to the problems of education; nevertheless, he knows\nthat before a fact can be applied it must be known; and we all know that\nanyone who is able to make accurate observations and classify them with\nreference to some leading feature is able to do scientific work.\nTo the average teacher, then, I would say, begin the study of children\nby selecting some topic closely associated with your school work, and in\nWe willassume that you have selected\nwhich you are especially interested.\nYou will now need a good\nas a topic “Children’s Interests in Nature.”\nnotebook, or, better still, loose\n\nsheets of paper, which\n\ncan\n\nbe arranged\n\nand rearranged according to convenience and bound later into a volume.\nSome evening, when all is quiet, write out carefully your own recollections\nThen\nof interest in nature; get some of your friends to do likewise.\nmake a careful record of all the facts you possess regarding the children’s\ninterests in nature; after which begin to note from day to day any new\nfacts that occur to you.\n\nGo with the children, whenever\n\nconvenient, on\n\nDo not fail to keep\nlong walks and observe the nature of their interest.\na complete record, though you may often wish to change former statements.\nThe mutual help of other teachers or of the superintendent will be\nfound a great aid in this work; nevertheless, if you have a fair amount\nof courage and persistence, you need not hesitate to pursue the work\nYou have bythistime become familiar with much of the literature\nalone.\nupon the subject, and are ready to arrange a simple list of questions to be\nCompare the information\nanswered by your own and other children.\nobtained in this way with what you have gained by observation.\nIf possible, get hold of the best investigations on the subject, which you will\nCompare these\nnow be able to read with intelligence and appreciation.\nI need not say more, for when you have done\nwith your own studies.\nthis, you will have passed out of the class to whom I am speaking.\nIt\nmay have required several years, but you have been happy in your work\nand have been growing all the time. There are other steps in the process, but you have already learned to walk.\nChild study, to be the most helpful to the teacher, must be closely\nconnected with the daily lessons and duties, and yet it should have enough\nadditional material and thought to give interest and life, and enable the\nteacher to become more and more efficient. We should not forget that\nit is not what we read and hear, valuable as that, may be, but what we\nthink and do, that gives us strength and character.\nWe should read the\nliterature, by all means, but, more than that, we should digest and classify\n\nit, using it to strengthen and broaden our ideas, or to weaken and modify\nour views.\nAmong the more practical subjects for the present I should place:\n\n"}
{"page": 842, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n832\n\nThe\n\nphysical\n\nand remedies;\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n[Child Study\n\nASSOCIATION\n\ndevelopment of the child, including food, health, defects,\nexercise, and the sanitary condition\n\nof school\n\nbuildings;\n\ninfluences at work in the formation of character; discipline and punishment; the proper use to be made of the play instinct and motor activity;\nchildren’s interests in the various subjects of study, in outside work or\nplay, and their bearing on education; peculiar and exceptional children ;\nchildren’s forms of expression, language, drawing, writing, etc.; fatigue\nAll these subjects, and many\nand the proper arrangement of studies.\nmore, will be found practical in any community where the teachers are\nimbued witb the progressive spirit.\n\nDISCUSSION.\nSUPERINTENDENT A. K. WuiTcoMB, Lowell, Mass.\n— The limitations of this question, as I am permitted to discuss it, take it wholly out of the fascinating realm of speculation and reduce it to the severely practical.\n\nI am not permitted even to try to advance\n\nanything new, but only to select from things already known those simple enough and\npractical enough to be of use to every teacher.\nThe ability to understand one’s pupils, to enter sympathetically into their thoughts\nand feelings, is a factor of unsurpassed importance in the success of any teacher, and\nanything which helps to such knowledge is legitimate child study, and anything which\ndoes not may be of interest to the scientist, but has, in my opinion, no place in the work\nof the average teacher.\nWhat, then, may and should be done?\nFirst, in addition to the constant, though half-unconscious, observation of individual\npupils, there is room for a little conscious and systematic study, which can best be made\nthrough language exercises, planned to secure such unconscious revelation of the pupil’s\nopinions, feelings, motives, etc., as shall be of most value to the teacher.\nQuestions as\nto things most desired, in the present or future, as to the book\n\nor author\n\nbest liked, as to\n\nconduct under conditions which would test morals, etc., provide an unsurpassed basis for\nlanguage exercises, and, at the same time, often afford an insight into character helpful\nin the highest degree. Anything answering to this touchstone is legitimate and desirable; anything which does not is out of place.\nSecond, all teachers who really observe cause and effect have noticed that badness\nof deportment is very apt to accompany backwardness in school work.\nThe boy who is\nbehind all his mates rarely loves school or lies awake nights trying to think how he may\nplease his teacher.\nBut it is only within recent times that most of us have learned that\ndullness in a very large proportion of cases is the result of some physical defect, usually\nof sight or hearing, so that not only health and mental development, but character itself—\neverything, in fact, which makes school life, or any other life for that matter, worth living —\nnot unfrequently hinges on some such frequently unsuspected defect. Extended tests in\nthis country and in Europe have shown that not less than 25 per cent. of school children\n\nare seriously limited in this way, and the study of such defectives is not only legitimate,\nbut an imperative obligation.\nAnd, happily, the task is not a hard one, but a simpleone.\nTest cards for vision may be obtained from any oculist for a few cents, and hearing may\nbe tested by anyone who owns a watch.\n\nThere is, therefore, no excuse for ignorance on’\n\nthis point, and when the defect is known it is often easy to interest. parents in its mitiga-\n\n"}
{"page": 843, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\nLAWS\nCEREBRAL DEVELOPMENT\neOF\ne\nee\nee\n\n833\n\ntion or cure, to the inestimable benefit of the pupil, while in school the beneficial use\nwhich may be made of such knowledge is too obvious to need discussion,\nChild study in\n\nthese two lines, then, is not only practical and easy, but is the duty of every teacher.\n\nTHE\n\nBEARINGS OF THE LAWS OF CEREBRAL DEVELOPMENT AND MODIFICATION ON CHILD STUDY.\n\nBY\n\nDR,\n\nREUBEN\n\nPOST\n\nHALLECK,\n\nLOUISVILLE,\n\nKY.\n\nIf undeveloped cells and connective fibers are frequently found in\nadult brains, the question how to secure fuller cerebral development in\nchildren becomes one of paramount importance.\nFrom the point of view of the educator we must insist on a threefold brain development.\nFirst, there must be sensory development before\nwe can gain knowledge of anything in the outside world.\nSecond, the\nmotor tracts must receive proper training, for in this world things are\n-obtained only through action.\nThird, the exercise should be such as to\ndevelop the connective brain fibers. A brain will be imperfect in proporion as any one of these types of training is neglected.\nFirst, the proper sensory exercise is a necessary prerequisite, not only\nfor the development of the sensory cells, but also for the development of\nmotor cells and of the fibers connecting sensory and motor cells. Whenever a sensory stimulus flows into a cell, that cell is exercised and modi‘fied. That modification will tend to persist and will afford the physical\nbasis for memory of the thing. No exception has yet been found to the\ngeneral rule that the right kind of exercise tends to develop any growing\norganism, and that the neglect of that exercise tends to dwarf it.\nWe have some positive proof toward establishing this position with\nreference to sensory cells. Comparative anatomy shows that when exercise is withheld from any part of the brain, that part tends to decline in\nsize or complexity, dr to atrophy.\nAn examination of the brains of the\nblind has shown that the occipital lobes are imperfectly developed.\nWe\nhave also experimented with young animals by depriving them of certain\nsensory stimuli.\nWhen the optic nerves have been cut at birth, the visual\n\n;\n\nsensory cells have atrophied.\n\nIt ought to become a part of the creed of every teacher to see that a//\nthe sensory brain tracts of every child have full normal exercise, not\nonly the visual and auditory tracts, but also the muscular, tactile, olfactory, and\n\ngustatory centers.\n\nIf the city cannot\n\nfurnish\n\nsense\n\nstimuli of\n\nthe right kind, some provision should be made for taking children into\nthe country, if only for one day in the year. I have dwelt elsewhere at\n\n"}
{"page": 844, "printed_page": null, "text": "considerable length on the development of sensory tracts, and I have not\nthe time to give full practical directions here.’\nBefore leaving this subject, however, I must emphasize the fact that\nthe study of words\n\nas such, whether\n\nGreek, Latin, or\n\nEnglish\n\nwords, is\n\nIn a lecture before\nresponsible for untold sensory and motor paralysis.\nAll\nteachers I once asked them how many had used the word “lurid.”\nthe\nI then requested them to write on paper\nreplied in the affirmative.\nname of some natural object of a lurid color and to state exactly what\nHere was 95 per\nOnly 5 per cent. answered correctly.\nthe color was.\ncent. of the teachers of the young using a word without any definite\nknowledge of what it meant.\n‘ Lurid” was always coupled in their mind\neither with a wrong signification, or it meant nothing more than a Choctaw term.\n\nSuch instances illustrate the old method of teaching words without\nhaving the pupil at once translate them into the proper definite sensory\nor motor experiences.\nThe teacher ought to make a practice of accustoming herself, as well as her pupil, to translate every possible word into\nthe sensory or motor experience for which the word ought to stand.\nShakespeare took special pains to show his contempt for mere wordy\nlearning, in “ Love’s Labour Lost,” and in the\n\ncaricature\n\nof the school-\n\nsnaster in the ‘‘ Merry Wives of Windsor.”\nShakespeare fortunately left\nschool in the early part of his teens, before such ‘ book-learning”’ could\ncause the atrophy of his sensory and motor brain tracts, and before he\nbecame a practical illustration of the statement of Professor Jowett,\nMaster of Balliol, that ‘‘education is the grave of the mind.”\nIn reply\nto the question of Polonius, ‘‘What do you read, my lord ?” Shakespeare\nmakes his masterly inactive character reply:\n‘Words, words, words.”’\nThe masterin his inmost soul must have felt the special aptness of this\nreply.”\nWe must hext turn our attention to the development of the child’s\nmotor cells. ‘The education of these must keep equal pace with sensory\ntraining.\nLet it be distinctly understood that a sensation never exists as\nan end in itself. We secure things only through action.\nIf a sensation\n-does\n\nnot lead to action,\n\neither\n\nimmediate\n\nor remote,\n\nthe sensation\n\nis\n\nworthless.\nThat education which divorces ideas from action is a curse.\nMotor cells are exercised through action.\nFortunately the world is a\ntext-book of action.” Every time a step is taken, a gesture made, a morsel\ncarried to the mouth, a letter written,\n\na word pronounced, a game played\n\n—in short, any action indulged in—the\n\nresult is modification of motor\n\n\\ ei\n“Education of the Central Nervous System,’ The Macmillan\nVil., Vili., ix., x.\n\n*See “Education of the Central Nervous\nSenses Were Trained.”\n\nCo., chaps.\n\nSystem,” chap. x., ‘‘ How Shakespeare’s\n\n"}
{"page": 845, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nLAWS\n\nOF CEREBRAL\n\nDEVELOPMENT\n\n835\n\ncells and a tendency to repeat the same action in the same way. We can\nformulate some practical rules for motor education:\nFirst, for full motor\ndevelopment, see that children early in life perform correct movements\nin as many varied ways as possible.\nIf the vocal chords do not move correctly before the age of ten, the child will mispronounce for life.\nA second important rule may be thus formulated:\nSee that the first\nmovements are correct, for they are accompanied with material brain\nmodification, which will\n\nfor all future\n\ntime\n\ntend\n\ntoward\n\nautomatic and\n\nunconscious reproduction of those movements.\nOur friends must tell us\nwhen we mispronounce or leave our knives and forks in wrong positions\non our plates, for we are unconscious of the actions.\nThe vital time for\nmotor training is before the age of eight. What shall we say of those\nparents who leave their children during this most important age to be\ncared for chiefly bya nurse?\nThe children by imitation unconsciously\nabsorb her bad pronunciation, grammar, and uncouth manners.\nIt is as\ndifficult to get rid of the cerebral motor modification corresponding to\nthese mistakes as it is to remove traces of a crease in a good article of\npaper.\nAlas for the most of us that we carry around mistakes ready_ made in our nervous systems!\nAlas that so few of us are automatically,\nhabitually, unconsciously right as a result of early molecular bias in\nbrain cells!\nEvery time that we have to think whether our pronunciation\nis correct, whether our grammar is accurate, there is just so much energy\nsubtracted\n\nfrom\n\nthe thought, and\n\nwe\n\nare\n\nslaves\n\nto this\n\nlower\n\nthings.\nIf we give our children their birthright, we shall\nmotor automatons, reacting unconsciously, and certainly\nconfronted\n\nwith\n\nthese\n\npetty\n\ndetails.\n\nThen,\n\nand\n\nonly\n\norder of\n\nmake them\nright, when\n\nthen,\n\ncan\n\nthey\n\nforge ahead in the world of thought, having all their attention free for\nhigher things.\nA third rule may be thus given:\nSee that a child is not allowed to\nmake an exception in motor reactions, which should always be of the\nsame kind in forming habits.\nFor certainty of action, the molecular\nmodification in the cell must be invariable, or a new and distracting\nneural pathway will be formed.\nThe sight of a thing out of its place\nmust be followed by the movement necessary to replace the article. The\npronunciation of the word “buoy” must be of the same correct type\nevery time, until the pronunciation takes care of itself. ‘The way to ruin\na young child or a young dog is to allow it to react one way to a certain\nsensation today and another way tomorrow.\nThere\n\nis a fourth\n\nrule, which\n\nmany\n\nare violating:\n\nDo\n\nnot\n\nallow\n\nchildren to indulge in motor specialization too young.\nDo not allow\nthem to restrict themselves mainly to one lineof movements.\n‘This early\nover-habituation in any one direction leads to blocking neural pathways\nin other directions.\nThis position must be maintained in opposition to\n\n"}
{"page": 846, "printed_page": null, "text": "$36\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child Study\n\nthose who hold that we ought early to find out a child’s natural bent, for\nIt may\nthe purpose of allowing his chief activities to take that direction.\nbe that a certain child is fitted for the study of medicine, but I protest\nagainst following the advice of some to its logical conclusion and putting\nHe should\nthat child to studying the materia medica at the age of five.\nfirst be broadly developed.\nI do not wish him to doctor me, if he is\nthus early allowed to narrow himself and to block other pathways of\nactivity. Preyer rightly says:\n‘‘The more that certain nerve paths\nhave been made easily passable by frequent repetition of movements, the\ngreater will be the resistance to the combinations of these with others,\nand to the employment of isolated tracts.”\nA fifth rule for motor development ought also to be impressed on\nteachers : Normal motor development can only follow full sensory training. Sensations naturally lead to movement.\nContrast the case of a\nchild brought up in the bare back yard of a tenement with one reared in\nthe country. A butterfly flits by the country child, and he chases it.\nThe sensation has led to movement.\nHe sees a bird’s nest or cherries on\na tree, and straightway climbs it. The back yard is poor in sensations\nwhich lead to varied movement.\nMany valedictorians have failed in life\nbecause they divorced sensations and ideas from movements.\nMany a\none who stood at the other end of the class\n\nhas known\n\nmotor cells have been trained to act with reference\n\nfar less, but his\n\nto what. little he did\n\nknow, and he has succeeded where the valedictorian failed.\n\nWe pass next to one of the least discussed, though one of the most\nimportant,\n\nmodifications\n\nof the\n\nbrain,\n\nthe\n\ndevelopment\n\nof connective\n\nfibers. Physiologists generally agree that these form the physical basis\nfor the association of ideas and for thinking.\nWe know that the infant\ncannot at birth associate the sensations from the different senses.\nWe\nknow that the various sensory tracts are at this time much like unconnected islands in a lake, that the fibers which bind these tracts together\nhave not yet, to any great extent, developed and become functional. We\nfurther know that these fibers develop in number until about the age of\nthirty-three.\nMany teachers err in trying to make children reason out\nof proper proportion to the development of the fibers, and beyond what\nthe knitting together of different brain tracts will allow.\nLet it be remembered that these fibers are in every case the outgrowth of nerve cells. The outgrowth and development of the various\ntypes of nerve fibers constitute the most marked quantitative changes in\nany brain from birth to maturity. The tangential fibers are those which\nrun parallel to the cortex of the brain, and which connect the various\nconvolutions.\nWithout such connective fibers, it is plain that the sensations registered in different parts of the brain could not be fused into\na whole. A peach seen could never be identified with a peach tasted or\n\na\n\n"}
{"page": 847, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nLAWS\n\nOF CEREBRAL\n\nDEVELOPMENT\n\n837\n\na peach touched.\nThe same objects, when presented to us by different\nsenses, would be as different and as incapable of association as a fish anda\nclap of thunder.\nWe might argue in advance of dissection that these\nconnective fibers would exist. Actual dissection has shown that they\nconnect directly or indirectly every part of the brain.\nIt is important for teachers to remember (1) that connective brain\nfibers are undeveloped at birth ; (2) that they increase in number until\n\nabout the age of thirty-three ; (3) that the most striking probable increase\noccurs during adolescence ; (4) that many of them develop a medullary\nsheath, which is,in some unknown way, supposed to be necessary to render\nthe fibers perfect for their work ; (5) that they are as much the outgrowth\nof nerve cells as branches are the outgrowth of trees; (6) that it is only\nreasonable to suppose that whatever form of exercise tends toward the\ngrowth and training of the cell will also tend to develop the outgrowing\nfibers ; (7) that, so far as we know, the brain has no other means of con-\n\nnection, no other physical substrate for the associating process necessary\nin thinking.\nVulpius actually counted, in various limited tracts in many human\nbrains, the number of medullated tangential fibers. The area in which he\ncounted these fibers was .036 square millimeters.\nHe divided the cortex\ninto three layers, an outer, middle, and inner.\n\nIn the inner layer of the\n\nfirst frontal convolution of a child of sixteen months he found ro of these\nfibers in the area of .o36 square millimeters.\nThe same area in a man of\nthirty-three furnished 80 fibers, an increase of 7oo per cent.\nThis area\nin the occipital lobe— the sensory tract for sight— had 70 of these fibers\nin achild of sixteen months.\nThe same tract in the man of thirty-three\ncontained\n\n150, an increase of\n\n114 per cent.\n\nThe\n\nmiddle and\n\nouter\n\ncor-\n\ntical layers of the child’s occipital lobe counted only about 5 fibers each\nfor this area.\nIn the man of thirty-three the middle layer of the corresponding tract had 20 fibers, the outer layer 70, an increase of 300 and\n1,300 per cent. respectively.’\nNo areas thus far reported have shown an increase in the number of\nfibers after the age of thirty-three.\nIn some tracts a decrease begins\nsoon after that time.\nThis phase of the subject has important bearings\non thought and movement.\nThe best time for vigorous brain action is\nbefore the noonday of life.\nIf I am asked what definite steps to take to further the development\nof these fibers, I may reply that I consider the question to be principally\none of judicious exercise and nutrition.\nLet us summarize the following\nsteps: (1) These fibers are the outgrowth of sensory and motor cells-\n\n(2) Undeveloped cells do not have these fibers. (3) Outgrowths, whether\nt For the chart summarizing these results, see\n\nNervous System,” p. 57.\n\nHalleck’s “Education\n\nof the Central\n\n"}
{"page": 848, "printed_page": null, "text": "838\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child Study\n\nin a tree or a nerve cell, are accompanied by an expenditure of energy.\nIt is, therefore, necessary to have sensory and motor cells with a surplus\nof energy. (4) When sensations stream into a sensory cell, it is set into\nAs a consea state of activity, and its actual bulk is thereby reduced.\nNow,\nquence, more blood, laden with nutritive matter, goes to the cell.\n\nthe cell has, by this exercise, been put in the best possible condition for\nassimilating more nutriment, and, consequently, of storing more energy.\nPrecisely the same is true of a motor cell. This accumulated energy may\ntake several directions ; a part may be employed in retaining the physical disposition caused by the sensation or the movement, in other\nwords, in maintaining the physical basis for memories of sensation and\nmovement, and another part of this energy may be used in furthering\nthe growth of nerve fibers. An inactive child may sit down to a table\nloaded with food and have little appetite or power of assimilation.\nLet\nthat same child be judiciously exercised, and these powers will increase.\n\nThere may be nutriment in the blood, but the cell may not have been\nexercised so as to be put in the best condition for requiring and assimilating this nutriment.\nAsa precedent step to developing these fibers of\nassociation, let the sensory and motor cells have full exercise.\n\nUse the brain judiciously, and it will develop ; neglect the use of any\npart, and it will tend to atrophy.\nThe opinion of the famous German physician, Dr. Edinger, should be\nremembered in this connection.\nHe says: ‘There is great probability\nthat this development of medullated nerve fibers continues for many\nyears, and that new nerve tracts are continually developed as new regions\nof the cortex are brought into activity.”\nA study of the development of these association fibers affords some\npractical suggestions to the teacher.\nDo not try to develop the power\nof thinking faster than the brain furnishes the physical substratum. Many\nchildren are tortured with studies which require a philosophical comprehension of cause and effect and of process.\nA miracle would have to be\nwrought in these childish brains before they could understand those\nthings. The child’s brain is thus doubly misused.\nWhile plastic, it\nought to be storing away motor and sensory modifications, and a wide\nrange of memories which will be food for future thought, when the time\nfor abstract thinking comes.\nSome insist that the storehouse of the brain\nshall be kept empty until the child can philosophize about these acquisitions.\n\n‘Then, instead of having full stores\n\nto think\n\nabout, it must waste\n\nvaluable time in securing these with a less plastic brain.\nMere acquisition would have been a thousand fold easier then, thinking will be a\nthousand fold easier later. Sir Walter Scott says that he, early in life,\nacquired myriad facts, without any deep thought relations between them.\nHe says he was then like a man with a splendid hand of cards, who did\n\n"}
{"page": 849, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nLAWS\n\nOF CEREBRAL\n\nDEVELOPMENT\n\n839\n\nnot know their value or how to play them.\nWhen the proper time came,\nhe learned how to play them, and he had the cards to play. Some teachers would have insisted on getting no cards until the philosophy of the\ngame\n\nwas\n\nunderstood,\n\nand\n\nthen\n\nthere\n\nwould\n\nhave\n\nbeen\n\nno\n\ncards with\n\nwhich to play.*\nMy study of the brain has led me to believe that the thinking power\nwill take care of itself better than the sensory and the motor functions ;\nthat, if these are trained aright, the child will naturally think right. I\nnot\n\ndo\n\nbelieve\n\nthat\n\nany child can,by any educator, be\n\nforced\n\nto think\n\nWhen I remembroadly in advance of the proper cerebral development.\nber the torture that the study of arithmetic caused me when I was a poor\nlittle helpless child, my blood boils.\nI could not understand the processes, and I lay awake at night with the shadow of their horror over\nme.\nI thought I must necessarily be a fool, and I lay awake still longer\nand brooded over that. I carry the scars of that torture in my nervous\nWhen I am quite ill and have a fever, I seem, in my\nsystem today.\nIn the morning I shall\ntroubled dreams, to be a helpless child again.\nhave to recite an arithmetic lesson and be responsible for the process. If\nDe Quincy ever had an opium dream fraught with more horror, I pity\nhim.\nSuddenly, at the age of fourteen and a half or fifteen, I could understand arithmetic, and then I was put to memorizing facts of history and to\nlearning languages.\n1 wish I could sue for damages the educational system under which I was reared.\nSometimes within three months we notice a marked change in the\ncapacity of pupils to understand mathematics.\nIt seems probable that\nthis change is due to the development of connective fibers and to the\nfurther fact that the medullary sheath has taken the last step toward rendering the fibers capable of easily performing their functions.\nI believe\nthat this hypothesis accounts for the fact that we may study a subject for\na long time without seeming improvement.\nIn this case it is probable\neither that new pathways are developing or existing pathways are being\ncleared up and rendered facile for association.\nWhen the pathways have\ndeveloped, either de novo or along unused fibers, the connection seems\nvery suddenly to spring into being, although there have been forces for a\nlong time tending to complete the last span in the bridge or to remove\nobstructions.\nTo put the process under still another figure, we may suppose that we may buy a new house, unconnected with a reservoir of\nwater. Pipe must be laid before the water can flow into the house.\nThis\nmay take quite a period of time, during which not a drop makes its\nappearance in the house.\n\nflows.\n*See\n\np. 238.\n\nIf we reflect, we\nHalleck’s\n\nWe later turna faucet, and the water suddenly\n\nshall see that the appearance\n\n‘“‘ Psychology and\n\nof the water\n\nPsychic Culture,” chap. ix, ‘* Thought\n\nis\n\nCulture,”\n\n"}
{"page": 850, "printed_page": null, "text": "[Child Study\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n840\n\nIn another case,\nmerely the result of a long series of antecedent steps.\nwe may buy an old house with the pipes already laid. No water will flow,\nWhen they have been cleaned ont, the\nfor they are choked with rust.\nwater flows at once.\nI further believe that an early effort to associate things by their most\nobvious relations only tends toward developing fibers and rendering them\nBut there must first be things to associate, and the proper\nfunctional.\nI hope that what is already\nthings are sensory and motor experiences.\nwell-nigh certain will soon receive positive anatomical demonstration,\nnamely, that every undeveloped sensory or motor tract is necessarily\ndeficient in connective fibers. We do know that undeveloped cells or\nneuroblasts have no fibers running from them, and we are further sure\nthat young and undeveloped frogs have more nerve cells than fibers,\nWe also know that the\nand that the fibers increase as the frog grows.\ndominant\n\nsense\n\ntract\n\nof. animals, the tract which is most\n\nexercised, has\n\nthe most connective fibers running from it. Some authorities think\nthese facts prove that undeveloped cells must be poorly connected with\nthe rest of the brain, and we see no reason for disputing that conclusion.\nSome one may ask: “Will not nature attend to the proper development ofthe sensory, motor, and connective brain functions, if teachers\n\nwill give her the chance?”\nI reply that nature would attend to this, if\npedagogues would let her, but they have for ages shown their determination to hinder her. There is a natural tendency in the child to exercise\nhis sensory and motor cells aright.\nWhy, then, are papers like this\nnecessary?\n‘The answer is plain: simply because we will not let nature\nalone.\nWe have thwarted her by taking her child and imprisoning him\nin great cities, where\n\nhe cannot\n\nhear the song of the bird, the murmur-\n\ning of the pine, or the laughter of the leaves; where he cannot inhale\nthe odor of the wild flower or catch the aroma from fields of blossoming clover or new-mown hay. We have taken him where he cannot climb\nthe fruit\n\ntree, the\n\nmow,\n\nor the\n\nstraw stack;\n\nwhere\n\nhe cannot\n\nchase\n\nthe\n\nbutterfly, search for the wild berry or the hidden nest.\nInstead of giving the child nature’s magnificent sensory and motor text-book, we have\nshut him up in a barren schoolroom.\nWe have taken all possible precautions to see that certain spots in his brain shall be permanently\nundeveloped.\nWe have compelled him to pore over a book as barren\nof meaning to him as the Sahara is of flowers.\nWe have put him to\nstudying processes before he knows the thing on which the process\nhinges.\nNature knows that her children have the God-given faculty of inattention as a weapon against our unfit training.\nIt is a pity that we can\nuse a goad to make these cells yield energy which she commands them\nnot to part with.\nShe knows that under such treatment we often fatigue\n\n"}
{"page": 851, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nLAWS\n\nOF CEREBRAL\n\nDEVELOPMENT\n\nthem, so that they never regain their natural elasticity.\nShe knows\nwe leave scars in the nervous systems of her little helpless ones.\n\n841\n\nthat\n\nGive nature more of a chance at her children, the same chance which\n\nshe had at Shakespeare,\ncan be left unheeded.\n\nand three-fourths\n\nof what we pedagogues\n\nsay\n\nDISCUSSION.\nM. V. O’SHEA,\n\nUniversity of Wisconsin,\n— Any discussion\n\nat the present time of\n\nthe contributions of cerebral physiology to practical teaching must be more prophetic\nthan historic.\nRecent investigation has reached some conclusions, however, that are\n\nsuggestive to teachers, and the most important of these have been presented in Mr.\nHalleck’s admirable paper, which may be briefly summarized as follows: The cortex of\nthe brain is composed of many millions of cells which possess important powers that\nconstitute the physical basis of education—to store energy; to put forth associative\nfibers which form connecting links with other cells, the physiological prerequisite for\nthinking; and to retain impressions made upon them, which constitute the organic bases\nof memory.\nNow, the points of interest to those who train children are, first, the conditions for healthful cell growth, and, second, the manner and order of the development of\n\nassociations between them, which we may here consider to be of three kinds: between\nsensory and motor areas; between different sensory areas; and, lastly, associations\nbetween sensory centers, and the three special language centers, the heard, spoken, and\nwritten language centers, which occupy particular portions of the sensory and motor\n\nareas.\nThe first message which the laws of cerebral development convey to teachers today\nis, it seems to me, not so much that they should provide fewer opportunities for the\nchild to think, but more opportunities for him to come in contact with concrete things\nthrough the senses;\n\nmanual\n\nthat is, that we should\n\ntraining in the school course.\n\nhave more of nature study and literature and\n\nIt is essential that this concrete work come early\n\nrather than late in the child’s life, as Mr. Halleck says, for this is the period designed by\n\nnature for the gaining of sense impressions.\nIf the appropriate stimulus is- not supplied\nto developing centers at the proper time, they tend to atrophy, and they can never thereafter be fully awakened.\nAnd, as Donaldson says, the harm would not be so great if\nonly particular centers were not aroused, but the associative fibers which pass these barren\nareas do not function so readily, and hence the power of thought is impeded.\nIn the growth of the brain the earliest and most important form of association\nseems to be between sensory and motor cells. It is satisfactorily shown by comparative biology that the brain has been evolved in the animal series to take charge of the\nmuscular system. In order to accomplish its purpose, it needs, first, a sensory region to\nreceive impulses from the world without, and, secondly, a motor region to react in some\nmeasure upon these stimuli. In all the lower forms of animal life this relation between\nthe sensory and motor areas seems to be very close, sense stimulus issuing almost directly\n\nin action. In accordance with the principles of inheritance, the child first develops those\ncharacteristics which have been most fundamental in the animal series out of which he\nsprings; and so, if we had no other evidence, we might safely infer that in the growth\nof the brain the association between sensory and motor areas would be most prominent\nat first. But studies in the laboratory and observation of child nature re-enforce the\ntestimony of evolution.\n\n"}
{"page": 852, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n842\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n[Child Study\n\nASSOCTATION\n\nAgain, as the brain was evolved to take charge of the muscles, its health\n\nand vigor\n\nFrom the\ndepend in large measure upon the fulfillment of its appropriate function.\npoint of view of physiology the sensory areas of the brain exist in order to produce\nFrom the point of view of pedagogy all instruction should contribute to\nmotor reactions.\nPedagogy and physiology unite in asserting\nthe determination of action or conduct.\nIf\nthat is, it should issue in conduct.\naspect;\nmotor\na\nhave\nshould\nteaching\nour\nthat all\nso culminate, but if we place\n\nthe child were left to himself, doubtless all instruction would\n\nand forbid him to react\n\nhim in school\nher-course.\n\nupon\n\nhis impressions,!we prevent nature\n\nSuch treatment is injurious to the child for two reasons:\n\ntaking\n\nfirst, sensory stimu-\n\nlation without appropriate motor reaction dams up the energies of the brain to its own\ndetriment ; and, secondly, education divorced\n\nfrom\n\n_\n\nthe immediate determination of con-\n\nduct has little influence upon the latter. We see, then, the necessity for putting all moral\nprecepts into practice at the time of their inculcation, so that the appropriate motor\nexpression may become fused with the moral idea, and may clarify and re-enforce it.\nOne of the most serious defects in our educational system is that it does not provide a\nsufficient opportunity for suiting the deed to the word.\nThere is too much talking and to\nlittle doing. Let us have our literature in schools dramatized from the earliest grades up;\nlet ideas gained from whatever source be expressed through drawing, through manual\ntraining, and through gesture, as well as simply through the voice. In short, wherever\npossible, let suitable action follow upon, and thus become a counterpart of, our thoughts.\nItis a fundamental\nor immediately\n\nlaw of association\n\nfollowing each\n\nother\n\nthat two impressions received simultaneously\n\nbecome\n\nassociated\n\ntogether,\n\nas, for instance, the\n\nsight of a bell and its sound.\nHerbert Spencer pointed out, some time ago, an important law of cerebral development: that too rapid organization tends to early cessation of growth; and modern physiology confirms this view.\nPrecocity, in biological equivalents, means unusually rapid\ndevelopment of the associative activities in the brain, and this precludes normal increase\nin size of brain elements.\nBut the size of brain cells determines the amount of energy\nwhich they can store, and the number of associative fibers which they can ultimately put\nforth. We should not, then, seek to hasten organization too rapidly by stimulating a\nchild too highly in his early years.\nHere, again, the city child is at a great disadvantage,\nfor his over-stimulative environment hastens maturity at the expense of the highest possible final development.\nThere is a danger, too, that the primary grades in our schools\nwill expect more work of young children than they can wisely undertake.\nSpeaking generally, a child of six should not have over three hours’ mental work a day, and no child\nin the elementary school should have over tive.\n\nThis question has another aspect, for activity of brain cells depletes them of their\nenergies, and, if sufficiently long continued, produces a condition of fatigue which is a\nhindrance to the development of a growing cell, and to the proper activity of one already\nmatured.\nExercise, not fatigue, is the law of cell growth. In general, it seems well\nproven that there is a tendency in all school work to keep children too long at their tasks,\nwithout sufficient rest periods after every twenty minutes’ or a half hour’s work at the most.\nMuch finely co-ordinated work in the primary grades, since it makes demands upon areas\nof the brain not yet matured, fatigues very rapidly and is liable to produce functional disorders in the cells employed.\nThe most important field for physiological psychology in the future is to aid in ascertaining the growing point of the child at every stage of his development.\nPhysiology\n\nalready indicates that there is a time order in the development of the child’s brain\n\nelements, and when any element is developing is the appropriate period for its training.\n\nWe have cause for profound gratitude in the fact that nature has ordained that the child\n\nshould\n\nindicate to us the appropriate materials and methods\n\nfor his education, from the\n\na\n\n"}
{"page": 853, "printed_page": null, "text": "ne\n\nDepartment]\n\nPSYCHOLOGY\n\nearliest months to maturity.\n\nOF PUBERTY\n\nAND\n\nADOLESCENCE\n\n843\n\nThe physiologist says that the growing brain cells constrain\n\nthe child to seek suitable stimuli\n\nfor their awakening, and\n\nthis seeking we\n\ncall interest.\n\nPhysiologically, interest is essential for proper nutrition, by which all mental development\nand activity are conditioned.\nAnd so, it seems, the great problem before us now is to\ndetermine the child’s interests, and this is a rich field for both the psychologist and the\nteacher of biology and of pedagogy.\nIt would be disheartening to the teacher if she had\nforever to wait upon the verdict of physiology to say what the growing point of her pupil\nis at any time;\n\nbut she need not, for the child reveals it in his acceptance of certain kinds\n\nof instruction and his rejection of others. That which is suited to the proper development of the child will manifest itself in all those physical expressions which indicate hapThat which is not adapted to promote natural growth will\npiness and healthful growth.\nreveal its inappropriateness through contrary signs. It is most consoling, then, that\nphysiology, on the one hand, and pedagogy and the sympathies of the human heart for\nchildhood, on the other, unite in declaring that the highest mission of the teacher is to\nminister wisely to the child’s native interests, and everyone may become an investigator\nin determining what these are.\n\nTHE\n\nPSYCHOLOGY\n\nBY\n\nDR.\n\nCOLIN\n\nOF PUBERTY\n\nA. SCOTT,\n\nAND\n\nCHICAGO\n\nADOLESCENCE.\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL.\n\nPuberty and adolescence are without doubt the most important period\nin the life history of a human being. The whole of childhood is directly\nrelated to this period.\nWhen the functions of sex are early matured,\nchildhood is proportionately shortened.\nThe lengthening of childhood\nand the increase of intellectual and moral development, the expansion of\nuplifting and educational forces, the increase of wealth, the lengthening\nof old age, which can be demonstated as accompaniments or consequents of this phenomenon, are thus primarily correlated with the problem of sex.\nIn the history of evolution a period of nonage or childhood\ncomes in as an intercalation between birth and sexual maturity.\nTo\nincrease this intercalation is the aim of progress.\nMany of the spontaneous activities and plays of childhood, both in\nman\n\nand\n\nthe lower animals\n\n(cf. Groos, ‘‘ Die Spiele der Thiere”’), may\n\nIndeed, the whole of child\nbe shown to be preparations for courting.\nto play his part in the\nready\ngets\nlife is a period when the individual\nand, secondarily,\nstandpoint,\nphysical\na\ntransmission of life, primarily from\nof love, virtue,\n\ncourage,\n\nin all those\n\nradiations\n\nintellectual\n\nattractiveness, which go to make\n\ncalls\n\n“the\n\ncare\n\nand culture\n\nof men,” and\n\ngentleness,\n\nup what\n\nwhich\n\nmoral\n\nand\n\nPresident Jordan\n\nform the forces which\n\nevery educator desires to further and expand.\nThe educator’s task is to put the individual in possession of his complete heredity. Not to educate is to disinherit.\nHis complete heredity, Ihave said. But the sin of the present educa-\n\n"}
{"page": 854, "printed_page": null, "text": "844\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child Study\n\ntion is to work on the most highly radiated portions, and to neglect the\nconnection of these with the primary bases of life. To throw chips upon\nthe surface and arrange them in certain patterns, and remain ignorant of\nthe deep-sea currents which carry them along, is an excellent education\nfor old maids.\nA lack of physiological unity, various degrees of divided personality,\nY\nse\nare one result of such an education.\nThe school life gets separated from\nthe home life, from the business life, and from every other sort of life.\nThe imagination gets separated from the actual.\nThe soul gets separated\nfrom the body.\nThe soul becomes cold and passionless, the body\nbecomes dried up and unhealthy, or sets up for itself a coarse and degrading line of action.\nA middle-aged, exemplary-mannered, and somewhat successful clergyman, whom\n\nI knew, used to refer to the sexual functions as ‘‘those\n\nlower\n\nnecessities of our physical nature.”\nIt used to be said of a recent political leader in England that he was perfectly moral from the middle up.\nSuch segmented lives sap the very roots of progress.\nMillions of\nlegally legitimate children spring from such lower necessities of our physical nature.\nThink of the ugly, soulless faces that haunt the streets of all\nour towns!\nCould they ever spring from the immortal kiss of all-desiring, all-deserving love ?\nAll-desiring love, ] say. For this is the love that demands everything:\na background of nutrition and a healthy body; money and power, houses\nand lands, beauty, grace, and charm, intellectual strength and keenness,\nmoral fineness and vigor, emotional depth and reach; and, finally, the\nability to evolve and cause others to evolve, to accept oneself and others\nfrom nature as we are, as something which is not yet, but is to be, like\nBrowning’s “ James Lee’s Wife,’ who needed to love a man whom she\n\ncould forgive, develop, and improve.\nHow shall we prevent this morbid segmentation\n— this division of life?\nHow shall we obtain this physiological unity which is the condition and\nexpression of both health and holiness ?\nOf the first importance is realization of the significance of the period\nof adolescence.\nAn immense bulk of inherited capacity comes in before\npuberty, and it comes in in normal cases with very little conscious reference to sex or sexual emotions. No doubt teasing, bullying, show-off feelings, so-called self-consciousness, with its conflicting elements of fear and\n\nanxiety to please, etc., etc., prefigure much of the sexual life, but this significance is lost to the child. During the first two years of puberty the\nphysical capacity with its vague, undefined sensations, and lower ranges\nof desire, come into being. But it is the period of adolescence proper,\nor from seventeen to twenty-five, that serves to weld together these two\nseparated regions. If this work is not well done, segmentation or degen-\n\n——\n\n"}
{"page": 855, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPSYCHOLOGY\n\neration results.\nof evolution.\n\nOF PUBERTY\n\nAND\n\nADOLESCENCE\n\n845\n\nThis fusion is the result of the last and culminating effort\nIt is the crown\n\nof life, and, when\n\nincomplete, discounts the\n\nindividual immediately in all the higher phases of the struggle for existence, including here, as most important, the struggle for a mate, and the\nopportunity to love.\nIt is the period which demands the strongest and\nmost subtle forces of education to complete the fusion and to modulate\ninto one harmony the highest radiations and the most fundamentally\nphysical facts. And, despite some talk about putting the best teachers\nin the lowest grades, the common sense of humanity has always acknowledged the present arrangement as an educational necessity.\nA child of\nfive has so much evolutionary momentum behind him that he will develop\nin spite of the most untoward surroundings. As when you slide a curling\nstone along the ice, or roll a carpet ball, it is the last stages which depend\nmost completely on the environment.\nIt is here where the curlers use\ntheir brooms and get down upon their knees and rub the ice. If education is environment, as distinguished from the initial force of heredity, it is\nthis last period of adolescence when environment or education counts for\nthe most, and when its neglect is the most disastrous and inexcusable.\nSavage races, if they have no other education at this period, submit the\nyoung to initial rites and ceremonies.\nThis is manifestly a sort of education by games and plays, and calculated to have a stimulating and\nstrengthening effect upon the mind.\n;\nThis period, according to Clouston and other alienists, shows the strain\n\nput upon the higher brain function.\nMental troubles are far more\nfrequent between seventeen and twenty-five than for the five or six years\nbefore or after. Adolescent insanity is the expression of failure of evolutionary force.\nNature has been unable to complete the circuit, and we\nhave as a consequence, in many cases, the most deep-seated degeneration\nof the whole of the mental life.\nFrom the intellectual standpoint fetichism is the characteristic neurosis of this period. Fetichism is one side of the phenomenon of segmentation, and consists in some narrowed image or chain of images, or insufficient points of contact with the external world, carrying into play, and\nconstituting the only condition which does carry into play, the deeper\nemotions of physical love. For example, a scolding voice, a hand, an\neye, a foot, a handkerchief, a peculiar color of hair, or the smell of it, a\n\nshoe of a certain pattern, the sight of blood, or the witnessing of torture,\neither the giving or receiving of pain, often in some peculiar or eccentric\nmanner, are sometimes the only events which arouse the erethims of sexual\nemotion and appeal as sexually attractive to the individuals concerned.\nOne man blackens his sweetheart’s face with burnt cork, and sits holding\nAnother’s greatest satisfacher hands, and looking at her in a mirror.\nThe lighter forms are most\nhim.\nshave\nand\nlather\nwife\nhis\ntion is to have\n\n"}
{"page": 856, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n846\n\nsignificant and interesting.\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n[Child Study\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nA teacher of undoubted ability, whose expe-\n\nrience was confided to me, had found in adolescence an enthusiastic and\n\nmorbidly sexual attraction for hands of both men and women.\nat nineteen, writes of the attraction for her of a soft, silky beard:\n\nAnother,\n“ I was\n\nWhen\noften filled with an almost irresistible desire to touch his beard.\nI had this feeling I could not talk to him or look into his eyes.” On one\n‘The touch of his beard thrilled\noccasion this feeling was gratified.\nme.\nI knew for the first time that the feeling was sexual.”\nAnother writes:\n‘At sixteen I was in love with a boy of my own\nage, who, to show his devotion\n\nfor me, scalded\n\nhis hands\n\nin hot water,\n\nand rubbed them in salt. When I heard of this I was so sorry that I went\nand did the same thing.”\nAll rites and ceremonies and all the forms of good manners and\npolite society are madeof some such psychic material as this.\nA discipline which excludes the possibility of such radiations has lost touch\nwith much that is vital in the adolescent soul.\nA sort of pernicketiness or over-fastidiousness is a very common form\nof light fetichism.\n\nThe individual\n\nsticks, as it were, over some triviality,\n\nwhich is invested with too great meaning or importance.\nPresident G.\nStanley Hall gives a case where a lasting prejudice was established in a\nlady’s mind against a certain young man because his cuffs overlapped the\nwrong way.\nDefinite and narrow limitations in ideals, especially if established at\ntoo\n\nearly an\n\nage, are certainly\n\nfetichistic.\n\neighth-grade girl of sixteen:\n“T would like my ideal young\ncharacter, and\n\nnot a fickle and\n\nTake, for example, from\n\nan\n\nman, first of all, to have a constant\n\nchangeable one.\n\nHe\n\nmust be tall, dark,\n\nand very handsome.\nHis hair must be curly, and he must have a little\nmustache.\nHis eye must be deep violet, kind, and gentle.\nBut I never\nhope to see this man.”\nIt is possible, of course, that before she is twenty-five some short, fair,\n\nand ordinary-looking young man may have succeeded in breaking down\nthis fetichism, and enlarging considerably her range of symbolism.\nFetichism is, of course, a quality which extends through every domain\nThe\nof life. Narrow views in morals and religion are of this character.\nmysophobia and fearful neatness of some housewives, the painful setness\nof both their household furniture and of their characters, are other\n\ncom-\n\nmon instances.\nFetichism always means a narrowing of the possibilities of love, and\nfrom the emotional side this often gives opportunity to fear and repulsion. The cure for fetichism is to be found in a greater expansion of all\nthe higher intellectual and emotional enthusiasms, particularly of art and\nreligion.\nTo feel the ecstasy of color and of sound, to fall in love with\n\n"}
{"page": 857, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPSYCHOLOGY\n\nOF PUBERTY\n\nAND\n\nADOLESCENCE\n\n847\n\nGod, are natural and necessary adolescent expansions; but without\nenthusiasm these themselves may be dry and fetichistic.\nA segmentation\nmay result and the physiological unity be missed.\nIt is the letter which\nis fetichistic, the spirit which giveth life.\n\nRadiation\n\nand\n\nmobilization\n\nof\n\nenergy are the secret of stepping heavenward.\nThe data at my disposal (written adolescent confessions, including\nexperiences in falling in love) indicate that these radiations occur largely\nwithout much direction or understanding of them by the pedagogue.\nIndeed, he frequently gets in the way; perhaps, with only a half\nknowledge and little tact and sympathy, he might only get in the way\noftener. Perfect ignorance is safer with some. That these forces underlie\nthe whole\n\nof school\n\nwork\n\nis, however, no\n\nlonger\n\na matter\n\nof question.\n\nVery many speak of love of nature, music, and poetry enlarging their\nnotions of love, and sometimes forming a substitute for this primitive\npassion itself. This experience from a young lady of twenty-two I quote\nas being a typical normal case:\nWhen\n\nin the eighth\n\ngrade, between\n\nthe age\n\nof fifteen\n\nand sixteen,\n\na young\n\nboy\n\nentered our class toward the end of the year. My feelings toward the boys in the class had always been most friendly, in a general way. But when this boy entered the class,\nall my friendly feelings seemed centered upon him. ‘This friendly feeling grew from the\nvery first time I saw him.\nIt seemingly was acknowledged by him, which only intensified\nmy feeling. After a few months—TI do not remember just how long—I felt this strong\nfeeling of love take full possession of me. It was my predominant thought. I would try\nto reason myself out of it, but could not then.\nI desired to take some one into my confidence, but dared not.\nIt was now a most serious thought with me, and often made me\n\nsad and lonely when I saw no way of fulfilling my desire of a closer communication with\nhim than was\n\nafforded\n\nin the schoolroom.\n\nI watched\n\nclosely his every action, and, if\n\nanything in him displeased me, it was quickly excused, or else the hope of converting him\nentertained.\nNo encouragement outside the schoolroom was ever given him, and, indeed, when\nhe insisted on knowing my address, a dreadful feeling filled my very soul.\nAbout this time we took up the study of “ Evangeline,” in which I gave expression to\nmy\n\nthoughts.\n\nThis\n\nrelieved\n\nme\n\nvery much in one way, but\n\nin another\n\nintensified\n\nmy\n\nyearning to become a second Evangeline.\n\nNone of my feelings were ever expressed to others; but some of my most intimate\ngirl companions, evidently noticing something, would often joke and tease me about him,\n\nwhich I then seemed to enjoy.\nMy feelings often became so strong that I felt, unless my hope was realized, I certainly should die. A week or so before graduation he left the school to my sadness, and\nI never saw him after. For along time I entertained the hope of meeting him on the car\nor street, but gradually, with time, and, I think, with knowledge, the hope died out.\n\nAs I\n\nwrite this, every scene is vividly recalled, and I rather surprise myself at the delight and\n\nenjoyment taken in it now after six years.\n\nOf special note here are the fear of going further by revealing her\naddress, the silent brooding and loneliness, the pleasure in being teased,\nand the radiation afforded by the study of ‘‘ Evangeline.”\nOut\nFeelings involving death and suicide are commonly associated.\n\n"}
{"page": 858, "printed_page": null, "text": "(Child Study\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n848\n\nof over 200 returns, 89 per cent. have brooded on death and suicide\nIt seems as if this great background— thought\nduring their early teens.\n— was needed to bring out the utmost resources of love, that the\nof death\nsoul needs to get its bearings and to know intimately this largest of all\nfears in order completely to overcome it. Anger, too, which marks a\nbreak in the harmony of love, and sometimes a means to a higher realization of it (as witness lovers’ quarrels), is often radiated by means of this\nconception of death. A girl of fifteen, when offended by those she loves,\ngoes up to her room and locks herself in. She lies upon the bed and\nfolds her arms across her breast.\nShe breathes quietly and imagines she\nis dead. The door is opened, and she is discovered lying cold and still.\nHer mother and the rest of her family rush in. ‘Oh that I should have\nparted from her in anger!’’\nKisses fall upon her lips. ‘The neighbors\n“ Poor young girl, to have died so young!” The coffin is heaped\ncome.\nwith flowers.\nShe knows the text from which the clergyman will preach,\nand just what he will say.\nThe lid is screwed down, and she is carried\nto the grave.\nNor does she stop until the clods begin to fall upon her.\nShe then feels better, gets up, and comes downstairs with every trace of\nher bad feeling removed.\n‘By this natural, involuntary, psychic mechanism, nature has radiated\nher passions into higher regions.\nShe feels convinced that people love\nher after all. Her psychic wounds are healed.\nLove of nature, one of the highest and subtlest radiations of physical\nlove, frequently gains a stimulus from these associated centers of passion.\nWhen angry, one young woman (if possible) rushes out of doors and\nlooks up to the starry vault or the blue sky.\nAt no time does she feel\nmore exquisitely their beauty and charm.\nThis feeling almost immediately dissipates her anger.\nAn experience in answer to my questionnaire on ‘“ Love of Nature”’\nwill indicate the subordinate elements which obtain radiation in this\nemotion.\nAt\n\nthe first view of the lake (Michigan)\n\neverything\n\nseemed\n\ncoming\n\ntoward\n\nme.\n\nThe sand came whirling up the hill, and almost lifted me off my feet. The lake\nseemed to be following, and the waves dashed themselves against the beach with a\nroaring noise. I was keenly alive to the beautiful coloring of the water, the dark green,\nalmost black, in the distance, with every now and then streaks of blue and purple, which\nchanged to lighter green, surmounted by great, foaming, white caps which broke out\nagainst the yellow beach. I wish I could paint the scene, but I could not show the\nmovement which I saw, hence it would seem dead to me. I felt the grandeur of the\nscene, the wildness, and I had a sensation of intense loneliness, though there were others\n\nwith me. I think I was conscious of my breathing, for I felt a throbbing, an inward\nwringing and bleeding, as if my heart were breaking. I shrank. from the view of the\nwater, but it held me and seemed to draw me with a painful fascination.\nPerhaps, if no\none had been near to me, I would have held out my arms to it, for I felt it held something\n\nwhich I would give the world to possess; something which it ought to give to me and\n\n"}
{"page": 859, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPSYCHOLOGY\n\nOF PUBERTY\n\nAND\n\nADOLESCENCE\n\nmé alone. I wordered if it was very painful to die among\nthey seemed too beautiful to be cruel,\n\nMy returns\n\nshow\n\nthat this enthusiastic\n\n849\n\nthose beautiful white caps ;\n\nappreciation\n\nof naturé does\n\nnot come in earlier than adolescence, and, on the other hand, as KrafftEbing says, ‘Who does not, in this period, become enthusiastic for the\nsublime and the beautiful, remains a Philistine for the rest of his life.”\n\nThe means of expression and of radiation for these feelings are fouind to\nthe greatest extent in the various arts. As Guyau claimed, art should double\n\nand triple our existence by employing the surplus of force unused by the\nordinary demands of life. Landscape, which Paul Desjardins (“ Esquisses\net impressions”’) calls “the charming summit of modern art,” is especially\nSays he: “ Landscape expresses with force everything\nefficacious here.\nwhich\n\nby the\n\nother\n\narts, save\n\nmusic, would\n\nbe inexpressible;\n\na certain\n\nnumber of states of soul, and the most intimate and most vague, . .\nand which are, for all that, the most delicious.\nI mean all those shades of\n\nmelancholy, love of solitude and of silence, serenity, grave joy, not\ntrivial and exterior —there is no landscape which makes a laugh—the\necstasy, and, indeed, everything which one suffers from not being able to\nput it into words.”\nOf the greatest significance in adolescence, and throughout the whole\nof childhood, is the element\n\nof fear.\n\nIn matters of love it is particularly\n\nimportant.\nYou remember that Don Juan’s successes were frequently\nprecipitated by circumstances giving rise to fear. A thunderstorm by\nthe seashore arouses the need for protection in the fair one’s mind, and\nshe throws herself into his arms.\nThomas Hardy makes one of his heroines yield to an unworthy lover who had frightened and charmed her\nwith his wonderful encircling sword-play, even going the length of cutting off a lock of her hair.\nThe attraction of many women for the\n“bold, bad man”’ is a degenerate instance of this same tendency.\nIn higher regions the old religion understood the art of arousing a\npreliminary erethism of fear in order to reclaim the worshipers under this\nstimulus to a deeper sense of divine love and protection.\nFor this pur\npose the most deadly snakes were used, dark and gloomy places were\nchosen for devotion, bloody sacrifices were perpetrated, wild and terrible\norgies were enacted in the presence of the people. The spectacle of the\npriests, who, through their divine powers, were fearless in face of all these\n\nfears, boldly seizing the most venomous\n\nreptiles, or courageously inflict-\n\ning\n\nwounds,\n\nupon\n\nthemselves\n\nthe most\n\nterrible\n\nled the devotees, and,\n\nindeed, the whole of the people to whom these rites were suitable, to\nturn to them and the higher powers they represented, with a feeling of\ndesire for protection, gratitude, and love.\n\nIn early times the spring meetings,\n\nat which\n\nthese religious orgies\n\nwere held, weré also the periods at which the sexes met\n\neach other freely\n\n"}
{"page": 860, "printed_page": null, "text": "850\n\nNATIONAL\n\nand marriages\n\nwere\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\ncelebrated.\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nIndeed, the\n\nethical\n\nform\n\n[Child Study\n\nof marriage,\n\nthe foundation of our present constitution of society, may be said to have\nbeen begun by the recognition and control by the religious leaders of\nsexual unions stimulated and precipitated at such times.\nEven in more modern forms of religion the element of fear remains\nThe practice of the old Scotch minister, who used to shake\nimportant.\nhis hearers “over the mouth o’ hell” before portraying before them the\ninfinite graces of redeeming love, follows the same psychological curve.\nA preliminary feeling of guilt and consciousness of sin are, perhaps, a\nnecessary ingredient in the feelings which culminate in the hunger and\nthirst after righteousness and the desire for atonement with the higher\npowers.\nFear, as President Hall has recently shown us in his wide-reaching\nand suggestive article on this subject in the American Journal of Psychology, is very widely spread in childhood.\nIt would seem that something\nought to be done to discharge these fears and to prepare the way in early\nchildhood for the higher and later reconciliations of love, art, and religion.\nThe immense value of the grotesque in art seems to have been neglected\nhere, although Ruskin has pointed out its value in all Gothic art.\nIt is\nequally important in Japanese art. ‘The art founded on the dragon alone\nwould be difficult to dispense with even now.\nChildren’s drawings are, perhaps, naturally grotesque, and somewhat\nlike the art of lower races, who continually used the objects of their\nfears as a subject of their art, and thus reclaimed them for their higher\nimagination.\nWhen a child draws, in broad daylight, on ordinary paper,\nand with material paints, something which he fears or has feared, he not\nonly gets hold of a deep-seated interest, but discharges it along lines of\nsympathy and love. The joyful appreciation of his art work by himself\nand others is evidence of this fact.\nI have here a collection of children’s paintings of objects which they\nfear, some of which, although grotesque, are more artistic than the most\nof children’s paintings which have behind them no deep-seated interest\nor emotion.\nThese are, of course, only the beginnings of art, but I am\nconvinced that there is here psychic material which will amply repay the\nteacher who is,able use it. (Paintings exhibited and explained.)\nTo sum up, this important period of life demands that a better understanding\n\nbe obtained\n\nof the real forces\n\nat work.\n\nMere\n\nleading,\n\nmere\n\nrepression, will never gain the end in view.\nDivided personality, a segmented life, and loss of energy, are the penalty paid for working in the\ndark.\nFusion of the various elements is sought by nature, and must be\naided by the teacher.\nAn arrangement of the education of early childhood that will leave the instincts of this period with hooks that will connect\n\nthem\n\nwith\n\nthe enthusiasms\n\nof adolescence,\n\na tactful\n\nand delicate\n\n—\n\n"}
{"page": 861, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department}\n\nMENTAL\n\nDIFFERENCES\n\nOF SCHOOL\n\nCHILDREN\n\n851)\n\nrecognition of the source from which these enthusiasms spring, are among\nour greatest needs.\nIt is useless and harmful to try to stamp out these\nimmense hereditary passions.\nThis is not nature’s meaning.\nShe has\ntaken too long to evolve them from the past. They are, even in their\ncruder forms, powerful expressions of the will to live. They are immense\nforces, which must be related and brought into harmonious\n\nThe\n\ncontrol.\n\ngreatest problem before the educator of the present day is to mobilize\nand radiate these great instincts of anger, fear, and physical love.\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\nPRESIDENT A. H. YODER, Vincennes, Ind.—I\n\nas to the distinction\n\nbetween\n\npubescence\n\nshall\n\nadd a few thoughts\n\nand adolescence.\n\nPubescence\n\nonly.\n\nFirst,\n\ncovers\n\na short\n\nnascent period just before the time of most rapid physical development; while adolescence\nis the prolonged period of slow, full,and mature development.\nThis may cover a number\nof years, ending as late as the age of twenty-five.\nSecond, during these two periods the\nchild develops from biological selfishness into altruism.\nIt seems to me very questionable\n_ whether teasing, etc., are manifestations of sex.\nMrs. Hall has recently made an interesting study of her own boy. Within a period of seven months there appeared a number\nof waves or crests of learning words.\n‘These crests showed themselves at periods of about\none month.\nThe morbid side of these periods is interesting, but we are more interested\nin the usual and ordinary.\n‘Till pubescence there is a tendency to selfishness, then comes\na period of altruism.\n\nMENTAL\n\nDIFFERENCES OF SCHOOL\n\nBY J. A. HANCOCK,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nCHILDREN.\n\nDURANGO,\n\nCOLO.\n\nThe first stage of the development of the course of study was the mere\naddition of subjects.\nThis resulted in an overloaded condition.\nThe\nsecond stage into which the course has passed includes a study of each\nsubject in the light of the contributions from a number of fields of\nknowledge, the elimination of the relatively unimportant material, and\nthe adjustment in scientific relations of what remains.\nThe purpose of this paper is a résumé of the results of some of\nthe experimental studies on children of school age—six to twenty-one—\nwith reference to their bearings on such certain problems as the relation of\nphysical to mental development, the relative powers of the sexes, the\nperiods of retardation and acceleration of growth, the separation of the\nsexes in the schools, and some of the methods of teaching.\nThe theory that the development of power in childhood proceeds in\n\n"}
{"page": 862, "printed_page": null, "text": "fe\n352\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child Study\n\nthe reverse order of its dissolution has received some confirmation in a\nnumber of studies, notably that of Preyer.‘ Ribot® says of memory that\nthe loss of recollections\n\nis in an invariable order, namely, recent\n\nevents,\n\nideas in general, feelings, actions; and that the order of recovery is the\nreverse of this. The studies in mind seem to me to show that the development of memory\n\nis in this same reverse order, namely, that of actions,\n\nfeelings, ideas in general, and recent events; these, of course, overlapping.\nLearn to do\nThe impulse of childhood toward activity is proverbial.\nby doing represents the experience of the races to the effect that the\nactivity of muscle has a great value in learning.\nAll of the studies on\nchildren’s interests? show the leading one to be in activity closely associated with use.\nShaw found this to be 34 per cent. of the combined lines\nof associations.\nMrs. Barnes‘ finds that strong lines of action appeal\nmostly to and are best remembered by children.\nIt is in terms of movement that so much of children’s thinking is done.\nBoth Brown’s and\nThurber’s® studies suggest the same conclusions.\nPerhaps the negative fact that memory for figures and reasoning processes and other lines of interest are so poor in earlier years is worth\nmentioning.©\nNumber associations in Shaw’s study hardly reach 5\nper cent.\nIt is not suggested that action is the only line along which\nmemory develops, but that it is the principal one.\nThe studies recently\nreported in the Pedagogical Seminary’ on emotions and feelings show\nhow much of child life centers around these.\nThe time when children can deal with general principles of a subject\nis pointed out in part by the necessity felt so generally for postponing\ntechnical grammar till after primary grades.\nBarnes and Shaw each finds\nthe power to classify weak till twelve years, and that the reasoning of\nyoung children is fragmentary and broken.\nTwo years ago, using the\nmethod of Jastrow,’ I tested 500 of my pupils. The disposition to classify\nwas prominent in fourth grades, culminating for girls in sixth and for\nboys in seventh grades; that analysis became strong in third grades,\nculminating for girls in seventh grades and for boys in the eighth and\nhigh-school grades. Peculiar to second and third grades was the pres‘Chapter on “Aphasia in Development of Intellect;”\nAbility,” Pedagogical Seminary, Vol, I11., No. 3.\n\n2“ Diseases of Memory,” chap. v.\n\nalso Hancock,\n\n‘On\n\nMotor\n\n*\n\n3 £. g., Shaw, “ Children’s Interests,” Chi/d Study Monthly, Vol. 11., No. 3\n\n4“Studies of Historic Method.”\n\n:\n\n5 Brown, “ Oakland School Report,” 1892-93; Thurber, “Transactions Illinois Society\nfor Child Study,” 1897.\n&*“Memory in Children,” American Journal of Pedagogy, Vol. 1V., No. 3; Hancock,\n“Children’s Ability to Reason,” Lducational Review, 1896.\n7Russell, Pedagogical Seminary, Vol. I1., No. 2.\n8 Educational Review, Vol. I1., No. 5.\n\n"}
{"page": 863, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMENTAL\n\nDIFFERENCES\n\nOF SCHOOL\n\nCHILDREN\n\n853\n\nence of a large vocabulary not evidently associated along any definite\nlines except that of similarity of sound.\nIn almost every line studied the\n‘culmination of a power for the girls was at least a year earlier than for\nthe boys.\nI published last year‘ accounts of tests on children’s ability to compare numbers.\nPower did not develop to any great extent till between\ntwelve and thirteen.\nThere seemed to be a limit to the number of steps\nin a reasoning process which children could take.\nPower to reason from\nmany to one and from one to many was fairly strong from seven years\non, but the ability to take three steps was not generally present till thirteen.\nComparing two fractions was a yet more difficult process till\nfifteen was reached.\nBoys lost power about eight and fourteen and girls\nat ten.\nDifferences. with these exceptions were slight, but in the boys’\nfavor.\n\n‘The rate of increase, all told, was most rapid about nine, thirteen,\n\nand fifteen.\n\nThere were many coincidences between\n\nthe results and the\n\ncurves for growth in height and weight.\nThe retarded periods seem to\nbe those of second teething and of certain changes at puberty. The\nliterature of primitive peoples * shows that the sense of historic time comes\nlate, that its order of development is the power to count, to note periods\n\nof time by some instrument, and to record events.\nMrs. Barnes found a\nsimilar result true of children.\nThe true sense, though present, was\nobscure and vague till after twelve, and the sense of the relation of cause\nand effect perhaps equally so. Again, many coincidences appear between\nthese results and the curves for growth.\nThe prominence of emotional\nlife with growing reasoning power needs more consideration.\nStarbuck*\nconcludes that “the years of greatest frequency of conversations cor-.\nrespond with periods of greatest bodily growth for both males and_\nfemales.”\nPorter‘ thinks that growth in mental power is associated closely with\nphysical growth.\nGilbert’s,> Lange’s, and David’s® claims to the contrary\nseem to me to be true only of the development changes at second teething and puberty.\nTheir results, all told, show, too, general coincidence\n\nwith curves for growth.\nKirkpatrick’s’ conclusions are of interest in view of present tendenciesThese are that objects are remembered better than written names, the\nwritten word better than written names, the written word\nt Educational Review, October, 1896.\n\n2 Barnes, “Studies in Historic Method.”\n3 American Journal of Pedagogy, Vol. VII1., No, 2.\n\n4 Porter, “ Transactions of Academy of Sciences.”\n5 Gilbert, ‘‘ Yale Psychological Studies,” Vol. IJ.\n6 Educational Review, October, 1896.\n? Psychological Review, Vol. 1., p. 603.\n\nbetter than\n\nthe\n\n"}
{"page": 864, "printed_page": null, "text": "854\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child Study\n\nThe\n‘spoken, visual qualities better than sounds and imaged objects.\nThe\nyears.\nadvanced\nwith\nimprove\nnot\ndoes\nwords\nfor\nspecial memory\nkind of memory changes.\nThere is a limit, not clearly defined, to the\nThe differences in power were\nnumber of words each child could recall.\nnearly all in favor of the girls till high-school and college years.\nThe retarded period in number memory seems to come about the fifth\nor sixth grades, varying somewhat with the grade and school.\nTesting\nwith reference to this a few weeks ago on six points in comparison of\nnumbers, I found the ability of fourth- and fifth-grade girls the same.\nTwo years ago it was sixth-grade children that seemed to be at a standstill.\n\nBotton’s,\n\nScott’s,\n\nRice’s,\n\nHolmes’,\n\nDexter’s,\n\nand\n\nMrs.\n\nTucker’s\n\nstudies all point to fifth and sixth grades as retarded stages in number\nscience, memory, or spelling ability. Russell’s study on reading brings\nout the curious fact that it is about this same period that children are\ndisposed to do so much reading, of so miscellaneous a character ; that in\nthe years immediately following the amount decreases, but is in definite\nlines.\n\nHere, it would\n\nseem, is a time\n\nfor less arithmetic and more care-\n\nfully planned reading, history, and manual training.\nI have found it\nespecially helpful to have fifth- and sixth-grade teachers meet in the same\nsection of the teachers’ meeting, and to exchange work where possible.\nEach gets thus a better understanding of the difficulties of the other’s\nposition and is less likely to criticise the other.\nSomething of the same\nis true with first and second grades.\n:\nAn interesting explanation is offered by Bryan‘ of the loss of power,\nwhich, true of children physically, may in some respects be true mentally’:\n“It would seem something more than a reasonable surmise that the\ngeneral acceleration of the rate (tapping) in girls from twelve to thirteen,\nand in boys from thirteen to fourteen, is an expression of high tension in\nthe nerve centers in many individuals at those ages ;that the decline follow‘ing is an expression of nervous fatigue consequent upon the functional\nchanges at those periods ; and that the reacceleration is a sign of recovery\nfrom that fatigue.”\nBoth Bryan’s and Gilbert’s study shows the increased ease of fatigue\n-about eight for both sexes, for the girls at thirteen and boys at note\n‘recovery following the succeeding years in each case.\nGirls fatigued less than boys, but also did less work in the same\nperiods.\nWriters worthy of respect have insisted that the sexes should be separated in certain grades. No study of which I know has demonstrated\ngreat mental differences between the sexes sufficient to warrant this. Conditions rarely make separation feasible, and I doubt its desirability.\nThere are advantages of association under desirable supervision. We:have\n* Bryan, “Voluntary Motor Ability,” American Journal of Pedagogy, Vol. V., No. 2.\n\n"}
{"page": 865, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMENTAL\n\nDIFFERENCES\n\nOF SCHOOL\n\nCHILDREN\n\n855\n\nnot yet tested well the lines more feasible, which are: better-trained\nteachers, with a knowledge of these differences, with a greater opportunity\nfor the individual training of the pupils, with more laboratory, library, and\nshop facilities, and with a disposition to get in closer touch with their\npupils ;and more men teachers in sixth, seventh, eighth, and high-school\ngrades. With these lines carefully developed, separation, it seems to me,\nwould more likely be a misfortune,\nThe theory of Churchton Brown’* that a power should be trained most\nduring its period of rapid development seems to be thus far without contradiction of consequence.\n‘The periods of most rapid growth are those\nof greatest health.\nThere is a strong disposition to make great use of\nthese powers during such periods.\nMy study read before this body three\nyears ago* pointed out the undesirability of small writing, much current\nkindergarten work, and piano practice for young children.\nI have not\nfound it desirable to use copy books? nor drawing books till about nine,\nand this is the time pointed out by Bryan when power of precise movement first grows at a rapid rate. This, too, is a time when Barnes’ “Study\nof Children’s Drawings” suggests that the beginning of technical drawing\ncan best be made.\n‘The best results in manual training are secured with\nchildren between thirteen and eighteen or nineteen.\n‘These are the years,\nagain, when precision of movement, strength, and size of hand and arm\nare growing rapidly.‘\nFrom the studies of Barnes, Lukens,; Luckey,’ and others on children’s\n\ninterests\n\nand drawings, the following\n\nconclusions\n\nare taken:\n\nDrawing\n\nshould be an undifferentiated study during the first three or four years.\nIt should enter as a part of nature study, reading, number, and language\n-work.\nFree and accurate use of the muscles, according to the laws of\ntheir development, is necessary.\nIn some third grades and all fourth\ngrades the grammar .and technique of drawing may be begun, and the\nuse of the drawing book permitted, unless the teacher is an expert. The\nyounger children, especially, should have access to an abundance of good\npictures, illustrated books, magazines, photographs, and plates ‘of great\nmen, great scenes, great sculptures, paintings, and-edifices.\nAim first’to\n-eliminate all scribble and meaningless strokes from the children’s drawings, emphasizing the bold, significant lines and human figures in action.\net Morris! “Book of Health,” chap. “ Key and Hartwell.”\n\n2 Hancock, Pedagogical Seminary, Vol. II1., No. 1.\n3See Shaw’s “Children’s Writing,” Chz/d Study Monthly, Vol.\n\nII., No. 3; Lukens,\n\n-“Herbartian Year Book,” No. 2, pp. 64-5.\n4 Zeising, quoted in Vierordt's “ Anatomie und Physiologie des Kindesalters ;’’ Bryant,\nAmerican Journal of Pedagogy, Vol. V.,..No.2;\n\nGilbert, “ Yale Psychological Studies,”\n\nNo. 2; Roberts, “ Manual of peiasometee\n5 Lukens, Pedagogical Seminary, Vol. 1V., No. 2.\nSLuckey, Vorthwestern Journal of Education, 1897\n\n"}
{"page": 866, "printed_page": null, "text": "856\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child Study\n\n“ Drawing is for young children a language, a means of expression.”\nHistorically writing developed after drawing and as a more exact means of\nexpression ; it seems to me that it is not needed till late in the first or\nsecond grades.\nWe press the development of means of expression too\nlong before the increase of thought to be expressed demands it.\nRussell’s study on reading, already referred to, seems very important ;\nBrown’s conclusions also.\nBrown says: “The period during which\nimaginative literature of the more childish sort can be used effectively in\nconnection with the instruction in language, literature, etc., extends\nthrough the fifth grade (in these schools); and that, while considerable\ninterest in historical narrative can be counted on from the fifth grade\nupward, the clear superiority of such narratives to legendary literature in\nthe natural interest of the children does not come out till the ninth grade.”\nMrs. Barnes’ ‘Studies of Historic Method” has many helpful suggestions for actual school work and the order of approach in the teaching of\nhistory. That it is motor memory which develops so early and to so great\na degree, that there is a limit to the number of details which should be\nintroduced into narratives, are points strongly emphasized. The limit for\nhistory and reading differs from that in arithmetic.\nThe slow development of reasoning power seems to warrant more\nattention to the inductive phases of teaching, especially in arithmetic and\ngrammar.\nWe need to determine more accurately the limits of pupils’\npowers and to arrange work which shall exercise their powers freely within\nthese limits as a basis for the development of power for greater limits.\nThe peculiarly bright, yet evanescent, memory of children for word forms\nleads teachers into many blunders. I think that arithmetic work like that\nof the Kansas City schools is in right lines. Speer’s new book on arithmetic has also much that is sound and helpful. We have great need to\ngrow toa yet greater appreciation of the fact that children are little men\nand women, and that the type of memory generally most prominent with\nthem is the motor.\nThe greatest truth emphasized by Hall’s “Contents of Mind” seems\nto me to be the necessity for a greater training in the lines conditioning the movement of mind in the inductive stages.\nPerhaps the relative neglect of these stages accounts for the poor results in many lines\nof school work in grammar grades.\nThe tendency is to expect young\nchildren to begin with general principles, forgetful of our own experience\nand that of the race.\nThe investigations on spelling by Dr. Rice’ are so recent that it is unnec“essary to comment on them further than to express confidence in the work\nand to resume the conclusions which bear so definitely on schoolroom\nwork.\n‘Forum, June, 1897.\n\n"}
{"page": 867, "printed_page": null, "text": "cul\n\nDepartment]\n\nMENTAL\n\nDIFFERENCES\n\nOF SCHOOL\n\nCHILDREN\n\n857\n\nIncreased amount of time beyond a certain minimum\n— fifteen or\ntwenty minutes per day\n— does not improve the quality of the work.\nSome variety of methods secures the best results. The personality of\nthe teacher is a very important factor. The selection of material from\nthe various school text-books does not generally contribute to good\nspelling.\nMaterial for spelling work should be studied by teachers with reference, first, to the elimination of easiest words\n\nand\n\nrare words, which last\n\nmay be taught incidentally; second, to the grading of the words with\nreference to difficulty and vocabulary, giving precedence to the common\nwords and to their arrangement with reference to many of the rules.\nThe purrling small words should be grouped and taught together.\nThe omission of returns for certain ages from many experimental\nstudies seems to me to be a mistake.\nAll of the many monographs are\nsure to be studied comparatively.\nResearch work cannot solve wholly\nthe problems of education, but its importance is great. More precautions\nshould be taken to secure exactness and completeness of work.\n\nDISCUSSION.\nS. S. Parr, St. Cloud, Minn.—So far as broadly marked differences between the\nsexes in school were concerned, the old idea was like the famous chapter on snakes in\nIreland: there were none.\n‘This was largely the result of teachers and psychologists\n\nprojecting an ideal child from their reminiscent experience, instead of building up a\nknowledge of the reality by observation.\n\nThe\n\nnew\n\nview\n\nis that there\n\nare differences.\n\nAt present it is assumed that these differences are not so broad and deep but that they can\nbe so reconciled as to allow instruction together to go profitably on. That many current\npractices in education will be modified to suit the demands arising from differences of sex\ncannot be doubted.\nAssuming that the grades include eight years, they begin about the period of second\ndentition and last to about the crest of adolescence.\nIn any consideration of stages it is\nwell to keep in mind\n\nthat, except periods of comparatively slight disturbance, develop-\n\nment is a somewhat regular advance in size, power, and complexity. Usually periods of\nseemingly latent condition are simply slow transitions from one culmination to another.\nAs epochs in the physical being, dentition and adolescence are the finishing strokes of\nlong stages leading up to them.\nIn what is here said concerning sex differences in the grades it is taken for granted\nthat body and mind are interdependent, and change in the one is paralleled by corre-\n\n.\nsponding modification of the other.\nof\nkinds\nsolid\nmore\nthe\nfor\npreparation\nfunctional\nof\nSecond dentition is significant\nfood, and of greater physical independence.\nSikorski has noted that at the close of this\nperiod there is something more than the average increase of weight, greater muscular\nvigor, and better health. In the matter of time the sexes do not differ perceptibly in this\nchange.\n\nThe adolescent\n\nperiod is one of more than average\n\nincrease in size, weight, and\n\n"}
{"page": 868, "printed_page": null, "text": "ASSOCIATION\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL\n858\nan\nNe\nel\n\n[Child Study\n\nFrom ten to twelve years of age girls are somewhat taller and heavier than boys.\npower.\nThey are also more mature, and their minds are more fully possessed of the adult faculties.\nIn dealing with the sexes in classes, the difference of condition due to the earlier adolescence of girls is a factor requiring constant attention.\nMaturity of\nAdolescence means still greater mental and physical independence.\nwhatever kind signifies greater completeness, and hence less and less dependence on\nReproductive ripening of the human being is evidence of greater power of\nenvironment.\nself-preservation and of more ability to promote the welfare of others of the race, It, of\ncourse, is doubly significant of the rise of the parental instinct.\nBefore ten years of age the sexes are not markedly different in size or weight ; after\nfourteen the boys are taller and heavier.\nThe investigations of Ottoleughi point to\ngreater dermal sensitiveness in girls from ten years on. At six years Marro and Ottoleughi\nfound that girls have a tone compass of four-fifths that of the boys. At six to eight years\nMichialoff and Frau Eckkert found adenoid growths and deficient development of the\norgans of speech more than twice as frequent in boys as in girls. As their observations\nwere conducted in a severe climate, subject to many and sudden changes, the greater\noutdoor life of the boys would explain this. The inquiries of Aufosso indicate that below\nten, girls have more sympathy, boys a more fully developed sense of honor.\nPart of this\nis due to sex, part to the greater freedom of intercourse granted to boys.\n5\nAdolescence marks the advent of the child asa social being. Before that time his\nsocial powers are latent, and his type of thought and action is predominantly individualistic.. Ideas are naturalistic and result from contact with the immediate environment.\nThey are the imprint of comparatively few sensuous impressions of visible objects, or\nfanciful conbinations of these notions.\nTheir trend and characteristics are the personal\nand egoistic.\nAt the beginning of the grades the emotions\n\nare of the individual type. They are\npredominantly simple variations of pleasure and pain. These basal feelings are specialized\ninto hope and fear, joy and sorrow, love and hate, and the pleasures and pains of sense\nand appetite. Only the shadows of the social feelings are present, and they are overborne\nby passions and appetites.\nFrom six to ten years the child’s business is to eat and grow.\nHis categories are\nthose of use, action, and sense pleasure.\nHe is not concerned with secondary attributes\nand details, but expends his energy on broad appropriations and actions. In the sense of\na fixed conscious attitude of mind, there is no will. here are only more or less permanent impulses.\nThe investigations of Hall and others on fears, games, and the like, on the whole,\nshow. but narrow differences between boys and girls below ten, due to sex; yet the fore-\n\nshadowings of this contrast are everywhere present. While it cannot reasonably be held\nthat latent characteristics of sex are sufficiently marked to demand separate schools,\nclasses, subject-matter, or methods of control, it is true that there can be no intelligent\nteaching which does not acquaint itself with them and constantly take them into account.\nAs a matter of fact, teachers gifted with insight have always kept in sight the thought\nthat. “he is a boy,” “she is a girl.”\nBoys are more muscular than girls and, therefore, have more independence and more\npower of self-preservation than the latter. Their greater energy makes them more difficult\nto control. This fact leads to less attempt to control, or the granting of greater freedom,\nHence boys are more unrestrainedly allowed to go upon the streets, to visit mills, factories,\n\nstores, offices, and distant places. Their opportunities for association, companionship,\nand chumming are thereby multiplied indefinitely. The latent ideas and feelings of the\nsocial mind are thus fostered and developed. The association of boys with boys is, pointedly remarked by Locke.and Rousseau as a powerful source of training. both good and\n\n"}
{"page": 869, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\n-\n\n“PARENTS AS CHILD STUDENTS\n\n859\n\n‘bad. If this element were a factor to be considered of great importance in the markedly\nisolated civilization of their day, it has gained tenfold in the urban conditions of society\nin our day. The truth is that the problem of the boy on the street is one of the really\ngreat questions of the day. Not only is this true for parents, but also for the teacher.\nIt is likewise a fact that the partial failure of present schools to reach the boys as effectively as the girls is in large measure due to inability of teachers to understand and use the\n‘street experiences of boys and properly to recognize the contrasts of boys and girls in this\nregard.\nThe results of boys’ greater experience and wider contact with affairs are important.\nAs shown by Professor Barnes, the culmination of the historic sense as to persons in\nboys two years later (at fourteen), than in girls, must be due to this factor.\nRussell\nand others have shown that boys lose their childish credulity earlier and make stronger\ndemand for evidence and reason.\nMiss Vostrooshi’s studies accent the fact that their\nconsciousness of social relations is pushed forward by their street associations.\nGirls\nrespond less vigorously to the spirit of emulation and do not acquire so fully nor so early\n\nthe practice of toleration. Owing to greater familiarity with the minutiz of domestic life,\nand somewhat, perhaps, to finer sense powers, girls are better observers of details in\nnature and affairs, and more patient in executing details. Hall’s examination of children’s\nlies serves to show that boys’ society develops the recognition of the need of truthfulness\nand also of strategem somewhat earlier in them than in the other sex,\nAs the experience of boys bears the imprint of the alley, the street, and the neighborhood, so that of girls takes dominantly the domestic impress of the home.\nBeing confined\nto narrow limits and a small circle of persons, it is both poorer and more erratic than that\nof the boy. It is more the echo of family life and is less social than the experience of the\nlatter. Itis not so rich in impressions from store, factory, office, and public gathering.\nIts outlook is less broad and, therefore, more personal.\n\nPARENTS\n\nBY\n\nMARY\n\nAS\n\nCODDING\n\n“CHILD\n\nSTUDENTS.\n\nBOURLAND,\n\nPONTIAC,\n\nILL.\n\nAs I realize the cosmopolitan character of this audience, the extent of\nthe country from every region of which it is gathered, I am impressed\nwith my ignorance of the condition with which the subject I shall present\nMy experience has been gathered ina\nis surrounded in most of them.\nsmall corner ; I can give it only in the hope that, it being a view from the\nhome, it may serve to bind more tightly the fast-closing gap between it\nE\n\nand the school.\n\nAlthough not composed largely of parents, those before me would\nfind their work much lighter if the work of parents were better done.\nAt the Illinois State Teachers’ Association in Springfield, last December, a young woman, supposing me also to be a teacher, said: “ Plans for\n— you\nhelping the children are not hopeless, but when it comes to parents\n\ncan’t do anything with them.”\nChicago I met\n\nAt the recent Child-Study Congress .in\n\nof parents, their ignorance, their apathy.\ndaily: criticism\n\n"}
{"page": 870, "printed_page": null, "text": "860\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child Study\n\nEducational gatherings are not conducive to the fostering of parental\npride. The halo with which poets surround motherhood is not in evidence\nBut the mothers, who are banding together all over our country,\nthere.\nto learn better ways of rearing children, prove that they do not consider\ntheir case hopeless.\nThe National Congress of Mothers in Washington, D. C., showed the\nextent of the interest, and acknowledged the need of special training by\nadopting a resolution urging the founding, by the government, of a\nnational training school for mothers.\nThe results of this congress in the establishment of new organizations\nwill not be accurately known for some time, but awave of truth has swept\nthe land, carrying with it to higher ground our conceptions of parenthood,\nto which height those who have reached it will strive to raise the universal\nstandard.\nMany established institutions have added to their work that of helping\nparents in the study of their problems. Among these are many churches,\nkindergarten training schools, the Woman’s Christian Temperance Unions,\nwomen’s clubs, whose home departments, in many places, are taking up\nchild study. I have the names of ten Illinois clubs which have this year\nincluded this subject in their calendars, besides those I shall speak of\nlater, which have done special work.\nThe meeting of the International Kindergarten Union held at St.\nLouis, in April, showed, by devoting its first session to parents’ problems,\nto what dimensions has grown the beautiful work so long carried on by\nmany of their number.\nAn average attendance of two hundred mothers\nat each of the general meetings attested their appreciation.\nThe various state societies for child study are reaching, through their\nround tables, many parents, and their programmes at their last annual\nmeetings gave prominence to the needs of the child in the home.\nThe\nIllinois society has seventeen round tables, nearly all composed partly of\nparents. Miss Wiltse, in her “ History of Child Study,” says that “ perhaps\nno organization for study of children has secured the help of the mothers\nof the children as has the one in Michigan.”\nAmong the cities of this central section of our country in which work\nfor mothers’ or parents’ clubs is prominent, St. Louis, Chicago, St. Paul,\nand Detroit may be mentioned. St. Paul has a large number of mothers’\nclubs, which\n\nhave\n\nformed\n\na general board of mothers’ clubs, Mrs. Cora\n\nFrances Power being the chairman. She has been active in forming these\nclubs for several years, and has also been instrumental in forming school\nunions about each school building in St. Paul.\nIn Chicago\n\nthe Gladstone,\n\nGreenwood\n\nAvenue,\n\nPerkins\n\nBass, and\n\nGarfield Schools have worked toward the formation of parents’ associations in their districts, and permanent organizations will be formed next\n\na\n\n"}
{"page": 871, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPARENTS\n\nAS CHILD\n\nSTUDENTS\n\n861\n\nyear. The free lectures delivered in six of the public-school halls, under\nthe direction of the trustees of the Ryder Fund, have helped to bring\nparents in touch with the schools.\nThese few organizations represent only a part of the great work which\nGreat as it is, it has reached, as yet, only a small\nis so rapidly growing.\nfraction of the homes that need it. The teachings of Froebel and Herbart and Preyer and G. Stanley Hall are known and used in comparaHow shall this number be extended and these vital\ntively few homes.\ntruths be put to practical use ?\nWith a thorough knowledge of the recent works on child training, it\nwould seem that no child should grow up unsymmetrically, with so much\nwisdom waiting to be applied.\nFive hundred years before Christ the’\nwife of Pythagoras wrote advice to a friend, containing the gist of Froebel’s “‘ Mother Play,” which, if acted upon, would have left fewer questions for us to solve, for there would be different children upon earth.\n\nThat the searchlight of science has been turned upon the child and\nhas discovered so much of vital import will be of small moment unless it\nenters into the life of the home.\n\nAn hour’s ride in a street car, or a half\n\nday’s observation of shoppers, will convince anyone that the ability wisely\nto train children is not born in the parent when the child is born into the\nworld.\nWe see mothers every day suppressing the activity which is the\nmeans of developing the brain as well as the muscle of her child. On the\ntrain I recently saw a mother shake her pale-faced little girl, saying:\n“Now, you sit still, and\n\ndon’t\n\nask any more\n\nquestions!”\n\nI could\n\nnot\n\nresist the temptation to speak and offered to the child a kindergarten\nmagazine, with some lovely pictures in it, asking her mother if the little\ngirl were not ill. With a transformed face she said, smiling: ‘“‘O no, but\nwe’ve been traveling all night, and she couldn’t eat any breakfast.”\nShe\nwas expected to sit motionless and silent, however.\nThe precocious child is displayed ; the lethargic child is left to itself;\nthe properties of food needed by children at different stages of growth\nare as Greek to the mother, who should know how to build up the temple\nof the body, often weak\n\nin certain\n\nparts\n\nand, therefore, needing\n\nspecial\n\nfood to brace it there.\nSleep is not regulated; little. children are seen on the street and at\nentertainments late in the evening.\nThey are allowed to go to evening\nparties during their school days. Not enough freedom for healthy play\nis given, nor is their play directed.\nUntruths are told children to obtain\ntemporary relief from responsibility; “there are bugs” in things not\ndesirable for them to eat, etc.\n\nThe temperament of a child is not often considered by parents in\nA boy of three had been promised by his father a certain\nhis training.\nbut he gave him another. The child took it, but, seeing\nwith,\nplay\ntoy to\n\n"}
{"page": 872, "printed_page": null, "text": "862\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child Study\n\nit was not the one desired, threw it down and flung himself violently upon\nthe floor, where he screamed and kicked in a terrible way. The father sat\nby and laughed at this outburst, until he wearied of it, and shen gave him\nthe coveted toy.\nTo change these conditions, a practical application of the truths\nalready achieved by child study must be made in the home. The parents\neverywhere must become child students, and that can be brought about\nonly by devoted work on the part of those teachers and parents who are\nalready enrolled as such.\nEither the state or national child-study association should reach\nevery known organization of parents, sending them the results of its\nwork.\nHelpful as are these clubs, those which are unconnected with any childstudy society will find a few months with its help more beneficial than\nyears of effort without its scientific basis.\nPrevious methods sought to fit the child to arbitrary laws; now, as\nchild students, we seek laws to fit the individual\n\nchild,and most beautiful\n\nwe find them.\nAlthough a small work and recently begun, the efforts of the Illinois.\nFederation of Women’s Clubs to form organizations of parents and\nteachers, connected with the state society for child study, having met\nwith encouragement, may serve to show what may be done by similar\norganizations or by individuals.\nIts circular suggesting this work was\nsent to the clubs belonging to it in January of this year. Already there are\na few organizations well started, and many will be formed in the fall,\nTwo federated clubs—-the Teachers’ Club (Chicago) and the Evanston\nWoman’s Club—already had child-study sections.\nThe home department of the South Side Woman’s Club has organized a round table for\nchild study, with forty members.\nIn Oak Park the education department of their club has studied Sully’s.“ Child Nature.”\nIn Princeton the education committee of the Woman’s Club called\na meeting in March of all interested in children’s training, and a round\ntable\n\nof fathers, mothers,\n\nand\n\nteachers\n\nwas\n\nformed\n\nconnected\n\nwith\n\nthe\n\nIllinois Society for Child Study.\nIn Streator the education committee of the Woman’s Council called\na meeting in April, which formed an educational union.\nIts work will\ninclude the organizing of round tables for parents and teachers in connection with each school in the city.\nA committee, composed of delegates from five clubs and from the\nteachers of the schools in the twin cities of Urbana and Champaign, met\nMarch 28, and decided to begin active work in the fall for child study\nThis committee stated its purpose to be ‘the practical application of\nthe\n\n—\n\n"}
{"page": 873, "printed_page": null, "text": ". Department]\n\nPARENTS AS CHILD: STUDENTS\n\n863\n\nlarge array of facts that have been achieved by recent child-study investigations.”\nIn Pontiac the education committee of the Clionian Society (a\npurely historical and literary club) formed a round table in January. To\nsave the time of busy teachers, fathers, and mothers composing it, and to\nassure the reading of literature on the subject to be diseussed, the programme committee arranged to send the literature to each member in\nturn, one member of each neighborhood having its distribution in\ncharge.\nThis work for child study, done by the Illinois federation, was strengthened greatly by the recent congress in Chicago, one session of which was\npresided over by the president of the federation, Mrs. Wiles. The money\nfor defraying the expenses of this session was contributed by federated\nclubs in the northeastern part of the state, and Dr. G. Stanley Hall was\nthe speaker.\nThe sentiment of teachers seems to be in favor of having parents take\nthe initiative in the formation of organizations for their mutual helpfulness, and, if all clubs would make it part of the work of their education\ncommittee to do this, a great deal could be accomplished.\nThat there are many localities where only the teachers can do the\nwork is illustrated by a meeting for mothers, the idea of which originated\nin the child-study section of the Chicago Teachers’ Club.\nThe principal of the Garfield School sent out invitations to the mothers tomeet at the school.\nTo the one hundred who responded a talk on\nthe\n\ncare\n\nof the body, ears, eyes, etc., was given, followed\n\nby a pleasant\n\nprogramme from the children.\nIncreased cleanliness in the children and\nindividual visits from the mothers resulted from this meeting,and others\nare to succeed it this fall. A large foreign population makes this an\nexcellent method for such a locality.\n2\nFathers are beginning to desire recognition in organizations to promote the children’s good. Child study can interest them. ‘The scientific\ninvestigations of the scholars of the day appeal to the cultured; the practical results interest others.\nSeveral fathers have been at once attracted\nby reading “The First Five Hundred Days of a Child’s Life,” which\nappeared this year in the Child Study Monthly.\n‘They must be interested,\nFor what\nthe child.\nof\neducation\nthe\naright\nbegin\nto\nis\nif in the home\nchild-study\nof\nworld”\nwhole\nthe\n“gain\nshe\nif\ndoes it profit a woman\nIn no way can\nwisdom and has not the co-operation of her husband?\nguiding his\nrightly\nand\nunderstanding\nby\na man better serve himself than\n\nchildren.\n“« Whoso shall receive one such little child in my name-receiveth me.”\n“But whoso shall offend one of these little ones which\n\nbelieve in me, it\n\nwere better for him that a millstone were hanged about his neck and that\n\n"}
{"page": 874, "printed_page": null, "text": "864\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child Study\n\nIt was not to women, but to\nhe were drowned in the depth of the sea.”\nheed that ye despise not\nTake\n‘‘\nmen, that these words were addressed.\none of these little ones.”’\nPossibly such work as parents can do may not be properly called child\nstudy. They can put into practice the wisdom of the scientist who works\nin that line. They can keep simple records of the development of their\nchildren, which, given to teachers on their entrance into school and continued by both parents and teachers, would form such a record as the\npresent dean of Harvard Scientific School considers necessary properly to\nplace students in the university courses.\nThey can keep in touch with the school life of their children.\nThat\nmost parents are not so situated as to give time to scientific child study,\neven had they the requisite knowledge, is evident.\nThrough the work of\nclubs composed of parents and teachers, ability to do so will be found and\ndeveloped.\nOne of the more immediate services, and a much-needed service, which\n\nthese organizations may effect is the enlightenment of citizens in regard\nto new educational methods.\nIn three cities, of three different states, I\nhave known of men who, as superintendents of the schools, had done\n\nsuperior work; but the new methods they adopted were too far in advance\nof their patrons, and, as soon as they were well started, their\n\nprogenitors\n\nwere asked to resign. Voters must learn to understand why the school\ntax is large, and to take such pride in the equipment and success of their\nschools that they will work for an increase rather than a decrease in the\ntaxes they pay for its support.\nOnly through the education of the people can the kindergarten be a\nsuccessful part of the public-school system.\nTheir votes must put it there,\nand wisdom must abide in the boards of education which undertake to\ncontrol them.\nThose who work to interest parents in child study will frequently be\nmet with the sad exclamation: “If I had only known before!” or, “I cannot leave my children to go to these meetings.”\nDoes it not seem strange that training for duties that will devolve.\nupon the vast\n\nmajority of men\n\nand women,\n\nin the\n\nrearing\n\nof children,\n\nshould be omitted from their education?\nYou who have your frequent inspiring meetings, your finely edited\neducational journals, your specialists in every line ready to aid you; who\nhave had the training which precedes successful entrance upon the profession of the teacher—\ndo you realize, when judging the failures of parents, the ignorance with which nearly all of them look into the face of\ntheir firstborn ?\nWhen I reflect that the knowledge I longed for when\n\nrealize my responsibilities in guiding\n\nmy own\n\nchildren\n\nfirst I began to\nhad been stored\n\n"}
{"page": 875, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPARENTS AS CHILD STUDENTS\n\n865\n\nin the minds and hearts of many from whom I might have received it in\nmy school days, and when I realize that the learned professor who struggled to gain entrance into my unresponsive mind for algebraic problems\ncould have told me of Comenius and Froebel and the wife of Pythagoras,\nI am unreconciled to methods which withhold knowledge vital to life’s\nresponsibilities and devote so much time to matters less essential in the\n\\ education\nof the young.\nTruly, the time to prepare men and women for parenthood is during\nthe latter part of their school course.\nWith the arrival of the child in the\nhome comes a very urgent need for using knowledge.\nWhen Gertrude\nrebelliously announces that, unless allowed to go driving, she will “dust\ndo out in the darden and eat some more bugs,” saying, “I eated free this\nmorning, two smooy ones and one wooly one,” ready philosophy is needed\nto manage her. When, after repeated whippings for leaving home without\npermission, a little three-year old said, with still streaming eyes, “‘ Don’t\nyou\n\nlook, mamma,\n\nI’se a doin\n\nto run\n\naway,” experience\n\nis required\n\nto\n\ncomprehend the child’s idea of punishment.\nA knowledge of child\nnature should be acquired before the need to use it arrives.\nRemember Herbert Spencer’s words:\n‘‘ Whether as bearing upon the\nhappiness of parents themselves, or whether as affecting the character and\nlives of their\n\nchildren\n\nand\n\nremote\n\ndescendants,\n\nwe\n\nmust\n\nadmit\n\nthat a\n\nknowledge of the right methods of juvenile culture, physical, mental, and\nmoral, is a knowledge second to none in importance.\n“This topic should occupy the highest and last place in the course of\ninstruction passed through by each man and woman.”\n\nDISCUSSION.\nDr. JENNY B. MERRILL, Supervisor of Kindergartens, Public Schools, New York, N.\n\nY.— In the opening article in “Studies in Education” sent out this year by Stanford University, Cal., Professor Barnes speaks of “ ‘Undirected Observation in Everyday Sse\n\nand School Life,’ as being the most extended and probably the most useful work being\nHe says: “Those who deny the necessity of renee\ndone in child study today.”\nfor confirmation of their statements to certain mothers\npoint\nalways\nchildren\nof\nstudy\ndirect\nHowever unconscious\nwho know nothing about child study, but know all about children.”\nonce aroused to the\nare\nparents\nwhen\nhence,\nand\nreal,\nless\nthe\nnone\nis\nit\nthe study of parents,\nof the\nchild-study movement, they become its best helpers. But the field of observation\nBarents\nlaw.\ngeneral\nrecognize\nto\nher\nfor\ndifficult\noften\nis\nit\nmother is limited, so that\n\nchildren ey alike,\nstudy the individual child, and are often led to believe that no two\nmothers’ congress\na\nat\nstate\nmother\na\nheard\nI\nalike.\nare\nbecause no two of their children\n\nsecond, and none\nthat she had certain formulz for her first child, she had fewer for her\n\nfor her third.\n\nShe seemed\n\nto infer that children all differed to such a degree ees no\n\ngeneral laws can be followed in their training.\n\nIn the discussion I said that, if this were\n\n"}
{"page": 876, "printed_page": null, "text": "Le\ntaa\n¥\n\nNATIONAL\n\n866\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n[Child Study\n\nthe case, it would be quite useless for mothers to meet and confer. It is a great step in\nadvance when we learn with such a mother to respect individuality; it is the lesson that\nmany a teacher\n\nneeds;\n\nbut, again, there\n\nare the lessons\n\nthat the parent\n\nneeds\n\nto learn\n\nfrom the teacher who, dealing with many children of the same age and grade of advance-\n\nment, finds much in common\n\nthat is reducible to law.\n\nI have been asked especially to speak of some of the parents’ organizations for child\nThe general congress of mothers at\nstudy that have been held this year in the East.\nI will speak for New York state.\norganizations.\nstate\nby\nfollowed\nbeen\nhas\nWashington\nThere is now a Mothers’ Congress of the State of New York, with an official organ called\nThe Mother's Voice. There is a Mothers’ Congress of New York City, and a Fathers’ and\nIt is very valuable to secure the united study of fathers\nMothers’ Congress in Brooklyn.\nBrooklyn has set a good example.\nThe programme of an all-day meeting held in Brooklyn was, I understand, suggested\n\nand mothers.\n\nin the main by fathers, and it was an excellent one, covering three general subjects:\n1. Literature for children\n2. Amusements for children.\n3. Government of children.\nIn one of the New York\n\nmothers’ meetings\n\npublic\n\nhave been held\n\nschools, of which\n\nevery two weeks.\n\nMiss Julia Richman is principal,\n\nThese were\n\nreported in the ez\n\nYork School Journal, April 17.\n\nThe committee on child study of the Associate Alumnz of the Normal College has\na round table for mothers.\nThe books studied have been Tracy’s “ Psychology of Childhood,” Sully’s “Studies in Childhood,” and Baldwin’s “ Mental Development of the Child\nand the Race” begun. The books are read at home, and are the basis of discussions and\nwritten papers. Before disbanding, the round table prepared a list of topics to be considered\n\nduring\n\nthe\n\nsummer, as “Children’s Ideas of Nature,”\n\n‘‘ Children’s Preference\n\now\n\nin\n\nStories,” etc. Reports of actual observations during the summer will be given in the fall.\nThe New York Kindergarten Association inaugurated a mothers’ class, which met\nonce a week in Barnard College.\nThere is another society in New York city composed mainly of mothers, namely,\nthe Society for Child Study, which has read and discussed together during the past\nseven years Rousseau’s “Emile,” Richter’s ‘ Levana,” Locke’s “‘ Thoughts on Education,”\n\nSpencer’s “Education,” and Adler’s “Moral Education.”\nThese books have suggested\nmany practical topics for discussion.\nMore recently this society has been reading and\ndiscussing the biographies of great men, especially those whose childhood is known. |\nThey have also studied child characters in fiction.\nKindergartners have held many meetings with mothers, and Froebel’s ‘“‘Mother Play\nand Song” has been a never-failing source of inspiration.\nThe need now is to have definite lines of work arranged for leaders of mothers’ clubs.\nThe National Congress of Mothers invites correspondence on this subject. It is proposed to form a bureau of exchange, and through this to get all the information that is\nnecessary to conduct a mothers’ club in any community. (Address the Washington Loan\nand Trust Building, Washington, D. C.)\nThis important work has also been attempted by the New York University Society\nfor Child Study, of which Dr. James P. Haney is president and Miss Ella Keith, secretary.\nOne of the round tables of this society has in view the compiling of a report which will aid\nthose desiring to conduct mothers’ meetings. The following topics have been assigned to\ndifferent persons for investigation : methods of holding mothers’ meetings ; medicine and\n\nhygiene;\n\nfood and clothing;\n\ndiscipline;\n\nchildren’s interests;\n\nchild study.\n\nUnder the first head, “Methods\n\nof Holding\n\nMothers’\n\nstatistics and history of\n\nMeetings,” Miss May Mack-\n\npr\nte\n*.'43\n\nee\nee\na\nee\n\n"}
{"page": 877, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCRITICISMS WISE AND OTHERWISE\n\n867\n\n7\n\nintosh reported during the season upon parents’ meetings, from the teachers’ initiative ;\nfrom parents’, mostly mothers’, initiative ;in public schools (city); in private schools; in\ncountry schools; in university settlements.\nMedical talks, such as could be employed in addressing mothers’ meetings, have been\n\ntopically outlined by Dr. Haney.\nWhen these reports are complete, I undérstand that\nthey will be published, and I am sure will be very valuable.\nIn closing, let me say that I am personally deeply indebted to mothers and fathers\nfor the help they have given me in child study. I haye sometimes sought the acquaintance\nof the mothers of noble young women among our normal students to discover, if possible,\ntheir happy secret of government.\nI may say here that, in at least two such instances, I\nwas impressed mainly by the parents’ ease of government and the confidence expressed\nin the children themselves, which suggested to my mind the value of a wise “let-alone ”\npolicy in the management of children.\n\nCRITICISMS\n\nBY\n\nDR.\n\nWISE\n\nJOHN\n\nAND OTHERWISE\nOVEN\nGREINS WET ONG\n\nDEWEY,\n\nTHE\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nON MODERN\n\nOF\n\nCHICAGO.\n\nThe features of child study against which criticisms have been justly\ndirected are the results partly of the exaggerations incident to all large\nmovements in their inception, partly of the misdirected gyrations of those\ncamp-followers who, hanging about education as about all other progressive forces, attempt to use child study for their own advertising and\naggrandizement, and partly of the unwise zeal of those who, lacking in\nstability, are blown about by every new wind of doctrine and lose the just\nperspective.\n.\nMany of the criticisms which have justification are caused by the\npremature assertion on the part of some that the child-study movement\nwas to afford\n\na new, certain, positive, and\n\nscientific basis\n\nfor education,\n\nreplacing all the supposedly tentative and speculative foundations hitherto\nbuilt upon.\nWhen the proposed revolution failed to materialize, and\nteachers found that, as hitherto, they had to rely upon good judgment,\npersonal experience, and a knowledge of the ideas and practices of others,\nmany felt that they had been fooled, and turned from an indiscriminate\nworship at the shrine of -child study to a condemnation equally indiscriminate.\nMany of the criticisms proceed from a failure to draw the lines carefully between those aspects of child study which belong to the province\nof the scientific investigator and those which interest the educator.\nIt\ntakes time to develop scientific method, to collect and sift facts, to derive\ntheoretic conclusions.\n‘There is no more sense in attacking the scientific\n\ninvestigator in this line because he doesn’t provide on demand usable\n\n"}
{"page": 878, "printed_page": null, "text": "868\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child Study\n\nrecipes, ticketed and labeled for all pedagogical emergencies, than there\nwould have been in attacking the early pioneers in electricity because\nthey worked quietly in the laboratory upon seemingly remote and abstruse\nsubjects instead of providing us off-hand with the eae telephone,\nelectric light, and transportation.\nAnother source of criticism has been the undue isolation of child\nstudy from the sciences upon which it is dependent.\nThe only excuse\nfor making child study a thing by itself and attributing to it a unity of\nits own is not that the child is a unique fact separate from others, but\nsimply because it presents a focus to which principles of physiology and\npsychology may be directed.\nWhen those ignorant of or disregarding\nthese larger sciences plunge directly into child study and expect to get\nvaluable results, the method is quackery, and the outcome confusion.\nAs\nProfessor James is reported as saying: ‘‘You could get a great many\ninteresting anecdotes and peculiar facts together by starting out upon an\nindiscriminate study of adults.\nIt would have just as much and just as\nlittle scientific and practical value as similar child study. I may add there\nis a fear of theory, of speculation, of hypothesis, which is as absurd as\npure speculation divorced from fact. The mere collection of facts,\nuncontrolled by working hypothesis, unenlightened by generalization,\nnever made a science and never will.\nI plead for a closer union of child\nstudy with general psychological theory.”’\nIn conclusion, the speaker\nsaid that child study interpreted simply as one direction of general physiology and psychology had two things to do for education.\nOne is furnishing certain generalizations regarding the order of growth, etc., aline\nwell illustrated by Dr. Halleck’s paper of yesterday.\nThis is of general\nuse in determining the whole scheme of education, but to the average\nteacher it will be of use in giving insight into individual children and\nability to interpret their individual needs and temperaments.\nIts final\nvalue for the great mass of teachers will be measured by the extent to\nwhich it enables a teacher to see more accurately and adequately into the\ndifferent individual pupils that present themselves. Mere general theories\nand mere facts aéowt children are no substitutes for insight zvéo children.\n\nDISCUSSION.\nDr. B. A. HINSDALE, University of Michigan.— It is surprising that the child-study\nmovement should gain such momentum as it has in so short a time. This statement may,\nhowever, be misleading.\nMen and women have been studying children ever since there\nwere children, We schoolmasters are likely to let any matter which comes before us for\n\nthe first time in a conscious way receive too great emphasis relatively.\n\nWhat we mean at\n\n4s\n\n"}
{"page": 879, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nA NATIONAL\n\nSOCIETY\n\nFOR\n\nCHILD\n\nSTUDY\n\n869\n\nthe present time by child study is a scientific study of children.\nIt is the handling of\nfacts and so forth, according to particular method.\nIn the technical sense it is a recent\nmovement.\nIam by no means satisfied that the average teachers in the schoolroom will\nfind the scientific study of children the most fruitful method.\nThey are apt to load themselves down with a machinery of methods that will prevent their accomplishing any fruitThrough\nThis is not to be understood as condemning scientific method.\nful results.\nscientific method very valuable and useful results can and will be reached.\nMuch that has\nbeen recently published on this subject belongs to the curious rather than the useful, but,\nif we are not in too great haste about the results, we shall in the long run get together\nmaterial that will inure fruitfully and to the advantage and benefit of pedagogy. So far as\nthe average teacher is concerned, the most valuable result will be the reaction upon the\nA new habit of mind will be brought about, and the teacher will be put into new\nteacher,\nrelations to the child, and it is out of this that the large benefit is to come.\n\nBeevAIIO NATE SOCIHLY HOR\n\nBY\n\nDR.\n\nC.\n\nC.\n\nVAN\n\nLIEW,\n\nILLINOIS\n\nCHILD\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSTUDY\n\nUNIVERSITY.\n\n[ABSTRACT. |\n\nI shall be very brief, telling merely what has been accomplished. Four\nyears ago the Illinois Society for Child Study was formed.\nIt was soon\nfollowed by organizations in other states, for example in Minnesota,\nIowa, Michigan, and\n\nIndiana.\n\n‘The societies that were\n\nformed after the\n\nIllinois society found difficulty in getting literature before teachers and\nothers.\nIn this respect the Illinois society, having been organized first,\nhad a decided advantage, as material was published by the society and\ndistributed to members of the society in all parts of the country. Owing\nin part to this difficulty, already alluded to, the call came from various\nstates for a plan of co-operation. Thework done in the various states has\nbeen valuable in that persons who were fitted for guidance have come\nforward and given assistance.\nAgain, many of the facts discovered have\nbeen printed and placed before all. An interest has been aroused among\nparents in many sections ofthe country. All these things, and more, have\nthus far been accomplished, and it now seems desirable that some plan of\nco-operation of the entire country be devised.\nFor this purpose, last\nyear, at the meeting in Chicago, the North American Child-Study Conference was organized.\n‘There are, however, some points of difficulty that\npresent themselves.\nA committee was appointed last year by this body\nlooking to the formation of a national society; but it is evident that there\ncould not be two national societies.\nIt does not matter which society\nIs it not feasible to bring about a union of organicarries out the work.\nzations, so that the field shall not be divided?\n\n"}
{"page": 880, "printed_page": null, "text": "OF PHYSICAL TRAINING.\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nThe meeting was\n\nMINUTES.\n\nFIRST\n\nSESSION:—\n\nTHuRSDAY,\n\ncalled\n\nto order in West\n\nSide\n\nJULY 8\n\nTurner\n\nHall at 3 o’clock\n\nby the\n\nPresident, Miss R. Anna Morris, who delivered an address on “‘’The Individual.”\n\nDr. W. O. Krohn, of the University of Ilinois, followed with a paper on “The Development of the Will through Physical Training.”\nOwing to the absence of Mrs. Frank Stuart Parker, the subject of “ Delsarte and\nHis Contributions to Physical Education” was presented by Mrs. Anna P, Tucker, of\nCleveland, O. The discussion was participated in by Mrs. Leiter, Misses Bancroft and\nKimberlin, Messrs. Arnold and Butterworth, and others.\nA paper on “ The German System of Gymnastics” was read by Professor Carl Kroh,\nof Chicago Normal School, and was followed by a discussion, led by Dr. E. H. Arnold, of\nYale University.\nThe following committees were appointed :\nOn Nominations — Dr, E, H,. Arnold, Miss Rebecca Stoneroad, Miss Jessie Bancroft.\nOn Resolutions — Mrs, F, W. Leiter, Miss Ellen Le Garde, Miss Clara Baer,\n\nSECOND\n\nSESSION.—\n\nFRIDAY,\n\nJULY\n\n9.\n\nThe session was opened at 2:30 P.M., by a class in “ Swedish exercises” from the\nState Normal School at Milwaukee, led by Miss E. W. Shrieves.\nSuperintendent Aaron Gove, of Denver, read a paper on\nHygiene.”\nDr. J. M. Green, of the\n\nState\n\nNormal\n\n‘Elementary\n\nSchool, Trenton, N.J., then\n\nSchool\n\nspoke on “The\n\nNormal-School Plan of Introducing Physical Training into the Public Schools.” The\ndiscussion following was led by Mrs. Francis W. Leiter, of Mansfield, O.\nThe next number of the programme was a symposium, in which the supervisors of\nphysical training of various cities took part. Those participating were: Miss N. D. Kimberlin, Detroit, Mich.; Miss Rebecca Stoneroad, Washington, D. C.; Miss Jessie Bancroft, Brooklyn, N. Y.; Mr. Henry Suder, Chicago, Ill.; Miss Ellen LeGarde, Providence,\nR.1.; Miss Clara Baer, New Orleans, La.; Mr. Geo Wittich, St. Louis, Mo.\nA paper on “ Physical Training in the Colleges” was read by Dr. F. E. Leonard, of\nOberlin, O.\n\nActing on the report of the Committee\n\non Nominations, the following officers were\n\nelected forthe ensuing year :\nPresident, Dr. C. E. Ehinger,\nVice-President, Miss R, Anna Morris.\nSecretary, Dr. H. B. Boice.\n\nThe report of the Committee on Resolutions was received, as follows:\n* Believing that a developed, disciplined body is essential to the highest success of the individual, therefore,\n\n870\n\n—\n\n"}
{"page": 881, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nZVD/VIDUAL\n\nAPPRECIATION\n\nAND\n\nDEVELOPMENT\n\n871\n\nResolved, That systematic physical education should become an inseparable part of the education which\na state gives its children.\nAs a means to this end, we believe physical education should become required work in all educational\ninstitutions for the training of teachers.\nIt should be given ample space, under capable instructors, in all county teachers’ institutes and schools\nof method.\nAs a department under the National Educational Association, we are committed to no special system or\nmethod; with united, harmonious purpose we desire to secure better physical conditions for rising generations.\nWe heartily express our thanks to the turners of Milwaukee for their fine exhibition of German work in\nthe Exposition building ;to Miss Shrieves, of the Milwaukee State Normal School, for her contribution to the\nregular programme of class work in Swedish gymnastics; to all who participated in the programme}; to committees and individuals aiding in any manner the success of the Department of Physical Education of the\nNational Educational Association; to the turners for the use of the Turner Hall; and to reporters for courtesies\nreceived through the press of the city.\nWe desire to express our sincere thanks to Miss R. Anna Morris, our retiring President, for the faithful,\nable service she has given this department during the past two years.\nIt is to her untiring efforts, wisely directed, that we owe the creation of this department, articulating so\nimportant a phase of education with the established educational interests of the country.\n\nOn motion, the department adjourned.\n\nH. B. Botce,\nSecretary.\n\nPeele\nTHE\n\nBY\n\nMISS\n\nND\n\nDISCUSSIONS.\n\nAPPRECIATION AND DEVELOPMENT\nINDIVIDUAL.\nR. ANNA\n\nMORRIS,\n\nSUPERVISOR\n\nIN\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCLEVELAND,\n\nO.\n\nDuring the last few years mankind is more and more beginning to\nappreciate itself. The growing interest in all humanitarian questions\nforetells the turning of the tide of thought from the all-consuming study\nof science, as pursued in the last century, to the study of man himself.\nEducationally considered, the proper study of mankind seems to be the\nstudy of the individual child.\nThis consideration, which has entered\ninto education through the kindergarten and child study, leads us, as\nteachers, to ask: What conditions are best fitted to develop a great personality?\nLet me answer: First of all, it is the attitude of truth to one’s\nown self, even though that self be young.\nIt matters not what we may\nseem to others, but to our own selves we must be true, and, being what\nwe are, mentally, morally, and physically, let us be it as nobly as we can.\nIt is not so much what is gotten by inheritance as it is what one does for\nhimself that makes the individual character.\n“What from your father’s heritage is lent,\nEarn it anew to really possess it.”\n\n“The question,” says Shakespeare,\n- nobility ? but, is nobility in thee?”\n\n“ought\n\nnot to be, art thou in\n\n"}
{"page": 882, "printed_page": null, "text": "872\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nThe ideal individual is a harmonious composite of the physical that\nI place the\nsustains, the mental that guides, and the moral that impels.\nphysical first, because the whole career of individual usefulness is conditioned on a physical basis. One may have a strong mind and a great\nsoul, and yet, if he is weak in body, he cannot realize the full possibilities\n\nIt is not necessary that the physical be athletic or\nof a great being.\n‘ strongly powerful, but that it be an entirely obedient agent, in whose bulk,\ncontour, and expression we see guiding, impelling, and sustaining power.\nThe trinity of self-knowledge, self-reverence, and self-control will give\nan individual sovereign power over himself.\nSome one has said that the\npoorest education that teaches self-control is better than the best without it.\nAlong with the establishing of moral judgment and the realization of\ntruth, the development of individual will power should occupy a prominent place, for will power is the great need of this age. We lack people\nwho have determined purpose and physical endurance enough to carry\nout the good impulses they may have, and who have courage enough to\ndeclare truth greater than the reign of things that are.\nPhysical training will develop the will; in fact, it is the training of\nthe highest kind of will power, for it teaches self-mastery and puts one\nin possession of himself.\nIn this age, to carry the burden of civilization\nrequires that the individual be put in possession of all his powers, so that\nhe may meet the needs of the great tasks of life. He should regard no\nphysical or mental accomplishment as insignificant, for, as Emerson says,\n‘““A man may bea success because he has power of eye,” and, we may add,\ngraciousness of manner, dignity of attitude, and courtesy of tone and\ninflection.\n‘There is more weight in a look, word, or gesture than in a\ncommand, and more controlling power in the atmosphere around the\nman than in what he says. Some men are kings of men because they\nare masters of themselves.\nTHey need not assert themselves, because\ntheir presence alone is power.\nThey are great, not only because their\nspirits are great, but because they have wills and bodily control enough\nto express greatness.\n\nBelieving that physical expression has much power, and that it should\nreveal the true inward character, and that it is based upon the free use of\nthe body, I would place physical training.as a principal element in the\neducation of a child.\nBut the question that comes to those who have given the subject of\nphysical education special study is: How can we as teachers plan our work\non a scientific basis according to the established principles of teaching\n\nand strive for the development of the individual in his composite and\nrelated existence?\nWe feel the need of such a training as will establish\nthe best possibilities in each individual; one that leaves no muscle\n\n"}
{"page": 883, "printed_page": null, "text": "~~.\n\nDepartment]\n\nTHE\n\nDEVELOPMENT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nWILL\n\nundeveloped ; one that trains the body to respond\nauthority, whether it be the dictates\n\nof his own\n\n873\n\nto the command of\n\nor another’s\n\nwill; one\n\nthat will react favorably upon the emotions and instincts, and assist in\nforming the right habits of doing well the acts which are constantly\nrepeated through life; one that at times includes games and devices for\narousing enthusiasm and jollity; one that recognizes the necessity of\ntraining the voice, and one that has regard for the expression of movement\n\nand\n\ngrace\n\nof manner;\n\nin short, one\n\nthat\n\nbrings\n\nthe\n\nchild\n\ninto a\n\nknowledge of the relation between his mind, feelings, and body, and\ndevelops in him an individual responsibility for the use and care of his\nentire being.\nAs a department in this National Educational Associatiun we stand\nfor the cultivation of the basis of the individual, and concerning this\nwe will confer.\nWe have come together, not only for the gaining of\nprofessional wisdom, but for the uplift and enthusiasm which come from\nthe exchange of thought, and for the fraternal friendship which we hope\nwill glow and burn in our midst.\nIn this atmosphere we will bring our\nwork into an educational relation with\n\nother\n\nbranches,\n\nand reach\n\nideals\n\nimpossible to attain while struggling alone in our respective fields of\nlabor.\nIt is the principle of our department to advocate no special\nscheme or method of training, but to keep our minds and hearts open to\nthe best in all, ever considering the child as the essential element to be\nstudied, and who must be interested in himself to the extent\n\nthat he will\n\nwork for himself.\nThrough our efforts may humanity be taught, in some\ndegree, how to better appreciate the individual, which is the supreme\nelement of value in all the world!\n\nTHE\nban\n\nDEVELOPMENT\n\nBY\n\nWILLIAM\n\nO.\n\nOF THE WILL\nTRAINING.\nKROHN,\n\nTHROUGH PHYSICAL\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF\n\nILLINOIS.\n\nNo subject in the domain of modern psychology is more difficult of\ntreatment than that which is ordinarily indicated by the term volition.\nAt the same time, it must also be said that there\n\nis no\n\nsubject\n\nof more\n\nimportance, for the true understanding of the evolution of will power—\nthe genetic history of will—is necessary in the most simple attempts at an\nanalysis of personality, and no understanding or comprehension of the\nmore purely intellectual idea and moral concepts is possible without clear\nknowledge of the development of will. To employ an oft-used figure, we\nmight say that, as in Greek mythology Eros was made one of the oldest\n\n"}
{"page": 884, "printed_page": null, "text": "874\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nand, at the same time, one of the youngest of the gods, so in psychology\nthe will may, according to the point of view we take, be represented as\nthe most primitive or the most complex and derivative of all the mental\nIf by will we mean only that power which manifests itself in\nproducts.\naction from deliberate choice alone, then we must maintain that there has\n\nalready been a rather extensive development in the individual’s mental\nlife, for such will-acts as are here signified cannot exist in the lowest\nforms of the sentient consciousness.\nTo understand the true nature of\nwill, it is absolutely necessary to give its genetic history, that is, we must\ngo back to the primitive germ and trace it in its path of development\nfrom the unconscious to the conscious, from the most purely involuntary\nmovements to those that are more refined and intricate as examples of\ndeliberative choice.\nActivity is a fundamental property of conscious life,\nand if any one of the elements of consciousness— feeling, knowing,\nwilling —is to be regarded as the original form of conscious life, it must\nbe the will, for the manifestations of the intellect and feeling never\nacquire their fullest significance, their deepest meaning, except when they\nWithout education of\nserve as links in the chain that leads to action.\nthe child’s will it is next to impossible\n\nto improve\n\nhis mental, moral, or\n\nphysical well-being in any respect.\nWe must do away with those narrow conceptions of the educative\nprocess, and the limited range with respect to educational ideals, that\nwould effect its results by little, semi-occasional accretions of knowledge.\nEducation, to be education\n\nat all, must\n\nand not a little segment.\n\nEducation, with all the artificial glamor that\n\ncan be added unto it, with all its frills\n\ninfluence\n\nand\n\nthe whole\n\nfurbelows, when\n\npersonality\n\nreduced to\n\nits lowest terms, is nothing more nor less than the development of the\ncapacities of self-direction and self-control, both of which are nothing\nmore nor less than phases or attributes of the developed will. Are we in\nfull sympathy with the broader pedagogical creed which maintains that\neducation means nothing more nor less than to make the finest specimens\nof manhood and womanhood possible, to produce an individual rich in\nstrength, going on from strength to strength, developing the child to its\nfullest maturity in ability and power?\nOr are we more in sympathy with\na narrow-chested, anemic creed, something like that expressed in the\nfollowing little piece of didactic lesson-making?\nIt might be headed,\n“The Educated Girl” :\nSee the little girl!\n\nIs the little girl educated ?\nThe little girl isn’t a thing but educated.\nThe little girl has been to school during a series of years and learned to paint a hollyhock,\nWhy does the little girl spend so much time weeping ?\nThe little girl weeps because the hard, cruel, thoughtless world doesn’t match her\nhollyhock,\n\nm\not\n\n"}
{"page": 885, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE DEVELOPMENT\n\nThe\n\nterm\n\nOF THE\n\neducation, as now used, can\n\nno\n\nWILL\n\n875\n\nlonger be identified with\n\nmere instruction.\nA broader meaning has been developed, and the person who endeavors to maintain that learning is an end in and of itself,\nrather than a means to an end, soon succeeds in driving a team-of horses\nthrough his own reasoning.\nRather is it easier to believe, with Rosenkranz, that education consists ‘in that emancipation of youth which puts\nhim on his own feet.”\nThe quintessence of education lies in action along the lines that\ndevelop\n\nthe\n\npower\n\nto do, discern,\n\nand think, and\n\nin the inhibition of\n\nthose activities that would negative and offset the development of this\ncapacity for beneficent action, clear discernment, and effective thought\npower.\nWe are led to emphasize the motor side of education— selfcontrol and self- direction, because we believe the most enduring results,\nas well as the most potent educational facts and forces, are created through\naction.\nThe plan of this paper embraces a twofold aim:\n1. It is our purpose to pass in brief review the natural history of will.\n\nThrough\n\nwhat\n\nbefore\n\npossess\n\nwe\n\nstadia\nthe\n\ndo we pass in the unfolding of our personality\npower\n\nof self-active, self-directive, and\n\nself-con-\n\ntrolled energizing—in other words, volition—in its highest and fullest\nsense?\n2. In what way does physical training of the right sort assist in this\ndevelopment?\nIt is easy to see that the earliest movements of the child are not\nvoluntary,\n\nbut\n\nare\n\nonly\n\nreflex,\n\ninstinctive,\n\nand\n\nimpulsive.\n\nThe\n\nearly\n\nmovements of the child are no more voluntary actions than is the movement of the aspen leaf, of the brook splashing over the rocks as it tumbles\ndown the mountain side, of the stone that flies from the boy’s sling shot,\nor of the cannon ball as it describes its parabola of six or seven miles\nover the waves and across the water when hurled from the monster ironclad at sea.\nThe individual, the personality, must first have a clear, definite idea of the movement and the purpose of it before voluntary action\ncan possibly be initiated.\nThe difference between such movements as we\nsee in the waving grain, the ebbing tide, the walking-beam of the monstrous side-wheel steamer, the ascending\n\nballoon, the falling meteor, the\n\ncrashing iceberg, and the impulsive and reflex movements of the child,\non the one hand;\n\nand, on the other hand, such movements as are exhibited\n\nby the wood carver as he cuts a design, the etcher as he traces a plate,\nthe pilot as he steers his vessel, the marine as he “sights” the cannon,\nthe astronomer as he turns his telescope upon the dimly lighted star, the\n— is that\nchild of five or six learning to weave mats at the kindergarten\nthe latter are voluntary actions or movements f/ws consciousness.\nFirst we have the impulsive movements. By this group name it is\n\n"}
{"page": 886, "printed_page": null, "text": "8476\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nintended to signify that large class of movements which take place without the presence of any external stimulation, without any sensory arouseThey are, of course,\nment to which the organism need make response.\nentirely outside the domain of conscious attention and are, therefore,\ndistinctly will-less movements, being merely the result of an overflow of\n\nnervous energy.\nSecond, the reflex movements, those movements that form so large a\nportion of the early manifestations of activity on the part of the infant,\nespecially in the early days of child life. Neither do these reflex moveIn\nments involve the least degree of attention or conscious control.\nfact, they involve just the opposite.\nThey, too, are characterized by an\nutter absence of the subject’s power of attention or conscious effort.\nWe have, in the third\n\nplace, what\n\nare\n\ncalled\n\nthe\n\ninstinctive\n\nmove-\n\nments.\nThese instinctive movements constitute the majority of the\nactivities in which animals engage, and are found to embrace a large\nnumber of the movements which human beings manifest.\nFinally, there is that large class of movements which are the pure\nresults of deliberative choice, action in the truest and highest sense—\nvoluntary action, which is, indeed, one of thé essential\n\ncharacteristics of\n\npersonality.\nNo such thing as personality is conceivable without the\npower of self-direction, this action from motives and ideas towards aims\nand ideals.\nIn this class of movements we have as essential features the\ndesire of an end to be attained, concentrated attention upon this object\nor that, the imagining of this desired end before the mind, the picturing\nof the means to be employed in order to achieve it, and a forth-putting\nof energy in order that the desired end may actually be attained.\nThese\nmovements are really doxa-fide voluntary actions, and we may call them\ndeliberative or ideational movements.\nNearly all the movements that characterize the child’s prenatal life\nbelong to the class denominated impulsive movements.\nThey constitute\nthe larger number of acts manifested by the new-born child, as they do in\nthe new-born animal.\nIn the new-born child as in the new-born animal\nthe impulsive movements embrace all those spontaneous kickings, rollings, lip-suckings, cooings, jerkings of the head and arms, as well as the\ncomical grimaces, all of which are such a paramount feature of the early\nweeks of infant life. The little fists are tightly clinched, the arms are continually performing wild, sweeping movements, the hands are moved\ntoward\n\nand\n\nfrom\n\nthe\n\nface, toward\n\nand from\n\neach other, without being\n\nprompted by any definite purpose; in fact, nearly every muscle of the\nbody is called into activity without the presence of any sort of external\nstimulus.\n\nMost of the impulsive movements,\n\nindeed nearly all of them,\n\ndisappear by the end of the child’s second year, though some of them, like\nyawning or gaping, persist through life. Seemingly many of the impulsive\n\n"}
{"page": 887, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department ]\n\nTHE\n\nDEVELOPMENT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nWILL\n\n877\n\nmovements are unexpected by the child itself. While these impulsive\nmovements in themselves are not volitional actions in the true sense, they\nshow that the organism is a little world in itself, with the power of creating\nmotions from within, and that it does not need to wait for external incenThese impulsive movements are, indeed, the\ntives to set it into activity.\n\nraw material which in the progressively unfolding will are so wrought\nupon by the child in its incessant activity that they are finally molded\nand transformed, with the help of.the other powers of the mind, into the\nhighest type of deliberative actions.\nClose upon the heels of the spontaneity which is manifested in the\nearliest stages of existence as a natural efflux of a superabundance of life,\nclose upon these earliest self-movements in the path of development of\nthe\n\norganism,\n\nirritability\n\nmanifests\n\nitself.\n\nBy irritability\n\nis meant\n\nthe\n\npower of responding to an external stimulus.\nBy reflex movements, then,\nwe mean those that occur as a response on the part of the nervous system\nto external stimulation, without any participation of self-consciousness or\nthe presence of any deliberation or choice.\nThey never enter into consciousness during their performance, though sometimes we clearly remember them after they have been performed.\nThese reflex movements are\nfound in the adult as well as in the child; for example, the quick start on\nhearing the sudden report of a gun discharged near you, the quick withdrawal of the hand when one is picking berries and suddenly observes a\nsnake coiled up in close proximity, or the startled jump made by a boy\nas he gets into bed and his feet come in contact with a cold, clammy\nbanana skin, surreptitiously placed there by a mischievous mate.\nWe see, then, that while reflex movements are not brought about immediately or directly by the internal state, but by a stimulus from the external\nworld, they are, nevertheless, purely mechanical; they are most certainly\nnot the result of conscious deliberation.\nReflex movements are of the greatest importance and far-reaching\nsignificance in will development, for on them the strictly voluntary movements are immediately dependent.\nIn so far as a line can be drawn between the reflex novements and the\ninstinctive movements, it must be by saying that the latter are more complex, more active, and more\n\nconscious than the former.\n\nInstead\n\nof the\n\nmomentary nervous discharge so plainly manifest in the reflex, as well as\nthe impulsive, movements, there is a direction of the activities to a more\nor less distant end. Stimulus is required in order to set an instinct to\nwork, but the kind of action is determined far more by the motor tendencies implanted and habits inculcated in the individual than in the nature\nThe stimulus serves only to open the valve, that the\nof the stimulus.\nmotor tendencies\n\nmay escape.\n\n‘The\n\nreacting organism “does the rest.”\n\nstimulus\n\n“presses\n\nthe button,”\n\nthe\n\n"}
{"page": 888, "printed_page": null, "text": "(aa\n\n878\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nWe can best study the genesis of ideational or.true will movements\nwhen we note how the will gradually brings the bodily movements under\nThis is the first important accomplishment in the course of\nits control.\nthe will’s training, and it is so important that motor ideas must be considered as the basis of all conscious volition.\nTo all external appearances action is directed from within outward, but even this presupposes\nan inner activity, a determining of the ideas by the thought of an end\nThe thought of an end is the most important element;\nto be attained.\nindeed, it is the distinguishing characteristic of all ideational movements.\nPassing over the impulsive, reflex, and instinctive movements in turn, we\nfind that ideational movements\n\nare\n\ndifferent\n\nfrom each and\n\nall of these,\n\nin that they (ideational) involve the previous portrayal or representation\nto the mind of anend sought, an object to be acquired, or an aim to be\nrealized.\nIt is only to such movements as these that the term “voluntary\nactions” can be applied.\nAll the other classes are only movements in just\nthe same sense that movements among physical phenomena are movements.\n\nIn the higher forms of will activity, then, we have the presence of\nmotor ideas that are determined by the thought of an end or desired object.\nCertain conditions are essential in order that we may have these motor\nideas. The first condition is that movements must be made which are\nfelt. This shows that ideational movements. exist only by virtue of the\nspontaneous, reflex, and instinctive activities.\n\n-Impulsive and reflex move-\n\nments constitute the material which serves as the basis of our motor ideas.\nA motor impulse always presupposes the memory of an executed movement, which really consists in recalling the appearance of the previously\nexecuted movement or in remembering the previous motor sensation\nitself.\nHow does physical training of the right kind assist in this development of will?\nIn'the first place, systematic training cultivates a series of motor habits\nthat are of immense value in the economy of human action.\nThere are\nfour good reasons for making as many as possible of our acts habitual:\n1. Habitual actions are performed with greater accuracy than are our\nother movements.\nThe piano player and the rapid typewriter are illustrations of this fact.\n2. Habitual actions require less mental effort, are performed with\nless labor, saving a large amount of energy for necessarily new adjustments.\nHabit is the greatest labor-saving device known to the mind.\n3. Habitual actions are less fatiguing than other forms of movement.\n4. Habitual actions are performed in less time.\nIn the second place, physical training that occurs in accordance with\nthe periods of growth establishes a set of enduring motor clews—of motor\n\n9p\ndt\nT\n\n"}
{"page": 889, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nDEVELOPMENT\n\nOF THE\n\nWILL\n\n879\n\nremembranc\n—es\nthat cannot help but be of the greatest advantage in the\nhigher development of will power along the lines of self-direction and\nself-control.\n\nThe\n\norganism, well\n\ntrained,\n\nbecomes\n\nso\n\nwell\n\nadjusted\n\nto\n\nevery possible condition of action, is so adapted to every wind of circumStance, that the individual thus trained realizes\n\nthat he is master of con-\n\nditions, and not a log drifting down the stream of time, a rudderless bark\nmoved about by the wind of other men’s breath.\nIn the third place, physical training, in emphasizing the motor side of\neducation, makes possible a larger degree of attention and more intense\ninterest, both of which react directly on the will power.\nStrongly concentrated attention that is effective for mental development can only exist\nin connection with activity of some sort. Mental effort, which is what we\nmean by attention, is intense only when accompanied by some sort of\nphysical expression.\nFurthermore, this physical expression, this bodily\nactivity, leaves in its wake the most potent memory clews.\nIn the fourth place, physical training presents each exercise as a whole,\nas an\n\nentire, complete thing, to the child.\n\nTo the teacher each exercise\n\ndoes not appear as a whole, but in relation to some other exercise.\nto\n\nthe child\n\neach\n\nexercise, whether with wand\n\nor dumb-bell,\n\nBut\n\nis for the\n\ntime being a whole, an entirety, a complete thing. This gives rise to a\nthorough organic interest, to a complete brain thrill.\nIn the fifth and last, but not the least important, place, among ‘the\nreasons presented within the narrow limits of this paper we must remind\nourselves that nerve cells in the human body are created to do three\n\nthings: (1) to generate energy;\nor control energy.\n\n(2) to discharge energy;\n\n(3) to inhibit\n\nIn educating the child our chief concern must necessarily be the development of the last of these functions.\nThat education is at fault, indeed\ndoes not educate at all, that fails better to organize the inherent capacity\nof inhibition and self-control.\nAnd what can be more important, more\neffective, in bringing about this development and organization than\nphysical training?\nObserve, if you will, the beautiful self-poise induced\nby such training as is given, from time to time, in the classes that meet in\nthis building.\nThis is but a fair example of what is taking place in the\nbest schools all over our broad land, all of them co-operating in making\nthe individual more complete, in that they develop powers of self-control\nand self-direction that would otherwise Jie dormant.\n\nWhat is more\n\ncon-\n\ntemptible, what is more despicable, than the individual of weak will, the man\nwithout a purpose, hugging the earth and groveling in the dust, refusing\nto rise because his innate strength of will has remained undeveloped?\nWhat is nobler than the individual who, conscious of his strength of will,\nrises above every circumstance, knowing by experience that the higher he\nclimbs the mountain of difficulty, the broader\n\nthe horizon and the more\n\n"}
{"page": 890, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n880\n\n_ [Physical\n\nWhat the world of today requires is not mere\n‘beautiful is the view?\nWe are not so much in need of psalm singers\ngoodness, but strength.\nThere is large need of\nas individuals who are veritable engines of truth.\nindividuals of unfaltering energy, of definiteness of purpose; in other\nSuch products only result when\nwords, strong, complete personalities.\nthese bodies are judiciously and thoroughly trained, so as to furnish\nample and complete physical basis for vigorous thought and health-giving\nmorality. Then it is that we have the individual of heroic mold.\n“ What makes a hero?\n\nAn heroic mind\n\nExpressed in action, in endurance proved;\n\nOne glorious triumph of the heroic will,\nOne self-approval in his heart of hearts.”\n\nThe wonderful influence exerted by the Christ when he was on earth\nwas not merely because of the fact that he was the best man that ever\nlived, but because he was also the strongest personality that ever existed\non the earth.\nWhat is the sort of individual, the sort of product of our\nschools, that this day and age most demand?\nLet the poet Holland\nanswer:\n\nGod, give us men:\n\na\n\noe\n\ntime like this demands\n\nStrong minds, great hearts, true faith, and ready hands.\n\nMen whom the lust of office does not kill,\nMen whom\n\nthe spoils of office will not buy;\n\nMen who possess opinions and a will;\nMen who have honor;\n\nmen who will not lie;\n\nMen who can stand before a demagogue\nAnd damn his treacherous flatteries without winking;\nTall men, sun-crowned, who live above the fog\n\nIn public duty and in private thinking;\nFor while the rabble with their thumb-worn\n\ncreeds,\n\ne\ne\n\nTheir large professions and their little deeds,\nMingle in selfish strife, lo! Freedom weeps,\nWrong rules the land, and waiting Justice sleeps.\n\nDELSARTE\n\nAND\n\nBY\n\nP.\n\nMRS.\n\nANNA\n\nHIS-CONTRIBUTION\nEDUCATION.\n\nTUCKER,\n\nSCHOOL\n\nOF\n\nTO\n\nEXPRESSION,\n\nPHYSICAn\n\nCLEVELAND,\n\nO.\n\nMuch has been said and written for and against Delsarte.\nThose who\nhave given it study, believing strongly in its possibilities, regret that there\nshould ever be a teacher who, mistaking the form, such as posing and\naesthetic gymnastics, for the spirit, has put these forth as Delsarte, instead\nof using them simply as a means to an end, and that end the cultivation of\nthe individual according to a larger ideal; for “The material form is but\n\n"}
{"page": 891, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nDELSARTE’S\n\nCONTRIBUTION\n\nTO PHYSICAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n881\n\nthe effect of the spiritual idea.”\nThe limitations of the Delsarte philosophy are to be found, not in its truths, but in the work of its promulgators, many of whom have made it synonymous with cheese cloth and\nposing, or have\n\nclaimed\n\nfor it the literal\n\nconferring of perpetual youth,\n\nthe putting-on or taking-off of a given amount of avoirdupois, or some\nother absurdity.\nA great thinker along these lines has aptly said: “The\nlimitations of our knowledge of Delsarte is one thing, the limitations of\nIt is simply an\nWhat, then, is this philosophy?\nDelsarte another.”\nesthetic translation of the Greek philosophy presented by a Christian\nphilosopher, for Delsarte’s teaching includes God as a factor and desires\nnot only bodily power by practice, but bodily power by moral habits. The\nsubject represents an ideal standard, but is very practical in benefits conferred, as I can testify by a number of years’ experience in teaching the\nDelsarte philosophy as a basis for physical culture.\nDelsarte was an observational, an inspirational teacher, who sought\nuniversal\n\ntruth in a close\n\nstudy of life and art.\n\nHe\n\ndid\n\nnot, it is true,\n\nfound a system of gymnastics in the ordinary acceptation of the term, but\nhe declared the principles underlying all true gymnastic training.\nBya\nkaowledge of the Delsarte principles and the power to impart them we\nare enabled to teach muscular control, power through repose, grace, rhythm,\nand correct poise. The last element I would name as the great vital\nnecessity in any system of gymnastic training.\n“Strength at the center”\nis not\n\nalone a Delsarte\n\nlaw, but a great\n\nnatural\n\nlaw of growth.\n\nEvery-\n\nthing depends upon the control and exercise of the trunk and a perfectly\ncorrect poise of the body. Let us remember that health and strength are\nnot always synonymous, for a man may even possess strength at the\nexpense of health.\nIn many gymnasiums (and here let me say I am not\ndecrying that work, only asking an impartial consideration of the subject) I have noted, even among advanced pupils, students capable of performing exercises of a most difficult nature, who seemed to have no knowledge of poise at all.\nIf taught, it was not made sufficiently clear to\nbecome a factor in their lives.\nFew teachers realize that poise is not\nalone a physical, but a moral truth, dependent primarily upon the imagination.\nHere lies the distinction between the mechanical and the ideal\ngymnast.\n\nThe\n\nformer,\n\neliminating\n\nthe\n\nemotional\n\nelement,\n\nbecomes\n\nabsorbed in the mechanism, forgetting that muscular control depends upon\nmental life, while the latter believes in controlling the muscular by mental\nMechanism is a necessary part of physical eduand emotional activity.\ncation, but itis ovZy a part; it is the ever-present soul, animating the body,\nwhich should incite the mechanism and rises superior to it. It seems to\nme the prime result of physical education is to create power, and grace,\nPower depends upon control of the trunk,\nwhich is modified power.\nespecially at the waist. This result is largely obtainable by the Delsarte\n\n"}
{"page": 892, "printed_page": null, "text": "882\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nDelsarte’s law of strength at the\nmethod, or ethical physical training.\nproperly applied, imparts vigor,\nwhen\nextremities,\nthe\nat\nflexibility\ncenter,\nsinewiness, and grace.\nAnother strong factor in Delsarte’s teaching is the belief in slow\n‘Dynamic wealth depends upon the number of articulations\nmovements.\nbrought into play.”’\n\nThis, also, has received ridicule, but, in normal states,\n\nnature indicates measured rhythm, from the beating of the heart to the\nfluttering of a leaf. With this agrees Mr. Stanley Hall, when he says:\n“When you can substitute in the body a deliberate motion and rhythm of\nwork and speech, you are substituting a healthy for a morbid and nervous\nThe believers of mechanical work may claim that Delsarte’s\ndiathesis.””\ntheory belongs to the field of expression, and call it a vagary, and hold\nit in derision, but what is expression but the highest form of gymnastics,\nnatural gymnastics, so to speak?\nIt is ‘the visible unfolding of the\nsoul,” says Delsarte.\n\nProfessor James, of Harvard, a conservative of con-\n\nservatives, in his recent work on psychology states that the emotions and\ntheir bodily symptoms are identical as far as our consciousness is able to\nanalyze. Through exercises formulated in the carrying-out of this philosophy we gain health, symmetry, and freedom of action, which mere\nathletic gymnastics fail to give. Many times the most difficult pupils to\ndevelop in poise, self-control, and power of movement are those who have\ntaken a course of training which has made their muscles hard and inflexible, their movements ungraceful and angular.\nThe Delsarte method\nteaches the art of withdrawing the natural nervous force from the extremity\nto the center, thus enabling us to control that force by action of the brain,\n\nand to use it at will in control\nmuscular\n\ncontrol, but\n\nof the muscles.\n\nThis imparts not only\n\nconcentration, a wise direction of will power, and\n\nrelaxation from nerve tension.\nThose who become absorbed in mechanical\ngymnastics lose sight of the idea that the most forceful and useful exercises are those which project themselves into the daily uses of the body.\nFor the natural gymnastics are those which arise in the daily expressive\nuse of the body. ‘Take, for example, the use of the voice; how largea\npart of our social life is dependent upon speech, which would be impossible\nwithout the muscular power of taking and expelling breath and the movement of the muscles of the larynx, yet how few persons are taught to\nconserve or control this force!\nOr how many teachers realize that the\ncorrect use of the human voice isa powerful physical exercise?\nThis system, in giving us control of our bodies, arouses within us keener sensibilities, strengthens the emotions, and stimulates mental life, and the\nexercises, when correctly taught, are but a means to an end, which end is\n\nthe full artistic outward expression of the inward life. It is the enlarging\nof the ideal and making possible the way to its expression, or the revealing of man’s possibilities to himself, that I would term the sammum bonum\n\n"}
{"page": 893, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nGERMAN\n\nSYSTEM\n\nOF GYMNASTICS\n\n883\n\nof Delsarte’s contribution to physical education.\nThese possibilities are\nideals, but we may dare to practice them.\nThey may be made actualities\nGod blesses effort.\nby our own efforts.\n\nTHE\n\nBY\n\nGERMAN\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nCARL\n\nSYSTEM\n\nKROH,\n\nOF\n\nCHICAGO\n\nGYMNASTICS.\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL.\n\nWhatever the retrospect of more recent date, the history of the past\nfifty years must disclose, in many interesting chapters, the story of the\ntransmission of the germ, and the persistent cultivation of the not always\ncongenial soil: the careful nurture attending the promising growth, and\nthe ultimate development into a system characteristic, in all its features,\nfor strength of form, beauty in the symmetry of its branches, and rich in\nthe abundance of its fruits.\nThe cultivation has been a success, and it is not in an everyday humor\n\n_that I would divert your attention for a few moments from the relevant\nmatter of my discourse, to associate in your minds, with the doctrine of\nGerman gymnastics, the pioneers of German Zurnen, whose love of liberty\nwas the animus of that vast tide of German emigration of the early fifties\nwhich proved 80 valuable a factor in the development of our country.\nThe pioneers of gymnastic art, ever in the vanguard, recognized by\nvirtue of their ripened experiences the dangers with which we were\nthreatened, and are threatened more, perhaps, today than ever before.\nNever hesitating, they pointed the way to a better realization of our\nlegacies, in that they directed their efforts with characteristic persistence\nto the perfection of a system by means of which there should become\nestablished a sense of proportion.\nTheir ideals implied strong bodies,\nwarm hearts, upright characters, complete manhood.\nThe training they\nproposed was not for the physical body alone, but a training for the sake\nof man.\nNot a one-sided culture; heart culture ever appealed to the\nGerman Gemiith.\nTo them it was evident that to youth should be given more leisure\nthan we allow, not only for the repose of mind so essential for a proper\nweighing of impressions, but also for that cultivation of genuineness so\n‘needful in accomplishing a life’s purpose.\nWith Goethe they believed:\n“Take thought for thy body with steadfast fidelity; the soul must see\nthrough these eyes alone; if they are dim, the whole world is beclouded.”\nMay\n\nnot we, as all others who\n\nhave\n\ncontributed\n\ntheir share in the\n\narduous work of planning, organizing, and establishing, look forward to\nthese recurring meetings, newly encouraged to add our mite to the study\n\n"}
{"page": 894, "printed_page": null, "text": "884\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n[Physical\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nShould we not now, on the highroad to recognition by\nengaging us?\nthe greatest union of educators, after the many vexatious failures of the\npast, rejoice in the prospect of serious thought directed to the perDo not we see in this recognition\nfection of our educational system?\nof the birthright, of the privileges and rights of the boy citizen and girl\ncitizen, a guaranty for the intellectual victories of the future ?\nUpon the one hundred and fiftieth\nNature does nothing by jumps.\nanniversary of Pestalozzi, one of the first among educators to emphasize\nthe need of physical training of children, the institutions of our land,\nfrom the primary grades to the universities, honored his memory in that\nthe story of his career, his beneficent influence, was retold.\nFroebel, whose sympathetic study of childhood led to the philosophy\nof the kindergarten, threatened with imprisonment and expulsion from\nBerlin on account of the menaces to church and state lurking in his doctrine, today is the revered of pedagogues.\nHis memory is held dear in\nthe schools of our land.\nOn the eve of a brighter dawn, when our civic federations shall have\ndivorced the stultifying influences of thoroughly bad politics and politicians from the sacred environment\n\nof our schools;\n\nwhen the teacher will\n\nnot need to make his obeisance in recognition of a vicious system;\n\nwhen\n\nhis influence .shall be estimated for its real worth;\n\nfrom\n\nwhen\n\neducators\n\nall sections of our country turn their attention to this side of physical\neducation ; when our wills shall have become invigorated with that sincerity which will lead toward better courses—truly, the outlook for a\n‘ realization of our best hopes appears much brighter.\nFor, as truly as Pestalozzi and Froebel found in the little republic of\nSwitzerland the conditions favorable to the advancement\n\nof their theories,\n\nso have we in this republic the conditions for unlimited opportunities.\nEmerson said: ‘“ America is opportunity.”\nIt is the patient and honestly struggling teacher, then, who is full of\ninquiry concerning this phase of physical education.\nWherever teachers gather for information in state, county, or city\ninstitutes or conferences, interest is being largely directed toward two\ntopics, child’study and physical training, which are destined in a way, I\nam inclined to believe, to go hand in hand.\nThe final outcome will do away with much of the contention, confusion, and hesitation of which the makeshift of schoolroom gymnastics, to\nan extent, has been the source.\nIndeed, indications point to the leaders\nin the child-study movement, as the people interested in proper physical\ntraining, who eventually will become its strongest advocates.\nWe, for the moment, have not to do with aims beyond the common\nschools.\n\nAims in the higher schools, we\n\nare told, do not\n\nsuffer by the\n\nnarrowing-down process in vogue for the formative period of youth, the\n\n0!axon\n\n"}
{"page": 895, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nGERMAN\n\nSYSTEM\n\nOF GYMNASTICS\n\n885\n\nperiod of first impressions.\n‘The broadening of character is well insured\nwhere elbowroom for mind and body is not denied; where coveted\nglimpses\n\nof\n\nbroad\n\nvistas,\n\nvouchsafed,\n\nare\n\nmade\n\npossible.\n\nGrounds,\n\nequipments, teachers, appropriations, bequests, broad lands, “campuses,\nplaygrounds, etc., are considerations of first importance in our colleges\nBut the records, however, of the physical examiners\nand universities.\nthere employed reveal the neglects in our common schools.\nWe recognize, then, the demand\n\nof the teacher\n\nfor information.\n\nIn\n\nhim we have the most responsible person in the community, who shapes\nthe community that is to be.\nWe recognize, as never before, that the art\nof teaching, the science of teaching, must illuminate our paths toward a\nbetter realization of our manifold opportunities.\nPreparation, skill, devotion and consecration to conviction, experience\n\n— above all, right motive— must give quite another ring to the phrase,\n“physical, mental, and moral,” or “practical, intellectual, and zesthetical\neducation.’\nWithout these fundamental\nconsiderations, without\nthe\n\nstimulating influence of this teacher, without the play of all the powers,\nthe faculties cannot be developed.\nA system neglecting the fundamental\n_ consideration of the physical body, the instrument of all high thoughts\nand expression, is not representative of the higher and truer aims of education.\nOur wondrous sight power enables us, if obstructions do not mar the\nview, to see almost at a glance what may become the study of a lifetime.\nWe look again and again, and ever new significance is lent to the scene ;\nrecognition of hitherto unperceived content is had; we become richer in\nthe compass of our view.\nAs we accumulate strength with ,exercise, and\nour powers expand, so our temporary states determine the qualitative and\nquantitative contents of our images, of our ideals—a study of: everenlarging scope and of deepest significance in determining our wisdom\nof and in things.\nIt is even so with the study of German gymnastics.\nStudents of systems,\n\nwho\n\nhave\n\nearned\n\ntheir\n\nattainments\n\nin long\n\nservice,\n\ndevoted\n\nto\n\nearnest investigation and patient endeavor, who have in their mastery of\nmatter and methods the reward entitling them to competency, will see\nthe futility of any attempt to divulge such a system in the short time provided in a manner satisfactory to all who may be interested.\nDiscussed from almost every conceivable point of view by legions of\ncontributors representing the best thought of earnest investigators, the\nGerman system of gymnastics has found its way into many lands far\n\nbeyond that of the German schoolmaster to whom we are so much\nIt is looked upon with acclaim wherever German thrift and\nindebted.\ninfluence have become manifest, a// wo die deutsche Zunge klingt. Of such\ncompass that a noted physiologist said of it: “In the vastness of this\n\n"}
{"page": 896, "printed_page": null, "text": "2\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nNATIONAL\n\n886\n\nGerman\nful and\n\n[Physical\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nstructure, built of an enormous amount of material, with beautimany-hued stones, and with rich ornaments, one becomes lost\n\nand confused ’’— or words to that effect—it must become apparent that\nGerman gymGerman gymnastics were not born in the schoolroom.\nnastics, however modified in the schoolroom, had their congenial\n\nsoil in\n\nDame Nature’s school.\nTrue physical education, as represented, whether in its modified or\nbroader aspects, does not consider merely the improvement of the\nphysique and maintenance of health; it is, rather, a training for the sake\nIn its more “ practical” aspects, as evidenced in\nof the whole being.\nperceptible results, it implies the recognition of procedures based on\nfactors determining systematic. “gymnastic development.”\n‘The consideration\n\nof these\n\nfactors\n\nproperly belongs\n\nto the special study of gym-\n\nnastics and presupposes some familiarity with certain related sciences.\nIts successful direction implies conscientious preparation, supervising control, effort in right directions, resulting in power appropriately to adapt\nand to interest.\nPersistent effort in practice and preparation, a resolute\nspirit ever ready “to do,” to the exclusion of all superficial efforts, result-\n\ning in desultory work, must be directed toward the enhancement of all\nthe pupil’s powers.\nFullest volition and the greatest possible accuracy in the execution of\nall gymnastic movements being of the highest value, should the work be\neducative, the study of the different forms of ‘““gymnastic development”\nmust serve the double purpose of enabling the teacher to exact a proper\nmeasure of effort to be safely demanded (in a consideration of age, sex,\ntemperament, development— physical and mental—of skill of pupil or\nclasses attained) and to inculcate an earnest desire for healthful bodily\nactivity through interest aroused in increase of power, skill, and control.\nThe\n\norder\n\nof movements\n\nand\n\nexercises, different in kind and effect,\n\ndevised in accordance with general and specific purposes, embraces an\nendless survey, involving the whole muscular system; their consideration\nis based on physiological and pedagogical principles; their classification\nand adaptation depend on an intimate acquaintance with matter and\nmethods.\nA methodical study of the different branches of German gymnastics,\nfor instance of tactics, or order\n\nan economy in movement;\n\nexercises, with\n\nreference\n\nto their use\n\nas\n\nthe application of the rules of marching and\n\nfacing to the individual, rank, body of ranks, columns, and colonnades ;\n\ntheir application to the practical needs of classes during gymnastic work,\ndivision, and massing for group work or play; their use during and after\nvigorous exercise ;the adaptation of the various forms to figure marching,\nrunning, and dancing ; formations in ranks and files; transformations of\nbodies, etc.; the study of free gymnastics, or\n\nfree-standing\n\nmovements,\n\njo\n\noe\nae\ni\n\n"}
{"page": 897, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nGERMAN\n\nSYSTEM\n\nOF GYMNASTICS\n\n887\n\nand all it implies, as a fundamental work in gymnastics, as a means of\nthorough development ; the study of the various forms, leading from the\nsimple to the complex, from the gentle and easy, alonga scale of gradually increasing difficulty, to the more difficult forms of exercise requiring\nstrength, control, and endurance, to those requiring skill and dexterity,\nimplying the highest form of mental and physical co-ordination; their\nadaptation to general and specific purposes; the elementary, immediate,\nand advanced forms, leading to the “theme work,” characteristic of German work throughout ; the study of the various forms of “light gymnastics,” with all the varied hand apparatus; of the forms of “springing”’\nexercises, skipping, hopping, and jumping, and their varied combinations;\nthe study of the forms of exercises adapted to outdoor work, competitive\nrunning, jumping, etc., pole-vaulting, putting the shot, etc.; of “antagonistics”’ in all the forms indicated in the survey referred to; the development of apparatus work, from the elementary forms to those requiring\nthe greatest skill in execution ; the games and plays, competitive and recreative, without end—cannot fail to impress the student with reference to\nits all-embracing nature.\nThe processes involved, embracing other studies equally interesting,\nhave received almost exclusive attention to the neglect of the more important consideration of the practical methods of conducting the work. Had\nI the time, I would like to point out the fallacy of making every procedure subservient to this course.\nJahn’s work, criticised by that master of modern school gymnastics,\nAdolph Spiess, was at first but an occupation of the season favoring outdoor work.\nNot until 1816, I believe, did Jahn address his first appeal\nfor a covered gymnasium to the authorities. Thé various appliances\nknown today were suggested in part by the natural obstacles encountered by his bands of youths on their long marches, rambles, and\noutings.\n:\nHow he loved during these outings— Zurnfahrten—to enter the\ntowns traversed on his peculiarly planned routes, in the spirit which\ngloried in that individual freedom which knitted together the youths of\nhis bands in bonds of steadfast purpose, united, with little of the order of\nthe drillmaster to herald their advent, with nothing that would smack of\nsubmission to yoke of whatever kind—that spirit of purposeful action\nwhich\n\nmoved\n\nJahn, Friesen, Theo. Koerner,\n\nand\n\nFried. Froebel\n\nat the\n\nhead of the historic Luetzow’s Freischaar, 1613!\nGerman gymnastic art is directed against that “relaxation ” advised in\nopposition to the natural methods of exercise, alternating in purposeful\nactivity and its consequent states, described by Gutsmuths as the result\nof work in the garb of pleasure, indicative of a disposition in harmony with\nall surroundings, and a consequent quiet and restful feeling of repose,\n\n"}
{"page": 898, "printed_page": null, "text": "Lt\n\n888\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nwhich contributes to our state of well-being, and which Ling has called\na state of joyous disposition and peace.\nIt was this same spirit which prompted the plan of organization, wise\nin its details, which led to the development of an art, a plan as yet little\ndiscussed, so well directed toward the recognition of personal responsi-\n\nbility.\nIt has been asserted that the gymnastic instructor who must plan and\norganize for the school, who would place his faith in the plan evolved by\nJahn, must fail. ‘This is, perhaps, true at this stage of the development\nof the work in this country.\nThe plan of Spiess, therefore, is regarded\nas the most feasible.\nThe plan of class gymnastics, including all the\nforms, from free-standing movements to apparatus work and games and\nplays introduced by him, which stipulated that these lessons should be\ndirected by the regular teacher, modified under our conditions, in that\nthe specially qualified teacher shall conduct the work, the regular teacher\nparticipating in it with a view to eventual qualification—this plan, in the\nbelief of the German teacher of gymnastics, who is also a student of other\nmethods, is representative of the method best adapted to school gymnastics, and toward which they are aiming.\nNot until it, in a measure, has\nbeen realized can the plan of Jahn find recognition.\nIt might be of more than ordinary interest to state here that to Froebel’s communion with Jahn in Leipzig were due his thoughts on “national\ntraits and tendencies,” expressed throughout his writings.\nFroebel, who\nlater was the adviser of Adolph Spiess, received from Jahn his first\nimpressions on the importance of. physical training.\nCan there be a question as to the importance of the problems involved\nin this question of gymnastics and their introduction ? Equipment, organization,\n\ninstruction,\n\nmethods,\n\nembrace\n\nquestions\n\nthat will bear consid-\n\nerable discussion.\nEnlightenment in many directions is needed right\naway.\nFuture occasions will furnish opportunities.\nThe cry at present\nis for teachers, competent teachers.\nWe can make but little headway\nwithout qualified teachers:\nWhat stand are our normal schools for\nteachers taking in face of the demands for an education of the body,\nmind, and soul?\n\nIt is in our normal schools that gymnastics must be recognized as an\nart, or a science, for educational and hygienic aims, taking into account\nthe whole being, physical, mental, and moral, based on physiological and\npedagogical principles, implying on the part of the prospective teacher\nan approximate knowledge of the relation of mind and body, enabling\nhim to select from the rich fund of gymnastic knowledge work appropriate to the various ages and sexes. There exists no higher obligation for the authorities than to provide for its introduction and fostering\n\ncare.\n\n"}
{"page": 899, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nGERMAN\n\nSYSTEM\n\nOF GYMNASTICS\n\n889\n\nAll arts have had their first stages in intuition; then they rise in the\nthought and investigations of man to science, which in turn enriches art.\nA prominent educator, in recounting the evils discerned in the wake\nof the mad struggle characteristic of our times, asked: “What may we\nfairly look for as the logical outcome of this marvelous development of\nthe psychic powers unbalanced by the physical ?”” To science is left the\nanswer, from which it cannot escape.\nThat eminent authority on physical education,\n‘‘ Methods for testing, measuring, and setting\n\nsaid:\n\nDr. E. M. Hartwell,\nforth the results of\n\nphysical training belong to what promises to become a distinct branch\nof science.””\nPhysical education, as an expression in the strictly scientific\nsense, is based on a critical consideration of demonstrable physiological\nand psychological effects and relations.\nIts general and special scientific\nsignification should be distinguished and determined.\nAre the psychologists aiding us in this direction?\nCan the characteristic traits and\ntendencies of children, of youth, be studied anywhere to greater advantage than during the properly conducted gymnastic work on the field or\nplayground?\nIs not this remunerative study of vast importance in that\nthrough it is aided the teacher, confronted with ever new problems ?\nIn conclusion—\nand I trust my colleagues will bow assent—I believe,\nafter all, the question of systems is one not always uppermost in the mind\nof the real teacher.\nIt is the way of doing a thing right, and of continuing in that way, that is of vastly more importance.\nIn this respect advocates of systems may safely close the breach and unite.\nPersonally, I would rather discuss any one phase of the work at once\ninteresting and move to the point, than formally to speak in a general\nway on systems, for I believe, as did one of the best exponents of gymnastics that ever gave his life in behalf of a noble\n\ncause, Nils Posse, who\n\nsaid on a memorable occasion in the Drexel Institute in Philadelphia,\nwhere were assembled the exponents of the different systems and the\nleading educators of the country: ‘After all, the German system does\nnot look so different from the Swedish.”\n\nDISCUSSION.\nDr. E. H. ARNOLD, Yale University\nMr. Kroh’s remarks must be studied in connection with the little pamphlet issued. What impresses one most about the German\nsystem of gymnastics is the vast amount of material presented.\nHerein lies the secret of\nHe who wants to cater to the hygienic, developmental, and educational\nits success.\nwants of children, youth, people in the prime of life, and old people, of both sexes, under\nthe varying conditions of different climates, nationality, station in life, etc., must needs\n\nhave a great variety of forms of exercises, if he is to keep the people interested.\n\nThe\n\n"}
{"page": 900, "printed_page": null, "text": "890\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\ninterest taken in exercise is of the greatest importance, for on it depends largely the effect\nYou may figure out most minutely the physiological effect of an exercise on\nof exercise.\npaper and demonstrate it by experiment, yet find to your sorrow and great surprise that\nthe effect so demonstrated will be totally wanting in practice. The mental and emotional\neffect in the last instance decides whether the exercise is going to be beneficial or detrimental. And as the change from one form of exercise to another is to our ever curious\nmind a pleasurable incentive, as the ancients attested by their adage “ Variatio delectat,”\nthe number of exercises presented by any system of gymnastics bears a direct ratio to the\neffectiveness of its exercises, to the ultimate success of such a system.\n\ngymnastics is to be of lasting benefit to a nation, one\n\nFor if a system of\n\nmust be able to bring under its\n\ninfluence the young and old, the rich and poor, men and women,\n\nit must\n\nbe applicable to\n\ncommon and secondary schools, academies and colleges, as well as gymnastic clubs.\n\nOne\n\nof the main conditions of a good system is that it must be continued after school life.\nThen, in the period of growth, when occupation in industries and professions threaten\nhealth and growth, physical, mental, and moral, is really the time when gymnastics are\neven more of a necessity than in school. You can bring under the influence of gymnastics\nschool children, whether the influence be for good or bad, but unless the scholar has been\ndeeply interested in the art of moving, unless he has formed what one can call the gymnastic habit, your influence will cease the moment he leaves school, your gymnastics\nhave served a purpose of school only and not one of life in its totality, you have forgotten\none of the main principles of good teaching —that whatever is taught in school is not to\nbe taught for the sake and purposes of the school, but for life. Therefore, that system of\ngymnastics seems to me to be the best which will so enchant anyone coming under its\nrégime that, even after the compulsion of the school has been removed, he will ever\nindulge in the health-giving physical and mental activities of gymnastic exercise. - If this\nis to be gained, we must present continually new movement problems, so that our gymnast\nmay ever be interested, always be fighting novel obstacles, always be giving battle to his\nown lack of skill. Yet the new difficulties encountered with each new exercise must not\nbe so great that the gymnast loses all hope of ever overcoming them,\nGradation of\nthe material is then a necessity from the very outset. Gradation of the gymnastic work\nSuch a gradation\nof a lifetime is, again, possible only with a great amount of material.\nwill be the more effective, the more forms of movements can be similarly modified by\nperforming them in peculiar positions of the body. As the number of modifying positions, free standing, is limited, the use of gymnastic apparatus which allows the reproduction of the same type of movement in sheer endless variety, presenting it in all stages of\ndifficulty, is of utmost importance and greatest help. The teacher is, however, not the\nonly person benefited by such help, but the pupil is quick to learn by analogy what\nfeature of the exercise decides its greatest or less difficulty. He learns to attribute these\ndifferences to the varying conditions of levers, momentum, gravity, etc., and thereby gets\nHaving acquired this, he practices the art of\na practical insight into the art of moving.\nmoving, being careful to perform movements under the most advantageous conditions.\n\nMe thereby avoids all undue effort and exhaustion, moving becomes thereby easy for him.\nWhenever we find that we can easily understand or perform anything, we like to practice\nthe same art or accomplishment.\nSo our gymnast, because moving is easy for him, loves\nto be active, loves to do things. This love for doing, for accomplishing, is not restricted\nto the gymnasium, but permeates all the abilities of our gymnast’s life, be they manual\n\nperformances in the pursuit of industries or arts, or mental activities in the professions.\nLife, being active work, no longer is a dreaded burden, but a pleasure.\n\nOur gymnast has\n\nleft the ranks of that great mass of humanity that knows things, but does not practice\nthem, and has joined the much more useful army of doers. He has fitted himself for life’s\nbattle and strife with one of the best defending and attacking arms—the art of doing.\n\nEpa\n¢..\nah\n\n"}
{"page": 901, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nBY\n\nAARON\n\nGOVE,\n\nPRINCIPLES\n\nPRINCIPLES\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF SCHOOL\n\nOF SCHOOL\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nHYGIENE\n\n891\n\nHYGIENE.\n\nDENVER,\n\nCOLO.\n\nI take it that the title “Elementary Principles of School Hygiene” is\nto be interpreted as applying to those rules of action which should govern\nthe construction and conduct of the school as especially related to good\nhealth.\n\nThe first consideration concerns the construction of the house and\nthe schoolroom.\nIt is agreed that an important, perhaps the most\nimportant, element that contributes to robust physical vigor is healthful\nair for breathing.\nThe limitations of this paper are quite too great for\none to write in detail of the methods now in vogue for providing pure air\nin theschool.\n‘Theoretically we have several; practically, so far as I have\nlearned, none that\n\nreaches\n\nthe ideal.-\n\nIt is certain\n\nthat air once used in\n\nthe lungs should be, upon expiration, at once taken away, either by\nbodily removal or by immediate change of composition; the latter is\ndifficult to accomplish.\nConsidering the two prominent systems now in\npractice for furnishing healthful breathing material to pupils in the\nschool, namely, the one depending upon gravity, and the other using the\nfan for the moving force, the position of the school building, the relative\nposition of the room, and the amount of air space at the service of the\n\npupils, all help to determine which is the better.\nA small four- or eightroom building, surrounded by large open-air space of several acres in a\ncountry with not a specially damp climate, can afford to depend upon the\nolder methods for ventilation without harmful results; but a building in\nthe midst of a densely populated community, with little open space about,\nenvironed by a dense population, with the usual adjuncts for warming,\nfor sew crage, and\n\nfor water, demands\n\nextraordinary\n\nappliances,\n\nand, so\n\nfar as I know, only air propelled by fans will serve the purpose.\nLife in\nthe open air in the country, where atmospheric vitiation is impossible,\naffords the nearest approach to healthful breathing, followed by the\nvigorous functions that accompany the introduction of pure air into the\nlungs. The fan system would be improved if machinery could be so\nmade that the possibility of stoppage or breakage was more remote.\nIf\nthe great\n\nocean\n\nsteamer, with all its intricate machinery, can be so care-\n\nfully constructed that no screw, wheel, or pinion shall be found off duty\nduring a long voyage of days, and even weeks, it must be possible for the\nengineer of our fan-ventilated houses so to construct the plant that a halt\nThe requirement that a room with forty\nin movement can never occur.\nairtight, except the income register\nnominally\nclosed,\nkept\nbe\nshall\npupils\n\n"}
{"page": 902, "printed_page": null, "text": "ce\nai\nSA\n\n892\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nthrough which is forced pure air of proper temperature, and the outgo\nregister, through which the vitiated air is taken, makes it evident that the\nminute the fan stops the room quickly becomes a death trap. Personally,\nI am inclined to the notion of avoiding mechanical force for the furnishing of pure air whenever it is possible; and it is possible when the build- |\ning is in a large open space ; this means large rooms, never smaller than\nthirty feet square, and ample hallways, equaling in the floor space 50 per\ncent. of the house, and several doors habitually open from the schoolrooms into the hall.\nThe second consideration, which may be touched upon for but a\nminute, is the\n\nnecessary habitual\n\ncleanliness of the room.\n\nThe accom-\n\nplishment of this depends upon the principal of the school, as he shall\noversee and direct the janitor’s work.\nForty pupils from forty homes,\ndaily entering the schoolroom in all weathers and in various conditions\nof dampness and of health, on retiring from school must leave behind\nthem such an amount of possible disease as in the present day seems\nterrible, so that scrupulous attention to sweeping and dusting, with\nfrequent resort to purification by water, is a necessity and follows one\nimportant principle of school hygiene.\nThe temperature of the room has much to do with the health of the\npupils. The regulation of the temperature is one of the exasperating\nduties of those in whose charge it is placed— chiefly the teacher, secondarily the janitor.\nA teacher can scarcely depend upon himself to regulate the temperature of the schoolroom.\nAn attempt to do this detracts\nfrom his attention in other directions.\nThe gradual change of temperature in a room is accomplished so imperceptibly as to require special\nnotice to be observed.\nYet custom has furnished each room with a thermometer, and in a well-regulated house the temperature can be kept\nwithin four degrees of 70, anywhere along which line danger to health\nis not imminent.\n‘This work can be delegated to a pupil, who, by making\nthe record every sixty minutes, causes the teacher to be reminded, if during his busy class work the temperature has become dangerously cold or\nharmfully warm.\nWhile evil results from cold-air draughts are, as we\nknow, dreadfully exaggerated, in cases where disease and sometimes\ndeath follow illness of the child, the disposition is to assert that the misfortune was caused by the neglect of the teacher of the schoolroom.\nIt\nis true that quite too little thought is given to the prevention of sudden\nchanges of temperature in our schoolrooms.\nMiddle-aged and elderly\npeople have no hesitation in making known their dissatisfaction upon\ndiscovering a draught of cold air. Adults realize what physical disasters\nfollow a sudden change of temperature, especially by the cooling of the\nair during sedentary employment.\nUsually in this world ignorance is as\ngreat a crime as wickedness.\nTeachers will do well to remember that\n\n+\n\nPu\nfta\n\n—\n\n|e\nSe\n\no\n2~~\n\n"}
{"page": 903, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nPRINCIPLES\n\nOF SCHOOL\n\nHYGIENE\n\n893\n\nignorance or neglect which is followed by physical disaster to another is\ncriminal, and the result sometimes as woeful as that caused by the bullet\nfrom a loaded gun.\nFollowing along close to cleanliness of the room, cleanliness of the\nindividual must not be forgotten, for it is an emphatic part of school\nhygiene.\nOne cannot look with much approval upon a recent venture in\none\n\nof\n\nour\n\ngreat\n\ncities, where,\n\nwith\n\nseveral\n\nthousand\n\nchildren\n\nbarred\n\nfrom school privileges on account of lack of schoolhouses, one building\ncan have an extensive bathing establishment, to make clean those who\nYet there is some\ncome to school unfitted for association with pupils.\nIn\nreason in the thought that leads one to give it some approbation.\nevery community are good people who can see at least one reform possible for the schools, and when these people have the requisite power, other\ninterests, frequently more important, are sacrificed for the purpose of\nreaching the objective.\nSo, I take it, if a city has money enough to build\nschoolhouses for all the children, and also to furnish a bathing establishment, it were well done.\nOne can scarcely, however, approve of the\nbathing establishment for the few, while the many are vagrants on the\n_ streets.\n\nAll\n\nwell-regulated\n\nschool\n\nestablishments\n\nprohibit\n\nthe\n\npresence\n\nof\n\npupils unprepared for association and contact in the school world.\nI\nhave read recently of a case in our metropolis, where the parent objected\nto the exclusion of his child in whose head were discovered lice, defending\n\nhimself on the ground that it was not unhealthful, quite the opposite.\nThe extract which I read did not give the court’s decision ; but I am\nconfident that more dangerous, insidious, harmful disease germs are\nabundant in the schoolroom than in the disgusting case mentioned.\nThe wet clothing of the children should be apart from the schoolroom. That recently constructed cloakroom, where the garments are hung\non either side of a steam coil, protected therefrom by wire netting, with\nvigorous fan ventilation, is to be highly commended.\nA few years ago one of our number presented to us the result of his\nmicroscopical examination of the material found beneath the finger nails\nof some twenty children.\nThe reading of the result you remember was\nhorrible, but the danger was doubtless exaggerated.\nOccasionally the opinions of the parents and of the teacher differ with\nregard to healthful appurtenances, and it is no unusual occurrence to find\na little sack of asafcetida hung about a child’s neck for the promotion of\nThis sort of conflict with the\ngood health, and prevention of contagion.\ndisagreeable pupil must be\nthe\nnamely,\nparents can have but one result,\nbe very glad if such\nwould\nfriends\nyoung\nSome of our\nmade agreeable.\nare the result of\nbreaths\nthese\nWhen\nruling could extend to foul breaths.\nthey are the\nwhen\nbut\ndisease, the expulsion from school is possible,\n\n"}
{"page": 904, "printed_page": null, "text": "e\n\n894\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n[Physical\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nresult of disagreeable, nauseous food, there is no help for the child in\nschool any more than there is help for the adult in society.\nIn this Department of Physical Education any paper would be lacking\npoint did it fail to refer to the physical training of the young people as\nThe programme which the President has so\na part of school hygiene.\nskillfully made, and\n\nwith\n\nsuch\n\neminent\n\nauthorities,\n\nseems\n\nto cover\n\nthe\n\ngreat field of physical education in a manner never before reached by any\nMy knowledge of Swedish, Delsarte, and German\nsociety in the country.\nsystems of physical training is too slight for me to utter a conclusion, or\neven an opinion. I have seen such excellent results in both the Swedish\nand German work, and personally have knowledge of extraordinary\ndevelopment attained under these two systems of training, and I have\nlooked upon such elegant, even beautiful, exhibitions of Delsarte work, that\n\nI must repeat a sentiment to which I have given expression before, namely,\nit would seem that an eclectic or American system of physical training\nfor our public schools should be the outgrowth of the present extraordinary activity along that line. It would be invidious to mention what one\nhas seen, but scarcely a hearer of this paper sits before me without\nremembering, as I speak, of gymnastic work in different cities along the\ntwo special lines which I have mentioned, occasionally supplemented by\nthe third, where the outcome\n\nis gratifying.\n\nThe present difference of opinion with regard to military training is\nwell known. I classify myself with that number who proclaim their belief\nin the helpfulness, both spiritually, intellectually, and physically, of intelligent and reasonable military training for the young fellows.\nI have seen\nthe crooked bodies straightened; I have seen feeble digestion strengthened; and I have seen lazy boys made prompt; all occurring during two\nyears’ training, of two hours a week, as members of a youthful military\norganization.\nI cannot say that this would not have been better accomplished in some other way, but I can say that I have never seen it accomplished by pure gymnastics under the rulings of either Swedish or German\nsystems.\n\nThe elementary principles of school hygiene have something to do\nwith the seating of the rooms.\nI do not care to discuss the two dozen or\nmore forms of seats now in the market, including the adaptable, adjustable desks and seats.\nI believe our enthusiastic specialists from Boston,\nand especially the enthusiastic mercantile department that has the goods\nfor sale, are unnecessarily vigorous in accrediting the evils of spinal\n\ncurvature of the girls who spend several hours daily upon the piano stool\nto the unfortunate or peculiar size or shape of school seats and desks.\nI\nam quite in harmony with the expression of Superintendent Marble, who,\na few years ago, told this association that in Worcester,\n\nMass., they had,\n\ninstead of adjustable desks, an adjustable boy who seemed to find it possi-\n\n|—\n\n"}
{"page": 905, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\nae\n\nNORMAL\na\n\nMETHOD OF PHYSICAL TRAINING\naS\nee\neS ee ge\n\n895\n\ney\n\nble, without physical harm, to adapt himself to several kinds and heights\nand shapes of seats and desks, and yet, perhaps, there wére no more\nspinal curvatures, round-shouldered men and women, crooked less etce,\nin Worcester than in any other city.\n\nBY\n\nTHE\n\nNORMAL\n\nJ. M.\n\nGREEN,\n\nMETHOD OF INTRODUCING\nTRAINING.\n\nPRINCIPAL\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nTRENTON,\n\nMy subject should really be, “‘The New Jersey Normal\nIntroducing Physical Training.”\nSince\n\nthe first announcement\n\nof my theme, I have\n\nN. J.\n\nMethod\n\nof\n\nfrom\n\nthe\n\nlearned\n\nSecretary of this department that there was an existing controversy as to\nwhich was the better plan for introducing physical training, the compulsory or the voluntary.\nAs I represent a normal school in a state where\n_the voluntary plan is pursued, I have been selected to represent that plan.\nPhysical training is designed to teach three things, namely, the laws\nof good health, a good physique, and the subjection of the body to the\nmind.\nThe laws of good health imply a knowledge of respiration, the kind\nof air that should be breathed, which implies a knowledge of ventilation,\nsanitation, etc.; also a knowledge of digestion, the kinds of food that\nshould be used, their nutritive qualities and how to secure them, rest,\n\nrecreation, etc. Furthermore, good health requires a knowledge of proper\nclothing, healthful temperature, bathing, and general exercise.\nTo secure a good physique requires a knowledge of the physiology\nand anatomy of the human being, and of such exercises as will secure a\nsymmetrical development of all of the muscles of the body, that each may\nperform efficiently its particular part in the organism.\nThe thorough subjection of the body to the mind requires a training\nin quick physical response to the mental mandates that will remove what\nis known\n\nas\n\nawkwardness,\n\nor self-consciousness, and\n\nsubstitute\n\nwhat\n\nis\n\nfamiliarly known as ease and grace in movement, such as characterize\nthe orator.\nThis brief review of the purposes of physical training is not pertinent\nIt has been given simply to emphasize the fact that the\nto my subject.\nThe\nteacher of physical training must be a skilled, scientific person.\nskilled\nthan\nother\nby\nundertaken\nis\nit\nif\nthat,\nsuch\nis\nsubject\nthis\nof\nnature\nteachers, the results may be much worse than an entire neglect of this\ndepartment.\n\n"}
{"page": 906, "printed_page": null, "text": "896\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nThe state I represent employs something over five thousand teachers.\nThis supply comes from\nOf these teachers about goo are new annually.\nschools, and the\ntraining\nand\nnormal\nthe\nthree sources—the colleges,\nexaminacounty\nas\nknown\nare\nwhat\ndistrict and high schools through\nand the\nsources,\ntwo\nfirst\nthe\nfrom\nOf the 900, about 250 come\ntions.\nremaining 650 from the latter source.\nThose entering through the county examinations are examined in\ngeography, grammar, arithmetic, reading, writing, spelling, and theory and\n\npractice, and these subjects furnish for them about all of the test they are\ncapable of bearing at the beginning.\nIn most instances their general\nknowledge of teaching, and, in fact, their general knowledge on all\npoints, is such as results from neighborhood contact.\nThis neighborhood\n\ncontact\n\ninvolves\n\ncustom, tradition, prejudice,\n\nsuperstition, and\n\nall\n\nother elements that are common to neighborhoods everywhere.\nWhat would be the result of requiring this class of persons to teach\nphysical training ? It may be said that, if they were required to teach it,\na supervisor might give them the proper instruction.\nWere this to be\nundertaken, the requirement would be that this supervisor give them a\nproper education. The writer is strongly of the opinion that any requirement of this class of teachers in the line of physical training would be\ndangerous.\nThere is no college in our state but has a gymnasium and a professor\nof gymnastics.\nThe rule is that this professor of gymnastics is well\n‘informed in physical training. It does not always follow that his instruction is such as will be of practical value to the youth of the land.\nIt is\nsometimes the case that he is much more concerned to get a good boat\ncrew or baseball or football team than to accomplish the results defined\nabove as pertaining to this department.\nGenerally, however, I. think the\ninstruction includes all the essentials of physical training.\nHence the\nstudents coming from the colleges as teachers are capable, if they have\ntaken this department.\nIn our normal school we are fully equipped in this direction.\nEach\nstudent is required to take practice in the training for his own personal\nbenefit, also to learn the necessary lessons in physiology, anatomy, etc.,\nand the orders of work proper for the class-room.\nIt is the aim of the\ninstructors to make the work pleasant, that the students may be drawn to\nit rather than repelled from it, and also to carry it to such an extent that\nthe student comes to a sense of power which, as every good teacher\nknows, is the strongest possible incentive to the continuation of work in\nthis or any other branch.\nTeachers thus trained go forth as missionaries of physical training.\nThey see its value and study so to present it as to win to it those who are\npredisposed against it, and to make more zealous those who already favor\n\nsen\nf\n\n"}
{"page": 907, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nNORMAL\n\nMETHOD\n\nOF PHYSICAL\n\nTRAINING\n\n897\n\nit. Itseems to me this plan is much wiser than it would be to trust so\ndelicate a subject to the hands of those not qualified for the trust.\nIn addition to the requirements of the graduates of our normal and .\nmost of our training schools, a knowledge of physical training is required of\nthose\n\nwho\n\nwould\n\ntake\n\nour\n\nhigher,\n\nor, rather,\n\nour\n\nstate, certificates\n\nto\n\nteach.\nWe have what are knownas county certificates and what are\nknown as state certificates.\nPhysical training is one of the subjects\nrequired for the state certificate. While the number outside of the normal\nschool who take these certificates is small relatively, still it is a good sup-\n\nplementary influence.\nIn closing, I would recommend that a knowledge of physical training\nbe required of every teacher who is of high grade, such as graduates of\nnormal schools, training schools, colleges, and those who take the higher\ncertificates ; but would not require that any local, academic school have it\ntaught as a part of its curriculum.\n\nDISCUSSION.\nMrs. FRANCES W. LEITER, Mansfield,\n\nO.— Any\n\nfaithful student of the situation can-\n\nnot fail to see that the future success of this nation must be built upon healthier, more reli_\nable physical conditions than prevail today. This concerns every boy and girl who is to\nbe a future citizen in this republic, whether reared and educated in the freedom of rural\nlife or under the restraints of city environment.\nThe time has passed for believing that\nonly the city-bred child suffers imperfect physical conditions. Under the strain of modern\ncivilization the well-being of the body can no longer be left to the incidental activities of\nlife. The body must be developed and educated with the same efficient direction and\ndirectness which are bestowed on the mind, if the best of which the child is capable results.\nThat education is seriously deficient in this line can no longer be doubted.\nThe\nproblem which faces us is this: “ How can scientific, systematic, progressive physical\neducation be secured in our public schools, in the most efficient manner possible ?”\nSome difficulties are encountered_:\n1. General educators plead an already overcrowded curriculum,\n2, Physical educators claim it is too early to bring this requirement suddenly upon\nthe school system of the country, because the supply of competent specialists is not equal\nto such a demand.\n3. People are beginning to recognize physical defects in rising generations ; but they»\nare not yet awake to the necessity for systematic training to overcome these defects, and\n\nprevent the same in future generations.\n4. The conflict between the several systems of physical education has been, and is\ntoday, a serious detriment.\n\nRegarding these difficulties we reply :\n1. While the introduction of daily physical training may displace some mental privileges now existing, the importance of this discipline, as a balance wheel, not only justifies\n- necessary modification of the curriculum, but promises greater efficiency in all mental\nwork.\n\n"}
{"page": 908, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n898\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n[Physical\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n2. The supply of instructors can speedily be made equal to the demand, when such\nMany, experienced in pedagogy, will be found ready to enter\ndemand is established.\ntraining for the new field which is now recognized as desirable by the multitudes yearly\nentering the profession of teaching from our universities and colleges, as well as normal\nschools.\n3. Agitation under organized management is doing much to open the eyes of the\npeople. Physical education is a recognized factor in one of the great reforms of the day;\nand, as such, calls to its service the influence and labor of one of the largest organizations\nIt is believed that\nOther societies are also becoming interested.\nof women in existence.\nas remedies.\nnarcotics\nto\nslavery\nless\nmean\nwill\npeople\nthe\nfor\nplane\nphysical\nhigher\na\nWhen the people are intelligently aroused, a few years will suffice to place laws upon\nthe statute books making this feature of education compulsory in all schools under public\ncontrol, thus putting it beyond the contingencies of spring elections and changing tendencies of school boards.\n\nOf the more than fifteen million children attending our public schools it is estimated\nthat less than three million are receiving physical training —a large proportion of these\nin no efficient manner.\nTheory and practice are gradually becoming a part of the required work in all normal institutions.\nannually.\n\nNormal schools, from all sources, graduate about ten thousand teachers\n\nIt is not difficult to see, at even this rate, a generation or two must pass from\n\npublic instruction before the entire half million of teachers employed in public schools\nbecome fitted for physical training as a part of their profession.\nIn cities and towns where directors will be employed the regular teacher must\nlargely have the work in charge, until a gymnasium is connected with each school build-\n\ning. So, plan as we may, for a long time to come the success of body training will hinge\nupon the ability of the one presiding in the schoolroom to conduct this work.\nThe state has never deferred education in rural districts until a sufficient number of\ngraduates from normal schools have been ready and willing to accept these positions.\nIn the present need, the yearly institutes can furnish opportunities to the county teachers.\nTen half-hour, consecutive\n\nlessons, under a competent specialist, will permit the teachers\n\nin any county to carry sufficient back to the schoolroom to turn the tide in favor of better\nphysical conditions.\nIt is possible to compass these ten half-hour lessons within the limit\nof five days, if more time cannot, at once, be provided through institutes.\nThe introduction of scientific physical training in all normal schools will necessarily\nresult when this phase of education is established by law; but this normal work must be\nre-enforced by some plan which will educate teachers already employed in the schools, if\nthis long-neglected feature of discipline receive its proper place in the school curriculum,\nwithout serious delay~\n\nSYMPOSIUM\n\nON\n\n;\n\nMISS\n\nPHYSICAL\nTRAINING\nSCHOOLS.\n\nN. D. KIMBERLIN,\n\nSUPERVISOR,\n\nIN\n\nDETROIT,\n\nTHE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nMICH.\n\nIt is my intention to present, in this brief paper, an outline of those factors which\nconstitute the basis of a physical education in the public schools of Detroit.\nThe detail course, as prepared by the supervisor, contains general directions as to sitting and standing postures, correct passing in and out of buildings, ventilation, and afew ~\nintroductory exercises to prepare pupils for the]general course.\n\na\nee\ne\n\n"}
{"page": 909, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nTRAINING IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS\n\n899\n\nThe course of work consists of a series of exercises for the first and second grades\nalike, third and fourth, and so on, covering a period of forty weeks’ work, divided into\ntwenty lessons, each lesson being a set of exercises upon which there is a daily drill for\ntwo weeks.\nThat the work shall be progressive in the course, but few gymnastics are given to the\nfirst and second grades, the plan being that those given should be supplemented by the\nteachers and the supervisor with games and plays.\nThe third and fourth grades represent the pioneer work of gymnastics in the schools.\nThe most difficult work of the teacher in these grades is to secure uniform attention,\nIf only a boy’s mind can be focused upon the idea of gymnastics during the short period\nof exercises, taken away from outward things and directed to good, vigorous movements\nand erect positions, then we are eradicating evils that otherwise face us again in the fifth\nand sixth grades, in an aggravated form.\nMy experience with pupils of the fifth and sixth grades has shown a decided contrast to those of the third and fourth grades. Here the children are approaching the age\nof adolescence, and, instead of vigor and spontaneity predominating, I find frailty and\nlassitude.\nIt is in the third and fourth grades, therefore, that I especially urge thorough\ngymnastic exercises.\nThe exercises given in the manual prepared for the fifth and sixth grades are still\n\nmore complex than those for the third and fourth, including many body exercises, combined arm and foot movements, with still greater attention to the military precision\nwhich should accompany the drills.\nThe work of the seventh and eighth grades consists of movements similar to those of\nthe fifth and sixth, with more attention to the physiology of exercise or the effects of these\ndrills on the body.\nIn the Detroit schools the work in this department is directed through the individual\nteacher.\nTeachers highly proficient in the drills are able to direct the work with only\noccasional supervision, and, as the work progresses, I find that principals become particularly interested in directing the work through suggestion from the supervisor.\nBeside these\n\nmeans\n\nof direction, frequent\n\nmeetings\n\nare held, at which\n\nI explain the\n\nwork of physiology for these special grades and develop the exercises that are to be\ntaught the ensuing month.\nComplete directions are also given for using the physiological charts with which the schools are supplied, although some teachers use the living\ntissue to illustrate the work.\nAll the work in this department has been judged by the same standard used in other\n\nbranches of school work.\nCredit has been given for work well done, and a record kept\nof the same throughout the year.\nTeachers under my supervision have aided in furthering the work by introducing\ntopics bearing up6n this subject into the language lessons, such as “The History of Physical Education,’ “The Olympian Games,” “Value of Outdoor Sports,” “Effect of\nExercise upon the Body;” and, beside these, topics from the work in physiology, as:\n“Circulation,”\n\n“Respiration,”\n\n“The Teeth,”\n\n“The Skin and Its Uses,”\n\n“ Bathing,” etc.\n\nWorking under this plan, I introduced instruction in physiology in connection with\nthe gymnastics in all the primary grades, and this has been accompanied with such grati-\n\nfying results that I have recommended text-books on this subject to be used in other\ngrades than the seventh, as has heretofore been the plan in our schools.\nOne great aim of this work\n\nis to make it educational, and of such a character as to\n\ncorrelate with the other subjects taught, and there is no theme more in harmony with this\n\nthought of physical exercise than that of physiology and hygiene.\nbody and the care of the body are really factors of the same subject.\n\nThe exercise of the\n\nI wish to call special attention to another additional and very important feature of\n\n"}
{"page": 910, "printed_page": null, "text": "weil\n~~\ngoo\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nthis department, and that is the care given to the children in the schools of Detroit who\nIt is right here that this departare suffering from physical defects or abnormal growth.\nment supplies a want long felt by the teacher, vzz., the proper treatment and proper place\nin the school for the child afflicted with mental or physical defects which unfit him to rank\nor keep pace with his more active and healthful classmates.\nMy teachers are required each term carefully to note all apparent defects in children\nI record these facts and direct the teachers as to the special exercises\nunder their care.\ndefective children may take with ease and benefit, always keeping the work within the\ncapacity of such children,\nin the case\n\nof defective\n\nWhen\n\nthe pupils require\n\nvision, defective\n\nspecial treatment by physicians, as\n\nhearing, nervousness,\n\nSaint\n\nVitus’ dance, etc.,\n\nthe principals and teachers consult with the parents or guardians, and assist them when\nnecessary to secure proper treatment for the unfortunate children. The hospitals of Detroit\nhave aided in this work, and several physicians have given their services free of charge.\nI found that 80 per cent. of the children in our public schools of Detroit were\nafflicted with some physical defect. The following are some of the defects noted during\nthe school year of 1896: Defective vision, including cross-eyes and cataract or growth\nupon the eye; defective hearing, defective speech, curvature of spine, crippled hands, feet\nor legs; impaired nervous system, St. Vitus’ dance, paralysis, and other ailments, as\nrheumatism and heart or lung trouble.\nWe have constantly endeavored to give more attention to games and plays for the\nprimary grades, and have given great encouragement to outdoor games and sports. The\nchildren in our city schools show too little spontaneity, and many of our Detroit principals are making a study of games to be introduced into the playgrounds.\n_\nI now arrive at a point where the benefits of physical training are carried beyond the\nchild and applied directly to the teacher.\nI found in my experience that there were many\nteachers whose education along this line had been sadly neglected, and to such a degree\nthat, in order to be able to teach physical training, they were forced to take private lessons\nthemselves.\nIt was this discovery that led me to introduce into the plan of the work a\ndepartment exclusively for the young women of the Detroit Normal Training School.\nThere has been no branch of the work that has brought better satisfaction or more\ngratifying results.\nThe class was required to wear the regulation suit, consisting of blouse and bloomers,\nand lessons\n\nhave\n\nbeen\n\ngiven at regular periods.\n\n‘Teachers who left the training school\n\nin February, 1896, after one year of these exercises, have shown more proficiency in drilling\nchildren than any previous class. These exercises, also, have the recommendation of\nbeing of vast benefit to the teacher in the care of her own health, thus relieving the continuous strain of school work,\nShe becomes a practical example of her own theories.\nMISS\n\nREBECCA\n\nSTONEROAD,\n\nWASHINGTON,\n\nD.\n\nCe\n\nAny method of body training which may be adopted today is a method merely for\nthe present. It is but one step in the great trend of progress.\nIf we have grown, we are\nnot doing today, in the same way, that which we did eight years ago. If we are growing,\nwe shall not be doing eight years hence, in the same way, that which we are doing today.\nAll educational methods are tentative.\nThe same is true of any method of body training. It is death to progression to take as final any present system of exercises.\nIn no\nline of investigation has there been greater progress than in the departments of physiology\nand psychology.\nIt is upon these two subjects that our whole theory of education is\nbased. We must be broad enough to accept the teachings of students and investigators\nas the best according to our present knowledge, and base our methods and our work upon\nsuch.\n\nWhat are we doing physically for the little ones who have come to us from the home\n\nae\nwl,\nce\ni\n\n"}
{"page": 911, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nIN PUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\ngol\n\nor the kindergarten?\nAre we forcing them to sit still and keep still by the hour?\nAre\nwe making them stand like little ramrods, while going through meaningless gymnastics ?\nOr are we\n\nsinging little motion songs, delightful\n\nand good\n\nas far as they go, and calling\n\nthat physical training?\nLet the gymnastics of the primary school be as rational, as systematic, as developing,\nas those of the higher grades, but let us make them as playful as lies within our power.\nIt is possible to have the exercises as free, as happy, as natural as are all the movements\nof childhood, and at the same time to follow the principles of rational gymnastics.\nAll parts of the body should be exercised, particularly the trunk and legs, which are\nlikely to be neglected in ordinary school work.\nKindergarten, and even primary schools,\nhave been greatly criticised in regard to this one point of having so much of their work\nand exercise of the fine muscles of the hand and eye, the nerve centers of which should\nbe developed later in life, while the large muscles of the trunk and legs, which should\nreceive greater attention at this early period, are neglected.\nIn gymnastics, then, properly applied, we have something which will in a measure counteract this evil.\nIt is sometimes possible to make the physical exercises complementary to the other\nwork of the schoolroom.\nFor example, if we are studying birds, a gymnastic lesson may\nbe devised in which the bird idea is carried throughout the lesson, the children playing’\nthat they are young birds in a nest learning to fly. Let them bend their heads backward\nand look up at the clouds to see if the weather is fair, before venturing forth, then bend\ntheir bodies from right to left, looking over the edge of the nest to find out how far it is\n\nto the ground.\nAfter leaving the nest, they may hop for a moment on the branch of the\n‘tree, then finally spread their wings and fly by, running with waving arms.\nReturning\nto the nest tired and warm, let them take many deep breaths, lifting up their arms as\nwings.\nHere we have the elements of a perfect gymnastic lesson ; something within the actual\nexperience of the child, therefore comprehended by him, a vivid appeal to his imagination, a bringing into action of every part of his body; and, most important of all, the child\nis free as air and happy as a bird.\nThis becomes regulated play, play directed toward educational ends.\nIt is the\nkindergarten idea carried into the primary school. To take advantage of the self-activity of childhood and adapt it to our own ends, thereby making it a means of education,\nis to secure economy of force. If we are wise, we shall direct the activities of the child\ninto those channels which lead to its physical, moral, and mental well-being.\nSomething done for a few minutes and then dropped for the rest of the day avails\nlittle. In its broadest sense physical exercise can be carried into all the activities of the\nschoolroom.\nHow delightful, while visiting a primary school, to see a class at the blackboard using large, free-arm movements as they write; or later, clustered around their\nteacher for a reading lesson, moving about without restraint, and running quietly and happily to their seats when the lesson is over! The stern, dogmatic method teacher of constrained little men and women is fast being left behind.\nIn these days let us preach the\ngospel of freedom and happiness.\nMISS\n\nJESSIE\n\nH.\n\nBANCROFT,\n\nBROOKLYN,\n\nN.\n\nY.\n\nIn the Brooklyn public schools we have had systematic physical training for four\nyears. We combat the adverse physical conditions of school life with free-hand gymnastics, taken in the schoolroom ; with active games played at the recess periods; and by\nexamination of the sight and hearing of the children, that they may be seated with refer-\n\nence to those powers and for the detection of cases needing special treatment.\nWe have\nalso measured the children in some of the old schools where the misfit of furniture is\nespecially pernicious, hoping to convince the board of education and the board of esti-\n\n"}
{"page": 912, "printed_page": null, "text": "962\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nmate of the need of more adjustable furniture; but the logic of anthropology and the\nlogic of finances seem very seldom to agree. In our new buildings, however, 25 per cent.\nof the furniture is adjustable.\n\nAs to the administration of the physical training department, the work has heretofore\nbeen carried on by one person —the director.\nNext year we shall have seven assistants —four for the elementary schools, two for\nthe girls’ high school, and one for the training school for teachers.\nThe daily lessons are conducted by the class teachers, the director laying out the\nwork for them, inspecting classes, giving normal instruction to teachers, and helping\nthem in every way to maintain and improve the standard.\nAs there are 2,500 teachers in the city, teaching 127,000 children, it has been impos-\n\nsible to have grade meetings for direct instruction to the teachers from the director.\nWe have, therefore, used the London\n\natives appointed\n\nmethod of having one, two, or three represent-\n\nfrom each school, according to its size, to meet at stated intervals for\n\ndirections for the work to be done.\nThey transmit these to the teachers in their respective schools or departments, see that instructions are there carried out, and act as referees.\nThese supervisors or referees are nearly always the assistant principals or heads of\ndepartments, but occasionally a principal or a class teacher acts as a substitute.\nThe\nwork thus reaches the children at third hand, but the results have been so satisfactory\nthat the method has been adopted in the New York city schools.\nHeretofore it has taken\n\ntwo years to make a circuit of the schools for the inspection of classes, but hereafter, with\nthe assistants mentioned, each class will be visited at least once a term by a specialist.\nOur gymnastics are free hand, taken in the aisles of the schoolrooms for fifteen\nminutes daily. We do not consider that work so limited in every way can even approximate a complete physical education, any more than a complete education can be acquired\nin any other branch under the public-school conditions.\nWe would like free floor space,\napparatus, special costumes, more time, and more teachers; but, like the vast majority of\nschools in this country, we have to bow to the financial and other limitations.\nBut even\n\nhd\neS\ne\n\nie\n\nee\nee\n\ngt\n\nso we can successfully counteract, in a majority of cases, the deleterious conditions of\nschool life. We have commenced,in a very small way, the introduction of light apparatus\ninto the few buildings where the corridors, basement, and assembly rooms afford the\nneeded space.\nWe hope in time to make the use of apparatus more general, but not in\nevery grade.\nIn our opinion, the correction of posture, which is so essential a feature of\n\nschool work, is much better accomplished by free-hand work, and we would have the freehand and apparatus work interchanged in alternate grades, We are audacious enough\nto hope for gymnasiums in the new buildings of the future.\nThe course of work is laid out for the class teacher. She works from a printed manual.\n\nTo expect her to make her own\n\narrangement\n\nof the exercises is to expect her to\n\nwork either without principle or to study those principles and to become a specialist. It\nseems to us no more reasonable to expect a class teacher to do this than to expect her to\nwrite her text-books on other subjects. The simpler the work can be made for her, the\nbetter. She has her hands full at the best.\nOf the many possible objects to be sought in gymnastic\n\ntraining, we\n\nselect three\n\nand try to pursue them equally, First, we combat the sedentary conditions by seeking\nto get a maximum of stimulation for the nutritive processes of the body\n— circulation,\nrespiration, etc.; second, we\n\nstrive to correct\n\nthe posture\n\nof the chest, shoulders, back,\n\nhead, etc.; third, we aim for the physiological training that comes through commands—\nthe training of the volitional and inhibitive powers of the will; of motor response, in\nwhich the quick, connected working of sense-perception, appreciation, muscular co-ordination, and other elements place one in close correspondence with the environment ; in\nshort, to cultivate a definitely controlled and quickly responsive body.\n\nee\nee\nee\nS\nee\n\n"}
{"page": 913, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nIN PUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n903\n\nThe work itself is eclectic.\nWe take principles of progression— mechanical and\n— from the Swedish system, but not their classification of exercise method\nphysiological\nof command and repetition from the German system; the form of the exercises themselves from any and every system, so long as the positions, work, and posture that they\ncall for come within the principles mentioned,\n‘\nHENRY\n\nSUDER,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nCULTURE,\n\nCHICAGO,\n\nILL.\n\nBefore beginning to speak about the subject given me by your committee, it will be\nnecessary to inform you how physical training was introduced and taught in former years.\nIntroduced as an experiment in four of our schools under the supervision of one\nspecial teacher in November, 1885, it was adopted for the whole grammar department at\nthe end of the school yearar886, and eight more teachers for this work were appointed.\nIn January, 1889, upon the request of principals and teachers, physical training was\nintroduced into the primary department, and in May, 1889, into the high schools. The\ngrammar grades were visited by the instructor of physical culture twice a week, each\nprimary grade twice a month, the high schools once a week.\nIn grammar and primary\nschools the duration of the lessons was\n\nten minutes;\n\nin the high schools the time varied\n\nfrom thirty minutes to one school hour.\nA remarkable change in regard to physical training took place in June, 1893. The\nboard of education found it necessary to reduce the number of special teachers, and four\ninstructors for our high schools and eight for grammar and primary schools (one for each\ndistrict) were appointed.\nIn October,\n\n1893,\n\na teachers’\n\ntraining\n\nschool\n\nwas opened.\n\nAmong\n\nother studies,\n\nphysical culture was introduced into this school.\nNearly all the cadets had practiced the\nexercises in primary, grammar, and high schools; they knew how to execute.the exercises,\nand, therefore, special attention was given to teach them how to conduct the exercises\nprepared for the different grades.\nThe manuals of physical culture used in our schools were prepared for the special\nteacher more than for the class teacher, as the former visited the schools often enough to\ndo the principal work. Since the reduction of the number of special teachers, the class\nteacher was obliged to give the daily lesson.\nI found it necessary to make the explanation of the movements more explicit. The manuals for the different grades were rewritten\nwith the above need in view and in accordance with the time set aside for physical training. The middle of the morning session is generally taken for physical work, but in\nmany schools exercises are practiced also in the afternoon,\nIn the lower grades of some\nschools teachers combine mental and physical work at any time during the school\nsession.\nThe exercises are very often accompanied with instrumental, sometimes also with\n‘The manuals for the different grades contain forty lessons, that is, one\nvocal, music.\nlesson\n\nfor one school week.\n\nBesides\n\nthose\n\nlessons\n\nthere\n\nare exercises indicated, which\n\nmay be accompanied with vocal music. The wand is used as hand apparatus in the fourth,\nfifth, and sixth grades; in the seventh and eighth grades dumb-bells and Indian clubs\nalso are used. Each lesson contains, with a few exceptions, arm, trunk, head, and leg\nThe preparaIt begins with preparatory and ends with closing exercises.\nmovements.\nThe general exercises are movements\ntory are the so-called exercises by command.\nexecuted by counting. The closing exercises are either breathing or desk exercises, and are\npracticed slowly. The exercises for the different grades are arranged as follows :\nFirst and second grades— simple exercisesin two counts.\nThird and fourth grades —simple exercises in two and four counts.\nFifth and sixth grades —compound exercises in two and simple exercises in four\ncounts,\n\ni>\n\n"}
{"page": 914, "printed_page": null, "text": "i\nNATIONAL\n\ngo4\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n[Physical\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nSeventh and eighth grades —simple and compound exercises in four counts.\nThere are different methods of teaching the exercises — to exercise\n\nby command,\n\nby\n\nExercises concounting, by command and counting combined, and in successive order.\nducted by command are movements which are only practiced when the command is given.\nThe pupil remains in a given position until the teacher indicates another movement.\nRaise upward —\nMove sideways—move!\nExample: “Raise arms forward—raise!\nraise!\nPlace hands on shoulders—place!\nBend trunk forward —bend!”\nete.\nIf two or more exercises, simple or compound, are to be executed in succession after\n\nthe same command of execution, the command that is given with the first position is genFor example: “Place hands on hips and\nerally used as command of execution.\nAt the command “place!” the hands are placed on\nstraighten arms forward— place!”\nOr: “ Raise left leg forward and bend right\nhips and immediately straightened forward.\nAt the command “raise!” raise leg forward*and at the same time bend\nknee—raise!”\nthe right knee.\nTo exercise by counting: After stating the first exercise, the teacher gives the command “Begin!” then counts one-two or one-two-three-four, and the pupils begin to\nexercise and continue until the command “Halt!” is given. Then the next exercise is\nexplained and practiced.\nExercises by command and counting combined.—While the pupils practice an exercise by counting, the teacher dictates a new movement, and with the command “One —\nbegin!” the new exercise is taken up.\nExercises in successive order.—The teacher gives a number of exercises, which are to\nbe practiced in successive order, and also the number of counts for each movement (gen-\n\nerally eight or six counts).\n\nThe pupils then\n\ncount\n\nfor themselves\n\nand exercise in the\n\norder named.\nThis method is generally used in exercising with music.\nAnother method\ngenerally used at the end of a lesson as desk or closing exercises is the following:\nThe\ninstructor, facing the class, performs some exercises, and the pupils, following his movements, practice the same simultaneously without further command.\n\nTo varythe command,\n\nthe teacher may conduct a given exercise slowly in the beginning, increase its rapidity,\nand at the end count or beat slowly again.\nAs avariation, the formation of a class may be changed; for instance:\ndivide the\nclass into two divisions; one division will execute one-fourth turn to the left, the other,\n\none-fourth turn to the right ; the two divisions face each other, then the exercises begin.\nOr: The class is divided into three divisions; the two outer divisions face each other, the\ncenter division faces forward.\n\nAs a rule, the teacher follows\n\nthe exercises indicated in a\n\nlesson, but it is left to her to select such exercises as best answer our purpose in developing the whole body. The instructor, visiting a school, requests the class teacher to conduct some of the exercises of previous lessons.\nIf these are improperly conducted, the\nmistakes are quietly pointed out to the class teacher by the instructor, under whose command the exercises in question are thereupon repeated ; he then selects some exercises of\nthe succeeding lessons, gives the necessary explanations, and conducts the exercises himself,\nMarks are given to the class for its work; the instructor, in giving the marks, takes\ninto consideration the command of the teacher and the execution of the exercises by the\n\n:\n\npupils.\n\nMISS ELLEN\n\nLE GARDE,\n\nPROVIDENCE, R. I.\n\nDr. Sargent, of Harvard University, has characterized our plan in Providence as a\ndifferentiation of movements.\nBy this he means that we have no cut-and-dried system, no\nplan which\n\npupils.\n\ncannot\n\nbe added\n\nto or subtracted from, as we find it fits or does not\n\nfit the\n\nWe have an end, an aim, the uplifting and upbuilding of the body as a whole, its\n\nphysical, its mental, and its spiritual side.\n\n-.\n\n"}
{"page": 915, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nIN PUBLIC\n\nIf you were to ask me what system I teach, I would\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nanswer frankly:\n\n905\nI do not know,\n\nunless it be German modified by Le Garde.\nWe have in our schools three teachers in the grammar and primary grades, and three\nspecial directors in the different high schools.\nIn all the grades free work is given from\nSeptember until February, the main object being to gain an advance in strength and selfcontrol.\nIn February the grammar grades are put into apparatus. work ; easy wand\nexercises in the sixth grade, more difficult ones in the seventh, dumb-bells in the eighth,\n» and short bar-bells in the ninth.\nIn the primary grades the work changes in character\nfrom that of command\n\nto that of work from memory\n\nwith rhythm and time, and exercises\n\naiming toward grace.\nThe games also begin at this period and last until warm weather.\nEach teacher gives her lessons twice a day, fifteen minutes being the time allotted, except\nin the lowest primary, where twenty minutes is taken in four periods. But, while this is\nthe general outline, it is not carried out after the Jaws of the Medes and Persians.\nWith\n25,000 children of all sorts of nationalities, and all sorts of differing physiques, there\nmay and does arise a modification, and what might be beneficial to the bodily growth of a\nschool in one section would not fit the under-fed, under-bred bodies in another.\n\nHence a\n\nplan which differentiates the exercises and fits the medicine to the disease.\nIn other\nwords, my assistants and I aim to study first the physical needs, and give such exercise as\nwill bring up to the average status and condition the pupils we oversee.\nEach teacher in the Providence public schools has been shown and directed how to\ndetect physical defects of sight and hearing.\nThese children we send to the free dispen-\n\nsaries or notify parents, who, alas, are often so neglectful of their own.\n\nEvery child in\n\nthe city is looked over each fall for common physical defects.\nSpinal curvature is our\nmain object, and, when a case is noted, the parents are asked to meet us to see if they\nwill take suggestions for remedial steps, Arrangements have been made with two trained\nspecialists for treating the children we send from the schools.\nAs I believe in removing the cause of physical defects, there has been placed in every\nschoolroom in Providence two or more rows of adjustable seats and desks.\nWhere\nrequired, more than this number are used. Each child is seated according to height and\n\nvision, and teachers are taught how to do this for all newcomers.\nMalformed and crippled\nchildren have specially constructed chairs and desks for their use. Dr. Hartwell does not\nbelieve a physical director should be a sanitary policeman, but just as long as school\nboards will not employ both, then I feel I must have an oversight over the school sanitation, that the physical exercises may be carried on under right conditions. Fortunately the\nsubcommittee of hygiene and physical training in Providence permits me to oversee ventilation, light, cleanliness of children, and their surroundings.\nIt has just passed a\nresolution for a plan of medical inspection each morning of certain grades and buildings.\nIn our city training schools, of which we have twenty-six, and with fifty-two pupilteachers in all, there is a distinct understanding that the young ladies in training must\nuse their gymnastic work as a means to an end in gaining discipline and an insight into\nthe physical needs of the children.\nIf a pupil-teacher fails in this, she is not retained.\nShe is shown how to use her voice, and how to use her own body. As “‘manner maketh\nman,” we aim also to inculcate that courtesy which indicates the highest breeding.\nAlong with the physical course goes a course in manners.\nEach child makes a\ncourtesy or bow before and after each gymnastic lesson, Each child must show that\nintelligent interest which indicates a genuine liking, and the only record the work has\nlies in the statement that no child in the city has ever asked to be excused from his lesson\nexcept for temporary illness. Iam afraid we laugh and bubble over with fun, that the\nchildren regard myself and assistants as very good play-fellows, and that you would be\nsurprised to find how simple the work is, for there is no nervous strain, and we are enjoying every second. There is plenty of fresh air and much deep breathing. There is much\n\n"}
{"page": 916, "printed_page": null, "text": "[Physical\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n906\n\nFor\n\nencouragement in voice and example to keep the head well up and the body steady.\nI should explain that we personally, for the first time, give each\n\nnew\n\nlesson.\n\nNd\n\nI believe\n\nthat physical directors make their greatest mistake with both pupils and teachers when\nOur plan in Providence, then, is first to study the\nthey only supervise and do not teach.\nIf anything is found which affects their\nchildren and the children’s environments.\nWe call to our aid the city physician, the\nphysical growth, we aim to remove this cause.\nWe reach the parents, and\nplumbing inspector, and the inspector of city property.\nBut fortunately we\nhere we find that ignorance which is our greatest stumbling-block.\nhave the indorsement of the city superintendent, the subcommittee on physical training,\nand, indeed, the community at large.\n\nI am sure you will agree with me that the plan is peculiar. That homely saying that\n“the proof of the pudding is in the eating” would be exemplified if you would come to\nProvidence and spend a day or more with us. We should enjoy it, and 1 can promise\nyou that you will have to travel many miles to find happier children and happier physical\nteachers.\nThe work is more practical than theoretical, but that we are gaining and\ngrowing better in health and physical integrity, I feel, must be my reasons for adhering\nand advocating a practical and elastic plan-of physical training in public-school work.\nMISS\n\nThe\n\nhistory\n\nof physical\n\nCLARA\n\nG, BAER,\n\neducation,\n\nNEW\n\nORLEANS,\n\nas connected\n\nLA.\n\nwith the public-school work\n\nLouisiana, may be said to have begun in 1894, when the state legislature\n\npassed\n\nin\n\nthe act\n\nnaming physical education as one of the branches to be taught in the public schools.\n\nAt\n\nthe Louisiana Chautauqua, since 1893, gymnastics have formed a prominent feature in the\nsummer courses.\nIn 1895 the state institute conductor secured the services of a specialist,\nwho every year visits the various summer normal schools throughout the state.\n\nNe\ne\nee\n\nIn the New Orleans public schools, in the fall of 1896, physical education was made\na part of the regular curriculum.\nWhen this fact became generally understood, the New\n\nre\n\nOrleans Educational Association determined, as its work for the winter, to provide an\ninstructor for the teachers in the city schools.\nIn this it was encouraged and materi-\n\nally aided by the board of directors.\nAt first the almost insurmountable obstacle seemed\nto be how to dispose of the more than six hundred teachers, so that all might receive\ninstruction about the same time. An hour, four afternoons of the week, was set apart for\nthe work.\nThe teachers, including all those from the first to the eighth grades, and the\npupils of the normal school, were divided into eight classes, averaging seventy-five in a\nclass.\nIn eight lessons or two weeks the entire number had completed the first lesson of\nthe series,\n\nThat is, each class had a lesson every two weeks.\n\nThus\n\nthe introduction\n\nof\n\nthe work was general; and, as all the grades were practically beginning physical education, the instructions applied to all and fitted their requirements.\nThe course of lessons\nwas of six months’ duration, included\n\ntheoretical, practical, and, toward\n\nthe end\n\nof the\n\ncourse, pedagogical work.\nThe practical work they put into use at once.\nThe exercises\nwere based on the Swedish system and arranged according to its progression. The\ntheoretical work was limited to the most necessary points of the system under instruction,\nand the discussion of the most important features of gynastics in general.\nThe practical\nwork was from a manual prepared by the writer and published by the board of directors\nfor the use of the teachers in the schools.\nThe order of the daily exercises included the\nfree-standing movements of the Swedish system adapted to the schoolroom.\nWhile in\nthe limited time no attempt was made to introduce gymnastic apparatus, such as dumbbells and wands, their place in progression was indicated, and their use on gymnastic\nprinciples discussed.\nMarching exercises and esthetical gymnastics, in their relation to\nthe system adopted, formed a part of the course.\nVoice culture was introduced, and\n\ninstruction given in breathing in reference to control of breath in reading and speaking.\n\n’ oe.\nae ,\nee\ne\n\n"}
{"page": 917, "printed_page": null, "text": "9\nah\nDepartment]\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nIN PUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\ngo7\n\nAs the teachers grew more familiar with the system and application of the exercises,\nopportunity was given them in class to make use of this knowledge, with the special view\nto ascertaining how clearly the subject was understood in regard to three points: the\nnomenclature of the system, the manner of applying the commands, and_the form of\nexecution of the movements.\nIn showing the latter, a child was used as a model, his\nmovements were criticised and discussed before the class. This also-brought out the idea\nof the rhythm of each movement,\nmovement,\n\nand the time\n\nnecessary\n\nto each\n\nmovement, or part of\n\nThe work done in the school has as yet no special supervision. -The superintendent\nof education and the various members of the board of directors visited the school from\ntime to time within the year, with the view of seeing the gymnastics.\nIn the majority of\ncases the result was most satisfactory.\nAs often as practicable, the teachers give the\nexercises in the open air. New Orleans is particularly blessed in having large, cool basements under many of the school buildings.\nHere the children congregate at recess, and\nhere, in many schools, the gymnastic exercises are given.\n_In the various kindergartens, of course, the children have their play games, and\n\nwe\n\nfeel sure that this is but the beginning.\nThe climate of New Orleans favors recreative\nout-of-door exercise during the school year. Indeed, there is scarcely a month when the\nchildren are house-bound.\nWith the proverbial love of motion and action that is a part\nof the temperament of the southern child, much can be expected from this branch of\neducation.\nThis vitality is always noticeable in early life, hut, as the southern child\ndevelops rapidly, demands are soon made upon the nervous system which call for a corresponding supply of muscular energy, a strong, healthy body to generate nerve force.\nParticular attention should be given to the physical exercises between the ages of seven\nand fourteen years, with such hygienic agencies as pure, wholesome food, fresh air,\nsleep, etc.\nMany illustrations might be presented from the experiences of the teachers that\nindicate what a hold the work has taken\n\non\n\nthe minds of the little ones, and\n\nhow much\n\nthey expect from it. Some of the anecdotes related are very funny, some deeply pathetic:\nand all encouraging.\nThe children are interested.\nThe people are awake to the needs\nof the time, fully realizing how important a part of education is the systematic development of the body.\nMR.\n\nThe\n\nterm\n\nphysical\n\nGEO.\n\ntraining\n\nexercising places, the narrow\n\nWITTICH,\n\nsounds\n\nST.\n\nalmost\n\nLOUIS,\n\nlike\n\nMO.\n\nmockery\n\naisles and crowded rooms;\n\nwhen\n\none\n\nlooks at our\n\nbut, in defiance of all, our good\n\nresults must be striking and apparent, for several of my colleagues from the East commended the general carriage, the robust appearance, and the discipline of our school\nchildren during the meeting of the N. A. G, W. last May.\nThese\n\ngood\n\nresults, if such\n\nare\n\nreally perceptible, are due, first, to our able district\n\ninstructors, who thoroughly understand their branch and possess the necessary cheerfulness and the necessary ingenuity always to make those simple schoolroom exercises\ninteresting; and, secondly, to the good will and work and pleasant co-operation of the\nclass teachers, principals, and superintendents,\nThe following refers only to the eighty-two district schools and not to the high\n\nschool :\nMethod of Instruction.—F¥For\n\n;\n\nphysical training our schools are at present divided\n\ninto seven equally large districts, with an instructor for each one.\nThe instructors must visit their schools once in two weeks and give a new lesson\neach time, according to a fixed plan, and the class teachers must repeat the same daily;\nthe time allowed for the daily work is ten to fifteen minutes. At the end of each quar-\n\n"}
{"page": 918, "printed_page": null, "text": "908\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nter the most essential exercises are repeated in form of an examination, the class teachers\n\nconducting them.\nThe command\n\n:\nof the teacher and\n\nthe way she handles her class, as well as the work\n\nof the children, are marked, judged, and the result given to the principal of the school.\nThe whole is controlled by a supervisor, who must visit all the schools and report\nthe condition of things to the superintendent at the end of each quarter.\nExercising Material.—The exercises are arranged by the supervisor, bound into\npamphlet form, and are in possession of every class teacher. They are taken from the\ntwo parts of the German gymnastic system called marching and free exercises, with and\nThey are mostly executed in the aisles of the rooms, few schools\nwithout the wand.\nbeing so fortunate as to have corridors or basements large enough for the work.\nSome\nschools use the yards, when the weather permits.\nThe material is graded in the following manner: Grades 1 and 2 have simple free\nexercises of two movements of all parts of the body;\n\nexercises of the trunk and legs, with\n\narm positions and compound companion exercises.\nGrades 3 and 4 have simple free\nexercises of four movements and compound free exercises of two movements of all parts\n\nof the body.\n\nGrades\n\n5 and\n\n6 have. compound\n\nfree exercises of four movements\n\nand\n\nsimple and compound wand exercises of two movements with overgrip.\nGrades 7 and 8\nhave compound wand exercises with overgrip and undergrip of four movements.\nThe marching exercises in all grades are limited to forward, sidewise, and backward\n\nmarching, mostly a given number of steps on account of the insufficiency of room;\n\nye\n\nin the\n\nhigher grades facing and arm exercises in walking are added.\n\nA daily lesson consists of: (1) preparatory exercises;\nleg, and trunk exercises, simple and\n\ning and walking);\n\ncompound;\n\n(2) neck\n\n(4) marching\n\nexercises;\n\nexercises\n\n(correct\n\n(3) arm,\nstand-\n\n(5) breathing exercises.\n\nIn the selection and arrangement of the exercises less importance is placed on nonessential and ‘unnecessary movements, such as graceful positions, than on animating, invigorating, and inspiring exercises that will cause a deeper respiration and a more rapid\ncirculation, for we consider it a sin to waste one moment of that short time set apart for\nthis branch in our course of study.\nThe aim\n\nof the work\n\nis, firstly, to counteract\n\nthe bad\n\ninfluences\n\not\nS\n+\n\n~—\n\nof long-continued\n\nsitting, and to ease and relieve the mind for a short while; secondly, to give the child\nthe correct carriage of the body; and last, but not least, to promote discipline.\nI believe that we are approaching these points slowly, but steadily, in defiance of all\nobstacles.\nThe drill of the school children during the meeting of the N. A. G. W., the grandest\nexhibition of its kind ever attempted\n\nand witnessed\n\non\n\nearth, the enthusiasm, the work,\n\nand discipline of those 9,000 children, who came on that rainy Saturday from one-half to\nseven miles, I hope have given evidence enough and will suffice as proof.\nfHygiene is given some attention and is taught by the class teachers with a so-called\nhealth primer as text-book.\nIn the coming year we will introduce popular lectures on\nthis subject, such that a child can understand; they will be held in the class-rooms at\nthe end of each quarter.\nGames are simply out of question; for the present most of the yards are so small\nthat the children haye just room enough to walk about comfortably during recess; running about during recess is forbidden in most schools.\nA number of schools are even compelled to have so-called sectional recess.\nIn this line I would like to have advice and suggestions.\nWith the actual work we are satisfied. We have succeeded in interesting most of\nthe children and teachers, and the effects are perceptible.\nWhat place physical education should hold in the general education of our youth\n\noF\nee\na\nee\na\nee\n\n"}
{"page": 919, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nTRAINING IN THE COLLEGES\n\n909\n\nwe all know.\nWe know that it is almost ridiculous to give a child ten minutes’ free\nexercises daily between desks, when its mental faculties are at work five hours, not counting the time spent at home studying.\nWe also know that small school yards and dusty\nor muddy streets or alleys are no playgrounds for our children, and that every school\nshould have a spacious yard for exercises during pleasant weather, and a room without\ndesks for unpleasant weather, both fitted out with the necessary apparatus.\nWe know\nthat the twenty minutes’ daily recess time together with the ten minutes’ daily exercising\ntime used up in the yard or room, under careful and competent instructors, would come\nnear to the right point.\nBut we are seldom asked to give an opinion on this very important question by\nthose who are in authority in this matter, and, therefore, the art is to make\nwhat one has, and I believe that we are doing it.\n\nPHYSICAL\nBY\n\nFRED\n\nE.\n\nTRAINING\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nCOLLEGES.\n\nLEONARD,\n\nM.D.,\n\nOBERLIN\n\nCOLLEGE.\n\nthe best of\n\nIt is a conspicuous fact that within the last two decades of the present century our foremost colleges and universities, with few exceptions,\nhave been providing for the physical training of their students by the\nerection of gymnasia, which, in many instances, rival the other buildings\non the campus in size and cost, and by assigning the direction of the\nwork done in them to some officer supposed to possess special qualifications for his position.\nIn such recently founded institutions as Leland\nStanford and Chicago Universities the chair of physical training has been\namong the first to be filled, and the gymnasium has followed close upon\nthe library.\nThe wisdom of this new departure in college education is apparent.\nMany a student is physically defective when he enters upon the course\nof study. The general muscular development of thirteen out of the last\none hundred men examined at Oberlin was noticeably poor; eighteen\nwere flat-chested, more than a third stood with head and shoulders droop-\n\ning forward and abdomen protruding, an equal number were flat-footed,\nand nearly as many carried one shoulder considerably lower than the\nother.\nDeficient mobility of the chest walls, irregularities in the heart’s\naction after exertion, nutritive disorders, abnormal susceptibility to colds,\nevidences of exaggerated nervous irritability and of faulty muscular control, are frequently observed.\nThe conditions of college life, too, favor physical carelessness.\n‘The\ncurrent sets strongly in the direction of mental effort. The scholar’s\nambition\n\nis aroused,\n\nhis circle of interests widens, he realizes the need\n\nUnder the urging of\nand the possibilities of -intellectual attainment.\ntoo continuously\nhimself\napply\nteachers the successful student is likely to\n\n"}
{"page": 920, "printed_page": null, "text": "ys\n\ngto\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nto his books; the poor student, or the one who is unused to study, may\nbe compelled to exert himself to the utmost in order to keep up with his\nSocial distractions make their demands upon spare moments,\nmates.\n‘The\nand outside interests multiply as the end of the course approaches.\nclaims of the body for a reasonable share of care and training are easily\noverlooked, unless there is some organized attempt to enforce them.\nIt is during these very years of student life, moreover, that the growth\nThis growing period is the impresperiod of the body comes toanend.\nThe bones are being consolidated, the chest is taking on\nsionable one.\nits final shape, respiratory and circulatory power can still be increased,\nthe nervous system is wonderfully responsive to training, and the posNever\nsibilities of attainment in muscular control are at their highest.\nagain can correct habits of carriage and action be so easily established,\nand the human machine be brought so completely under the control of\nthe will and made its ready servant.\nStudent athletics, although they form an important part of the necessary physical training, are not sufficient.\nSo far as they go they are\ninvaluable, drawing the student out of doors and away from the routine\nof school life, and affording exercise made vigorous by the stimulus of\ncompetition. They help to counteract influences that tend to over-refinement and effeminacy.\nThey demand and develop presence of mind,\nalertness, physical courage, self-control.\nBut even the size of the playgrounds which they require makes it impossible that they should reach all\nof the students in any but a small institution.\nThey attract the most\nproficient, not the most needy. They have their place in the fall and\nspring, but must be given up entirely, or only occasionally practiced,\nduring the four or five months of the year when the temptation to physical inactivity is greatest.\nThey leave untouched some of the commonest\nphysical defects.\nThey are largely lacking in careful supervision, system,\ngradation, adaptation to individual needs.\n‘They can be compared to\nthe student’s general reading, rather than to his serious study. Inaword,\nthough they yield the recreative and hygienic results of physical training, they are lacking in the corrective; they are educational, but only in\na haphazard sort of way.\nAmherst College, in 1860, was the first in America to establish upon a\nsound basis a department of physical training, placing at the head of it a\nthoroughly educated physician, a member of the college faculty, with the\ntitle of professor of hygiene and physical education.\nDr. Hooker, the\nfirst incumbent of the chair, was succeeded a year later by Dr. Edward\nHitchcock, whose period of service has been an unbroken one from that\nday to this. . Nearly a score of years passed before Harvard College (1879)\nbecame second on the list, by appointing Dr. D. A. Sargent assistant pro-\n\nfessor of physical training and director of the Hemenway Gymnasium,\n\n=\n\n|Te\n|e\n\n"}
{"page": 921, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nCOLLEGES\n\nwhich had been erected at a cost of more\n\nthan\n\n$100,000.\n\nrecent\n\nyears\n\nthe\n\nsame\n\nthoroughgoing . provision\n\nhas\n\nyal\n\nWithin\n\nbeen\n\nmore\n\nmade\n\nby\n\nBowdoin, Cornell, Oberlin, the Universities of Pennsylvania, Michigan,\nand Wisconsin, Leland Stanford University, and a number of smaller\n\ninstitutions.\nYale has two associate directors of the gymnasium, who are\nphysicians, but they are not given entire charge of the department.\nAt\nBrown and The University of Chicago the department is well organized,\nFew of the other colleges of recogbut is not under medical direction.\nnized standing are without a director of the gymnasium, but too often\nthey have been content with the erection of a showy building, instead of\nlooking to the organization of an efficient department; it has not been\nput upon an equal footing with other departments of instruction and\nexpected to do the same quality of work ; the same grade of general culture and special preparation has not been exacted from its head.\nOf the colleges for women,\n\nSmith, Vassar, Wellesley, Bryn Mawr, and\n\nMt. Holyoke all have college physicians, in most cases giving instruction\nin physiology or hygiene, or both.\nEach has in addition a director of\nthe gymnasium, but only at Bryn Mawr is she a medical graduate.\nNone\nof these directors is given the rank of professor in the faculty, but they\nare better qualified for their positions than are many of the male directors.\nThe Woman’s College of Baltimore is best organized, with a professor of\nanatomy, physiology, hygiene, and physical training, and two instructors\nin physical training.\nThe completion of the Hemenway Gymnasium at Cambridge, Mass.,\nin 1879, marked the beginning of the present era of gymnasium building\nin American colleges and universities.\nThe example of Harvard was\nfollowed during the next decade by Amherst, Cornell, Johns Hopkins,\nBowdoin,\n\nWilliams, Lehigh, Bryn\n\nMawr, Vassar,\n\nand\n\nsome\n\nothers;\n\nand\n\namong the large number added to the list since 1890 are Yale, Wesleyan,\nBrown, Rutgers, Colgate, the Universities of Michigan, Wisconsin, and\nChicago, Leland Stanford, Smith College, and the Woman’s College of\n\nBaltimore.\n\nThe cost of the better class of these buildings\n\n$10,000 to $250,000, the average being not far from\n\nranges\n\nfrom\n\n$50,000.\n\nA typical gymnasium of the period may be described somewhat as follows:\n\nIt is built of brick or stone, several\n\nstories high, with a basement.\n\nThe large main hall, containing the bulk of the apparatus, is open to the\nroof, unobstructed by posts or pillars, surrounded by a suspended gallery\nfor the running track, and crossed above by iron beams to which the swingOn the floor below, or in the basement, are\ning apparatus is attached.\nlockers in which the clothing worn during exercise is stored between\nHere, too, is a very important feature, the bathing equipment,\ntimes.\nconsisting commonly of a plunge bath, tubs, and a considerable number\nof shower and spray baths. There are also the director’s office and\n\n"}
{"page": 922, "printed_page": null, "text": "gi2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nPhysical\n\nexamining rooms, rooms for special developing appliances, or for boxing,\nwrestling, and fencing, perhaps bowling alleys in the basement, a “cage ai\nfor indoor baseball or tennis, an athletic trophy room, and others for the\nheating and lighting plants, fuel, etc. The whole building is heated by\nThe apparatus in the main hall is partly portable,\nhot water or steam.\nincluding wooden and iron dumb-bells, Indian clubs, and wands; there are\npulley weights, arranged to exercise all the principal groups of muscles,\nand adjustable to suit all grades of strength; the fixed or “heavy” apparatus comprises such forms as the horizontal bar, parallel bars, ladders,\nropes, poles, swinging rings, the horse and buck for vaulting ; provision\nis also made for a variety of simple throwing and running games.\nBefore the student enters the gymnasium he is generally called upon\nto submit to a physical examination.\nIn some schools this is required of\nevery student, whether he goes to the gymnasium or not; in others it is\noptional for all, or confined to those in actual attendance.\nIts extent\nand thoroughness vary with the training and character of the examiner,\nand the time at his disposal; but there is a genera] uniformity of method\n\nthroughout the country.\n\nThe most complete form includes: (1) A record\n\nof certain facts of family and personal history, which may explain abnormal\n\nconditions,\n\nif these\n\nare present,\n\nand\n\ndirect\n\nattention\n\nto\n\nprobable\n\ntendencies.\nAmong such facts are the nationality and longevity of\ngrandparents and parents, the environment and health of parents, the\nfather’s occupation, diseases common in the family, or thought .to be\nhereditary, personal injuries and diseases, habits regarding physical and\nmental work and recreation, sleep, life in the open air, the use of stimulants and narcotics.\n(2) A systematic inspection of the whole body,\nrecording such points as the apparent temperament, general muscular\ndevelopment and condition, position of head and shoulders, deviations\nfrom the normal curvature of the spinal column, shape and mobility of\nthe chest, the proportionate development of various groups of muscles,\nabnormalities of whatever sort. (3) A medical examination of the heart\nand lungs. (4) A series of about fifty measurements of wéight, height,\nvarious\n\nlengths, breadths,\n\nand\n\ndepths, the girths of trunk and\n\nlimbs\n\nat\n\ndifferent levels, followed by tests of lung capacity, and of the strength of\nlarge muscular\n\nmasses,\n\nfor example those\n\nof the chest, back,\n\nthighs, upper arms, and forearms,\nIn many instances, and especially where\nmedical training, the examination\n\nthe\n\ndirector\n\nfront\n\nof\n\nis without\n\nis much less complete, and covers little\n\nmore than a few facts of history and a series of measurements and tests.\nThese may be of value as a means of interesting the student in his own\ndevelopment and furnishing data for future comparison,\nbut by themselves\nthey are almost worthless as an index of physical health and proficiency,\nor as a ground for special instructions.\nThey need to be supplemented\n\n"}
{"page": 923, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nTRAINING IN THE COLLEGES\n\n913\n\nand explained by inspection, and by other means of examination and\ndiagnosis.\nBut if the work has been intelligently and thoroughly done,\nthe director has at hand a valuable fund of information to be used in\nframing advice suited to the needs of the individual, and the study of\nhundreds of such cases together may yield important deductions concerning the characteristics of the student class.\nIn this way a variety of\ngraphic charts have been prepared, upon which the measurements and\ntests of the individual can be plotted so as to show at a glance his relation\nto an\n\nimaginary\n\nstandard.\n\nIt is true, however,\n\nthat\n\nmuch\n\nof the\n\nchart-\n\nmaking hitherto done has been of trifling scientific value, based upon\nThis study of men\ninsufficient data, or the result of superficial methods.\nin masses should not lead to the neglect of the individual, who, after all,\n\nmust be compared with Azmse/f, with his own latent possibilities.\nThere is so much diversity in the methods of physical training\nemployed in colleges and universities at present that a satisfactory summary is difficult\n\nto give.\n\nAs\n\nelsewhere\n\nin this paper,\n\nwhere\n\nnames\n\nof\n\ninstitutions are used by way of illustration, no attempt is made to furnish\ncomplete lists.\n\nA few schools, like Bowdoin\n\nand Leland Stanford, allow\n\ncredit for work done in the gymnasium, just as for any course in the\nlaboratory or class-room.\nRegular attendance during the four years of\nundergraduate\n\nlife is required\n\nat Amherst,\n\nBowdoin, Brown, The UniCollege\n\nversity of Chicago, Bryn Mawr, Smith, Vassar, and the Woman’s\n\nof Baltimore.\nThe requirement extends only through the junior year at\nMt. Holyoke and the women’s department at Oberlin; through the\nsophomore year at Wesleyan and the University of Wisconsin; and is\nconfined to the freshman year at Cornell, Dartmouth, Williams, and Wellesley.\nThe work is altogether optional at Harvard, Yale, Princeton,\n\nJohns Hopkins, and the Universities of Pennsylvania and Michigan.\nThe nature of the work done can be shown with tolerable accuracy by\nthe selection of certain types. The,results sought at Amherst are hygienic\nand recreative, rather than corrective or educational.\n\nThe\n\ncollege\n\nThe characteristic\n\nclasses,\n\neach\n\nfeature is a memorized\n\nof which\nseries\n\nelects\n\nits captain.\n\nof exercises with\n\nwooden\n\nmen meet by\n\ndumb-bells, set\n\nto music and executed by the entire class under the leadership of its\ncaptain.\nThe men are required to be present and to take part, but beyond\nthis there is little attempt at discipline.\nThey have a good time, all the\nfunctions of the body are stimulated by the vigorous exercise, and the\nspirit of class rivalry, intensified by a system of prize exhibitions, insures\nThe use of the fixed apparatus is optional, and\na degree of proficiency.\nThis plan,\nnot much is made of prescription work for the individual.\nwhile it has given general satisfaction at Amherst for many years, has not\nIt owes much of its\nbeen introduced into other schools to any extent.\nsuccess to the peculiar conditions existing there, and to the personality\n\n"}
{"page": 924, "printed_page": null, "text": "914\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nof the beloved director, Dr. Hitchcock.\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nSome of the features have been\n\nadopted at Cornell, where, however, the work has to be combined with a\nsystem of military drill.\nThe number to be proThe conditions at Harvard are quite different.\nof electives abolishes\nsystem\nThe\nvided for runs up into the thousands.\nwhich would leave\nschedule\nthe\nof\nclass lines and forbids an arrangement\nto impossible\nnext\nbecomes\nIt, therefore,\ncertain hours free for exercise.\nto group the men for graded instruction, and prescribed work for the\nindividual has been adopted as offering the best solution of the problem.\nDr. Sargent’s series of widely known and used pulley weights, adapted\nto a wide range of wants and strengths, was devised to render more effiWhile such a\ncient the making and carrying-out of these prescriptions.\nplan is admirably suited to the needs of Harvard, it has been a mistake\nto introduce it so extensively into the schools where the age of the pupils\nrenders more constant supervision and direction desirable, and where\ninstruction can be given in graded classes, with the added incentive that\ncomes from working in company with others.\nThe use of the so-called\ndeveloping appliances secures results which are corrective, and in a measure hygienic, but they lack recreative and educational qualities.\nWhat has been said of Harvard will apply, in the main, to Yale, though\n\nthere the interest in athletics overshadows all else. At Bowdoin a system of applied athletics, or competitive gymnastics, is the distinguishing\nfeature.\nThe freshmen, in addition to their prescribed corrective exercises, are given a preparatory discipline in military drill and Indian club\nswinging.\nThe sophomores receive class instruction in the elements of\nboxing and wrestling, with supplementary squad work on the fixed appa-\n\nratus (horizontal bar, parallel bars, flying rings, etc.), the squads being\narranged in three groups, graded according to strength and skill. The\njuniors learn to fence with single stick and broadsword, and the seniors\nwith foil and mask. The results sought are clearly educational, as well\nas corrective and hygienic. The work at Brown, though it differs in\ndetails, can be referred to the same type, except that military drill is\nrequired in the fall and spring of the freshman and sophomore years,\nunder an officer in the United States army.\nWhere the work is required only during the early part of the course,\nor for a term or two, it is in too many instances unworthy to be called\nscientific or pedagogic.\nIt commonly consists of a combination of prescribed exercises for the individual, memorized class drills with light\napparatus, and optional use of the fixed apparatus.\nIt has, to be sure,\nsome corrective and hygienic value while it lasts, but it is likely to grow\nmonotonous, and is dropped before it has accomplished much in the\nway of genuine training.\nIt cannot be too strongly insisted that proper\ngrading of classes, careful selection and arrangement of teaching mate-\n\n"}
{"page": 925, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nCOLLEGES\n\ngts\n\nrial, progression in each lesson and throughout the series of lessons, and\nskillful adaptation of methods to meet local conditions; are of fundamental importance in physical training, as they are in other phases of\neducational effort.\nSome surprise may be excited by the statement that at the present\ntime the most painstaking and satisfactory work is being done in the colleges for women, but it is probably true.\nThe college officers are, as a\ntule, more alive to the importance of the department; the teachers are,\nwith few, if any, exceptions, graduates of normal schools of gymnastics\nrequiring two years of study; the disturbing element of athletics does\nnot enter so largely into competition with efforts at systematic physical\nAt the Woman’s College of Baltimore the system employed is\ntraining.\npurely Swedish, and the instruction is given by two graduates of the\nThe same system is\nRoyal Normal School of Gymnastics in Stockholm.\nBryn Mawr and\nemployed, though less inflexibly, at Smith College.\nVassar have a combination of individual work and class instruction with\nlight apparatus, making most of the former.\nThe work at Mt. Holyoke\nAt Wellesley athletics receive a\nis somewhat the same, but more varied.\nrelatively larger share of attention.\nIt will not be out of place to refer, in conclusion, to a source of\ninstruction and suggestion almost unknown to the great majority of the\ndirectors of American college gymnasia.\nWe, in this country, have been\ngreatly benefited by the study of Swedish gymnastics; but anyone who\ncomprehends the wealth of the German literature of gymnastics, and the\n‘extent and variety of the experience of which it is the outcome, must regret\nthe fact that it has been so generally overlooked.\nIt offers an inexhaustible storehouse of material, which will be found especially helpful in planning work for the advanced classes in our institutions for higher education.\n\n"}
{"page": 926, "printed_page": null, "text": "SCIENCE\n\nDEPARTMENT OF NATURAL\nINSTRUCTION.\nSECRETARY'S:\nFIRST\n\nThe meeting\n\nwas\n\nMINUTES.\n\nSESSION.—TuEsDAY,\n\ncalled to order at 3 P.M.\n\nJULY\n\n7, 1897.\n\nin the Summerfield Church\n\nby Pro-\n\nfessor C. S. Palmer, President.\n\nPresident Palmer delivered the presidential address on the subject, ““ The Preparatory Natural-Science Curriculum.”\nThe following Committee on Nominations was appointed :\nW. B. Graves, Andover, Mass.\nE. Waite Elder, Boulder, Colo.\nIrwen Leviston, Omaha, Neb.\n\nProfessor Albert P. Brigham, Colgate University, read a paper on “ Physical Geography in Secondary Schools.”\nProfessor R. H. Cornish, Morgan Park Academy, presented a paper on “ Laboratory\nwork in Elementary Physiography.”\nIn the absence of Professor Charles E. Bessey, the subject of “The Microscope in\nthe Public Schools” was presented by W. H. Skinner, Superintendent of Schools,\n\nNebraska City, Neb.\n\ni\n\nProfessor Edwin H. Hall, of Harvard University, read a paper on “ Physics as a\nRequirement for Admission to College.”\nThe discussion was opened by Professor Fernando Sanford, Stanford University, fol-\n\nlowed by Professor E. Waite Elder, Boulder, Colo.\nSECOND\n\nA general discussion followed.\n\nSESSION.— FriIpay, JULY\n\nIo.\n\nAfter a pleasing vocal solo and an organ voluntary, the department adjourned from\nthe Summerfield Church to cooler quarters in the courthouse.\nProfessor Alexander Smith, of The University of Chicago, read a paper upon “ The\nValue of Chemistry as Part of a School or College Course.”\nDiscussion was opened by W. A. Noyes, of the Rose Polytechnic Institute, Terre\nHaute, Ind.\nProfessor Charles R. Barnes, University of Wisconsin, spoke on the subject, “ What\n\nCan the High School Do With Botany?”\nDiscussion was led by Miss A. Isabel Mulford, Botanical Gardens, St. Louis.\n\nProfessor Henry B. Ward, University of Nebraska, read a paper on the subject,\n“ Zoology in the High-School Curriculum.”\nThis was discussed by E. R. Boyer, Englewood High School, and others.\n\nCharles Newell Cobb, Albany, N. Y., offered the following resolution :\nResolved, That the sincere thanks of the Department of Natural Science Instruction are due and hereby\ntendered to the trustees of the Summerfield Methodist Episcopal Church, and to the county authorities,\nfor\nplaces of meeting; to the citizens of Milwaukee and to the local committee for pleasing music, and\nfor providing so carefully for the success of the sessions, and the comfort of those attending.\n\n916\n\n"}
{"page": 927, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPREPARATORY\n\nNATURAL-SCIENCE\n\nCURRICULUM\n\ngt7\n\nThe Nominating Committee then presented the following names for officers for the\nensuing year :\nFor President, P, C. Freer, University of Michigan,\nFor Vice-Prestdent, Charles Newell Cobb, Albany, N. Y.\n\nBor Secretary, Chailes J, Ling, Denver, Colo.\n\nThe report of the committee was adopted, and the officers declared duly elected.\nA vote of thanks was tendered to Professor Palmer for his work_as President and his\nefforts in organizing the Committee of Sixty.\nThe department then adjourned.\nIRWEN LEVISTON,\nSecretary.\n\nPALE\n\nSopaANDsDISCUSSIONS,\n\nPRESIDENTIAL\nTHE\n\nADDRESS.\n\nPREPARATORY\n\nNATURAL-SCIENCE\n\nBY CHARLES\n\nPALMER,\n\nSKEELE\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nCURRICULUM.\n\nOF COLORADO,\n\nAs we approach the consideration of our problem, let us keep our\nvision high and clear by a momentary glance at Plato’s statement of the\nideals, in the trinity of the true, the beautiful, and the good.\nBut perhaps our practical occidental philosophy would add: Yes, the true, the\nbeautiful, and the good in thought and in action, and in the memory of\nthe past, in the realization of the present, and in the anticipation of the\nfuture.\nNow, just how and where and when does our preparatory naturalscience curriculum articulate with these great elements of discipline, culture, and character?\n\nTo illustrate\n\nthe reply, we\n\nwill\n\nrefer\n\nin detail\n\nto\n\nthe arguments fro and con. urged regarding a typical preparatory curriculum.\nIn the discussion I shall describe what I believe to be one of the best\npreparatory science courses ever carried on, and shall give the arguments\ntherefor because it is the course I understand best, the course essentially\n\nto which I have given ten years of support, and with a fairly successful\nexperience ; and, further, it is approximately parallel with the standards\nof many of the best high and preparatory schools in the country. It may\nbe outlined as follows:\nFirst year— physical geography.\nSecond year— physics.\nThird year— chemistry.\nFourth year — biology.\nThe arguments advanced for this scheme are as follows:\n\n"}
{"page": 928, "printed_page": null, "text": "918\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCA TIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nPhysics, chemistry, and biology are the fundamental natural\nFirstly:\nsciences, without which no sure progress can be made in any other complex sciences, as astronomy, geography, meteorology, etc.\nThe order, physics, chemistry, and biology, represents\nSecondly:\nthe logical order and dependence, thus: physics, matter and energy;\nchemistry, the kinds of matter ; biology, living matter.\n\nThirdly:\nThe students coming from the grades to the high school\nhave usually but little acquaintance with general natural science; further,\nthey are not quite prepared for technical laboratory work.\nNow, though\nphysical geography or physiography (of the present day) is not a fundamental natural science, yet it may serve well to give an outline of the\nsciences, and (especially if coupled with manual training) may serve to\nprepare the student for the more sharply disciplinary sciences of physics,\nchemistry, and biology.\nFourthly:\nThe student will become one year more mature in the\ncourse of the incidental sacrifice of one science for the higher ones.\nFifthly:\nThe arrangement, physics, chemistry, and biology, is supposed to give the student a general glimpse of ail the fundamental\nsciences before he comes to college.\nIt does not work a hardship in\ncompelling.a premature specialization.\n\nThe arguments against such an order as this are somewhat as follows :\nFirstly:\nPhysics, the most fundamental natural science, considered\n\n§w\nTey\n\nfor its own interests, cannot be well handled without a considerable knowl-\n\nedge of mathematics; and it should be noted as significant that nearly\nevery special report on this point advises that physics be postponed to the\nlast year or years of the high-school course. But this breaks up the logical\ncontinuity of the three fundamental sciences\n— physics, chemistry, and\nbiology; and it also subjects all the others. to the interests of one, v7z.,\nphysics and, incidentally, mathematics.\nSecondly:\nIt is urged against the strict logical order just recited\nthat the word “logical” begs the question as a practical matter.\nThe\nbest theoretical order may be one thing, but the best practical order may\nbe an entirely different matter, for the actual dependence of one natural\nscience on another may be overrated. . (For one I may state my unhesitating opinion that chemistry is practically dependent on an elementary\nknowledge of physics, but mathematical physics is not requisite for good\nelementary chemistry.)\nThirdly:\nIt is justly urged against the “logical” arrangement of\n\nON\n—\n\n—\ne\n\nthree or four natural sciences, whatever may be the order, that, as each\n\nstudy is taken up for only a year and then dropped, a consecutive interest in all the studies cannot be developed, and if a special interest.should be\nawakened in any or each particular study, it is interrupted as that study\nis dropped and another begun.\nThe more advanced student may clearly\n\nO\n_\nE\n\n"}
{"page": 929, "printed_page": null, "text": "y\n\nDepartment]\n\nPREPARATORY\n\nNATURAL-SCIENCE\n\nCURRICULUM\n\n919\n\nsee the logical connection and dependence of the different lines of science.\nA questioning of the individual student will show that, as a rule, he does\n\nnot feel the logical connection ; but that he does feel the wrench of the\ninterruption.\nIs this only one of the evils incident to checking the tendency to\npremature specialization, or is it a bad educational policy to awaken an\ninterest only to kill or, at least, interrupt it? To break in upon a genuine\ninterest in any study may be a most foolish and dangerous error in our\nto develop students.\nmain purpose—\nFourthly:\nIt is urged against an arrangement with physical geography as a sort of “a sacrifice hit” in the first year that this study is not\nonly an informing,\n\nbut also a disciplinary,\n\nstudy;\n\nthat, as such, it may\n\nwell compete with physics or chemistry or biology, and should have equal\nright in the allotment of the four-years’ preparatory course.\nNow, whether physical geography can compete with physics, or chemistry, or biology in the sharp discipline of laboratory practice I am not\nprepared to say; but the historical shaping of the curriculum suggests\nthat only well-systematized specialties should compete with the narrower,\nbut more highly disciplinary laboratory sciences.\nIt must be remembered in any event that a natural-history knowledge of earth, and water,\nand air, as general information only, is initself an element of culture of\nfundamental importance.\nFifthly : It is urged against the scheme of three or four sciences, with\none year only for each, that, even supposing the student should see the\nlogical connection between the three or four one-year’s work, even then\nthe quantity of each subject covered in a year is too small. That is,\nwould it not\n\nbe safe, and\n\neconomical\n\nof time, energy, and\n\ninterest, and\n\nproductive of good discipline and a fair knowledge, to require two or\nthree years’ work on one science ?\nNow, waiving for a moment the theoretical objections against such a\nradical proposal as this, the practical arguments against it are, firstly, that\nit would throw too large a burden of expense upon the high and preparatory schools in the way of fitting up laboratories for advanced work commonly considered as collegiate in grade ; but this argument can be overcome, at least in special cases, by getting the funds necessary for the desired\nequipment.\nA second objection to a scheme for two or three preparatory\nyears’ work on one science is the supposed inability of most high-school\nteachers to handle well more than one year of any single science ; but\nhere we would all advocate the employment, in the high school, of teachers\n\nqualified by special training ; and this is being done in many cases. A\nthird objection would be found in the lack of co-ordination, if some\nschools should\n\noffer three or four sciences\n\nof one year each, while other\n\nschools are requiring several years in a single science.\n\n"}
{"page": 930, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n920\n\nNow, this third\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nreal.\n\nI may say, by\n\ndifficulty is more apparent\n\nthan\n\nway of confidence, that the just estimation and comparison of many varying courses by one standard is one of the problems for the Committee of\nFive, organized at our suggestion and now in session with us.\nBut to consider the theoretical advantages or disadvantages of the\nproposal to devote several years to one science, let us revert for a moment\nWe all\nto the broad sense of culture suggested by Plato’s trifolium.\nknow that the prosecution of a natural science illustrates all of these elements:\n\nthe true, as in scientific\n\nfact and\n\nscientific\n\nmethod ; the beauti-\n\nful, as in the taste and judgment employed; and the good, both in the\nimplied loyalty to objective truth, and in the unselfish courtesy and confidencé displayed toward other lines of work.\nOr again —to take a concrete, inanimate illustration ——iron is iron.\nIn\nsents hard, working fact-—the true.\n\nIn the crowbar, iron reprethe suspension, or truss, or\n\ncantilever bridge, iron represents both working fact— the true, and also\nmost exquisite taste in construction — the really beautiful.\nIn the compass, as the iron needle swings in line with the unseen magnetic meridian,\n\nit represents truth in working fact, beauty in construction, and the good\nin loyalty to ideals.\nBut, after all, this imagery is forced and fanciful,\nand please notice that the very unnaturalness of the figure is a suggestion\nof the next point 1 would\n\nmake, vzz. this, that we\n\nare able to make\n\nour\n\nscience responsible for too much that is foreign to it, and for not enough\nin its own sphere.\nWe always listen with appreciation and delight to addresses showing\nthe relation of science and culture.\nBut, granting all that may be urged\nby broad-minded students in their enthusiastic defense of natural science,\nis not the appearance of these somewhat apologetic papers a virtual\nadmission that culture\n\nhas many elements, and, further, that natural sci-\n\nence should not and cannot be expected to carry the whole burden of\nproducing a well-rounded culture ? Are there not other studies, foreign\nto the natural sciences of the present day, but not necessarily foreign to\nthe natural-science student in his yearnings for truer truth, for more\nbeautiful beauty, for nobler good ? And should not these other studies\ncarry their share of the responsibility ? Will it not be a wiser and more\neconomical policy to leave to the humanities language and literature, the\nmain responsibility for the humanistic element in culture, leaving to the\nnatural sciences their inherent function of training in hard fact, clever\nexperiment, and logical method of theory ?\nNow, in teaching a natural science, do we not all strive to acquaint\nthe student with these three elements, v7s. -\n\nFirstly, the actual behavior of things in the laboratory.\nSecondly, the large mass of inherited and acquired information\nbooks.\n\nof\n\n"}
{"page": 931, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPREPARATORY\n\nNATURAL-SCIENCE\n\nCURRICULUM\n\ng21\n\nThirdly, the correct use and application of the inductive and deduct-\n\nive methods ?\nCan anything\n\nless be justly rated as an adequate training or disci-\n\npline in the elements of a natural science ? And can this be done in any\nOr, indeed, can it be done in less than two or\nscience in one year?\nthree years, even\n\nin an introductory way ?\n\nAnd, further, if it shall have been well done in any one of the fundamental sciences, what pressing need or advantage in requiring the student\n\nto attempt a similar course in three or four similar sciences?\nIndeed,\nhas the student time for all that in a preparatory course ?\nAll this means, in explicit English, that the preparatory student\nshould have at least two or three years’ training in some one science, as\neither physics, or chemistry, or botany, or zodlogy, or even physical geography, if desirable and practicable.\nBut here— interposes our critic— not so fast. Such a course would\nlead to a premature specialization and would narrow the general view of\nthe student.\n\nNot at all, we answer, if there be required\n\na regular\n\nclass-\n\nroom exercise in reading, discussion, and essay writing in all of the other\nsciences, so\n\nthat, in general\n\ninformation, the\n\nparticular\n\nscience\n\nstudied\n\nshall be fully supplemented.\nAnd if the student knows one science fairly\nwell, can he not almost instinctively apply the scientific method to the\nother supplementary sciences, at least as far as necessary, by reason of his\nintensive work in one?\nBut again our critic may interpose: Natural science includes both the\ninorganic\n\nand\n\nthe\n\norganic,\n\nand, for\n\na broad\n\ntraining,\n\nshould\n\nnot\n\nthe\n\nstudent study types of both?\nBut, notice, the words “inorganic” and\n“organic” still popularly carry the notion of an obsolete fetich, and\nan ever-growing progress shows that, in so far as nature\n\ncan\n\nbe studied\n\nat present, it consists in the application of the same mechanical principle\nto the same matter in what are familiarily styled inorganic and organic\nforms.\nFor,if I understand the status at present, a vital or transcendental\ncondition of living matter does not mean that a vital or transcendental\nforce is the main subject of discussion in biology; but, rather, that the\nstudent considers only in different forms, and on the implied and incidental basis of a “vital state” (including physiology in its fullest sense),\nthe same transformations of energy and the same varieties of matter in\nRegarding this “organic” or\nthe organic as in the inorganic world.\n“vital state,” or “force,” or “energy,” or “substance,” let the future\nbring what it will, we are not skeptics, but for the present we may say, in\nthe words of the Psalmist: “It is high, I cannot attain unto it.”\nPractically, then, for the scientific student\n\nnatural\n\nscience;\n\nthere is only one\n\nkind\n\nof\n\nthe terms “inorganic” and “organic” imply superficial\n\nor artificial distinctions, for the scientific method is one.\n\n"}
{"page": 932, "printed_page": null, "text": "at\nS)\n\n922\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nBut there is another very strong practical argument for the advisability of a course of two or three years in some one natural science, with\nsupplementary reading in the others. It is this: We frequently find in\n—\nthe good country high schools—and they are very numerousone\nteacher carrying all the natural sciences, and he or she is usually a specialNow, isit better for this enthusiastic\nist in a small way and an enthusiast.\nspecialist to dilute his enthusiasm and to spend it over three or four subjects; or to urge him to make himself strong in the only way possible,\nstrong in some one line, say physics, or chemistry, or biology, and to spend\nthree of the four years’ course on this specialty ? Then, in the latter\nevent, could we not look to the preparatory student for some accuracy in\nknowledge, expertness with apparatus, clearness in thinking, breadth of\nview, and strength of enthusiasm, and all as the inevitable result of study-\n\ning some one thing thoroughly ?\nNow, this may seem almost too radical, but allow me to suggest a\nscene for you to construct in imagination.\nLet us suppose that the historical course of education\n\nhad\n\nbeen\n\nreversed, and that natural science,\n\nwell taught for centuries, were holding dominant sway in all the schools\nof learning to the exclusion of all philology.\nSuppose that suddenly a\nnew wave of language study should advance in rivalry with the old scientific culture.\nIn such hypothetical circumstances, what would the conservative natural-science people think of the dignity and thoroughness of a\nnatural-language course of four years, with, say, one year in English, one\nyear in Latin, one year in French, and one year in German ? Now, such\na language course could claim all the arguments advanced for our present\ncourse of four sciences of one year each.\nBut would our supposed\nscience\n\ncensors\n\nlisten for a moment\n\noh\n\nto such a feeble, incoherent, undig-\n\nnified proposition?\nThey would refer it back indefinitely, until the language people should present a course representing some simplicity,\nstrength, and thoroughness.\nNow, let us glance back from that picture, and try to look at ourselves.\nElated at the freedom from the old-time “fourteen weeks in\nphysics,” or “fourteen weeks in chemistry,” and the like, we have actually\nboasted that our standard was provisionally satisfied by not less than one\nyear each in three or four sciences.\nBut Rome was not built in a day, neither will our ideals be soon\naccomplished.\nNow we can see the oncoming of a new standard with a\nbetter motto, vzz., three years at least in any one of. the fundamental\nsciences, and supplementary reading in all.\nDoes this seem a too absurdly new and radical departure?\nIn all this\nI have tried not to argue for any bias or prejudice.\nI must confess that\nI have been carried far beyond my customary position, but it has been\nalmost against my will and by the hard logic upon which I have only\n\nee\ne\n\n"}
{"page": 933, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nGEOGRAPHY\n\nIN SECONDARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n923\n\ntouched.\nThere are a multitude of new questions which are inseparably\nconnected with the new standard.\nI must not hope even to mention\nthese at this time, but I do\n\nfeel in such\n\nmoments,\n\nmore\n\nthan\n\never, this\n\nverity, that the best and most advanced of us are but as the inexperienced\nnovice, or as the pioneer in a dense forest.\n\nWe are bound\n\nto make some\n\nmistakes, but the main highway is in sight, and let us profit quickly by\nour mistakes.\nThis, then, is the status:\n\nan alternative between three or four sciences\n\nof one year each, and three years in one science, supplemented by\ncollateral reading.\nThe former has the ground ; it seems easy of accomplishment by the\nhigh school; it gives a fair all-around outline of the fundamental sciences ;\nit gives some little discipline; it postpones specialization until the college\ncourse.\nThe latter is new;\n\nit seems at first hard to accomplish, but\n\nits high\n\nstandard will call better teachers of science into the high schools; it may\nalso give a fair general knowledge of the sciences; it will certainly\ninvolve a degree and quality of discipline not to be surpassed by any\nother work in the limits of natural science; it involves no more speciali-.\nzation than the good, dignified old classical preparatory course; it may\nbe combined with the other essentials of discipline and culture, so as to\nmake a strong course, and incidentally it will strengthen the student in\nall his other reading by reason of the power to do intensive work; and,\nspeaking for natural science, it will remove from that the charge of superficiality and dilettanteism now justly urged against our one-year courses.\nIt goes without saying that many details will have to be worked out, to\nsift out the important and to work out ascheme of laboratory experiment,\n-book-fact, and logical method suited to the minds of the secondary\nschools.\nBut, granting all that may be said in its favor as compared with\nthe older course, it will be well to make haste slowly and to study its\ndetails for a clear statement, before taking any rash or revolutionary steps.\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nBY\n\nALBERT\n\nPERRY\n\nGEOGRAPHY\n\nBRIGHAM,\n\nIN SECONDARY\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nOF GEOLOGY,\n\nSCHOOLS.\n\nCOLGATE\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nThe plea of this paper is that physical geography, including the history of land forms, should have an established place in secondary education. This cannot mean less than one year of sustained work, so pitched\nas to demand the best powers of the student.\n\n"}
{"page": 934, "printed_page": null, "text": "»\n\n924\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nI propose to urge my thesis chiefly upon its claims for culture, and\nunder two heads—information and discipline.\nHere is a great body of facts about the world in which we have our\nThese facts do not merely supply essential knowledge for our\nhome.\ndaily conduct; they enlarge the mental horizon, add to our dignity and\nsense of responsibility as citizens and rulers of the world, and, in a large\nway, help us discern and handle the problems of: life and society.\nNo\nman is prepared to think truly who does not, in some measure, appreciate\nWe deal with facts, but\nthe world and its organisms as evolutionary.\nWe\nwith facts genetically related, and hence not nakedly informational.\nstudy concrete things, to be sure, but in the light of their history and as\nFor this point of view the secondary school\nhaving their goal in man.\nhas no resource but geography.\nIf we seek illustrations, they are legion :\nthe origin and development of our planet, in its larger features; the\nmaking and meaning of natural\n\nscenery;\n\nsoils, economic\n\nminerals, and\n\nearth resources.\nWhat right has the school to leave any mature pupil\nignorant of the nature of coal and of the geographic conditions of its\norigin? Can anyone weigh the saving to this country, if the farmer and\nthe legislator understood the prolonged genesis and the supreme value of\nsoils?\nHow many know that a building stone ought to have in a wall\nthe attitude which nature gave itin the quarry ? The complex functions of\na river, the structures that border it, the fascinating chapters of its history, are material of rational geography, falling daily under the eye of\nLead a boy to\nman and, if understood, enriching all his thought.\ninquire why Chautauqua’s waters seek the long way to the gulf, instead\nof spilling over into the adjacent Erie; then show him how the Alleghany,\nand, perhaps, the Monongahela, once drained northward, and you have\nwidely extended his mental view.\nFinally, initiate him into the principle\nof the base level; show him that all land surfaces tend toward that goal;\n\ndisplay before him the forms that intervene, and the vicissitudes that\ninterrupt the process, and you have given him arange of information that\nruns all the way from the severely practical and utilitarian to the distant\nand the ideal.\nBut geography is adiscipline.\nIn a rarely complete and symmetrical\nway the mental powers are brought into exercise.\nThe old geography\ntaxed the memory.\nThe new geography trains the memory.\nIn its service to the observational capacity and habit, geography is\nnot behind any other science.\nHere the deficiency, even among educated\npeople, is startling.\nAnd it is especially when out of doors that they see\nand do not perceive. The average man has no sense of topography. He\ncannot tell time by the sun, is in peril if left alone\n\nin the woods, could\n\nnot describe the clouds which he saw while the storm was coming up, or\ngive a true and vivid account of a ride in the country.\nSchooled to the\n\nbe\na\n_\n\n"}
{"page": 935, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nGEOGRAPHY\n\nIN SECONDARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n925\n\nlast degree in other disciplines, he has been blinded to Mother Nature\nand is an orphan in the midst of his home.\nIt is in the training of the\nobservation that representative geography, and all forms of laboratory\nexercise in geography, have their largest value.\nIt is, however,\n\nin the exercise of the\n\nbest service as a discipline.\neffect, to compare,\n\nTo run\n\nreason\n\nfrom\n\nthat\n\ngeography\n\noffers its\n\neffect to causé, from\n\ncause to\n\nto judge, to classify, is the unceasing\n\nprerogative\n\nof\n\nIt is of less worth to know the area and tonnage of the great\ngeography.\nThe materials for such\nlakes than to know something of their history.\nSuccessive stages in\ninstruction are now available to the alert teacher.\ntheir history are inferred from a series of elevated shore lines. The\npassage of a beach into a moraine in western New York argues water in\none part of their basin and ice in another.\nVarying levels of the same\nVarious\nshore line prove subsequent tilting of great areas of country.\nconsiderations argue for and against the presence of marine waters in the\nTo bring this single theme to the underearlier stages of the history.\nstanding of a high-school\n\nclass would\n\nbe to it a ‘revelation, for it does\n\nnot occur to one man ina hundred that these bodies of water are the\nresult of physical history, much less that the chapters of the history can\nbe reasoned out and made to live again.\n“‘Man is what he eats.””\nLet us make it broader than that: Man is\nwhere he lives. To trace out such connections is the business of geography.\nWe shall sometimes\n\nblunder, but we shall find a sure substance of truth.\n\nRossiter Johnson says that secession was an attempt to make two sovereignties where there was no natural barrier.\nLet the teacher get hold of\nthat truth.\nLet him seek for comparative facts. ‘The kingdom of\nPoland passed out of existence because it had no natural boundaries.”\nContrast Greece, Spain, Switzerland, Scandinavia, Great Britain.\n\nFollow\n\nup the relation between mountains and history, or shore lines and history,\nand see how fruitful it becomes for the reason and for the whole intelligence.\nTrace the isothermal of 48° at Cape Ann, across New England,\nsouthward into Georgia, straight north into Ontario, west by Detroit and\nChicago and the Black Hills, south into New,Mexico, far north again,\nsouth\n\naround\n\nthe Pacific\n\nmountains, north\n\nand\n\ninto\n\nthe western\n\nocean\n\nHow profound the bearing of this elaborate curve upon\nat Puget Sound.\nthe economics and history of the United States, and how rich the field\nfor rational teaching !\nSome one has said, in substance, that whatever increases our interest in\n\nthat which is remote in time or space enlarges our culture and promotes\nWe emphasize, indeed, home geography,\nour dignity as thinking beings.\nnot chiefly because it affords convenient knowledge, such as how to drive\nto the next town, but because it unfolds principles, yields types, and helps\n\nus conceive\n\nthe larger and the unseen.\n\nTo come to the point, no other\n\n"}
{"page": 936, "printed_page": null, "text": "e\n\n926\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nschool subject so exercises the constructive imagination as does the new\nThe pictures of other continents and of other times must\ngeography.\nThis\nbe sketched and colored by rallying the student’s highest powers.\nspeaking.\nnow\nnut\nare\nwe\nthis\nof\nbut\nmeans a high order of teaching,\nGive appreciation of the subject, and this will raise the order of instruction to its proper level.\nThe earth is not\nWe emphasize here the historical and time sense.\nThere are no ‘‘dead” geographic forms.\ndead.\nThere is not even\nstagnation.\nThe earth never hibernates.\nWhen Mark Twain was a cub\npilot on the Mississippi, it distressed him that he must learn twelve hundred miles of river. Then he must learn it both ways, must know it at noon,\nand know it in midnight darkness.\nThen, when he learned it, he said :\n\n“Won’t it go fooling around?”\nAh, precisely that. The earth is all\ndynamic, vital, evolutionary.\nIt has been so for eons.\nGeography is not\ntaught till this conception is gained.\nHere, in the secondary schools, is\nyour only opportunity to give this vastly important sense of duration, of\nYou cannot tax\nevents transpiring upon a background of infinite time.\nchildren in the grades with it. They cannot receive it. You cannot\ndepend on courses in historical geology, or on the college, for most will\nhave experience of neither.\nRational geography will give this rich\nenlargement to the intellectual life, and go far to wean it from the narrow,\nthe conventional, and the untrue.\nHere is your opportunity to gather\nup the ripest fruit of the most pervasive doctrine of our time, evolution.\nThe estheticand moral value of an introduction to genuine geography\nenforces its claim in no meager fashion.\nThese considerations emerge\nnaturally in this field. The world is a constant and high revelation to\nhim who holds its secret.\nNature, as affording refinement and repose for\nall, must be interpreted\n\nto the scholar, else his education\n\nis partial and\n\nwithout symmetry.\nThis is the one science whose materials of observation are at hand throughout life, though balance and measuring rod and\nmicroscope and books be absent.\nIn this field, therefore, knowledge may,\nafter preliminary training, grow almost without effort.\nIt isa tree which\nmust grow tall and send out spreading branches, when once the seed has\ngerminated.\nWith singular unanimity eminent men and women have\nsummed up the influence of Niagara as a sense of peace for the spirit.\nSome one, perhaps Emerson, touched this moral quality of things when\nhe said: “Nature is loved by that which is best in us.” The Geologist\nRamsay, taking his nooning in the presence of a far view on one of the\nWelsh mountains, wrote: “As I looked I felt my heart soften, and I arose\na better man again.”\n\nRussell, daring, and all but conquering, the highest\n\npoint of Mt. St. Elias, said: “The fortunate traveler who stands on\nthese commanding points in brilliant weather will have a charm added\nto his life of which no changes of fortune can deprive him.”\nAnd Whit-\n\na\n\n"}
{"page": 937, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nGEOGRAPHY\n\nIN SECONDARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n927\n\ntier, fully appreciative of the curative power of the world where man finds\nhis home, wrote :\nHow the eye and ear\nAre starved amidst the plentitude\nOf nature, and how hard and\n\ncolorless\n\n.\n\nis life without an atmosphere.\n\nGeography, then, is not a bread-and-butter theme, though supremely\npractical.\nIt is not chiefly an informational theme, though rich in store\nof fact.\n\nIt is not an easy or a dull theme, but full\n\nof substantial\n\ndiffi-\n\nculty, and throbbing with interest.\nBecause it makes so broad an appeal\nto the eye and reason, to imagination and taste, it commands interest\nand asserts thus its pedagogical value.\nI have asserted the educational value of geography in no measured\nterms.\nI have hinted at a geography which is too advanced for the grades,\ntoo important to be omitted, and which most will not reach in college.\nThis testimony is not without strong support.\nSays Archibald Geikie:\n“T long have been of opinion that geography in this sense of the term\nought to form an essential part of education.\nIt ought, as a matter of\ncourse, to occupy a distinct and important place in the curriculum of every\nhigh school.”\nKeltie, in his well-known report, says of geography in\nGermany: “It is a serious subject of education, legislated for by the\ngovernment, and taught to a large extent by trained teachers.”\nIt was\nKant who wrote: “Nothing is better calculated to awaken the healthy\nhuman intelligence than geography.”\nAn English schoolmaster, writing\nof physical geography, says: “It was eagerly studied and brought out\nunexpected enthusiasm in some of what were thought the stupidest and\nlaziest boys.” Superintendent A. F. Nightingale enumerates physiography\namong the subjects which ‘‘are no longer to remain in the category of\ninformational studies, and suffer the opprobrium of being contrasted with ,\nthe humane and the literary as the sole dispenser of intellectual culture.”\nMackinder said: “‘A worthy geography is no pariah among intellectual\ndisciplines.”\nAnd finally I quote the Committee of Ten: “There can\n\nbe no doubt that the study (as proposed) would be interesting, informing, and developing, or that it would be difficult and in every sense substantial.”\nMuch has been made of the admission of the conference report to the\nCommittee of Ten that the literature of geography was not in good form.\nThis is much less true today than when the report was written, and is at\nThere is too much geology in it,\nbest but a temporary consideration.\nsay some. I reply, not overmuch, and add that between the geology and\nNor does Professor\nthe geography no sharp line can, or need be, drawn.\nchemistry, minerphysics,\nin\ncourses\nstrong\nthat\nhold\nobjection\nPalmer’s\nalogy, and biology are pre-essential to physiographic work.\n\nAll of this is\n\n"}
{"page": 938, "printed_page": null, "text": "om\n\n928\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\ndesirable, and much of it is necessary to the teacher, but the pupil is not\nto be denied rational geography till he present this preparation.\nOn this I\nWhere, then, shall we put geography in the high school?\nagain\nurge\nI\nbut\nprogrammes,\nsecondary\nof\nmakers\ndefer to experienced\nthat it will not do to put it into the first year on sufferance, waiting for\ndeveloping “science in the grades”’ to pull it down to a lower horizon.\nBetter send it forward to the third or fourth year, and get first as much\nas possible of the physics, chemistry, and biology, which all of us agree\nwith Professor Palmer in counting important.\nThe culture offered by the new, rational, and higher geography is too\nbroad and too precious to be denied to the great body of educated men\nand women.\nThat we have not yet a competent body of teachers I\ngrant, but this, too, is a matter of brief time.\nAnd we must not forget\nthat geography cannot be taught in the grades until the grade teachers\nget it in the high schools.\nThe universities will equip the high-school\nteachers, and they, in turn, will do like service for those below them.\n\nhave no fear for geography.\n\n‘‘Truth\n\nwas trained to the classics, and\n\nis a good swimmer.”\n\nthe most\n\nconservative\n\nstickler\n\n[|\n\nThe writer\nfor Greek\n\nand Latin could find no fault with his bachelor’s degree.\nEveryone\nknows that Greek and Latin have grown green in the new educational\nfreedom.\n‘They are no longer dead, but have become living branches of\nthe tree of knowledge.\nLatin could not be put out, and geology cannot\nbe shut out. Taught rationally in the grades, it asserts its rights in the\nsecondary school, and holds its distinctive ground in the college and in\nthe university.\n\n. LABORATORY\n\nBY\n\nWORK\n\nR. H. CORNISH,\n\nIN\n\nMORGAN\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nPARK\n\nACADEMY,\n\nPHYSIOGRAPHY\n\nMORGAN\n\nPARK,\n\nILL.\n\nIn planning the work which I shall describe, I have assumed the following propositions as self-evident :\n1. That it should be the constant aim and duty of the teacher of\nscience to bring his pupils into as close and vital relation with the facts\nand phenomena of science as the nature of the subject will permit.\n2. That at the lecture table, or in the laboratory, or in the field, he\nwill seek to bring about this relation.\n3. That the laboratory or field work of any science should be used in\nconnection with a course of lessons based upon a text-book, and that a\nlarge amount of explanatory work will be necessary, in order to make the\nwork of the laboratory profitable.\n\n"}
{"page": 939, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nLABORATORY WORK IN ELEMENTARY PHYSIOGRAPHY\n\n929\n\n4. That the exercises presented in the laboratory or in the field should\nhave a definite end in view; that they should be presented with clear and\nunmistakable directions, telling the pupil what to do, but not what result\nto expect ; where to look, but not what to see.\n5. That no necessity is upon us of urging the desirability of laboratory work.\nAll teachers admit that laboratory methods are the best,\nwherever the necessary time can be obtained, and where the classes are\nnot too large.\nThe questions I have sought to answer are these :\n1. Is physiography capable of the same kind of laboratory illustration\nthat physics is ?\n2. Can the laboratory work for physiography receive the same emphasis that we put upon it-in chemistry ?\n3. Have we sufficient means of illustration in this branch that can be\nput into the hands of the individual pupils?\n4. Is this material\n\nso\n\naccessible\n\nthat\n\nteachers\n\nwho-have\n\nnot\n\nbeen\n\nfavored with the greatest possible advantages can avail themselves of it ?\nIt will be readily observed that the facts and laws of physics can\nbecome, by wise planning and direction in the laboratory, matters of\nimmediate knowledge.\nIn most cases the student can himself discover or\nverify the law or determine the value of the constant.\nBy direct measurement and comparison, by weighing and testing, the student discovers\nthe fact, or becomes acquainted with the law. This immediateness of\naccess to the facts, this directness of contact with the phenomena, makes\nphysics an ideal subject for laboratory study.\nThis same advantage\nbelongs also in equal degree to chemistry, botany, zodlogy, and mineralogy.\nIn all these sciences the student deals directly and at first hand\nwith the subject-matterin the laboratory.\nThe facts and phenomena of astronomy, geology, geography, and\nphysiography are, as a rule, not so accessible as the facts of the other\nsciences.\nSome of the facts of the latter group of subjects are matters of\neveryday observation.\nThe student knows that the sun rises in the east\nand\n\nsets\n\nin the west, and\n\nthat from\n\nwinter to summer\n\nit climbs up the\n\nmeridian.\nHe will find some of the physiographic forms he reads about\nillustrated in his own neighborhood, and in the rocks of the vicinity he\ncan find illustrations of some of the minerals and rocks of which the\nYet, when we reflect upon the number of facts\nearth’s crust iscomposed.\nbrought before the student in any good text-book of physiography, we\nmust confess that the number of these facts of which the student will have\nKnowledge of the volcano, the\na correct idea is comparatively small.\nearthquake, the ocean current, and the mountain is not acquired in most\nWhatever facts are known about these and\ncases by personal experience.\nmust come to the student through some\nphysiography\nin\ntopics\nother\nmany\n\n"}
{"page": 940, "printed_page": null, "text": "930\n\nmedium.\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nmay be the text-book, the picture, the diagram,\n\nThis medium\n\nthe map, or the constructed\n\nmodel.\n\nThe teacher will, of course, use all\n\nthe facts that his neighborhood furnishes for illustrating his subject. His\ngreat problem will be to illustrate adequately and properly those other\nand remoter facts which constitute the larger part of the subject. If laboratory work be possible in the case of the latter group of sciences, it\nwill, from the necessities of the case, differ to a considerable extent from\n\nMuch of it will consist in bringthat possible in physics and chemistry.\ning the student into contact with the sources of knowledge upon which\nall scientists must rely for information upon topics outside their own\nimmediate field of investigation.\nSome have questioned whether laboratory work in elementary physical geography could be anything different\nfrom the library method frequently pursued in history.\nBefore describing the exercises, allow me to explain the weekly programme.\nThe work\nin physiography belongs in the second year to the academy.\nIt is the\nfirst work\n\ndone\n\nin science, physics,\n\nand\n\nchemistry\n\nfollowing\n\nit, in the\n\nthird and fourth years, respectively.\nThe class met five times weekly\nthroughout the year.\nOf these five weekly exercises two were regularly\nprepared recitations of one hour each, two were laboratory exercises of\ntwo hours each, one exercise was ‘an unprepared recitation.\n‘Thus seven,\nand sometimes eight, hours were spent weekly with the instructor.\nThis\ndivision of time between laboratory work and recitation is the same that\nis made for physics and for chemistry.\nThis paper deals with the work\ndone in the laboratory, and not with the work done in recitation.\nFor\nconvenience, I will divide the laboratory work into two parts, as follows :\n1. Laboratory exercises with apparatus, including map study and\nconstruction. _\n2. Laboratory discussions and library exercises.\nWithout attempting\nto classify the exercises given, I will now briefly describe what work has\nactually been done by the class.\nPhysiography naturally divides itself\n\ninto four divisions:\nocean ; (4) the land.\n\n(1) the earth as a planet; (2) the air; (3) the\nThe exercises which I describe have touched on\n\nall these topics, but not with equal emphasis.\nI.\n\nLABORATORY\n\nEXERCISES.\n\n1. Construct a diagram which shall represent some of the facts of the\nsolar system, including (1) relative distances of the planets from the sun,\n\n(2) their sizes relative to each other and to the sun, and (3) their satellites.\nTwo days.\n2. On the same sheet, which was about 80\" X 18\", construct a diagram\n\nto show (r) the inclination of the earth’s axis to the plane of its orbit, (2)\n\nits perihelion\nand solstices.\n\nand aphelion positions, and its position at the equinoxes\nTwo days.\n\ne\n\n"}
{"page": 941, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nLABORATORY WORK IN ELEMENTARY PHYSIOGRAPHY\n\n3. Measurements\nOne day.\nThe\ntaken\n\naim\n\nof these\n\nof the sun’s altitude by means\n\n931\n\nof the clinometer.\n;\n\nexercises, and\n\nof the class discussions which are\nup at the same time, is to fix in the mind of the student, by con-\n\nstructions and demonstrations on the globe, the chief facts of mathemati‘The location of the principal\ncal geography and elementary astronomy.\nconstellations and of the celestial equator and ecliptic might well be\nadded to the exercises described above.\nmaximum,\n\nand average temper-\n\nature, the barometric pressure, and the rainfall from\n\n4. Plot curves to show the minimum,\n\nrecords kept by the\n\nstudents for the month of December, 1896. ‘Two days.\n5. Determine the dew point of the room and the relative humidity.\nThe dew point was determined by means of the thermometer, calorimeter,\nand ice.\nThis exercise was preceded by the study of a centigrade thermometer, and a comparison of it with the Fahrenheit.\nRelative humidity\nwas determined from the published table.\nTwo days.\n\n6. Illustrate the constituents of the atmosphere: (1) dust, (2) water\nvapor, (3) carbon dioxide, (4) oxygen, (5) nitrogen. (Teacher’s experiment.) One day.\nThe students by turns kept the record of the maximum, minimum,\nand standard temperatures, and of the rainfall, wind direction, and\nbarometer, for a month, and the construction and method of reading\n\nthese instruments were learned.\n‘The records were then used as the basis\nof the exercises given above.\n7. Construct a map showing the draining slopes of the United States.\nOne day.\nIn this exercise the smaller outline map devised by Professor Channing\nwas used.\n8. Preliminary study of a topographic map.\nThree days.\ng. Study of a coast-survey or lake-survey map.\nTwo days.\nto. Study of the Washington weather map.\nOne day.\n11. Study of the North Atlantic Pilot Chart. Two days.\nIn these exercises we made use of the admirable illustrative material\nwhich the United States government and several of the state governments\nfurnish, some of it at no expense, and some at very small expense.\nThis\nmaterial and how to get it is described fully in that very helpful little\npamphlet by Professor Davis— Collie & King —called “The Use of\nGovernment Maps in Schools.”\nThe detailed directions that were given to the students in the use of\nthese maps will be given later on in at least one case.\nThe aim of these exercises, especially those using the topographic\nand coast-survey maps, is to teach the students to read the map and to see\n\nwhat there is on it.\n\nThis ability to read maps and get their meaning is\n\n"}
{"page": 942, "printed_page": null, "text": "932\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nAfter this\nof great importance to the student and should be cultivated.\nby\nutilized\nexercise,\nability has been acquired, it is, in a subsequent\nto\nhim\nasking\nand\nexhibiting many topographic maps to the student\nexplain them, or, when too difficult for ready comprehension, pointing\nout their meaning to him.\nIn these exercises the student was asked to\nconstruct profiles from the map, to select the best road between two given\nplaces for an imaginary bicycle trip, to note the amount of fall of the\nThe details for the study of topographic maps are given in full\nrivers.\n-in the June number of the Journal of School Geography.\n12. Construction of a weather map from facts published in the daily\npapers.\nTwo days. This is one of the most interesting and instructive\nexercises which we had.\nIt calls into action a different set of faculties\nfrom those used in the former exercise on the study of a weather map.\nIt serves\n\nto show, also, how accessible\n\nmaterial\n\nis if teachers only know\n\nhow to utilize it.\n13. Construction of a river profile from source to outlet by the aid of\ntopographic maps.\nTwo days.\n14. Construction of a profile around the earth at the equator, showing\nocean beds and continental areas.\n‘Two days.\nThe river profile, when completed, shows the three portions—torren-\n\ntial, valley, and flood plain— into which most large rivers can be divided.\nThe\n\nHousatonic,\n\nNaugatuk,\n\nThames,\n\nand\n\nFarmington,\n\nin Connecticut,\n\nand the Passaic and Raritan, in New Jersey, were the rivers whose courses\nwere studied.\n15. Detailed study in the field of a miniature river valley, with measurements\n\nof width, length, number\n\nof turns, branches, directions\n\ntaken\n\nwith compass, and notes made of the same.\nOne day.\n16. Construction of a topographic map of the valley surveyed above\n(15), on a scale of fifty feet equal to one inch, with contour lines at fivefeet intervals.\nOne day.\nThis was the first “field” work that we did, and it was very instructive.\n\nThe valley chosen was\n\nadmirably adapted\n\nto the purpose.\n\nIt was about\n\n1,500 feet long, through clay, and had five turns and side valleys.\n17. Excursions to several points of interest, including a sand dune, a\n\nglacial moraine, and a limestone quarry.\nThese excursions may become\nthe most profitable part of the work, and they can be greatly extended in\nnumber, provided classes are not too large, and points of interest are\naccessible.\n18. Study of common\n\nminerals\n\nand rocks.\n\nThe\n\ncollections\n\nstudied\n\nhave been the Boston Natural History Society’s collection, described in\nCrosby’s\n‘Common Minerals and Rocks.”\nThis includes twenty-five of\nthe commonest minerals and more than this number of the commonest\nrocks. This work will be extended to include the Washington School\n\nhi\n\n"}
{"page": 943, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCollection\nexcellent\n\nLABORATORY\n\nNo.\n\nWORK\n\nIN ELEMENTARY\n\n2 (forty minerals)\n\ncollections\n\nare\n\nput\n\nand\n\nup by E.\n\nPHYVSIOGRAPHV\n\nNo. 3 (forty rocks).\nE.\n\nHowell,\n\n933\n\nThe\n\nlatter\n\nWashington,\n\nD. C.\n\nThis study has included the identification of the minerals and rocks in\nthese collections by means of their physical characteristics.\nThis work\ncould be extended indefinitely by including the blowpipe characteristics.\nI think the aim should be to teach the student to identify the more common rocks and minerals at sight in the field.\nThis part of the work, including both the laboratory and text-book\nwork, constituted about one-sixth of the whole course, or about six weeks.\nIn addition to the small\n\ncollections\n\nmentioned\n\nabove, a large collection\n\nwas available for this part of the work.\n1g. Study of typical topographic features, with their various modified\nforms, by means of selected sheets of the various government and state\nsurveys. ‘he accompanying descriptions, posted on the back of the sheets,\nwere taken from “The Use of Government Maps in Schools,” already\nreferred to. Eight days.\n20. Several stereopticon exhibitions of pictures illustrating (a) facts\nof astronomy and the earth’s relations as a planet, and (2) typical physiographic features.\nSlides for the latter illustrations were chiefly those in\nthe list prepared by Professor W. M. Davis for the use of the Cambridge\ngrammar schools.\nThis map study, with the accompanying lantern illustrations, formed\nthe final review.\nThe features studied included plains, plateaus, mountains, valleys, shore lines with their various modifications; and the previous detailed study of the various government maps had prepared the\nstudent to understand what these maps expressed.\n‘To vary this part of\nthe work, maps were frequently shown the student, and he was asked to\ninterpret the surface of the region represented.\n21. Enlarged reproduction of Professor Powell’s map of the physiographic regions of the United States by means of the pantograph.\nThis\nwas not a class exercise, but was assigned to one pupil.\nII.\n\nLIBRARY\n\nEXERCISES\n\nAND\n\nCLASS\n\nDISCUSSIONS.\n\nI will give a few of the topics which have been presented for class\ndiscussion :\n1. What reason have we for thinking that the earth probably rotates\non its axis?\n2. What actual proofs have we that it does rotate?\n3. What is “the front” of the earth, and when are we “in front’’?\nQuestion preliminary to the last: (a) What is the front of a moving\n\ncarriage, (2) of a moving trolley car, (¢) of a baseball in motion?\n4. What is the sun’s position at noon at the solstices and at the equi-\n\nnoxes to an observer at (a) the Tropic of Cancer, and (4) at the arctic circle?\n\n"}
{"page": 944, "printed_page": null, "text": "934\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\n5. Travelers go to northern Scandinavia to see the midnight sun.\nfar north must they go in order to see this phenomenon,\nsee it, where in the heavens is the sun located ?\n\nHow\n\nand, when they\n\n6. How can a river abandon its valley or a part of it?\n7. What becomes of the water that falls as rain? 8. Why do some fresh-water lakes seldom freeze?\nAmong the topics for library exercises have been the following :\nt.-The origin, function, and “death” of lakes.\n2. The facts concerning existing glaciers, and the evidences of past\nglaciation.\n3. Rivers as erosive agents.\nThe difference\n\nbetween\n\nthese two classes of exercises consists in this,\n\nthat in the former, which have been called laboratory or class discussions,\n\nthe problem is put before the student in the form of a question, which he\nis to solve by means of facts which he already knows or which he is to solve\nunder the teacher’s guidance and without access to other books than his\nregular text-book.\nIn the library exercises the pupil was referred to the\nliterature of the subject, and asked to find answers to the questions given\nfrom the printed page.\nSpecific references were given, and the student\nwas expected to look up as many of these as time permitted and to write\nhis answers in his notebook, after which they were read and discussed\nin class. As an illustration of the kind of questions that were given to\nthe class in connection with the laboratory exercises, I will give the\ndetails of the study of the North Atlantic Pilot Chart.\nThis may serve\nas a type of the method of map study. The laboratory work was conducted class-wise ; that is, all members of the class were engaged upon\nthe same exercise at the same time.\nEach student or group of two being\nsupplied with a copy of the North Atlantic Pilot Chart, or the North\nPacific Pilot Chart, the following questions were given, which the student\nwas asked to answer in his notebook :\n1. The name of your map and the date of its issue?\n2. By what department and bureau, and for whose use, was it issued?\n3. How many different symbols in red and how many in blue do you\nfind, and what\n\ndo the reds, as a whole,\n\nsignify as contrasted\n\nwith\n\nthe\n\nblues?\n\n4. Tell what each symbol in red signifies;\ndotted lines, (¢) arrows.\n\n(a) continuous\n\nlines, (0)\n\n7. The horizontal black lines are parallels, and those at right angles\nto the parallels are meridians.\nCompare their distances apart and their\ndirections with the same lines on an ordinary map.\nWhat is the difference?\n8. Are the ro-degree parallels all the same distance apart?\nWhich\nare farther apart?\n}\n\n"}
{"page": 945, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nMICROSCOPE\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n935\n\ng. Your map is made after what is called Mercator’s projection. What\nis this, and what are its advantages and disadvantages?\n10. Explain fully and carefully the meaning of one of the symbols in\na 5-degree rectangle.\n11. ‘‘ Box the compass.”\n12. What is the general direction of the red storm tracks and of the\nocean currents ?\n13. Why is it that the sailing and steamship routes on the map are, as\na rule, curved lines ?\n14. Compare two charts, one of a winter month and one of a summer\nmonth, and note their differences.\n\nIn conclusion, allow me to call your attention to the following points\nwhich have been made: (1) That the course as given covers one year of\nfive recitations per week; (2) that about an equal division of time has\nbeen made between the study of a text-book and the laboratory work;\n(3) that the laboratory work has been given a definite place in the weekly\nprogramme, and that the aim in these exercises has been to arouse the\ninterest of the student, and to lead him to think and work.\n\nSome of the\n\nexercises described are suitable for grammar-school grades, and none are\ntoo difficult for the high-school pupil. ‘The exercises are, I hope, suggestive of what can be done.\nThey may, at least, furnish a starting point\nfor discussion.\n‘That they have proved interesting I feel sure, and the\ninterest of the student in the subject determines in large measure the\nprofit he derives from it.\n\nTHE\n\nMICROSCOPE\n\nBY\n\nW.\n\nH.\n\n[IN\n\nSKINNER,\n\nTHE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nNEBRASKA\n\nCITY,\n\nSCHOOLS.\n\nNEB.\n\nI would say that the microscope should not be made a pyrotechnic display. Oh, there is wonder enough at all times! This seeing so large what\nis so infinitely small is an unceasing wonder; but that is not the use of the\nMoreover, to see the myriads of forms of life that exist in a\nmicroscope.\nsingle drop of water is not enough.\nAs soon as possible get beyond the\nstage of using the instrument for wonderment’s sake.\nThe microscope should be used to group related facts. There should\nAnd all along\nbe method in the work; one step should lead to another.\nthere should be enough of familiar talks to the pupils to make them see\nthe meaning of each and all the facts, in case they cannot be led to disLet us glance hastily at some of\ncover these meanings for themselves.\nthe subjects in which it may be used. If the study is zodlogy, begin\n\n"}
{"page": 946, "printed_page": null, "text": "936\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nwith the unicellular forms; the amceba, the monad, the paramecium, the\nLead pupils to see how these eat, what they eat,\nbell-animalcule, etc.\n\nComhow they assimilate it, how they grow, and how they reproduce.\nHere is an animal without stomach,\npare with the human structure.\nheart, arteries, veins, lungs, or brain, and yet it performs all that is neces-\n\nLet it be seen how\nsary to life and to the perpetuation of its species.\nThose cilia, that opening, those aggregating particles of\nthis is done.\nfood that grow into food balls and then disappear, that curious contractile\nvesicle, are all we can see, and yet the animal lives and moves and has its\n\nbeing.\nNow, these facts must not be seen as unrelated.\nFacts alone are\nnot mighty things. The fundamental truth for which a fact stands is the\nthing to look for. Hence, we must see the meanings of things. I\nemphasize this because of the popular misapprehension of the value of\nmicroscopic study. Or take botany.\nBegin with the unicellular.\nStudy\nlife history. Watch the plant grow and reproduce itself. Then, following the loosely joined line of cells of nostoc, the firmly joined ones of\nspyrogyra, the branching filaments of cladophora, the larger cells as seen\nin the moss-leaf (or better in an ulva), reach the layer upon layer of cells\nas seen in heavier leaves, and you follow cell development from a point\nto a solid, to use a figure of speech.\nOr, if it be reproduction, note the\nfission of cells, the\n\ninternal\n\nformation\n\nof cells, the budding of cells, or\n\nthe conjugation of cells, which last seems the climax of provision in both\nanimal and vegetable life. Thus we may make the microscope an instrument for leading pupils to the discovery of ultimate truth.\nThere is an advantage in taking unicellular plants and animals.\nTheir\nform, structure, and functions are simple.\nThe pupil may see the simple\nwith a more complete view.\nIt enables him to understand the complexity\nof higher forms more easily and more completely.\nIt is the logical\nbeginning, and very nearly the better beginning, for the study of both\nplants and animals.\nHow is this work to be done?\nLet me describe one way of doing it\nthat has been found successful.\nIn anh eight-room building is one compound microscope.\nThe time each week is divided among the rooms,\ngiving a little more than half a day to each room.\nA mount stands in\nthe room during this time. The pupils at odd times, when study of the\nlesson\n\nis completed, or at intermissions, pass\n\nto the table and examine\n\nthe mount.\nThey make drawings.\nOnce a week the teacher makes a\nspecial mount and gives a thirty-minute study of it. She has two pupils\ngo to the instrument.\nAs soon as the first one is through, a third one\ngoes forward.\nThus time is not lost. The pupils pass from the microscope to their seats, or to the blackboard and make drawings.\nThe\nteacher examines the drawings and, if they are faulty, sends the pupils\nback to re-examine the object. A short talk gives necessary additional\n\nei\n\n"}
{"page": 947, "printed_page": null, "text": "te\n\nDepartment)\n\nPHYSICS AS A COLLEGE-ADMISSION REQUIREMENT\n\n937\n\ninformation.\nA half hour thus spent gives all a chance to see, and it is\nremarkable how much they see in a half minute.\nMany times the pupils\nget asecond chance in the thirty minutes.\nThis, in addition to what\nthey have seen during the time the mount was standing in the room, for\nthe half day, gives good returns.\nIn botany, the children bring in freshwater algz, mildews, rusts, smuts, puff balls, toad\n\nstools, etc.\n\nThey are\n\ntold to look for parasites upon certain plants, the plant being shown them\nand its common name being given.\nThey thus learn incidentally most\nplants and their names.\nIn zodlogy, they collect stagnant water or make\nslow infusions of leaves, and the water is then examined.\n\nSometimes\n\nthe\n\nteacher makes more difficult cultures.\nHow far down in the grades may such work be done?\nAs low as the\nfirst, in some cases.\nMost of it in the third grade, at least. Microscopic\nstudy of objects, after the object is mounted, does not differ from study\nof objects with the unassisted eye. The child finds less to perplex him\nin the study of a bell-animalcule thus mounted than he does in the study\nof the large Newfoundland dog.\nBut can the teachers do such work?\nWith a little encouragement and\nassistance they can.\nThe fault of conservatism lies, not with the teachers,\nbut with the leaders of teachers: superintendents, supervisors, principals\nare the unprogressive people, who too frequently hide their lack of knowledge and their lack of enterprise under the cloak of conservatism, or\nunder that stigma of ignorance which they cast upon teachers.\nMy\nexperience has been that, from the average up to the best, the teachers have\nbeen most willing and very successful in performing anything I have had\nthe intelligence to ask for. They need help and direction, and it is just\nfor this that principals and superintendents and supervisors are paid their\nsalary. This is plain talk, but it is time such things were said.\n\nPHYSICS\n\nAS A REQUIREMENT\nCOLLEGE.\n\nBY\n\nEDWIN\n\nH.\n\nHALL,\n\nFOR\n\nHARVARD\n\nADMISSION\n\nTO\n\nUNIVERSITY.\n\nI am to speak to you upon the topic of physics as a requirement for\nadmission to college. First, do we want it? Second, can we get it?\nThird, in what form can we have it?\n\nMuch of what I have to say may appear trite and needless to western\nmen, but, if it does appear so, I will ask you to bear in mind what happened, or rather what did not happen, at the so-called Columbia conferences held a little more than a year ago. President Low summoned\n\n"}
{"page": 948, "printed_page": null, "text": "938\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nrepresentatives from a number of the leading colleges and secondary\nschools of the East, to confer upon the matter of requirements for admission from schools to colleges.\nThere was a conference for Greek, a conference for Latin, and one each for German, French, history, and mathematics.\nThere was no conference, no invitation to conference, for any\n\nobservational science.\nAgreement upon a requirement in such a science\nwas a matter too hopeless even for discussion.\nThis state of things in\nthe East—and I am by no means sure itis very much better in the West—\ngives ample reason for such remarks as I have now to make.\nThe present age is, perhaps beyond all ages that have preceded it,\nobjective in its methods.\nEven psychology has become an objective\nscience, studied in laboratories with ingenious mechanical apparatus.\nAfter centuries of self-communion, mankind has opened its eyes to discover, to rediscover, the outer world and\n\nto\n\nenter\n\ninto a new life, which\n\nin activity and in progress excels the old life as the day excels the night.\nInto this new life it is the duty of our colleges and universities to enter\nwith their might; to make its activity more fruitful and its progress more\nsure, and, still more, to find and keep, out of the abundant utilitarian\nharvest that already lies before us, that finer fruit which is the nourishment of the spirit, and\n\nwhich ‘it is the\n\nduty of true\n\nscholarship to find\n\nand keep in every field of human labor.\nAnd the higher institutions of learning are not unmindful of this\nhigh duty. There is not a college in the country, worthy of the name,\nthat is not giving, or actively preparing to give, to its undergraduates\ninstruction in several of the observational sciences.\nThe battle in that\npart of the field is won; yet much remains.\nNo man liveth to himself,\nand no university liveth to itself. There must be between the colleges\nand the schools good understanding,\n\nco-ordination,\n\nmutual\n\nhelpfulness.\n\nAs the fathers of our republic, discovering and molding public opinion\nand desire, built up out of heterogeneous and sometimes discordant\npolitical\n\nelements\n\nthe great\n\nfabric\n\nof our\n\ngovernment, so\n\nearnest, far-seeing, patriotic men, build up out of the varied\n\nmust\n\nwe, as\n\neducational\n\nelements of the country, high and low, good, bad, and indifferent, a great\n\nnational system of education—sound\n\nteaching\n\nin the public schools,\n\nleading up by many avenues to the broader opportunities of the universi-\n\nties.\n\n“It would be a pity,” said President Eliot, speaking not long ago\n\nbefore\n\nthe Harvard\n\nfaculty of arts and\n\nsciences, “It would\n\nbea pity, if\n\nwe could not adapt our courses in college to any good teaching done in\nthe schools.”\nIn that one sentence is set forth the duty of both parties\nin this great business: the duty of the schools to make their teaching\ngood; the duty of the colleges to recognize and build upon such teaching.\nBut what are the observational sciences which can be made the ground\n\n"}
{"page": 949, "printed_page": null, "text": "~~ —_\n-_\n\nDepartment]\n\nPHYSICS AS A COLLEGE-ADMISSION REQUIREMENT\n\n939\n\nof good teaching in the schools, teaching broad enough and deep enough\nand sound enough to merit specific notice in requirements for admission\nto college?\nAstronomy, botany, chemistry, meteorology, physiology,\nphysiography, physics, and zodlogy have been proposed.\nAmong all\nthese I believe physics to be, on the whole, the best and the most practicable.\nIt is more fundamental and elementary than any of the others,\n\nsave, possibly, chemistry.\n\nIt offers a greater variety of definite everyday\n\ntopics of interest than any of the others, save, possibly, chemistry.\n\nMore-\n\nover, it can be treated from first to last by quantitative as well as by\nqualitative methods, which gives it a distinct advantage over most of the.\nother sciences, chemistry included.\n1 am well aware that the quantitative\nside of science teaching can be dwelt upon too much, or, rather, too exclusively, but the danger on that side is far less than on the other.\nGood\nscience teaching and all other good teaching, no doubt, must throw the\n\nindividual pupils upon their own resources.\nNow, it has long seemed to\nme that the teacher who attempts to lay out in physics, or in any other\nscience, individual observational work which is not mainly quantitative\nhas before him a task of enormous difficulty. Qualitative facts are apt to\nbe very obvious or very obscure. A stone falls to the ground; everybody\nknows that.\nNobody knows\nWhy does the stone fall to the ground?\nHow fast—under what quantitative law—does the stone fall?\nthat.\nThat is the kind of question we can take up in the laboratory with\nthe least likelihood of wasting time and effort, although this particular\nquestion I hold to be rather too difficult for experimental treatment in\nordinary school\n\nlaboratories.\n\nOf course,\n\nnot\n\nall scientific work can\n\nbe\n\nNot all of the best scientific work can be quantitative.\nquantitative.\nBut all of the best scientific work in any broad sense is characterized by\na certain clearness of sight and rigor of logic, which are, in my opinion,\nbest inculcated in young minds by quantitative work.\nSuch work is for\nthe young student of science what the “setting-up drill” is to the young\nsoldier.\nIt gives him an abiding sense of professional form.\nI am much interested in propositions to recognize botany and zodlogy as requirements for admission to college, and I am glad that we are\nto have,\n\non\n\nFriday, discussions\n\nof these sciences\n\nas school\n\nstudies.\n\nI\n\nhope, however, that I shall be forgiven if I now express the opinion that\nbotany and zodlogy, if they are to be accepted as requirements for admission to college, should, as a rule, be preceded or accompanied by the\nlaboratory study of physics. I do not mean to imply that a boy or a girl\nmust have had a formal course in physics before beginning the conscious\nOn the contrary, I believe that such\nobservation of plants and animals.\nobservation should be encouraged and taught very early—in the primary\nschool stage, or earlier still. It is precisely because such work is within\nthe capacity of young children that I would not have it required for\n\n"}
{"page": 950, "printed_page": null, "text": "940\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nI should\nIt should be assumed, not required.\nadmission to college.\nhardly venture to speak so freely upon this matter, if I did not feel myself\nto be in accord with distinguished representatives of the very sciences to\nBotany, for example, was tried as an admission\nwhich I have alluded.\nIt was the\nfifteen or twenty years ago.\nCollege\nHarvard\nfor\nsubject\nIt was\nschools.\nthe\nto\nfamiliar\nstudy\nsystematic\ndescriptive,\nordinary\nmost\nthe\nof\none\nand\ntrial,\nof\nyears\nsome\ny\nafter\nunsatisfactor\nas\nup\ngiven\nis to\ntoday\nhimself\nfor\nset\ncan\nreformer\neducational\nan\ntasks\ndifficult\nconvince the botany and zodlogy professors of Harvard University that\nanything worth recognizing can be done by the schools in their departments.\nThere is one prominent educational institution in the East,\nperhaps more than one, that now has botany as a requirement for admission.\nIt is apparently about the same kind of requirement that Harvard\nused to have. I'am not informed whether the authorities of the Sheffield Scientific School, the\n\ninstitution I have\n\nin mind, are satisfied with\n\nthis requirement, which is a comparatively recent one with them, but I —\nhave heard a number of teachers mention the school study induced by it,\nand none of them favorably.\nI hope to see all the natural-history sciences, including physiology, recognized as requirements for admission to\ncollege, provided they can be put by the schools upon such a level as to\npresuppose a good knowledge of elementary physics and, perhaps, chemistry. As to meteorology, astronomy, and physiography, I find the\nprevailing opinion among my colleagues to be that the first named\nshould not be taken up without physics, but that the two latter may be.\nI shall not enlarge upon or belittle the merits of astronomy and physiography as studies for young people.\n‘Their interest and their importance\nare self-evident.\n\nBut these are largely out-of-door studies, and, as such,\n\nthey are very heavily handicapped in competition with other sciences for\na place in schools.\nChemistry is, in my opinion, the only formidable\nrival to physics as a science requirement for admission to college, but\nyet among my colleagues at Harvard I find in the department of chemistry a very strong preponderance of opinion in favor of physics, rather\nthan chemistry, for admission.\nIf I do not quote the opinion of men in\nother colleges, it is merely because I am not well informed as to their\nopinion.\nBut there\n\nare difficulties, obstacles, on\n\nthe college side, and\n\non\n\nthe\n\nschool side. College faculties are generally controlled by men of middle\nage, and I have observed among such men a certain lack of enthusiasm,\nto speak within bounds, for the labor of revising requirements for admission, framing new requirements, investigating school conditions, and\nlaying out courses of study to fit those conditions.\n‘This disinclination\ndoes not argue old-fogyism, or lack of energy ; it is rather characteristic of\nmen active and eminent in their profession. They are doing their work\n\nap\n\n"}
{"page": 951, "printed_page": null, "text": "a\n——\n\nEe\n\nDepartment]\n\nPHYSICS\n\nAS\n\nA COLLEGE-ADMISSION\n\nin their own way with approved\nof courses.\n\nTheir\n\nyears\n\nREQUIREMENT\n\ncourses,—with\n\nare fruitful,\n\nand\n\nan\n\napproved\n\nthey dread\n\nthe\n\nloss\n\n941\n\nsequence\nof time\n\nwhich novel undertakings would entail.\nWe must not look.to them for\nhelp.\nWe must not look to young men for new labors.\nEven young\nmen taking up this elementary labor may feel that they are sacrificing\nsomething—ambition for research, perhaps.\nAnd so they may be for\nthe moment, but young men are made for such sacrifices; they thrive on\nthem. Let them take up and carry through the work of co-ordinating the\ncolleges and schools to the great good of both, and twenty-five years\nhence, when some other great new work is to be done, it will be their\nturn to hold back and to declare themselves satisfied with the world as\nit is.\nOn\n\nthe school\n\nside, too, there is conservatism\n\nand\n\nestablished\n\nrou-\n\ntine.\nSchool principals in the East are not usually teachers of natural\nscience. They are rather likely to be teachers of the classics, and, though\nI do not find such teachers, as a rule, unfriendly to physics, after this\nstudy is established upon a laboratory basis in their schools, I think they\nare sometimes slow to see the possibility of altering the school programme\nin such a way as to make room for any new study demanding much time.\nThe laboratory teaching of physics does demand much time, especially in the school programme.\nThat fact must be resolutely faced at\nonce.\n\nIt is, in my\n\nopinion,\n\nthe most\n\nserious\n\nobstacle\n\nto the general\n\nadoption of sucha course.\nSome former difficulties have now disappeared.\nOnce the expense for apparatus seemed prohibitive, but fairly good apparatus is now to be had for a very low price. Formerly there was a lack\nof suitable text-books.\nNow every month announces a new book, each\nbetter than all before it, and the only difficulty of the teacher is to make\nup his mind which of all these books he will use.\nFormerly there was a\ndearth of competent teachers.\nNow this dearth is less. With all these\nimprovements\n\nin the situation, however, there remains the difficulty—the\n\nimpossibility—of doing good laboratory work in very large class sections. I still think, as I thought ten years ago, that, for the best results\namong young pupils, the laboratory sections should not be larger than\nThe suggestion has been made that the more advanced pupils\ntwelve.\nin the school, may fitly be employed as laboratory assistants to look after\nthe work of the less advanced, but to this proposition I cannot give my\nI have too high an opinion of the difficulty and importance of\nassent.\nlaboratory teaching to be willing to intrust it to boys. Boy assistants\nmay, however, lighten the mechanical labor of arranging ance caring for\napparatus, and this in a large school is no inconsiderable series: Would\nthat I might find some way of impressing upon school principals and\nschool boards the folly of burdening a science teacher with that kind of\nwork, which can be done better by mechanics or by intelligent janitors!\n\n"}
{"page": 952, "printed_page": null, "text": "942\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nThe capable, willing, unlettered janitor! who shall prize him too highly?\nHe is a staff unto the feet of the weary teacher and a fountain of wisdom\nunto his mind, when the bodily strength of the latter faileth him, and his\n\nIt is by giving every mechanical aid and\nwits desert him altogether.\nalone, that laboratory physics can be\nthis\nby\nand\nteacher,\nthe\nto\nrelief\nmade practicable in the best sense in large schools.\nHowever great the difficulties of our problem are on the school side—\nand I would not belittle these difficulties——they can be overcome if public\nsentiment demands the work; and in the forming of public sentiment\nupon such a question the influence of college requirements is tremendous.\nWhatever may be said in criticism of the experimental requirements in\nphysics for admission to Harvard College, as they have been maintained\nfor the past ten years, no one who has been familiar with the matter will\n\ndeny that they have been the chief factor in revolutionizing the school\nteaching of physics throughout New. England, and what Harvard has\ndone there other colleges have done or can do elsewhere.\n\nDISCUSSION.\nPROFESSOR FERNANDO SANFORD, Stanford University, Cal.——- Qualitative lectureroom experiments are not so essential.\nIndependent laboratory work is preferable, if\nclasses are small enough.\nThe greatest importance is to be attached to scientific method\nin thinking. Actual notes should always be required.\nFour-fifths of the time should be\ngiven to laboratory work, and the text review should always come after laboratory work,\nbut no text-book work before. Review should be conducted by topics.\nE. WaITrE ELDER,\n\nBoulder, Colo.—In\n\nconnection with the physics committee\n\nof\n\nthe Colorado State Teachers’ Association, I have had occasion to learn what is being\ndone on this subject in the schools of the country, and also what is expected by the col-\n\nleges. In schools where good work is done in all departments physics is given its place.\nIn these schools one year is devoted to physics, 37 per cent. of the time being given to\nlaboratory work.\nPhysics has been generally given in the second year, but the tendency\nis to put it in the third year, making it the mathematical subjectwof the year. Great\nstress is laid on the necessity of making the work elementary and of not attempting too\nadvanced work.\nOn the other hand, the colleges ask for elementary preparation in\nphysics. They do not ask for more than the schools can do. They deprecate the\nattempt of some schools to do more than this elementary work. For this work the\nschools of the country are fairly well equipped, and it rests with the colleges to get\nwhat they want.\nThe school will respond to any demand that the colleges make upon\nthem.\n\nMr. Harvey spoke of the value of the aid of the microscope and of projection\nwork for large classes. Also upon the superior value of quantitative over qualitative\nwork,\n\nE. R. Boyer, Englewood High School.—Separate courses for college and noncollege students are not practicable and a wide range of electives not wise. Pupils\n\n"}
{"page": 953, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nPHYS/CS\n\nAS\n\n4 COLLEGE-ADMISSION\n\nREQUIREMENT\n\n943\n\nshould not be allowed too much election in sciences. A basis of required work in science\nshould be fixed. The science course of the future will prove best for every pupil, whether\nhe goes to college or not.\n\nPROFESSOR CHARLES R. BARNES, University of Wisconsin, protested against differences between college preparation and preparation for life. Power to think is the\nthing desired for the college or business man or engineer— for everybody, in fact.\nPROFESSOR DuTToN favored physiography in second year, because pupils in firstyear classes are not able to do the work.\nSpoke of field work as being successful, but\n\nmore so in favorable localities.\nMr. MERRILL.\n— The earth and the child are both subjects in evolution, the understanding of which is one of the objects of scientific study. Field work should not be\nconsidered as an entertainment.\nQuantitative work is possible with it.\nGraded lessons should be given, culminating in a topographic map.\nHe thought it\nwould be impossible to develop laboratory work, as given in Mr. Cornish’s paper, unless\nphysics should precede physiography.\n;\n\nO. C, CLARK, Salt Lake City, Utah.—I think energy is wasted by\nphysiography early in the course.\nIn Salt Lake we have it in the fourth year.\n\nplacing\n\nC, N. Cops, Albany, N. Y.—I think the course should be the same for all pupils\nand hold the variation in college requirements largely responsible for the variety of\ncourses in secondary schools.\nExperience in New York colleges and schools shows the\nvalue of quantitative work over qualitative.\nHERBERT\n\nC. Woop,\n\nCentral\n\nHigh\n\nSchool, Cleveland, O.—I\n\nam\n\nglad\n\nto know of\n\nthe development of laboratory work in this subject, and to see that its possibilities have\nbeen so clearly demonstrated.\nIn Cleveland we have been working along this line for three years. Our experimental work, however, has been in a somewhat different direction.\nTwo problems presented themselves in the organization of the course in physical\n\ngeography, vzz., to give, in connection with that subject, as much of the fundamental\nprinciples of physics and chemistry as was necessary for the intelligent interpretation of\nthe natural phenomena involved; and, secondly, to prepare the student for individual\nwork in the physical Jaboratory in the following year.\nOn the first point I would take issue with those who look upon physical geography\nas\n\nmainly\n\nan\n\ninformational\n\nstudy,\n\naccorded to physics and chemistry.\n\nand, therefore,\n\nnot capable\n\nof the\n\nexact treatment\n\nThat physical geography may be treated as purely\n\ndescriptive I admit, but the possibilities of the subject as a disciplinary one demand\nmore.\nFor this reason we have assigned physical geography to the second year of the\nhigh-school course, in order that the pupil, trained in observational work in the biological studies of the first year, having completed algebra, and being then in geometry,\nmay bring to the class that mental maturity demanded by the more exact work of introductory physical and chemical\nof natural laws.\n\nexperiments,\n\nand physical geography treated on a basis\n:\n\n“ How ?” and “ Why ?” are the two questions to which each observed phenomenon is\nultimately reduced. To the end that these questions may be answered in every case intelligently, scientifically, the pupil must know something of physical land; but the experimental work must not be so divorced from the main topic, the earth, as to break the\n\ncontinuity of the subject.\nTo\n\nthose unfamiliar with\n\nthe possibilities of uniting these\n\nchemistry, and physical geography,\nwould\n\nsay that the results obtained\n\ninto a continuous\n\nsubjects, vzz., physics,\n\nfabric of science instruction,\n\nin the three high schools of Cleveland\n\nhave\n\nproven\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 954, "printed_page": null, "text": "944\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nOne scarcely realizes\nthat it is a thoroughly practicable and satisfactory undertaking.\nthat he is studying physics, chemistry, or astronomy; on the contrary, he sees nature as a\nbeautifully co-ordinated, articulated organism, working harmoniously.\nIncidentally the pupil learns to approach the subject in the attitude of an investigator. He learns what an experiment means, what is vital and what is not, and becomes\nfamiliar with many of the processes, manipulations, and apparatus common to all\nbranches of science; he is trained to record his work in permanent form in his notebook.\nThe value of such training is evidenced in the attitude of the pupil toward the laboratory\nphysics which follows.\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nTHEODORE\n\nNEUMANN,\n\nLakeville,\n\nConn.— The\n\nvery point which has\n\nbeen brought out here this afternoon during the discussion by some of the speakers,\nnamely, that it is necessary often to stop the progress of the class in physical geography\nin order to study some laws of physics, and thus enable the class to understand the following chapter of physical geography—TI mention as an example the dew point, or the\n\nmagnetic needle —has occupied my mind for several years, and, while the previous\nspeakers have mentioned this deviation into the department of physics only, I think it\nhappens just as often concerning chemistry, biology, mineralogy, etc. The question\narises naturally: How far is the teacher of physical geography, assuming that this\nstudy is taken up the first year, and the pupils have had no previous training in\nscience, allowed to take up physics, chemistry, biology during the course, and how can\nhe avoid the danger of giving his pupils, not physical geography, but instead of it\na “hash” composed of chapters from different departments of natural science ? It seems\nto me that the only way to avoid this difficulty is to place physical geography, not at the\nbeginning, but at the end of the science course, when pupils are by far better prepared\nto reap the benefits of the study.\nProFEssoR\n\nC. F. DuTTon, West\n\nHigh\n\nSchool,\n\nCleveland,\n\nO.—JI\n\nwish .to indorse\n\nmost heartily the opinion as regards the second year for physiography.\nThe order of\nscience subjects in our Cleveland high schools is zodlogy in the first year, physical geography in the second, physics in the third, and chemistry in the fourth.\nWe find that the\nsecond-year pupils are sufficiently mature to grasp intelligently the work presented.\nOur\nschools provide a full year for the subject, and the teachers of physics confirm our belief\nthat those pupils who have had physical geography are better prepared for the work of\nthe third year than those who have not. The regret has been expressed here that it is so\n\ndifficult for city pupils to do field work.\nI find in Cleveland that the facilities offered\nfor rapid suburban transit by electric cars makes it possible for our city pupils to do as\nmuch and, perhaps, more field work than those in smaller places.\n\nI feel that too much importance cannot be put upon field work thoroughly done.\nThe laws learned in class-room. must be applied in the outside world.\nI have seen a\nteacher of physics so far forget the laws of momentum as to attempt to alight from a\nmoving car without allowing for his own motion, and a supposably well-educated student\nin physics hesitate to turn off an electric lamp. Is our work well done so long as our\npupils fail to have taught them the connection between class-room law and out-in-theworld facts? Is this too much to expect of ourselves and our pupils? Will some one\n\nof more experience answer ?\n\n"}
{"page": 955, "printed_page": null, "text": "—a?\n\nDepartment]\n\niii\n\nCHEMISTRY\n\nVALUE\n\nBY\n\nOF\n\nAS PART\n\nOF A COLLEGE\n\nCHEMISTRY\n\nAS PART\n\nCOLLEGE\n\nCOURSE.\n\nSMITH,\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nALEXANDER\n\nTHE\n\nCOURSE\n\n945\n\nOF\n\nOR\n\nOF\n\nA SCHOOL\n\nCHICAGO.\n\nI do not intend making a belated attempt to prove that chemistry is\na valuable constituent of the high-school or college course.\nBut the\nscience, like every other subject of study, may be taught so as to be futile\nor even harmful, and it may not be out of place to consider the nature of\nthe contribution which the study of chemistry may make to a sound education, and to point out the misuse which may be made of some of its\nmost valuable features in selecting them for emphasis in an elementary\n:\npresentation of the subject.\nWhether we regard this science from the point of view of the usefulness of the knowledge or the value of the mental training which its study\nconfers, it has the most indisputable claims to a place in the curriculum.\nIn a city like Milwaukee, with applications of chemical knowledge in\noperation all round us, the pre-eminent value of the information it furnishes cannot be gainsaid.\nIf I pass over this aspect of the subject\nwithout further reference, it is because the tendency to emphasize the\ninformational side is not seriously in need of re-enforcement.\nThe mental training which it is capable of yielding depends entirely\non how it is taught.\nFor chemistry the value in this point of view may\nmore easily approach zero than for any other subject in the curriculum.\nIf we compare the ordinary mode of teaching it in the laboratory with\nthat used in the case of physics, for example, how much more clear and\nprecise is the information we get from the phenomena of the latter science, and how much easier is the interpretation!\nWe can trace the beam\nof light when it suffers reflection\n\nor refraction, and we\n\ncan\n\nmeasure\n\nits\n\nintensity.\nWe can easily accompany the study of heat by measurements\nof specific and latent heat. In electricity we can study the conditions\nunder which a current arises, measure its quantity and electromotive\nforce, and observe its effects.\n\nIn chemistry there is nothing easier for the student than to perform\nthe experiments of the ordinary manual mechanically ; there is nothing\nThus, he\nharder than to lead him to realize the meaning of the result.\nHe observes the light and heat which\nburns phosphorus in oxygen.\naccompany the phenomenon, and the white smoke which is produced.\n\nPerhaps he tests a little water, which has been shaken with the smoke, to\nHe is told to take a piece\nshow that it is acid. But all else isindefinite.\n\n"}
{"page": 956, "printed_page": null, "text": "’\n\n946\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nof phosphorus “half the size of a pea,” and burn it in a “bottleful,”\nwhich may mean anything from half a pint to a quart, of the gas. He\ndoes not handle the pentoxide produced, nor investigate its composition;\nnor does he study the formation of the phosphoric acid, nor its composiNine-tenths of what he learns from the experiment he gets from\ntion.\nthe teacher, or the book, if he gets it at all.\n\nIn laboratory manuals one hardly ever sees an experiment involving\nprecipitation, where the soluble product is isolated and examined, or\nwhere the composition of either product is determined.\nCertainly, in\nninety-nine experiments out of a hundred only a small fraction of the\nfacts necessary for complete comprehension of the result is brought\nwithin range of the student’s observation.\nHe gets a hazy idea of the\nrest from the book, or, if he is a little further advanced, he makes a few\n\nwild guesses.\nThe work is often so fragmentary and inconclusive that\nguessing seems to be the necessary sequel to each experiment.\nThe\nresult is to stultify the science in the estimation of the pupil, and directly\nto foster the very vices of vague speculation and unclear thought which\nit is the special boast of scientific study at first hand to uproot.\nFor if\nthere is one thing more than another which his laboratory work should\ndo for the student, it is to convince him that guessing is absolutely\nexcluded in scientific work.\nIt should give him those habits of certainty\nand precision in reasoning that are a large part of the training which he\nmay bring to the service of other studies, where the facts are necessarily\nsecond- or third-hand, and where vagueness is harder to avoid.\nThe immediate conclusion to which this leads is that we should do\nfewer experiments in the laboratory and do them more thoroughly.\nIt\nis doubtless impossible to make a large proportion of the exercises quantitative.\nBut at the beginning of the course a sufficient number must be\nworked out in detail, with study of every product and exact measurement\nof the quantities of materials used and produced, to form a substantial\nbasis for reasoning where the work is less detailed.\nIt is fruitless to\nexpect any comprehension of the science, if we teach our pupils that the\nlaw of definite proportions is the fundamental law of chemistry, and that\nthe science owes its modern development to the use of the balance, and\nthen in the laboratory carefully illustrate all the other aspects of the science, omitting this.\nHappily, several recent laboratory manuals have shown appreciation\nof the value of careful measurement, although the complete working-out\nof experiments, except in a few of the simplest cases, is still conspicuous\nby its absence.\nOne reason for the difficulty the pupil has in following the subtle\nprogress of chemical change is that he gets little help from the imagination. The atomic theory is doubtless of great assistance in supplying a\n\n"}
{"page": 957, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCHEMISTRY\n\nAS PART\n\nOF A COLLEGE\n\nCOURSE\n\n947\n\nmental picture of the progress of chemical change.\nBut the difficulty is\nthat, if this is introduced too early, it loses its proper place as a theory\nused to explain the facts of the science.\nIt must come after the facts to be\nexplained, not before them, otherwise the whole perspective is deranged.\nTf carefully subordinated to the facts, it is of great pedagogic value.\nThis does not necessarily imply that symbols and formule must be\nThe symbols may be used\npostponed to an advanced stage of the course.\nto represent the combining proportions of the elements, which are independent of the atomic theory, and can be introduced as soon as the\nEvery time an\nmeasurement of these proportions has been illustrated.\nequation is given, however, the attention of the pupil must be drawn to\nthe fact that it simply embodies the result of careful observation and exact\nmeasurement in an abbreviated form: that it is constructed at the very\nIf this view is not strenuously insisted\nlast, after the experimental work.\non, the pupil, instead of viewing the facts of the science, themselves, face\n\nto face, sees only their reflection in a marvel-working mirror.\nIn this\nview mysterious letters take the place of plain English and soon rivet all\nthe attention, alphabet games are played under quasi-mathematical rules,\nbonds are counted and transferred, and ‘equation writing,” instead of\nfollowing experiment, usually precedes and occasionally supersedes it.\nThe mechanical aids introduced to help the understanding of chemical\nfacts actually take the place of the facts altogether in the estimation of\nthe pupil.\nHow often have we all observed that a few symbols form almost the\nonly surviving recollection of many, when they tell us about their school\nor college chemistry!\nSymbol-juggling is memorable in proportion to\nits uselessness ; it endures when the facts of the science have all evaporated. Yet its disciplinary value is absolutely nil. The kind of training\nof permanent value which the science can give is as independent of such\ndevices as the soul is of the garments.\nI know no clearer and more concise statement of the arguments in\nfavor of the study of chemistry than those formulated by the Royal Commission of 1861. Let me quote one sentence; it might form the text for\na dozen addresses:\n‘Science,’ said the Royal Commission, and every\nword applies to chemistry in particular, “ quickens and cultivates directly\nthe faculty of observation, which in very many persons lies dormant almost\nthrough life, the power of accurate and rapid generalization, and the\nmental habit of method and arrangement ; it accustoms young persons\nto trace the sequence of cause and effect ; it familiarizes them with a\nkind of reasoning which interests them, and which they can promptly\ncomprehend ; and it is perhaps the best corrective for that indolence\nwhich is the vice of half-awakened minds, and which shrinks from\nexertion that is not, like an effort of memory, merely mechanical.”\n\nany\n\n"}
{"page": 958, "printed_page": null, "text": "948\n\nNATIONAL\n\nThese\n\nbenefits\n\ncannot\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nbe obtained, however, without much\n\n[Science\n\ncare and\n\nWhat an amount of labor is necesingenuity on the part of the teacher.\nI use the word strictly\nsary to teach students to observe, for example!\nThey all see more or less well in proporin the Sherlock Holmes sense.\nBut not one student in\ntion to the perfection of their optical apparatus.\na hundred is naturally an observer, and not one in a dozen observes even\n\npassably well. They have to be taught, and the strenuousness of the work\nwhich this involves for the teacher cannot be conceived by one who has\nno experience in laboratory teaching.\nI was told by one man, a teacher\nof classics, that all we\n\nhad\n\nto do was\n\nto sit and\n\nread\n\na novel while our\n\nstudents worked.\nThe students have the same idea usually.\nThey rush\nthrough the manipulations prescribed by the directions they have before\nthem, and know no more about the subject when they are done than when\n\nThey are not to be blamed for this failing. They have\nthey started.\npreviously studied subjects in which the material is all supplied in books.\nThey have acquired the habit of taking all they see in print for gospel,\nand learning off by heart whatever they cannot understand.\nSome one\nelse has always been responsible for the facts they have used and has\ninfluenced the conclusions they have drawn.\n|The value of the study of\nscience to those who do not make it a specialty— and they form the majority of our pupils—lies just here. They ought to learn how they may get\nOur task is,\nthe facts, not from books, but by their own investigation.\nconsequently, to induce them, by rigid personal questioning and by compelling them to take full notes, to notice all that happens and to draw\nrational conclusions.\nWe have by main force to overcome “the indolence which,” in the words: of the Royal Commission, ‘is the vice of\nhalf-awakened minds, and which shrinks from any exertion that is not,\nlike an effort of memory, merely mechanical.”\nNaturally, since this kind of teaching is largely individual, large\nclasses cannot be handled by one man.\nI do not see how anything like\nsatisfactory work can be attained with more than twenty students to each\ninstructor.\nIn The University of Chicago I have one assistant for every\nfourteen to fifteen\n\nstudents, during\n\nthe first quarter of the course, and\n\nI\n\nam hard at work myself also during the whole period.\nIn every piece of work prescribed for the student the calling-out of his\nrational powers must be kept prominently in view, and everything that\nwill give any excuse for mechanical work must be eliminated.\nAfter the\nstudy of the principles of the science and the chemistry of the non-metals\nand metals has been completed, work on the characteristics of the various\nelements and compounds whereby they may be recognized should. be\ngiven. ‘This will be followed by the identification of unknown substances\n\nor mixtures of substances — in other words, by analysis in a simple form.\nThis is not only a most excellent review of the subject, but is also one of\n\n"}
{"page": 959, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCHEMISTRY\n\nAS PART\n\nOF A COLLEGE\n\nCOURSE\n\n949\n\nthe most efficient means of enabling the pupil to test the working of his\nreasoning powers and to exercise them still further.\nVet there is here\ngreat danger that the work will become mechanical, and every effort\nmust be made to prevent this.\nStill more must it be most vehemently\nemphasized that no temptations to mechanical work\nas by the use of\nanalytical tables — should be put in the student’s way.\nThe use of mathematical\n\nformule\n\nin calculations, where, for example,\n\nBoyle’s law is employed, is not intended to save the beginner the trouble\nof thinking, but to enable the advanced student to use the result in\nfurther conclusions involving more complex reasoning. A student should\nnever be allowed to employ formulz in working simple sums in the\nHe should reason out the method\narithmetic of chemistry or of physics.\nof procedure from his knowledge of the law every time he uses it. Any\nother course must Cultivate mechanical work.\nSo with the exercises in analysis, even if the student first constructs\nhis table as the result of his own work, if he is afterwards allowed to use\n\nthe table to save himself the trouble of thinking, he will soon have forgotten why certain steps are taken, and later the reason why he does everything will be “ because the table says so.” The work up to the point when\nhe has completed his table, if conscientiously done, is of value.\nAfter\nthat, every time he looks at the table he loses an opportunity to use his\nown brain, and sinks himself deeper in the slough of indolence from\n\nwhich the teacher’s efforts had already partially delivered him.\nI was first taught analysis by a table and learned absolutely nothing.\nI had to start the whole subject afresh in the university, and only then\ndiscovered what rational work meant.\nIn these remarks I have been\nconsidering only the relative pedagogical values of the two methods.\nIt should be added that, if the student continues the study of chemistry, he finds the table of relatively little service in more complex\nanalysis, and having used the table only increases his difficulties instead\nof diminishing them.\nSo that he has been using something which was\nharmful at the time and has little ultimate value in any case. In real\nchemical analysis the plan of analysis must be designed for the special\ncase in hand and devised on the basis of preliminary tests, so that the\ntable has no place in scientific analysis and is pedagogically unsound in\nthe school.\nSince the identification of substances in the course in general chemistry is not intended as instruction in qualitative analysis, it is sufficient\nto suggest a simple outline of dry- and wet-way tests which will throw\nthe burden of thought and rigid proof on the pupil. For the same\nreasons I would\n\ndeprecate\n\nthe introduction\n\nof formulz, equations, and\n\nespecially conceptions of molecules and atoms, at too early astage. Something has been said about this subject already. But experience with\n\n"}
{"page": 960, "printed_page": null, "text": "950\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nstudents whose preliminary training has been had in schools and colleges\nof all descriptions leads me to believe that this is no imaginary evil. I\nmay, therefore, be pardoned for reverting to the subject. These are\nmechanical devices for helping more advanced thought, and are not\nThe student, whether\nintended to take the place of thought altogether.\nin the school or the college, is eager to throw away his precious heritage\nof reason.\nHe acts up to the schoolboy’s definition of a man (he had\nbeen supposed to be studying zoélogy): “An animal which walks on two\nThe distinction which most\nlegs and has hair on the top of its head.”\nof us consider as separating us from the higher apes, and of which we\nare so proud, is here left entirely out.\nEquations and formule are the scaffolding of the science.\nBeginners\npersist in taking the scaffolding for the building; swallow the shell and\nthrow away the kernel.\nWe should draw the distinction between the\nscaffolding and the permanent part of the structure as clearly as possible,\nuse the minimum of scaffolding, and not carry the building higher than\ncan be done with this minimum of scaffolding.\nTo drop the figure, our\ntime will be better spent in giving the fundamental facts and principles\nof the science, and carefully exercising our students in the kind of reasoning for which our science supplies the best material, than in dwelling on\nthe mere technical terminology of the subject.\nWe have fitted every study with such paraphernalia, and each subject\nhas its own passwords and shibboleths.\nBut we must remember that\nknowledge is a whole, and that, when we abstract a single aspect of the\nphenomena of the universe for a separate consideration and call it a subject of study, we do a certain violence to nature.\nAnd when we devise\na terminology and provide the subject with a machinery of theories, we\nare removing it, in a sense, farther and farther from other related subjects.\nWe must beware that we do not make the dry bones and machinery of\nour subject so prominent that they alone remain in the pupil’s mind.\nThis can only lead to the manufacture of prigs instead of scholars— people whose ideas and mode of expression are so specialized that they\ncannot inake themselves intelligible to the ordinary understanding.\nSuch\ntreatment makes the subject dead rather than living, and renders it useful\nto the prospective chemist only, if, indeed, to anyone.\n\nIn conclusion, it should be admitted that other sciences supply approximately the same discipline as chemistry.\nIt is not, therefore, necessary\nto include all the sciences in every school curriculum.\nIf it were only\ninformation they could supply, then the more numerous the sciences\nwere, the wider would be the range of this information.\nBut the chief\nvalue of the study of science lies in the education of the judgment which\nit promotes and the rational habit of mind which it fosters. These things\nare better attained by a year’s study of each science selected, than by cur-\n\n"}
{"page": 961, "printed_page": null, "text": "i\n\nDepartment]\n\nCHEMISTRY\n\nAS PART\n\nsory glimpses of the whole\n\ncircle\n\nOF A COLLEGE\n\nCOURSE\n\nof the sciences.\n\nWe\n\ncan\n\n951\n\ngain some\n\ninformation, and even personally verify some of the statements in the textbook, in a term or less. We cannot change our habits of thought without\nan actual organic change in the brain substance, and more prolonged\nwork in one line is necessary to make the change permanent and effective,\n\nDISCUSSION,\nPROFESSOR W. A. Noyes, Terre Haute, Ind.— High-school people have a right to\nexpect that they be taught such facts as lie at the very foundation of life. With this in\nview when teaching chemistry, there is danger of converting our text-books into mere\nThe disciplinary element has been so strongly\nencyclopedias of detailed statement.\nemphasized by all that we may be in danger of overrating its value, and to such an extent\nas to overlook the facts. So much attention has been directed to the Zow that we are in\ndanger of neglecting the wha.\nThe object of discipline is to develop correct habits of\nthought.\nHow shall we test the implied dogma lying behind theories presented to the\nmind?\nScientific men are very suspicious of every theory not supported by experimental\nfact. Hence we should always strive to show the natural relations of fact and theory.\nExperiment serves a double purpose: Firstly, to develop information; and, secondly, to\ndiscipline in scientific method.\nThe historical development of the laboratory in America shows that it was formerly, and mainly, used for the purpose of illustrating disjointed facts. Qualitative experiments were first selected because they were easily perside, and that\n\na narrow one, and were liable to lose\n\nsight of the fundamental principles of the science.\n\nThis has been recently modified by\n\nformed;\n\nbut they gave\n\nonly one\n\nthe introduction of the more scientific element, vzz., a considerable amount of quantitative\n\nA good, typical quantitative experiment is the following, which is fairly complex,\nwork.\nand which leads the student to estimate the quantitative combining ratios of hydrogen,\nchlorine, silver, and zinc:\n\nFirstly, a weighed quantity of pure metallic silver is dissolved in nitric acid; the\nsilver is then precipitated by hydrochloric acid and weighed as silver chloride. Secondly,\na measured quantity of hydrochloric acid is precipitated by an excess of silver nitrate and\nweighed as silver chloride. Thirdly, the same quantity of hydrochloric acid is decomposed by an excess of metallic zinc, and the hydrogen evolved is measured.\n\nSome\n\nsuch experiments— and they may be greatly modified and extended\n— should\n\nbe given.\n\nAnd, further, and very important, the student should reason out the relations of\n\nthe problem.\nIn response to a question of Mr. O. C. Clark, of Salt Lake City, regarding the qualchemical work done by high-school students, Professor Smith said that about ten in\nof\nity\ntwenty-five were well prepared.\nPRoressor KOHLENBERG, of the University of Wisconsin, spoke, deprecating the value\n\nof preparatory chemistry.\nHe was answered by Miss Fordice, of Iowa, who said the difficulty was that the\nThe high schools are ready and able to do good\ncolleges did not state what was wanted.\nwork.\nPROFESSOR FREER spoke, testifying to the good quality of the work recently done by\nthe high schools.\nPROFESSOR PALMER took the floor, emphasizing improvement in the preparatory\nchemistry.\n\n"}
{"page": 962, "printed_page": null, "text": "952\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nZOOLOGY\n\nIN THE\n\nBY\n\nBALDWIN\n\nHENRY\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nCURRICULUM.\n\nWARD,\n\nOF\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\n[Science\n\nNEBRASKA.\n\nA long time has elapsed since Bacon gave to the world the sound\nadvice that ‘we should accustom ourselves to things themselves.”\nLittle\nby little this idea has gained ground, until now it is recognized as a general principle in every grade of educational work and in widely separated\ndepartments of study that contact with concrete objects is far more\ninspiring and thought-producing than the mere scanning of black marks\non a white page.\nSo far as natural science is concerned, the varied training which it affords has been abundantly discussed before this association\nand elsewhere.\nTo be sure, its practical value was for many years,\nunfortunately, the chief, or even the only, reason advanced for its impor-\n\ntance from the educational standpoint.\nBut of late attention has been\ndirected to more fundamental considerations, prominent among which\nmay be mentioned the interest always aroused and, consequently, developed by it along a “line of least resistance.”\nIt was reserved for the\nwork of this Natural Science Department last year to furnish through the\npapers of two able educators specific demonstration of what many of us\nhave felt for years, that natural science possesses a culture value in education as well as practical\n\nworth, and\n\nthat, furthermore, its culture\n\nvalue\n\nis\n\nnot a whit less important or less necessary than that of certain educational shibboleths. In fact, the educational world is just coming to believe\nwhat Louis Agassiz maintained more than twenty-five yearsago:\n“A few\nweeks’ training in natural science is the best preparation a man can have\nfor work in any department of life.”\nThe right of natural science to a place in the curriculum of our\nschools is still less open to question, since its introduction in various\nplaces has been productive of such favorable results.\nThese have been\nattained in spite of many adverse circumstances: lack of knowledge on\nthe part of the teachers of both the subject-matter and of the method of\nteaching it; lack of facilities in schools, and not only lack of sympathy,\nbut even active and violent opposition in many cases, from the public.\nAll this is rapidly passing away; natural science has won its place. But\nthere still exist differences of opinion with reference to the time and,\nespecially, with regard to the manner in which it shall be studied.\nIt is\nmy purpose to discuss these questions briefly, as far as they concern the\nrelations of one branch of natural science to the curriculum of the high\nschool.\nThe study of life represents, undoubtedly, the culmination of natural\n\n"}
{"page": 963, "printed_page": null, "text": "wel\nic\n5\nWien \\ 5\n\nDepartment]\n\nZOOLOGY\n\nIN THE\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nCURRICULUM\n\n953\n\nscience, taken in its widest sense, and yet the preliminary consideration\nof this subject may well come, if need be, in the first year of the highschool course.\nAs the nature study of the grades has made the pupil\nfamiliar with the external form and habits of animals, particularly:\nthose with which he is most frequently brought in contact, he is fitted\n\nof\nto\n\ntake up the study of their internal anatomy and the general discussion of\ntheir structure.\nMoreover, the subject does not necessarily involve previous training in other\n\nscientific\n\nbranches.\n\nTo\n\nbe sure,\n\nno\n\none\n\nof us\n\nwould doubt that a preliminary study of chemistry and physics, to say\nnothing of other less closely related branches, would enable the student\nto appreciate better and more fully the facts which are presented to him\nin the world of life. But specific preparatory work is not essential to\nbiological study, however advantageous it may be, and, on the other\nhand, the phenomena of life appeal to the opening mind in its untrained\ncondition much more powerfully than do the more formal processes of\nIn my opinreasoning involved in the physical and chemical sciences.\nion, while biological study should open the high-school course, it should\nalso close it, and its highest aspect, the study of man himself, should be\ntaken up in the senior year in the light of the studies already made in\ngeneral biology, chemistry, and physics.\nThe phenomena of life are so similar, whether presented ‘by plants or\nanimals, and the work on the one subject is so clearly the complement of\nthat on\n\nthe\n\nother, that\n\nthe really\n\nadvantageous\n\nprogramme\n\nwill either\n\nalternate the two or provide that the work in the one follows closely\nupon the completion of that in the other subject.\nIf this be the case,\nthe botanical work, on account of the somewhat greater simplicity and\ndecidedly less mobility of plant structure, should precede the work in\nzoology.\nThe character of the work itself may now be subject to more careful\nanalysis, and, while I shall consider simply work in zodlogy, yet, on\naccount of the essential similarity among living things, there is much\nthat, mutatis mutandis, may be applied equally to botanical work.\nThere\nare a number of elements to be considered in planning a high-school\ncourse in zodlogy : the laboratory work, the field excursions, the text-book\nor lecture work; these should be supplemented by the formation of\nAs laboratory work is the keystone\ncollections and by collateral reading.\nof the modern scientific method, it naturally demands the major portion\nof the time; from three-fifths to four-fifths of the time at the disposal of\nthe course should be spent in laboratory study. But it is not enough to\ndevote to it this time; the work must be carefully planned and conducted along logical lines, if the results are to be obtained of the proc-\n\nesses involved in the work.\n\nThe first is observation of the object under\n\nconsideration, the animal itself.\n\nThis must needs be careful and critical,\n\n"}
{"page": 964, "printed_page": null, "text": "954\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nand every effort should be made to lead the pupil to the analytical habit\nHe must distinguish between what is actually observed and\nof thought.\nwhat is only an inference from the facts observed.\nBut the observation thus made does not become a possession of the\nstudent —-is not available for further use—until it can be reproduced with\naccuracy. To thisend a careful drawing constitutes a necessary part of the\nprocess.\nSo-called “approximately correct” drawing is the usual result\nWhile the drawing of the object\nof a generally inaccurate observation.\nshows whether the observation has been correct, a further step is needed\nto fix that observation in the mind.\nIt should be recorded in note form.\nThis description will show at once what the student has judged to be\nThese notes\nimportant and what has been estimated of little value.\nshould be criticised more closely than any other part of the process.\nHere is a frequent cause of failure, I am sure, in the work of certain\nteachers; instead of cultivating the accuracy which they appreciate as\nnecessary in mathematical training, they permit the description\n— which is\nmerely a specific statement of the observation—to be made in such a\nloose and inexact fashion that the effect is really the reverse of that\nsought.\nThe fourth step in laboratory work is a comparison of the observation\njust made with\n\nother cases.\n\nExercise\n\nof the analytical powers, merely,\n\ndoes not bring full development; through the comparison of the facts\nobtained from various sources the power of allowable scientific induction\nand generalization is also to be developed.\nThis is a real point of\ndanger in our emphasis of the laboratory method.\nIt tends, perhaps, to\nteach\n\ndestructive\n\nrather\n\nthan\n\nconstructive\n\nreasoning, and\n\nhere\n\nI think\n\nthat those who urge the introduction of a certain amount of systematic\nwork into the laboratory training have strong grounds for their position.\nEntomology and conchology have already attained to a sufficient stage\nof development as sciences to furnish satisfactory material for comparative study, and, since they treat of objects easily preserved and plentifullyobtained, their practical introduction is attended with little difficulty.\nThey deal, moreover, with hard parts, capable of exact measurement and\nof description in precise terms, and not subject to great individual variation.\nThis work is peculiarly fitted to attain the desired results as\nregards\n\ncare, accuracy,\n\nand\n\ndiscrimination\n\nbetween\n\nessential\n\nand non-\n\nessential factors. Similar work forms an important factor in the naturalscience study of the German gymnasia, and, so far as one can judge\nfrom its bearing on higher education, the results are most desirable.\nThere are two conflicting methods in vogue as regards the scope of\nlaboratory work in zodlogy. On the one hand, the student is to observe\na little about a great many objects, a point here and a point there, until\na large amount of ground has been covered, but the hard places have ©\n\ni\nae\n\n"}
{"page": 965, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nZOOLOGY IN THE HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULUM\n\n955\n\nbeen necessarily skipped, while accuracy and thoroughness have been\nsacrificed to “breadth” of training.\nSome one has very aptly said that\nitis the office of biology to educate rather than instruct.\nAnd the rapid\nmethod, which, to my mind, has much of the butterfly habit in it, fails to\nemphasize some very important results which may be obtained through\nlaboratory work.\nOn the other hand, a more\n\nber of forms.\n\nPersonally I am\n\naccurate study\n\nis made of a limited\n\nnum-\n\nconvinced that a series of typical forms,\n\nif studied thoroughly, carefully, and analytically, will yield those\n\nresults\n\nin accuracy, in power of thought, and in independence of judgment\nwhich are the greatest pride of every successful science teacher.\nIt is\nnot necessary to study many forms, to cover a large amount of ground,\neven to take up a representative of every branch of the animal kingdom.\nThe best of laboratory manuals attempt too much for the time ordinarily\ndevoted to such a course. It is the quality of the work, not the quantity,\nthat will yield the results sought after.\nThe choice of a laboratory guide needs to be made with great care, if\na spirit of independence in the work is to be cultivated. |Many teachers\nprefer to write outlines themselves, but the majority will no doubt be\ncompelled to depend on the published manuals.\nThe method employed\nin such a book is of vital importance, and there is grave danger lest the\nlaboratory guide chosen be of such a character that the process of observation degenerates to a mere superficial verification of the facts worked\nout by the author of the manual.\nNo matter how considerable the variations from the truth may actually be, I have rarely found a student who\nhas failed to “verify” the “facts” as stated to him. ‘The truly valuable\nlaboratory guide employs the interrogation point more frequently than\nthe period.\nIt is undoubtedly the pressure of overwork and lack of familiarity, on\nthe part of the teachers themselves, with this side of the topic that have\nresulted in such limited use of the laboratory of nature. We walk through\nlife with our eyes shut, and even students of biological problems are, with\n\na measure of justice, charged with having become mere laboratory\nmanipulators.\nThe study of living things in their natural environment\nhas been neglected, and here we may take another lesson from the German schools, in which field work constitutes a regular and prominent ©\nAsa matter of fact, field excurpart of every course in natural science.\nand stimulating factors in\nvaluable\nmost\nthe\nof\nsions are actually one\neasily degenerate into\nnot\nmay\nthey\nthat\nNot\nbiological training.\ndesired end; but,\ntheir\nof\nfail\nentirely\nnothing more than a picnic and\nrecurring at\nwork,\nregular\nthe\nof\nif systematically carried out as a part\nas to\nplanned\nso\nand\nweather),\nthe\nspecific intervals (with due regard to\nthey\nthoroughly,\nthat\nand\ncover each time but a limited area of ground,\n\n"}
{"page": 966, "printed_page": null, "text": "956\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nbecome a powerful element in training the observation, and also furnish\nTo be\na never-failing source of interest for all who participate in them.\nbe\nshould\nand\nadvance,\nin\nplanned\ncarefully\nsuccessful, they must be\nof\nlife\nthe\nof\npossible\nas\nsurvey\na\nthorough\naimed to give the pupils as\nbiological\ntheir\nof\nidea\nany\nhave\nwho\nare\nHow few there\nthat region.\nAll teachers will find in the Agassiz Association a source\nenvironment!\nFrom a hygienic point of\nof assistance and inspiration for this work.\nview the introduction of field excursions should be strongly urged, and\nthe esthetic value of acquaintance with nature needs no emphasis. If the\nchild is not brought into communion with nature, she will woo the heart\nof the man in vain.\nAs a text-book the old-time “natural history” had its undoubted\nadvantages ; its encyclopedic character, the large amount of information\nthat could be acquired within a limited time—and forgotten even\nsooner, as some of us could bear witness -— put it, in this respect, far ahead\n\nof any other means of instruction.\nBut this advantage is more than outweighed by the fatal dependence upon authority and the study of that\nrather than the object. Of course, no one could hope to have a pupil\nacquire a satisfactory idea of general zodlogy by laboratory processes\nalone.\nSome information, especially concerning those inductrtons which\nwe call biological principles, must be furnished second-hand.\n‘The great\ntrouble is that most of the text-books at present available are merely\nbooks of reference, much like our old natural histories, and void of any\n\nmention of the biological side of the subject. Until there shall be greater\nemphasis placed upon the general biological aspect, many teachers will\nprefer to instruct by the lecture method, with its undoubted advantages,\nin spite of the difficulties which will always be met in dealing with\nyounger pupils. The personal element imparted through a lecture is a\nconstant source of inspiration to the classes.\nIn connection with the systematic work of the laboratory and with\nthe field excursions, it will be natural for the student to gather a collection, and, if the\n\ntendency\n\nbe well\n\ndirected,\n\nit becomes\n\na valuable\n\nfactor in the education of the individual.\nOf course, a heterogeneous\nmass of stuff does neither the accumulator nor anyone else any good;\nbut the same energy devoted to a limited group would yield valuable\nresults and perhaps lay the foundation for a lifelong study of incalculable\nvalue to the student. Among other nations educated men have regularly\neach\n\nhis scientific or literary diversion ; here the tendency is rather\ntowards more ephemeral amusements.\nIt is a single step from the individual collection of the student to that\n\nof the school itself. The school museum should be a working collection\nonly, not merely a receptacle for curiosities.\nIt is the comparative\nlaboratory, and should contain nothing except what can be used and is\n\n_ee\nS\n\n"}
{"page": 967, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nZOOLOGY IN THE HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULUM\n\n957\n\nused.\nIf properly arranged, and cared for, it will be an object of pride\nto the school; it will also excite a large fund of- interest and be an\ninspiration to a much larger body than those directly connected with the\nwork in natural science.\nThe gradual contributions of successive classes\nwill serve to build up a complete representation of the local fauna and to\nmake it of value as a record of life in that region.\nFinally, among these elements of a well-rounded course may be mentioned collateral reading.\nThe acquirement of information in this way\ncomes\n\nnormally last of all. Taken at the right time, its value in broadening the horizon is not easily overestimated.\nIt should be varied and,\n\nif possible, spontaneous on the part of the pupils, at least to the extent\nof their exercising a choice in the selection of reading from the works\nlisted.\nI believe that a most valuable source of such reading is to be\nfound in the travels of famous naturalists and in the records of those close\nstudents of nature whose works have attracted literary as well as scientific\nNo one can cross the ocean with Yacht Sunbeam, explore\nattention.\ntropical forests with Agassiz or Wallace, or walk amid the quiet scenes of\n\nNew England with Thoreau, without acquiring some of the power of\nobservation which characterized these men, and cultivating at the same\ntime a taste for good reading,-which will tend to counteract the unhealthful appetite for trash so prevalent in the younger generation at present.\nI cannot close without a word on one point. The ultimate results of\nany study depend very largely upon the teacher.\nAll of us know that it\nwas the teacher frequently more than the subject which yielded the best\nin our\n\nschool\n\nlife, and, necessary\n\nas mere\n\nknowledge\n\nmay\n\nbe, it can\n\nnever compensate for lack of inspiration.\nWhat was it that made Louis\nAgassiz the greatest biological teacher of our country and our time? Not ~\nthat he was a close observer— others\n\nhave equaled him in this respect;\nnor yet that the fund of information at his command, that his wale train-\n\ning and personal contact with the great minds of the century in pean\nscience, had given him intellectual resources beyond those of his associates.\n\nIt\n\nwas,\n\nrather,\n\nhis\n\nboundless\n\nenthusiasm\n\nthat\n\nrecognized\n\nno\n\nobstacles, that knew the end secure before the beginning was made; it\nwas the divine inspiration which has not only reflected itself in his own\nwork, but has also been transmitted to scores and hundreds of those who\n\nI care not how well\nhave been his scholars and his scholars’ scholars.\nyou know how to teach, how thoroughly you have at command _ methods\nand theories, your success will be measured by your devotion, by the\nAs Faust says:\ninspiration you can impart to others.\nGrau, lieber Freund, ist alle Theorie,\n\nUnd griin des Lebens goldner Baum.\n\n"}
{"page": 968, "printed_page": null, "text": "958\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nDISCUSSION.\nE. R. Boyer, High School, Englewood, Ill.— I agree with Professor Ward that an\nelementary course in biology does not necessarily involve previous training in other\nI know from both experience and observation that a year’s work or\nscientific studies.\nmore in biology may be successfully accomplished during the first half of the high-school\ncourse,\nEvery teacher of biology knows that in a more advanced course and in college\nthe studies of physics and chemistry are prerequisites to biology, but I believe it to be\nboth desirable and practicable to arrange an elementary course in biology which shall\ninvolve but few points in physics and chemistry, and that these may be included in the\ncourse and introduced as they are needed.\nThe principles and laws of the so-called\nsciences are so intimately related and mutually dependent that the hard and fast lines\nwhich formerly separated them into distinct sciences are becoming obliterated.\nIs it not\ntrue that teachers in elementary and secondary schools are too much afraid of crossing\nthe arbitrary boundaries of their immediate study and thereby frequently lose an opportunity of teaching a truth in its natural connection or of bringing into vital relation what\nwould otherwise be disjointed and apparently unrelated facts ?\nTo my mind the logical and natural order of the biological studies which were formerly placed on our high-school programme, regardless of sequence, is as follows : Botany,\nzoology, human physiology. In this arrangement the study of the structure of the higher\nanimals naturally leads to that of the human body, and the elements of plant and animal\nphysiology to the physiology of man.\nAllow me to emphasize the importance of carefully executed sketches or drawings\nin connection with the laboratory work, and the very great importance of accurate written\ndescriptions of the pupils’ observations.\nIt has been truly said that a scientific observation is never complete until it is accurately written out. Such a description should be\norderly, clear, concise, and accurate, and\n\nis absolutely impossible without a diligent and\n\ncareful study of the object itself. It is here that the pupil must make a shaip line between\nhis actual observations and his inferences.\nThe teachers of biology in our secondary schools need a broader knowledge of the\nphysical sciences in general and of modern biology in particular; furthermore, they need\na clear and definite plan of work with the threefold aim of caudture, knowledge, and interest\n\n—-or, in other words, a training in scientific methods, the acquisition of scientific knowledge, and a true love of nature.\nWe need to avoid the unimportant details of structure and to emphasize the important ones and their significance.\nAll lecture work and reading should follow the laboratory and field study, and should be based upon it.\n\ne\n\n"}
{"page": 969, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF SCHOOL\n\nSECRT\n\nDANY of MINU LES,\n\nFIRST\nThe session was\ncity hall, at\n\nADMINISTRATION.\n\nSESSION.—Tuurspay,\n\nJuLy\n\n8.\n\nheld in the chamber of the Milwaukee Board of School Directors,\n\n3 Pp. M., with\n\nDr.\n\nH. L.\n\nGetz,\n\nof Marshalltown,\n\nIa., the President\n\nof the\n\ndepartment, in the chair.\nAfter music by a quartette, the address of welcome was delivered by Hon. Charles\nQuarles, President of the city Board of School Directors.\nPresident Getz responded in\nbehalf of the department.\nThe opening address on “ Hints on School Administration”\nwas delivered\n\nby Dr. H. L. Getz, of Marshalltown, Ia.\n\nA paper was given\n\nby J. W.\n\nErrant, member of the Board\n\nof Education, Chicago,\n\nIll., upon “ Reform in School Administration.”\nThe paper was discussed by Mrs. Benj. F. Taylor, member of the Board of Education, Cleveland, O.\n\nThe second\n\npaper was given by Mrs. Alice\n\nBradford Wiles, member of the Board\n\nof Education, Freeport, Ill., upon “ Relation of the School Board\n\nto the People.”\n\nThe paper was discussed by Samuel M. Foster, of Fort Wayne, Ind.; A. J. Lindemann, of Milwaukee, Wis.; Mrs. James Frake, of Chicago, III., and others.\n\nThe third paper was given by R. E. Sears, member of the Board of Education,\nMarshalltown, Ia., upon “The True Function of the Public School.” The paper was\ndiscussed by Wm.\n\nS. Mack, of Aurora, Ill.; P. N. Siegler, of Dayton, O.; B. R. Vineyard,\nof St. Joseph, Mo., and others.\n\nA Committee on Nominations was appointed, as follows:\nJohn B, Jones, of Utica, N. Y.; Chas. E. Bair, of Oil City, Pa.; B. W. Wright, of Ishpeming, Mich.\n\nThe meeting then adjourned.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION.—\n\nFripDaAy,\n\nJULY 9.\n\nThe Committee on Nominations submitted the following report:\nFor President, John E. Brandegee, Utica, N. Y.\nFor First Vice-Prestdent, Kenton Chickering, Oil City, Pa.\nFor Second Vice-President, Charles Quarles, Milwaukee, Wis.\nFor Secretary, Wm. Geo. Bruce, Milwaukee, Wis.\nFor Executive Committee—Wm, S. Mack, Aurora, Ill,, Chairman; Mrs, B. F. Taylor, Cleveland, O. ;\nSamuel M. Foster, Fort Wayne, Ind.; E. F. Bradt, Ishpeming, Mich,; Dr. R. C. Hanchett, Syracuse, N.Y. ;\nJ. W. Errant, Chicago, Ill.\n\nThe report was unanimously adopted, and the officers declared elected.\nJohn E. Brandegee, of Utica, N. Y., offered the following resolution, which was\nadopted :\nResolved, That the Executive Committee report at the next annual meeting of this department a plan for\n\norganization and development of this department and for raising the necessary funds therefor.\n\nWm. S. Mack, of Aurora, IIl., offered the following resolution, which was adopted :\n959\n\n"}
{"page": 970, "printed_page": null, "text": "960\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[School\n\nResolved, That it is the opinion of the Department of School Administration that the appropriation of\nto\n$25 for the annual expenses of each department is wholly inadequate for the purpose, and should be increasd\nt\n$roo.\n\nResolved, That the Secretary of this department be instructed to transmit this resolution to the chair-\n\nman of the Executive Committee or other proper officers of the National\n\nWm. S. Mack*moved\n\nappoint\n\nthat the chair\n\nEducational Assoctation.\n\na committee of three, to report, at the\n\nnext meeting of this department, a plan for securing uniform school reports, so that reliable comparisons may be made as to the cost per pupil for heating, for tuition, for incidental expenses, etc.\nThe motion was carried.\nThe chair appointed as such committee :\nWm.\n\nS, Mack, of Aurora, Ill.; P. N. Siegler, of Dayton, O., and John B. Jones, of Utica, N. Y.\n\nPresident H. L. Getz suggested that the department hold its next year’s sessions on\nthe second and third days of the meeting of the National Educational Association, instead\nof the fourth and fifth days.\nOn motion, the time of meeting was left to the Executive Committee.\nWm. Geo. Bruce moved that it be the sense of the Department of Schoo] Administration to have the department represented in the Board of Trustees of the National\nEducational Association.\nThe motion was unanimously carried.\nA paper prepared by T. H. Watkins, President of the Board of Education of Louisville, upon ‘“‘Selection of School Boards— A Comparative Estimate of the General Methods now in Operation,” was read by Robert J. Frick, of that city.\nThe paper was discussed by John E. Brandegee, of Utica, N. Y.; Mrs. Alice Bradford\nWiles, of Freeport, Ill., and others.\n\nA paper was given by A. H. Kirchner, architect for the school board of St. Louis, Mo.,\nupon ‘“‘ Schoolhouse Construction— the Important Ends to be Attained in the Planning\nand Building of Schoolhouses.”\nThe paper was discussed by Adrian Houtkamp, of Milwaukee, Wis.\n\nThe newly elected President was then introduced.\nA vote of thanks was extended\nto the retiring officers, whereupon the department adjourned size die.\nWILLIAM\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND,\n\nADDRESS\nBY\n\nHON.\n\nCHARLES\n\nQUARLES,\n\nOF\n\nGEORGE\n¥\n\nBRUCE,\nSecretary.\n\nDISCUSSIONS.\nWELCOME.\n\nPRESIDENT,\nMILWAUKEE,\n\nBOARD\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOL\n\nDIRECTORS,\n\nWIS.\n\nMr. Chairman, Ladies and Gentlemen:\n\nWisconsin stands committed to the cause of popular education, not\nonly by the policy adopted and pursued, but as a matter of duty arising\nfrom compact.\n\nThe ordinance\n\nof 1787, which\n\norganized the Northwest\n\nTerritory,\n\n"}
{"page": 971, "printed_page": null, "text": "Administration]\n\nADDRESS\n\nOF WELCOME\n\n961\n\ngives at once the rule which binds us today and the reason therefor:\n“Religion, morality, and knowledge being necessary to good government and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of education\nshall forever be encouraged.”\nhe moment that Wisconsin came into being as a separate territory,\nit committed itself to this policy by legislation.\nOne of the earliest acts\nof the territorial legislature of 1838 begins as follows:\n“Every town in this territory containing not less than ten families\nshall be a school district and shall be provided with a competent schoolmaster or mistress to instruct children.”\nThe moment that the thirty-six square miles of forest, constituting a\n“township,” acquired a population equal to fifty or thereabouts it became\na school district, and the schoolmaster’s reign began.\nBut neither compact nor legislation was needed as a spur to the noble\nmen and women who in the later thirties and forties chose Wisconsin for\nahome. . Out of their poverty they gave, that the men of today might\nhave light. As they felled trees of which to build their cabins, they\ntrimmed certain of the trunks and notched the logs for the construction\nof arude schoolhouse.\nAs they split the ‘‘shakes”’ which were to rattle\nover their own heads as sorry substitutes for shingles, they gave tithe from\nthem for the roof of the cabin where education should be fostered.\nThe forest has given way to farms, hamlets, and cities, but the policy\nremains, and the impulse which our fathers gave continues, and, I trust,\n\nwill be forever active.\nMilwaukee from the beginning has carried forward this good work.\nNo village or city in America has been more unanimous or consistent in\ncontinuously striving to advance the cause of popular education.\nThe population of ‘our city is drawn from many sources and presents\nevery variety of European nationality and all shades of religious belief.\nBut\n\nall, whether\n\nPuritan, Catholic, freethinker, Yankee, German, Dutch,\n\nPole, or Norseman, have labored together with this one common purWe have our squabbles among ourselves as to the means, but we\npose.\nAnd we realize that the best means to\nall agree as to the end desired.\nreach this end can be developed only by the attrition of controversy.\nWe in Wisconsin believe in popular education on the very grounds\non which it has been so recently publicly condemned. We appreciate the\nfact eee “education\n\nbreeds ambition, and\n\nthat ambition\n\nbreeds\n\ndiscon-\n\nBut we recognize this other fact, that out of discontent comes\ntent.”\nimprovement, and without it ensue degeneration and death; that men\ncontented with themselves and their condition are beasts of burden only,\nand that progress and social evolution can come only from the struggle\nof the individual to ascend.\n\nWe welcome the kind of discontent caused by right education, and\n\nty\n\n+e\n\n"}
{"page": 972, "printed_page": null, "text": "962\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[School\n\nOut of this can never come\nexpect from it nothing but good to society.\nThe education conevolution.\nis\nbring\nmay\nit\nrevolution\nthe\nfor\nanarchy,\nframers of the\nuntrained\ny\ncomparativel\nand\nsturdy\nthe\nby\ntemplated\ncentury later,\na\nHuxley,\nby\ndetined\ncarefully\nso\nthat\nis\n1787\nof\nordinance\nnot\nincluding,\nnature,\nof\nlaws\nthe\nin\nintellect\nthe\nof\ns “the instruction\nmere things and their forces, but men\n\nand their ways, and the fashioning\n\nof the affections and of the will into an earnest and loving desire to move\nin harmony with those laws.” Thus the backwoods men felt what the\nphilosopher has analyzed.\nOut of such education can come nothing disadvantageous to the body\npolitic ; for, though institutions inconsistent with its purposes go down\nbefore it, “‘melioration of man’s estate’’ must always follow.\n\nBut most of all we prize our public free schools, not alone for the education they offer to the poor man’s child, but particularly for the breadth\nof the education which they give to the son of the rich man.\nThe daily contact on the playground and in the class-room teaches\nall that the differences in station are, so far as they are concerned, accidental ; that caste does not exist ; that there is no gulf fixed between the\nrich and the poor, but that each individual may appropriate to himself\nsuch place as he may be fitted to fill.\nThe continuous object-lesson is presented to the millionaire’s son\nthat his poor neighbor is not only of the same clay, but on precisely the\nsame plane as himself\n— accidental conditions excepted —and to the poor\nboy that he may acquire for his children all the exceptional advantages\nenjoyed by his wealthy friend.\nIt seems that the only danger threatening our republic is the possibility that numbers of reasonable laboring men may conclude and feel\nthat rigid lines of demarcation are drawn between the rich and poor; that\na condition may come to exist, or be believed to exist, such as will render\n\ntransfusion from class to class impossible, and such that the child born\npoor must always remain pro/éfaire.\nWhen that condition arrives, or is\ngenerally and sincerely believed to have arrived, the life of the Republic\nwill not, in my judgment, be worth a year’s purchase.\nTo prevent the development of such a condition and of such a belief,\nthe strongest influence is the mingling of the children on a common level\nin the public schools.\n‘The child of the plutocrat will acquire from his\nragged friend a certain robustness of thought and a sympathy for his\nfellows that will add immensely to his value as a citizen. And the poorest boy will learn for his lifetime that he and his petted playmate are’\nmembers of one family, and that every American child is eligible to a\nposition in any class; and the discontent engendered in his breast will\nprompt him to attempt his own elevation, rather than the degradation of\nthose above him.\n\n"}
{"page": 973, "printed_page": null, "text": "Administration]\n\nHINTS\n\nON\n\nSCHOOL\n\nADMINISTRATION\n\n963\n\nIn the name of the Board of School Directors of the city of Milwaukee, I extend to you all the heartiest greeting, and bid you welcome.\n\nHINTS\n\nON SCHOOL\n\nBY-H.\n\nL. GETZ,\n\nADMINISTRATION.\n\nMARSHALLTOWN,\n\nSo far as years go, we, the Department\n\nIA.\n\nof School\n\nAdministration\n\nin\n\nthe parent organization of the N. E. A., now nearly forty years old, are\nas yet among the “cradle goods.” The infant is, however, a healthy one,\nand, if furnished with\n\nan\n\nabundance\n\nof diet, healthy and\n\nnutritious, of\n\nwhich an unlimited supply falls constantiy, legally, and morally into the\nhands of all school-board members for disposition, this babe will soon\nstand upon strong and well-developed legs, with a physique and organization equal to any of its kin, and, let us hope, may develop and prove\nitself of such vast usefulness in the work it shall accomplish as will\nproperly merit for itself the designation “giant of them all.”\nTo\naccomplish these ends much work needs to be done in the way of educating school boards and the general public.\nThere should be elected or\nappointed, as members of school boards, only such men and married\nwomen as have an interest in the work, and who will devote their time\nand energy to the same.\nThey should be educated so that they may,\nwithout presumption, regard themselves in the average the equals of superintendents and teachers.\nThey should be successful in the management\nof their own business affairs ; they should be honest, studious, and industrious; they should be just, sound thinkers and positive, and have at heart\nthe interests of the schools, understand fully their objects, estimate carefully how, when, and where the same may be improved, and how much\nmoney may and should be expended in a judicious way to improve\nthem, rather than to figure with a view of determining how little may be\nmade to serve the purpose and still have a semblance to the ideal public\nWith all this, the taxpayers must be remembered and a\nor free schools.\nthoughtful attention given to the school and district environment, so that\na burdensome taxation may be avoided.\nAn honest and conscientious\nman should place his qualifications in the balance, as it were, and before\neven accepting a candidacy, much more an election, as a member of a\nboard of education, should determine as to whether he can come credit-\n\nably near meeting the requirements necessary for the intelligent discharge\nof the duties of so important a position.\nInstead of the condition of\naffairs existing as just described, we have candidates often urged by politicians or others who have “‘axes\n\nto grind” and\n\nhave\n\nnot\n\nthe\n\nslightest\n\n"}
{"page": 974, "printed_page": null, "text": "964\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[School\n\ninterest in the welfare of the schools or the betterment of the juvenile\nelement of their community. ‘This class of men are apt to have hearts\nsteeped in indifference, personal greed, and all else that is most undeSo long as the arguments find favor that\nsirable in an American citizen.\nsuperintendents and teachers should dictate to a board of education the\nneeds and wants pertaining to the strictly educational features of the\nschools, thereby creating the idea that any stick or fossil will do to\napprove\n\nof, or\n\nratify, such\n\ndictation,\n\nthe people\n\nwill not,\n\ncannot,\n\nbe\n\nexpected to insist upon the proper qualifications being possessed by the\naverage school-board representative.\nPersonal experience and observation have led me to conclude that\nsuperintendents,\n\nin some\n\ninstances,\n\nseemed\n\nto prefer\n\nthe\n\nelection\n\non\n\nboards of education of men who were the weakest and the poorest in\nqualification for the position.\nTo have perfect and satisfactory results,\nthe most profound respect and confidence must prevail in the fitness\nand integrity of purpose, for furthering the welfare of the schools and the\nmasses of the people, between the superintendent and the members of the\nboard.\n‘The ideal board of education must possess a reasonable quantity\nand good quality of brain to enable it to think, reason, sift the chaff\nfrom the wheat, in everything that pertains to the education of the young;\nthat is, the environments.\n\nin detail, hygienic\n\nand\n\nsanitary,\n\neducational\n\nand moral.\nUnder the latter head I would include a broader scope\nthan is usually intended by the use of the word; I would suggest that a\ngreater effort be made in the direction of teaching a more decided sense\nof duty, the rights of others, fairness, helpfulness, justice, courteousness.\nThese things, not necessarily as a part of, or in the light of, religious teaching, but as the pure and simple duties individuals owe one to another,\nbecause they are just. I am sure that boards of education will find that,\nas special aids in developing these finer qualities and motives in individuals, the influences\n\nof music, the teaching of the beauty of flowers, and\n\nall else there is in nature and art that is perfect and ideal, are absolutely\nessential, These results will be most decided and perfect when the\nteaching is done by women, who, more than men, possess a keen and\nfine sense of the perfect, beautiful, and ideal ; are, therefore, better adapted\n\nthan men to bring about in the schoolroom these most desirable impressions and results. Women should, therefore, not be displaced by the\nsterner sex, unless it be in the teaching of sciences, or in high-school\nprincipalships and superintendencies; even here, in many instances, it is\ndoubtful if men accomplish more than women.\nMarried women should not be employed in our public schools as\nteachers, except in emergencies, for reasons too numerous to mention here.\nThe higher order of work in teaching should be given with a conscien-\n\ni\n\n"}
{"page": 975, "printed_page": null, "text": "Administration]\n\nHINTS ON SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION\n\n965\n\ntiousness to women who are brainy, refined, and consecrated to their life\nwork, and have proven their interest and ability in the same.\nAmong the most difficult problems for many members of boards of\neducation to solve is what constitutes so-called “fads.”\nAmong these\nmay be enumerated bands and military organizations, physical culture,\nelocution, music, drawing, business course, including bookkeeping, stenog-\n\nraphy and typewriting; German, French, Greek, etc.\nExtraordinarily\ngood reasons may be given why the first two should be regarded as fads\nand should find no place as a part of a public-school course; others have\ntheir objections and their advantages; some of them may, perhaps, in a\nmeasure, be regarded as fads in one locality, while they would certainly\nnot be such in another; the general environment of locality at once being\n\nthe changing or determining factor.\nA problem of the greatest importance at the present time is that of\n“free text-books;” there are some features and arguments which have\nmerit, there are more which do not.\nTaking the question as a whole,\n\nanything which tends to make the individual dependent and shiftless,\ninstead of independent and thrifty, is wrong and pernicious.\n‘The latter\ncondition may result through the furnishing of free text-books to individuals, the same having a decided tendency to develop the state of affairs\nlast described, especially when done in a promiscuous way.\nIf the plan\nwere limited to those of tender years, not yet able by any manner of labor\n\nto earn the price of their schoolbooks, more might be said in favor of the\nscheme;\n\neven\n\nhere\n\nit is doubtful whether\n\nthere\n\nis justice or reason\n\nin\n\ntaxing the people, especially those who have no children to send to school,\nto an extent and portion greater than they are subject to for the provision\nof bodily food and clothing.\nTo conduct public schools it is practical to\ndo so only by providing school buildings and teachers, thus making a\nplace in and around which the children may be grouped, because these\n-advantages could not in a practical way be provided for each individual\nseparately.\nThe argument set forth that, because buildings and teachers are provided and contemplated in the free-school system, -and that,\ntherefore, books also should\n\nbe provided, is fallacious, because the books\n\ncan be provided for by the individual pupil or parent, and the building\nand the teacher cannot be so provided.\nI am positive in the conviction\nthat age and physical condition, possibly sex, in a degree should govern\nthe furnishing of free text-books to pupils, that it should not and cannot\nbe done in a general way, as now advocated, without being harmful in a\nway, as already suggested, and at the same time being unjust to the masses\nThere are many other questions of importance which\nof the people.\nmust be determined by you, and in which you have a duty to perform in\n\nsetting aright the public mind so far as the advantage, value, or folly and\npernicious results pertain to questions of the day. Every school board,\n\n"}
{"page": 976, "printed_page": null, "text": "066\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[School\n\nespecially in independent districts, should have among its members a\nthoroughly competent and up-to-date practicing physician, whose duty\nshould be to direct and supervise all sanitary and hygienic features pertaining\n\nto the\n\nschools.\n\nHis word\n\nshould\n\nbe law, and, in the\n\nevent\n\nof\n\ndifference of opinion between such physician, members of the board, or\npatrons, an appeal should be taken before the state board of health, and\nto such board only, and its decision should be final. Lawyers, judges,\nand courts should have nothing to do with the determining of such questions. The foregoing suggestion should be provided for by law in every\nstate in the Union.\nOne more suggestion, and I have done.\n‘There\nshould be a law in every state of the Union attaching a penalty in the\nway of, fine and imprisonment at hard labor, or both, for any man or\nwoman who fails to attend at least one state meeting and one national\nmeeting of convention of school boards during a term of service,\neither elective or appointive.\nIn a brief and condensed way I have\nbrought to your notice these hints, making no attempt to discuss them\nin detail, but leaving them with you to think and dream over.\nI say\ndream, because, if you do not dream of these things, your mind in waking\nhas never been sufficiently impressed with these questions which it\n‘becomes your duty to determine, to justify the public in placing confidence in you, as being qualified properly to discharge the duties\nimposed on you.\n\nI say again, think and dream of, sift and weigh, retain\n\nand cast away, in a conscientious and honest way, and the reward\nyour application and work will come to you in due time.\n\nREFORM\n\n~IN SCHOOL\n\nfor\n\nADMINISTRATION.\n\nBY J. W. ERRANT, BOARD OF EDUCATION, CHICAGO, ILL.\n\nThe problem of school organization is a most important question\nFrom the colonial era to the present time\nbefore the people today.\nthe district school system, with some modifications, has been in vogue.\nIn the centers of population something like an organized system of\neducation has been evolved.\nTo one who has studied the development of our public schools it is simply astonishing to ascertain how\nrecently the position of superintendent of a city school system was\ncreated, and it must not be forgotten that when McAllister left Milwaukee\n\nand went to Philadelphia he was the first superintendent of that city’s\nschools.\nBut it is not the cities alone which have felt this need of organization in order that they might more perfectly accomplish the work for\nwhich they were intended.\nIn the country districts the work of organ-\n\n.\n\n"}
{"page": 977, "printed_page": null, "text": "Administration]\n\nREFORM\n\nIN SCHOOL\n\nADMINISTRATION\n\n967\n\nization has been going on, and considerable effort has been made, largely\nvoluntary,\n\nto\n\nobtain,\n\nthrough\n\ncombination,\n\nresults\n\nwhich\n\ncannot\n\nbe\n\nreached in any other way. And so it comes to pass that the problem of\nthe rural schools and their needs is the great central question around\nwhich the discussions of the convention have rallied.\nVery few have any idea of the tremendous business interests which\nare involved in the maintenance of the school system of a great city. The\nBoard of Education of the city of Chicago spends one-half of the taxes\nThere are\nwhich are obtained from the people of that municipality.\nquestions involving the purchase of land, the construction of buildings,\ntheir character and cost.\nThere are questions concerning the purchase\nof fuel and the hundred and one articles which make up the supplies\nVery few great corporations there are which, from\nneeded in the schools.\na financial point of view, offer so many problems of management as does\nthe maintenance of a great school system.\nIt is, however, exceedingly important that in studying and solving the\nproblems of organization in connection with our school work we do not\n\nlose sight of factors which\nbeautiful\n\nshould\n\nbe taken into consideration.\n\nthing, for instance, to liken the forces\n\nIt isa\n\nconnected with a great\n\nschool system to a great army which has its general, its colonels, its captains, and its privates.\nIt is a beautiful thing to conceive how such an\narmy, thoroughly equipped and drilled, might move on with the perfection of machinery to the accomplishment of certain results; but let us\nconsider for a moment what the purpose of an army is. It is an organized human force thrown against another organized human force for the\npurpose of crushing that other human force. The theory of it is that\nthose lines and those regiments and those army corps are simply so much\nmaterial to be thrown here or there, as the will of the commanding\ngeneral shall dictate.\nBut the modern idea of an army is already quite\ndifferent.\nIt was the brains behind the bayonets of the Germans in\n1870-71 which conquered France.\nt was the training of the intellect and\nthe heart which led those reserves at Gravelotte, after they had been\nrepulsed time and again, to follow Moltke to victory. It was the education of Germany which had led each one to feel that he, individually, must\nsave the fatherland. So that today, in the army of today, more is required\n\nthan merely mechanical perfection.\nBut the great brotherhood and sisterhood of teachers working in the\nTheirs are not solely probschools cannot be likened to any army.\nlems which can be worked out to perfection by the commanding general,\nEach one in this\nin order that he may be able to achieve certain results.\nchildren they\n‘These\nday.\neach\nmeet\nto\nown\nhis\nof\nproblem\na\nhas\narmy\neach\nenvironment,\nindividual\nown\nits\nin\neach\nliving\nmeet are individuals,\nThe\nconditions.\npeculiar\nits\nunder\nstruggling\neach\nwith its own heredity,\n\n"}
{"page": 978, "printed_page": null, "text": "968\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[School\n\nmind of the teacher cannot take some patent plan which has been prepared somewhere by some one and apply it to all the children in the room\nIt is the province of the teacher, possessed of all the\nas a whole.\nlearning and resources which the most advanced methods can give him\nor her, with a training which makes it possible for the mind of the teacher\nto adapt itself to individual conditions— it is the province of the teacher\nwith this equipment to study each individual case. . It will be seen, therefore, that we cannot treat the problem of school organization on the\nsame basis as we would treat the organization of an army.\nRather am\nI impressed with the fact that the fundamental conception upon which is\nbuilt the structure of the American republic is the one which will guide\nus correctly.\nThe American republic is based upon the idea of the sovereignty of the individual citizen.\nCoupled with this idea, there must be\noffered to the individual citizen the highest opportunities for his development, in order that the citizen may be a well-equipped sovereign in administering the affairs of the commonwealth.\nIt is this idea of the sovereignty of\nthe individual citizen which makes the great democracy.\nBut while we contend for the democratic principle, and believe that in it lies all the hope\nfor the future, we cannot underestimate the need for the organization of\nthe forces of the commonwealth.\nCertain results must be obtained by\ncombination, and out of this grows government.\nGovernment becomes\nthe hand and the mind through which the democracy accomplishes its\npurpose.\nThen again, government placed in a position where it can\noverlook the whole field, supplied with the resources and the qualifications for the studying-out of particular problems, can do certain work\nand give to the democracy its aid in its upward struggle.\nApplying the\nprinciple indicated to a school system, the teacher is the sovereign power,\nand the whole purpose and intent of the organization must be to aid the\nteacher in doing the best work.\nThe problem of the day in every direction is the harmonizing of the\nidea of organization and the idea of democracy.\nDemocracy fears that\nperfect organization will lead to the centralization of power.\nThe organized forces of government feel or see the failures of democracy, and\nbelieve, if the problem of progress was only left to them, they might\naccomplish much better results.\nLet us see how this harmony can be\nestablished in a great school system.\nLet the principal and teachers in\neach school constitute the faculty of that school. The city should then\nbe divided into districts. The superintendent in charge of each district,\nthe principal of the school in each district, and possibly a number of\nteachers, representing the body of teachers in each district, should constitute the faculty for such district. Then there should be a central faculty, consisting of the chief superintendent, the district superintendents,\nthe heads of any special departments, a number of principals selected by\n\n"}
{"page": 979, "printed_page": null, "text": "Administration]\n\nREFORM IN SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION\n\n969\n\nthe principals from their own number, and a number of teachers selected\nby the teachers from their own number.\nAll questions affecting educational work should be discussed in the school faculty, then in the district\nfaculty,\n\nand, finally, in the central\n\nhave the members\n\nof the board\n\nfaculty.\n\nIt would\n\nof education\n\nbe weil, also, to\n\nex-officio members\n\nof the\n\ncentral faculty, in order that they might listen to the discussions and take\n\npart in them if they desired.\nThis plan, it seems to me, would give\nscope to the individual, and would at the same time lead to a more perfect organization than any which exists at the present time.\nEach individual in the system would be a force in shaping the thought and policy\nof the whole.\nI have no sympathy with those who tell us that our teach.\ners are mere machines, that the text-books must be large and elaborate, so\nthat the teacher has everything prepared.\nI deny that the course of\nI believe in giving opporinstruction must have perpendicular walls.\ntunity, and I never yet saw the best results obtained by deprecating\nEven as you expect, so shall youreceive.\nefforts.\nBelittle, and men fall.\nDemand the highest, and men will endeavor to come up to your expectaSuch a plan as is here presented dignifies the professional position\ntions.\nHe or she is not any longer a cog in the machine,\nof the teacher.\n' but becomes a living force, whose voice is heard and whose thought\nmay influence the entiresystem.\nAt the present time systems are so organized that teachers seem to feel they must take their food from above.\nUnder the proposed plan, those above would constantly feel the vitalizing\n\ninfluences of the great force throughout the whole.\nThe teacher, in his\nor her work with the pupil, meets all the great questions, and should have\na voice in determining the course of study, the books to be used, the mate-\n\nrials to be employed, the method\n\nto be applied.\n\nI do not say that this\n\nshould bea‘determining voice, but if it speaks the best, those who listen to,\n\nit will be wise and give heed to the voice of practical experience.\n\nSuch\n\na scheme would also allow home rule, within\n\ndis-\n\nlimits,\n\nto schools\n\nand\n\ntricts. It would take cognizance of the fact, for instance, that in a great\ncity like Chicago all the schools in all parts of the city cannot be treated\nWe have schools which are situated in districts in which the chilalike.\nWe have other districts in\ndren of foreign-born parents largely attend.\nwhich the schools are attended almost exclusively by the children of\nIt will easily be seen that the work in certain\nAmerican-born parents.\nIt also allows of\nlines will be radically different in the two districts.\nI am one of those who believe that in a\nbreadth in various directions.\ngreat city like Chicago, with its 250 schools, experiments should be carIf I were a superintendent, I would\nried on in this or that direction.\nThe principal\nhave various experiments going on in various schools.\nin touch\nschool,\nthe\nin\nleader\nand\nteacher\nhead\nthe\nreality\nin\nbe\nshould\n\n"}
{"page": 980, "printed_page": null, "text": "940\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n[School\n\nThe superintendents\nwith the teachers and pupils, and helpful to them.\nshould be experts in the highest sense of the word.\nTurning now from this picture of the reorganization of the educational system, let us for a moment consider the problem as it affects the\nThe board idea can only continue to exist if it\nboard of education.\nsubserves its true function, a7z., to represent the people in the administration of the public-school system.\nIt should reach the most perfect\norganization in the management of the various departments of the publicschool work, but it should be careful always to keep the people in touch\nIn other words, while the board of education\nwith what is being done.\nshould be the central power, which should have charge of affairs, it will\nbe wise if it so arranges matters that the people will know what is going\non, and will be led to feel that it is their voice and their action which\n\naffect\n\nthe schools either one way or another.\nThe board of education should\nbe the body which discusses and manages the business affairs of the board.\nTo the faculties, before mentioned, should be left the discussion of educa-\n\ntional affairs.\n\nFrom the central faculty, with the concurrence of the general\n\nsuperintendent, should come the recommendations, as to educational mat-\n\nters, which the board is asked to approve or reject. The board should\nconfine itself to the discussion and establishment of plans and policies. It\nThese should be left\nshould not interfere in the carrying out of details.\nto those who are employed in the various departments, because of their\nspecial fitness.\nThere are, however, many questions which are mixed questions of\nbusiness and educational policy, and which remain for the board —the kindergarten, manual training, higher education, commercial high schools,\nthe training of teachers.\nIt is the business of a board of education to\n\nconsider whether these should be taken up by the public-school authorities ;how far they should be carried; whether the public money should\nbe turned in such directions.\nWhen it has been determined to extend\nthe work, or to enter into new fields, the experts are there to carry out\nthe orders of the board on the proper lines. In this way the board of\neducation becomes a small section of the great democracy.\nIn its hands\nare placed the public moneys, and to its mind and heart are intrusted the\ncare and the development of the public-school work.\nSuch a conception\nas this dignifies the idea of a board of education.\nIt makes it a body of\nmen and women who must post themselves in regard to the tendencies\nand progress of school work, who must know the needs of the people and\nwhat they desire from the schools, and who also know in what way the\npeople will derive most from the schools.\nIn connection with the idea of\nkeeping the people in touch with the schools, it may not be out of place\nto speak of a great movement which has been going on in Chicago\nduring the past year. The school halls in various parts of the city have\n\na\nr\n\n"}
{"page": 981, "printed_page": null, "text": "Administration]\n\nREFORM IN SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION\n\n971\n\nbeen opened to joint meetings of the parents and the teachers in the\nschools.\nAt such meetings practical questions have been discussed, and\nwork done in the schools has been exhibited.\nThese gatherings have\nbeen a great aid in informing the people as to what work was being done\nin the schools, and in shaping public opinion as to school matters.\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\nMrs. BEN}. F. TayLor, Board of Education,\n\nCleveland, O.— This is not so much\n\na\n\ndiscussion of the very able and interesting paper to which we have just listened, as it is a\ncriticism of the practice existing in the city of Cleveland as regards the conduct of educational matters under what is familiarly known as the federal plan. It should hardly be\nnecessary for me to premise that I use the word criticism in its better and proper sense—\nan examination intended to exhibit the merits and defects of the plan under consideration,\nwhich has hardly yet passed the stage of experiment.\n\nThe\n\nhope of a nation\n\nlies with and in its youth.\n\nquestions of gravest import.\n\nTo them\n\nmust\n\nsoon be intrusted\n\nThe children in our public schools must meet and solve the\n\nmoral problems of the age, and, hence, our first and highest responsibility to the state, to\n\nthe home, and to posterity is bound up in the training of the children to whom will soon\nbe confided the destinies of the Republic.\nTo make these children intelligent citizens, patriotic, loyal, and alive to their responsibilities, should be the aim of every individual connected with public-school work.\nThe administration of duties of such grave import should receive our constant and\ncareful attention, and should enlist our best effort to give it the highest character and\nefficiency.\nWe need have little anxiety about determining what to teach; these are questions that\nthe cultured and earnest teachers and authors are working out for us with certainty of\nultimate success.\nOur anxieties need hardly leave the field of school administration.\nWhen our schools\ncease to be in dangerous proximity to practical politics, when our teachers have the opportunity for and the dignity of reasonable independence, when only disinterested motives\ngovern their selection and determine the course of study, text-books, and all the requirements of public instruction, then and then only may we rejoice in the assurance that the\nwaters of the well spring of educational life are flowing free and unpolluted.\nBut the\nprice of this, like the price of liberty, is eternal vigilance.\nIn 1892 the legislature of the state of Ohio enacted a law giving to the city of Cleveland\na new\n\nsystem\n\nof school\n\nadministration,\n\nwhich,\n\nduring\n\nthe discussion\n\nincident\n\nto its\n\nee\nadoption, was called the federal plan.\nUnder this plan the executive power is vested in a director, while the legislative power\nis intrusted to a council of seven members, and together they form the board of edu-\n\ncation.\n\n;\n\nThe director and the council are elected upon the general ticket for a term of two\nyears, that of three of the council expiring upon even years, and the remainder upon the\nodd years.\nThe council organizes annually by choosing one of its members as president, and upon\n\nalternate years elects a clerk ; the latter being a salaried officer and not eligible to member-\n\n"}
{"page": 982, "printed_page": null, "text": "-\n\nNATIONAL\n\n972\nship in the council.\n\nThe\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nsalary of the\n\n[School\n\nASSOCIATION\n\ndirector is placed at $5,000 a year, each member\n\nof the council receiving $260 for the same time.\nLet us consider its\nThis is an outline of the machinery of the board of education.\n'\nfunctions and how they are performed.\nThe director is expected to attend all the regular meetings of the board, and has the\nright to speak upon any question before the council, but has no vote, deciding or otherwise.\n\nHe has, however, the power of limited veto of the acts of the council;\n\nthat is, he\n\nThe\nmay exercise the veto power only upon questions involving expenditure of money.\nvote of two-thirds of all the members elected to the council is sufficient to pass any measure over the veto.\nThe director appoints the superintendent of instruction, subject to confirmation by\nthe council, and may remove him, but is required to file with the council the reasons for\nsuch removal.\nWith the exception of the teaching force, who\n\nreceive their appointments from and\nare assigned their positions by the superintendent, the director appoints and may remove\nat will all other employés in any way connected with the public schools.\nBy this Cleveland plan all power heretofore vested in the board of education, except the purely legislative, is vested in and exercised by the director.\n\nThe council has the power to provide for the appointment of all necessary teachers\nand other employés, to prescribe their duties, and fix their compensation.\nThe council\nmust authorize all expenditures of money exceeding $250 in a single sum, and all contracts\nmade by the director must be subject\n\nto its approval.\n\nThe\n\ncouncil\n\ndecides\n\nas to what\n\nstudies shall be pursued, and what text-books shall be used. The regular work of the\ncouncil is largely done through standing committees.\nWhile I believe this plan to be an improvement upon the more general form of school\nboards, which\n\nare\n\noften\n\nunwieldy\n\nas to numbers\n\nand\n\nwith an\n\nindefinite\n\ndivisional\n\nline\n\nbetween legislative and executive functions, I cannot conscientiously say that this so-called\n“federal plan” has proven the ideal system predicted and promised by its authors.\n‘It is not a pleasant task to indicate faults, or point out weaknesses, but I should be\nuntrue to the responsibility placed upon me did I pass in silence the points in this system which, in my judgment, are weak, or which might, under certain circumstances, furnish\n\nopportunity for serious wrong.\n\nThe possession of unlimited power in any direction, the ability to control absolutely\nthe pecuniary condition of a large number of people, involve a responsibility from which\nany man might well shrink ; yet observation and experience teach us that the exercise of\nsuch power has a tendency to render almost any man despotic in disposition, selfish and\ngrasping in practice.\nIt has been said that a wzse despotism is the best government in\n\nthe world, but this adjective rarely qualifies that form of government in actual practice, and\nAmericans are loath to subscribe to the statement.\nIn some directions, at least, this Cleveland plan does place unlimited power in the\nhands of one man, and to that extent it is, in my judgment, open to serious criticism.\nThe dominating position of the director is readily seen. While the superintendent\nappoints the teachers and assigns their positions, all other employés receive their appointments from the director, and may, by him, be removed at any time without cause and without appeal.\nIncluded in the lists of such appointments are the office force, architect,\nbuilders, inspectors, janitors, day laborers, down to the coal weighers and removers of\n\nashes. ‘The school council has not even the power of appointing its page.\nThe director\nalso appoints the board of school examiners.\nThe director appoints the enumerators, yet,\n- by the state law, the clerk of the board of education is alone responsible for their faithful\nperformance of these duties, and any failure in that direction would entail pecuniary loss\nupon the clerk, and not upon the director who makes the appointments.\nWith absolute\n\n—\n\n"}
{"page": 983, "printed_page": null, "text": "Administration]\n\nREFORM\n\nIN SCHOOL\n\nADMINISTRATION\n\n973\n\npower to appoint and remove, at his discretion or caprice, hundreds of employés, the\nopportunity of building up a political machine, which, in skilled hands, might be used to\nseriously menace the liberty and stability of school affairs, isapparent.\nWhile the superintendent cannot be removed eithout cause, his peace and comfort\nmay be made to depend largely upon his doing the will of the man from whom he\nreceives his appointment, and to whom alone he is, in a sense, responsible.\nWe are, all of us, probably\n\nmore or less familiar\n\nwith\n\nstories\n\not\n\namounts,\n\nmodest,\n\nconsiderable, or extravagant, which syndicates of publishers are sa7d to pay, or are willing\nto pay, for the adoption or retention of certain text-books, or of a course of study\nwhich should redound to their pecuniary interest. An alliance between a grasping\npolitical manager in the director's chair, if one should get there, and\n\nthe wily represent-\n\native of a great syndicate would afford ample opportunity for seriously injuring the\nschools.\nMuch of this wrong might be accomplished through outside agency, leaving the\ndirector to pose as a very correct, honest, economical, and even philanthropic servant of\nthe “dear people,” whose votes he may need at the next election.\nAn aider and abettor might be found in the council, or in one of the appointed\nofficials, an astute politician, perhaps, paid from the public fund, whose time could be\nlargely employed in laying plans to influence elections, and in the interest of the political\nparty he represents, rather than in the interests of the schools and the people.\nThese opportunities for wrong-doing are greater in an office whose doors can be\nclosed at any time for private conference, sealed hermetically if need be, than are offered\n\nby the old plan of boards of education in general control, where everything bad is likely\n‘to come out. Perhaps we have heard a good deal that is bad_ because we have heard\nabout all there is of it.\nA director with conditions of service entirely independent of the council or legislative\nbranch, and charged very fully and specifically with the executive branch of school administration, I believe to promise much improvement upon the more general form of educational boards, provided such an official’s power over employés be sharply limited by a\n\nfar-reaching system of civil service, or, to a reasonable degree, his acts subject to review\nby competent authority.\nSince the director selects and appoints the superintendent of instruction, subject to\nthe approval of the council, it would seem that he should not have the power to remove\nhim without the consent of a majority of that body. This change would relieve the\nsuperintendent from any sense of obligation, by making him responsible to the school\nboard, and to the people, rather than to one man.\nTeachers also should be relieved from all anxiety, excepting such as pertains to the\nI am inclined to question the wisdom of making the tenure of\nexcellency of their work.\n\ntheir office absolutely subject to the dictum of the superintendent.\nPossibly an associate\ncommittee, forming an advisory board, or court of appeal, to pass on questions of promotion, demotion, or dismissal, would be a wise provision, by relieving the supermicneer a\nunnecessary responsibility, and at the same time protecting the teachers from the injustice\nThere exists nowhere in the world a class of workers more earnest\nof political influence.\nand conscientious than the great body of cultured, progressive, devoted teachers engaged\nin public schools;\n\nnor, as a class, could any of the workers be less i need of Seas of\n\ncontrol which are deemed requisite for armies in the field, and to subject them to a single\narbitrary, absolute authority seems little short of rank injustice.\n\nCould all cities be as fortunate as the city of Cleveland has been during the past\n\nthree years, in having a superintendent of instruction both wise yue jnees to whom baat\ners and people can turn with an abiding faith in his ability and integrity, there wouid be\n\nno need of these suggestions,\n\nBut the history of public-school administration has proven\n4\n\n"}
{"page": 984, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n974\n\n[School\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nthe imperative necessity for hedging round and guarding all avenues through which practical politics, with its demoralizing influence, can enter.\nThus, briefly and\n\nfrankly, I have\n\nendeayored\n\nto show\n\nthe points\n\nwhich\n\nI consider\n\nweak in this so-called federal plan. I make no charges, I indulge in no insinuations, I do\nnot claim to tell you what it is; I am merely indicating what might be, if everyone connected with the administration of school affairs was not above reproach.\nWe love our children; the state is pledged to advance their interests ; let us try for a\nsystem where a legislative power can only be exercised for good; for an executive power\nused only for what is right, living up to all its prerogatives, but never overstepping the\nlimitations clearly laid out; above all, let us strive for an administration of school\n\naffairs\n\nthat shall be forever divorced from practical politics.\n\nRELATION\n\n.BY\n\nMRS.\n\nALICE\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nBRADFORD\n\nSCHOOL\n\nWILES,\n\nBOARD\n\nBOARD\n\nOF\n\n10\n\nTH\n\nEDUCATION,\n\nLEOTLE,\n\nFREEPORT,\n\nILL.\n\nIn addressing an audience representative of the school boards of the\nUnited States, one cannot but be impressed with the immeasurable influence of such a body, each member, either by right or wrong action, or,\nequally, by the neglect of known or unknown duty, determining the\nhealth, the knowledge, and the character of all the children in his home\nlocality ; the children who, in the near future, are to be the people\n\nomnipotent in our republic—a republic which holds .aloft, as the hope\nand guiding star of all humanity, the torch of “liberty enlightening the\nworld.”\nThat liberty may degenerate neither into license nor despotism is the\nproblem of the American people.\nEducated citizens alone can solve it,\nand, consequently, the right administration of the common-school system\nis today our most important and fundamental duty. By the will of the\npeople this duty is especially assigned to the school boards of cities,\ntowns, and rural districts.\nThat we are accountable to the people for an\nhonest and economical expenditure of school funds and a wise adaptation\nof means to an end—the end always being the highest welfare of the\nchild —is a familiar and indisputable truth.\nYet, who denies the statement made before this convention a year.ago,\nthat “to say that our schools, even in the most highly favored locality,\nare conducted wholly in the interest of the pupil is to challenge the intel-\n\nligence and the honesty of every close observer” ? Cannot each of us,\nfrom his own experience, corroborate the statement issuing from the\nNational Bureau of Education that, “until recently, evidences of any\ngeneral interest in the management of the schools were hard to find” ?\nWhy this discrepancy between theory and practice ? Why this willingness to laud education;\n\nto idealize the little red schoolhouse, and this\n\naea\n\n"}
{"page": 985, "printed_page": null, "text": "Administration]\n\nRELATION\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nBOARD\n\nTO\n\nTHE\n\nPUBLIC\n\n975\n\nunwillingness to study principles and methods by which alone education\ncan be made a vitalizing force?\nIndifference on the part of our\nso-called best citizens alone accounts for the general ignorance and\napathy prevailing toward school conditions and possibilities.\nLet us\nstudy how to lessen this strange indifference.\n“The common\n\nproblem, yours, mine, everyone’s,\n\nIs not to fancy what were fair in life,\nProvided\n\nit could be, but finding, first,\n\nWhat may be, then find how to make it fair\nUp to our means; a very different thing.”\n\nIn all our efforts to promote growth (and growth or decay is the law\nof life) we must ever remember the words of Lincoln, “ With public sentiment on its side everything succeeds, with public sentiment against it\nnothing succeeds ;’’ but if we interpret this to mean that we should follow public sentiment as we guess it to be, we shall fail greatly and lamentably in our right relation, as I conceive it, toward the people.\nIt is our\nimperative duty to form, lead,and guide public sentiment.\nThere is no\nprogress without leadership.\nHowever skeptical we may be as to our\ncapabilities for leadership, if we have accepted school-board membership,\n‘we have already assumed this responsibility, and we must discharge it\nconscientiously and courageously, though it may be humbly and self-distrustfully.\nIn the economy of our civic life we can find this responsibility nowhere but in the school board.\nIt is surely not in the churches,\nfor, with the exception of two denominations, they pay more active, financial, and personal attention to foreign missions than to the schools.\nIt\nis easy for school-board members to say it rests with superintendent and\nteachers, but this is a mere juggling with words, an idle, though plausible, shifting of responsibility, which no thoughtful man will consider\njust. Superintendent and teaching force may and should be our most\nforceful and valuable ally ; but the board selects this force. The board\nis supposed to guarantee its knowledge and character, and this certification\nalone gives any peculiar influence or value to its expression of opinion.\nCould school-board members realize that they are logically and inevitably\nleaders of public sentiment, then would begin steady, thoughtful voting\nand talking up to the level of individual conviction, instead of down to\nthe level of what is conjectured to be the wish of the people.\n\nMany of the weaknesses of our school administration result from a\ntimid and too great subservience to what is conceived to be public opinion, but which is often only the noisy and officious blustering of people who\nhave an ax to grind, or the superficial and prejudiced talk of those who\nnever\n\nvisit\n\nschools, who\n\nnever\n\nthink\n\nof, much\n\nless study,\n\neducational\n\nThe man who really respects the American people will dare\nproblems.\nThere is a\nevery time to rely on their sense of truth and righteousness.\n\n"}
{"page": 986, "printed_page": null, "text": "976\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[School\n\ndeep, though it may be a silent, undercurrent of earnest devotion to\nchildhood, an appreciation of education as the child’s dearest birthright,\nand as the only safeguard of a republic, to which we may with safety\nIt may not bear us on to re-election, but\nappeal in every community.\nthat is a consideration beneath us— very trivial compared with the welfare of one child — and, whether on or off the board, we may and should\n\ncontinue to guide this current onward in a right direction.\nrevolution would at once result if in every school-board\nmember would make\n\nhis rule:\n\nA wonderful\nsession each\n\n“ What I must do is all that concerns me,\n\nnot what the people think.”\nThis rule, equally arduous in actual and in\nintellectual life, may serve for the whole distinction between greatness\nIt is the harder because you will always find those who\nand meanness.\nthink they know what is your duty better than you know it. But tact of\nexpression must ever go hand in hand with courage of conviction; independence of action on the board\n\nwith respectful attention to, and courte-\n\nous patience with, the views of our neighbors and fellow-citizens.\nWe\nmust take time and trouble to convince them that the sole aim of argument and vote is the good of the child.\nIf the welfare of the child is not our supreme guide, then are we false\nto duty, both as agent of the taxpayer and guardian of the pupil. Yet\nhow many and how frequent are the arguments, appealing often to good\nin human nature, that would lead one to suppose the schoolsa great charitable institution for the support of well-meaning, but otherwise helpless\nteachers!\nNo matter how eminent her qualifications, how great and loving her sympathy with children, how successful her experience, no married woman must be appointed as teacher, because her husband should\nsupport her ; no rich man’s daughter, because a poor man’s’daughter must\nbe taken care of; no two members of the \"same family, because that\nfamily thus receives more than its share of public money, and, above\n\nall,\n\nno non-resident, for local taxes must be expended for support of local\npeople, just as the poor funds are. No incompetent teacher must be\ndismissed, so long as she daily presents herself at her post and manages\nto half. keep mind-deadening, traditional order in her schoolroom,\nthough she may have grown deaf and even feeble-minded in the service,\nprovided only she is a “home teacher,” and has friends in the community.\nAnd who that draws a salary has not friends?\nPresident\nDraper, when superintendent of the Cleveland schools, most truthfully\nsaid : ‘Yet no teacher was ever so deficient or unable to control pupils,\nso lacking in energy, so given over to favoritism or prejudice, so disagreeable to associates, so resentful of suggestions, as to prevent any number of people of good standing and of the best intentions from exerting\ntheir influence to secure a reversal of the action of the superintendent in\nremoving her. The people who do this are not all of the class styled\n\n"}
{"page": 987, "printed_page": null, "text": "Administration]\n\nRELATION\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nBOARD\n\nTO\n\nTHE\n\nPUBLIC\n\n977\n\n‘politicians.’\nOthers who would resent such a classification, and who\nhave no better cause, are no less urgent and persistent in their importunities.” Sympathy and protection for the teacher are here, and they are\ngood things in their right place. But where are sympathy and protection\nfor the child, and not only for the one child, but for the forty, fifty, or\nsixty who must suffer in payment for the deficiencies of the one teacher?\nForty against one, and the forty helpless, impressionable, with their\nwhole futures to be made or marred by our action!\nThere is no room\nThere is no question on which side justice, sympathy,\nfor hesitation.\nBut having thrown a vote on the right side,\nand love must tip the scale.\nlet the people know the reason for it, the principles by which we are governed.\nAllow no suspicion of personal favoritism to taint our action, nor\nof political, religious, business, or social bias. That not a doubt of disinterested motives may, in the mind of even one person, shadow the\naction of the school board, the old\n\nNew\n\nYork\n\nboard\n\nhad a rule, and\n\nit\n\nhas also recently been adopted in Kansas City, that no relative of amember of a board should be appointed to any position in the schools.\nRules governing qualifications of new teachers and requiring professional training should be adopted by every board, with a proviso that\nthey may only be suspended when the supply does not equal the demand.\nNeither should we rest satisfied with rules which may be rescinded at\nthe next change in the membership of the board, but we should use our\ninfluence in every way possible to secure a public opinion which will\nenact state legislation making requirement of professional training\nobligatory.\nThat this is quite possible is proved by the New York law,\nwhich went into effect throughout that state last January.\nWe should know something, comparatively, of the school legislation\nof our sister states, not only that we may urge what is good upon our own\nlegislatures, but that we may oppose what is bad.\nIf there are as many\npoliticians upon our boards as is constantly declared, our united influence, located, as it is, in every city of, the\n\nstate, could\n\neasily secure\n\nthe\n\ndesirable legislation which teachers’ associations annually urge.\nHere the question naturally arises: Should the membership of politicians upon boards of education be forbidden, as under the new Milwaukee law, which makes ineligible for appointment any officer of any political\norganization, or holder of any public office of profit other than judicial ?\nBy all means, if public office is regarded as a “ private snap,” or if men\n\nare in office for the spoils, or nominated by a corrupt machine, or\nappointed because of a“ pull.” But if men are chosen to office because\nof their fitness, and accept from a high sense of public duty, then their\nco-operation should be eagerly welcomed in every field of public endeavor.\nYet the law may be wise from the point of view that the duties of a school\ndirector demand all his leisure. ‘Concentration is the secret strength\n\n"}
{"page": 988, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n978\n\n(School\n\nin politics, in war,in trade, in short, in all management of human affairs.”\n\nSo let us concentrate our attention and our endeavor upon educational\nWe might achieve the ideal of Channing: “A body of\nadvancement.\ncultivated men, devoted, with their whole\n\nhearts, to the improvement\n\nof\n\neducation, and to the most effectual training of the young, would work a\nThat a revolution is needed there\nfundamental revolution in society.”\nof Johns Hopkins tells us that\nGilman\nPresident\nare many indications.\nand that ‘ comparing\nbehindhand,”\n“American education is still far\nAmerican youth with those of foreign countries, the most competent\njudges are of the opinion that the Americans have lost two or three years\nof time in their educational careers.”\nLeading educators and intelligent\nobservers from San Francisco to Philadelphia tell us that about 25\nper cent. of the teaching force is incompetent.\nThis disgrace is not to\nthe teachers, for there is nothing shameful in mistaking one’s vocation,\nbut first to the superintendents, who are either too ignorant or too cowardly to recommend and insist upon\n\ntheir dismissal, and, second, to the\nschool boards, which should know and abhor this condition of things, and,\n\nfirst securing a superintendent with ability and backbone equal to the\ntask, should co-operate with him, not only in securing good teaching, but\nin banishing all bad teaching from the schoolroom.\nParamount as is good teaching, the health of the pupils is of even\ngreater moment.\nYet many schoolhouses are built in total disregard of\nsanitary laws, and very many in daily use are unfit for occupancy. Boards\nof health have officially condemned many.\nIn numerous second- and\nthird-class cities it can be truthfully said that not a single room is ventilated, and statistics prove all over the country that we are ruining the eyes\nof our pupils by insufficient or improperly directed light. We are told\nby competent authorities that we are making our school children “ nearsighted,\n\ndeaf,\n\ncrooked,\n\nand\n\nhysterical.”\n\nFor\n\nthis\n\nschool\n\nboards\n\nare\n\ndirectly responsible.\nWe grow weary of reiterating the never-questioned\nfact that school boards should secure for the children scientifically\nadjusted seats and desks, sufficient and properly directed light, adequate\nventilation, equable temperature, safe disposal of sewage, pure drinking\nwater, and cleanly, attractive surroundings.\nVerily, of school boards as\nof individuals, we may say: “ No matter how much faculty of idle seeing\na man has, the step from knowing to doing is rarely taken.\n’Tis a step\nout of a chalk circle of imbecility into fruitfulness.” A fruitfulness which,\nin the case of sanitary reforms in schoolhouses, means health and strength\nto the children, to our future citizens. Without health there is no power,\nno joy; yet daily, yearly, by our negligence we take some part of this\nprecious heritage from our children. We plead, perhaps, ignorance, when\nit is our moral and legal duty to know (the state law of Illinois requires\nevery school-board member to visit every school once a month), or, if\n\na\n\n"}
{"page": 989, "printed_page": null, "text": "Administration]\n\nRELATION\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nBOARD\n\nTO\n\nTHE\n\nPUBLIC\n\n979\n\ncognizant of the conditions, we dodge behind the taxpayer, saying that\nhe will not stand the large expense necessary for hygienic reforms.\n‘Try\nhim and see.\nBut do not be satisfied with the vote which orders reforms.\nThe evil results of bad conditions, and the immense gain\n\nmental capacity due to proper conditions, must\nclear.\n\nOpposition,\n\nstanding.\nthem\n\nif it exists, is due either\n\nLet us trust the people, take them\n\nto\n\nin health\n\nand\n\nbe explained and made\nignorance\n\nor\n\nmisunder-\n\ninto our confidence, teach\n\nwhat we are trying to do, and, above all, let us not be discouraged\n\nnor give up the fight at the first nor at the last defeat.\nwords of Confucius:\n“Our chief glory is not in never\nrising every time we fall.”\n\nRemember the\nfalling, but in\n\nLet us make sure we are right, then be equally\n\nconfident the right will in time prevail. But in a republic it must prevail\nthrough the multitude. Therefore school boards must add to their many\nPerduties that of arousing, educating, and directing public opinion.\nhaps it is to give us time for this that superintendents purpose to relieve\nus of our duties in regard to appointment, promotion, and dismissal of\nteachers, choice of text-books, and determination of course of study. If\na right-minded board has the inestimable blessing of a conscientious,\nable, progressive, courageous superintendent, it will most gladly follow\n‘his recommendations, and bear with him the brunt of the opposition\nwhich will inevitably arise from disappointed applicants and their friends,\nwhenever and wherever teachers and janitors are employed according to\nmerit alone.\nThe board, if not right-minded, will easily find a superintendent of its own character, through whom to work its ends. Much time\nand energy are wasted in attempting to secure the best organization before\npublic opinion is created, which alone can enforce its proper working.\nEveryone knows that the worst system has had admirable results, when\nthe best men were at the head of it, and that the finest system is entirely\npowerless for good if administered by corrupt or selfish time servers.\nIt\nis a curious fact that in a correspondence which the writer had three years\n\nago with highly educated persons unofficially interested in the public\nschools in twenty different cities, it was reported from every city where\nthe board was elected that things would be much better if it were\nappointed by the mayor, and, wherever the board was appointed, that a\nThus we go on\ngreat reform would be accomplished if it were elected.\nThe\nstriking at a branch here and there, leaving the root untouched.\nwhole matter was tersely and bravely put by a writer on the Higher Life,\nof Philadelphia, who said: “The schools are low in standard, and, what\nis worse, they satisfy the great mass.” It is this self-satisfaction which we\nmust break up; this Fourth of July oratory on the glories of the public\nschool, accompanied by almost total ignorance of its real glory and too\noften real disgrace. A London writer comments on an article which gives\nthe\n\ntestimony on\n\nteachers themselves\n\nas to the unworthy\n\nmotives\n\nfre-\n\n"}
{"page": 990, "printed_page": null, "text": "g8o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[School\n\n‘I am\nquently controlling their appointment and dismissal, as follows:\nAtlantic\nthe\nin\nquite safe in saying that the sort of thing disclosed\nMonthly for March by Mr. G. Stanley Hall would stagger the most\nunscrupulous among us.”\nIn thus dwelling on the dark side of the shield, I am well aware that\nI am laying myself open to the charge of pessimism and of lack of appreciation of the many good points in our schools and of our multitude of\nnoble teachers, but one cannot present all sides of so complicated a subject in a short paper.\nI am willing to leave to others the pleasanter task\nof lauding the schools, while we members of school boards diagnose their\nIt is right to praise high\ndiseases, that we may apply proper remedies.\nand lofty devotion to duty, but no less an obligation to condemn\n‘To have\nopenly and in no uncertain terms all unworthy performance.\nhigh ideals and to know good work lays a heavy burden on one who\nwould like to approve what he sees is defective, and to praise what he\nOnly by honest expression of individual opinion,\nknows is inferior.’\nbased upon knowledge and experience, is correct public opinion formed.\nThe more widely such views are disseminated in public meetings and\nthrough the press, the more quickly will the multitude take them up.\nHence the great value and extreme importance of all organizations\nwhich bring together parents and teachers, taxpayers and others interested\nin education.\nThere should be a public education society in every community.\nIf there is none in our home city, we could do nothing better\nthan to obtain the signature of every member of the board of education,\nand of ex-members, to a call for a public meeting to organize one.\nIts\npurpose should be to know the schools as thoroughly as is known the\ncondition of the streets, or the efficiency of the police and fire departOnly it should go much farther, and very seriously and carefully,\nments.\ninasmuch as the education of the young should be our prime solicitude,\ndemanding our best energies and most heroic sacrifices, transcending, as\nit does, in importance every other civilizing and uplifting agency in the\nAmong the members of such a society many could occasioncommunity.\nally visit schools in other cities, and, reporting back, thus establish a basis\nof comparison, for lack of which many schools lag far behind, the local\npress often mistakenly asserting that they are second to none.\nAn educational society, when grown large and influential, would furnish the\nbest possible means for nominating a non-partisan ticket for the school\nelection, men\n\nand\n\nwomen\n\nwhose\n\neducation,\n\ncourage, and\n\nsagacity and\n\nintegrity would make them fit leaders of the people in school affairs.\nThe members of such societies should be encouraged to visit schools\nby the knowledge that correct pedagogy is only common sense applied\nto teaching —even at the risk of discovering that common sense is hard to\nfindin the schoolroom. Far better mistakes and clashings of opinion than\n\n—\n\n"}
{"page": 991, "printed_page": null, "text": "Administration]\n\nRELATION\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nBOARD\n\nTO\n\nTHE\n\nPUBLIC\n\n981\n\nthe present general ignorance and apathy!\nBut are school boards ready\nto turn the search light of alert and intelligent public interest on the\nschools?\nAh, there’s the rub in many a community!\nYet I am convinced\nthat no permanent reform can come except through actively and_ per-\n\nsonally interesting large numbers of intelligent men and women in the\nschools.\nThe magnificent school systems of Paris and Berlin, with their varied\nand successful ramifications fitting for all trades and professions of life,\nhave, in addition to their governing\n\nseveral\n\nbodies,\n\nthousand\n\nreputable\n\ncitizens intimately and responsibly connected with them, through local\nboards of inspection and co-operation.\nThe whole country will watch\nwith great interest and hope New York’s experiment under its new charter, by which the mayor appoints school inspectors in each district, who\nare to report quarterly, recommending\n\nwhat\n\nseems best to them, includ-\n\ning dismissal of teachers, but having no voice in the election of the latter.\nIn drawing this paper to a close, it is unnecessary to say that many\nimportant phases of the relation of a school board to the people have\nbeen untouched.\nI have simply tried to emphasize what seems to me\nmost\n\nfundamental.\n\nI cannot\n\nclose, however,\n\nwithout brief reference\n\nto\n\nseveral other points.\nThere is greater danger that boards of education, in giving proper\npower to superintendents, will fail to hold them adequately responsible\nfor results.\n\nHere is the weak point, if any, in the so-called\n\n‘Cleveland\n\nplan.”\nIf boards cannot judge of the qualifications of teachers, how are\nthey to judge whether the superintendent appoints, promotes, and dismisses on merit alone, and whether he is himself a capable and inspiring\nleader of teachers?\nIf boards know nothing of text-books and courses\nof study, how can they judge whether the superintendent chooses wisely?\nThe fact is, the board (or at least some of the members) must know something of all these things, or fail in its duty. Otherwise it is at the mercy\nof a superintendent, who may work simply to please parents and teachers,\nand, succeeding in that, may draw his salary year after year, and the\nschools grow poorer and poorer, with no one to say him “nay.” ‘The\ncomparison often made between a superintendent as the agent of a board\nof education and a business manager as agent of the board of directors\nof a corporation is weak in this that the success of the latter can be\nmeasured accurately and beyond question in dollars and cents, while the\nsuccess of a school superintendent is in developing all the inherent\npowers of a child,and grounding him in mental and moral character.\nThere is no measure of such success or failure-——no hard and fast test.\nThe board of education cannot sit back in its office chairs and read\nthis off from scholarship averages, examination marks, and number of\n,\n\npromotions.\n\n"}
{"page": 992, "printed_page": null, "text": "982\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[School\n\nThe frequent refusal, without sufficient reason, of our best men and\nwomen to serve upon school boards, or, having served one term, to run\nfor re-election, gives opportunity to the intriguing, the corrupt, and the\nShaw tells us that no man in Berlin would dream of\nincompetent.\nrefusing.\nShall we, the citizens of the leading republic of the world and\nof all ages, show less civic patriotism?\nOne more point, and I conclude.\nHow idle to talk of character building as the aim of our public schools,\nand to inculcate maxims of truthfulness and honesty, and then year by\nyear, as is often done, graduate classes of boys and girls who have not\nhonestly earned their diplomas, who have not completed the course of\nstudy which the diplomas say they have!\nDo boys and girls not know\ntruth from falsehood and the difference between precept and practice?\nIn how many high schools are the athletic contests with neighboring\nschools fairly conducted ? Must we not blush with shame that our boys\nand girls in their teens are allowed to think it fine, and even to receive\nour applause for winning under false pretenses by taking into their\nso-called high-school teams young men having no affiliation with the high\nschools?\nIt is our business to see that these contests are fair and aboveboard in letter and spirit. Their aim should be, and, rightfully conducted, their result will be, to encourage and promote manliness.\n‘There is\nno manliness without perfect truth.\nThis is no slight matter.\nRemember that Lecky says: “In the long run the increasing or diminishing\nimportance of character in public life is perhaps the best test of the progress or decline of nations.”\n\nAs the child is father of the\n\nman, so\n\nis the\n\nschool father of the citizen.\nWe cannot have civic righteousness until\nwe have it in our schools.\nTherefore, “provide out of all the people\nable men, such as fear God, men of truth, hating covetousness, and place\nsuch over them.”\n‘Then will the schools give such a wise and wellrounded education, physical, mental, and moral, that our children, grown\n\nto man’s estate, may be trusted to cherish this republic and transmit it\nundiminished in goodness, power, and glory to their descendants.\n\nDISCUSSION.\nSAMUEL\n\nM. Fosrer, Ft. Wayne, Ind.— School\n\ntrustees hold a most important trust,\n\nand no person should accept the position of school trustee without a strong sense of\nknowledge that a great responsibility had been placed upon him.\n:\nA board of education performs a dual function: it must deal with the people and also\nwith the teachers.\nMembers of boards of education must have a knowledge superior to\nthat of the average man or woman.\nBoards of education have the duty imposed upon\nthem of protecting the public from the public. In these days of great invention, where\nideas run wild, it is the duty of boards to protect the people against the so-called\nfadist,\n\na\ne\nee\n\n"}
{"page": 993, "printed_page": null, "text": "Administration]\n\nTHE\n\nTRUE\n\nFUNCTION\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOL\n\n983\n\nand should not put into practice the schemes concocted by men and women who are\nexperimenting with the children of the land. Boards of education should be progressive,\nbut not too progressive.\nRegarding the relation of boards to the teachers, they should\nstand by them as a man stands by his political party.\n_\nH. 5S, Harrison, Chicago, 1l— Members of boards of education should stand closer\nby the teachers than men stand by their political parties.\nMrs. I. S. BLACKWEATHER,\n\nChicago, Il].— The\n\nPresident, in his opening\n\naddress,\n\nadvocated\n\nthe non-employment of married women as teachers.\nDo not the sacred duties\nI believe that a married woman\nof motherhood help to make the ideal school-teacher?\nteacher is better fitted and qualified for the teaching profession than the new high-school\ngraduate.\nPRESIDENT H. L. Gerz.—I say: “ Positively no.” Married women have the duties\nand affairs of the home allotted to their care and management, and cannot afford to be\ntied up with duties, eight to ten months in the year, which require such close attention as\nteaching in the public schools necessitates,\nAll married women physically and mentally\ncompetent to teach school should be expected, in fact are as liable, to become mothers as\nany other class of married women enjoying good health.\nTherefore, they are not desira-\n\nble in the schools. The proper place for a married woman is on the board of education,\nbut not in the schoolroom as a teacher.\nA. J. LINDEMANN,\n\nex-President Milwaukee School Board, in a forcible manner\n\ncham-\n\npioned the proposition of employing married women teachers.\nHe held that it is not the\n- business of the board of education to inquire whether a woman teacher is married or\nnot. The board should work for the welfare of the pupils, and should furnish them with\nthe very best teachers.\nThe question of charity, which is sometimes raised in favor of the\nemployment of unmarried teachers, should not be considered.\nIn answer to the objection\nof the physical condition of married women, he said there were more nervous teachers\namong those not married than those that were married, and asked: “Is it a crime to\nmarry?”\nThe President says they make good school-board members, and it is true,\nsuch being the case, they also must make good school-teachers.\na\n\nSAMUEL M. Foster, Ft, Wayne, Ind.—It is the duty of the board of education to\ngive to the community the best school efficiency that can possibly be given. There are\nsuperintendents in the employ of some boards who allow their teachers to work year in\nand year out, doing the same thing day after day, making no progress whatsoever.\nHe\nsuggested that it would be money well invested if boards employed superintendents who\nwould make teachers progressive in their daily duties.\n\nTHE\n\nTRUE\n\nFUNCTION\n\nBY R. E. SEARS,\n\nBOARD\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nOF EDUCATION,\n\nPUBLIC SCHOOL.\n\nMARSHALLTOWN,\n\nIA.\n\nThat “all men are born free and equal,” that this is “a government ©\nof the people,” and that “we must educate, we must educate,” are propo-\n\nsitions equally accepted by the people and equally dear to their hearts. To\nIn conlimit or qualify either is, in the view of many, akin to treason.\nready\nreceived\nhas\nname\ntheir\nin\nadvanced\neverything\nnearly\nsequence,\n\n"}
{"page": 994, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n984\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n[School ©\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nUnder the spell of the educational sentiment, colleges and\nacceptance.\nuniversities, seminaries and academies, have become legion upon legion.\nThe state of Ohio alone is said to have forty-seven colleges within her\nborders, and Iowa thirty-six.\n\nThe schoolmaster has, indeed, been abroad\n\nin the land.\nOur public-school system has been expanded, until the world certainly\nWe glory in our system for the general diffunever before saw the like.\nsion of knowledge, and glorify our public schools as the bright particular\nNeither money nor time nor self-sacrifice has been\nstars of that system.\nspared in promoting their interests.\nEach has been given cheerfully,\npatriotically, as a matter of course, often without much consideration on\nIn the name of education the heavy burdens of\nthe part of its donors.\nthe present have been supplemented with heavy mortgages on the future.\nOur issues of bonds have resembled the efforts of the giants of old in\npiling Pelion on Ossa, and both on Olympus.\nSomething over a year ago the writer of this paper had occasion to\nexamine the financial condition of a certain school district, having a\npopulation of about 10,000.\nFor some time there had been a singular\ndesire of its inhabitants to sell real estate therein and an equal singular\ninability so to do. He found the district bonded for every dollar the\nlaw permitted, and in addition a floating indebtedness of one-fifth more,\nand that there was a tax levy for that year of eighty mills on the dollar,\nof which over forty mills were for school purposes.\nAn investigation of\nthe schools, from the kindergarten to graduation, showed that the course\nwas scientifically arranged, according to the most modern and approved\nmethods, and required thirteen years for its completion.\nThe high-school\ncourse was four years, and included in its curriculum Latin and German,\n\nEnglish and American literature, physiology, zodlogy, botany, chemistry,\ngeology, astronomy, plane geometry, solid and spherical geometry,\nphysics, economics,\n\nmercial\n\nmodern\n\nand\n\ngeography, commercial\n\ntypewriting,\n\nbookkeeping,\n\nancient\n\nhistory, commercial\n\nlaw, com-\n\narithmetic, stenography for three\n\nmusic,\n\ndrawing,\n\nand\n\nphysical\n\nculture.\n\nyears,\nIn\n\naddition to all these, one influential member of the school board expressed\nhimself in favor of adding telegraphy and pharmacy in case a class of\nreasonable numbers could be secured.\n\nOne of the admirers of the school,\n\nin a local paper, stated that when Daniel Webster graduated from Dartmouth College he did not have so good an education as could now be\nobtained in that high school, and that not half the colleges and universities of the state could boast of such a chemical, bacteriological, and\nmicroscopical equipment.\nThere was no evidence\n\nof misapplication of the funds of the district.\n\nThe money raised by taxes and bonds had been expended on the schools.\nA continuation of that policy would not merely “dull the edge of hus-\n\n"}
{"page": 995, "printed_page": null, "text": "Administration]\n\nTHE\n\nTRUE\n\nFUNCTION\n\nOF THE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOL\n\n985\n\nbandry,” but meant municipal bankruptcy and practical confiscation of\nindividual property.\n‘That led the writer to a consideration of “What is\nthe True Function of the Public School?”\nIs it intended as a substitute for the college and university, or as\npreparatory to them, or as a school unto itself for the preparation of its\npupils for the actual work of life ? Is it for the few or-many ? Is it for\nthe purpose of learning a few elementary things well or many things\nsuperficially ?\nThe writer is a firm\n\nbeliever\n\nin the higher\n\neducation, as also in the\n\nethical and physical, as well as mental, development\ncommon\n\neducation.\n\nHe,\n\nhowever,\n\nbelieves\n\nor training of the\n\nit is economic\n\nwaste\n\nfor\n\nevery country town of five to fifteen thousand inhabitants to attempt\nto maintain a little college of its own, ruinous to the taxpayers, detrimental to the high schools of learning, and of little benefit to the pupils.\nIt is economic\n\nwaste,\n\nbecause\n\nmuch\n\nmore\n\nand\n\nbetter instruction of the\n\nhigher branches can be obtained in the institutions of higher learning at\nvery much less cost.\nIt is ruinous to the taxpayer, because the increment\nleft from the income of property is out of all proportion to the taxes\npaid. Itis detrimental to the higher institutions, because it deprives them\nof that much patronage, which, by large investinents, they are prepared to\nserve.\nIt is of little benefit to the pupil, because it seeks for him to\naccomplish results within sufficient means and time that require the best~\nof instructors, the completest of apparatus, and a reasonable length of time.\nIn consequence, he finds himself at the end of his public-school training\nthorough in little, superficial in much, and poorly qualified for the ordinary avocations of life.\n.\nIn the judgment of the writer, there is a medium\n\ncourse, more bene-\n\nficial to the great mass of pupils and less oppressive to the taxpayers. In\nhis judgment, every pupil in the country school and in the grades below\nthe high ‘school should be required thoroughly to master the common\nbranches\n— reading, writing, spelling, arithmetic, grammar, geography, the\nhistory of our own country, and somewhat of the best American and\nEnglish literature — so that, when he leaves such grades at the age of thirteen or fourteen, he is reasonably prepared for the ordinary avocations of\nlife. At the age named avery large majority of the young must leave\nschool and go into the world to support themselves and often others\ndependent upon them.\nIt is manifestly unjust and contrary to the original idea of a publicschool education that such pupils must take the high-school course or\nelse go out of school without the mastery of such fundamental branches.\nThe first function of a public school, then, is to give the pupils a thorough\nof the common branches, or, as they are sometimes called, the\nbread-and-butter branches, and so much of the best American and Engmastery\n\n"}
{"page": 996, "printed_page": null, "text": "986\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[School\n\nlish literature as will give them a taste for, and judgment of, the higher\nA correct taste for books, acquired in early\nand better class of books.\nyouth, will have a most important influence on the after life of the pupils.\nIt will give them a higher life and make them better citizens.\nShall it be its function to bea\nWe now come to the high school.\nsmall college, teaching many things superficially, as with its limited\nmeans and time it must ? or a preparatory school for one ? or shall it be\na school unto itself, teaching thoroughly a few things, but such as are\nmost nearly related to the ordinary avocations of life? It has been fairly\n\ndemonstrated, I think, that to make\n\nit the first (a college) is economic\n\nwaste, with municipal bankruptcy following.\nAs to the second (a preparatory school), it is said, on apparently good authority, that only four out\nof every hundred who graduate from the high school ever take a coilege\ncourse.\nIs it not, then, a manifest injustice to the ninety and six that the\nhigh-school curriculum should be loaded down with studies that are\ndependent for their utility on a larger and stronger pursuit of them, the\nmeans for which are furnished by the higher institutions of learning ? It\nseems to the writer that we ought not to attempt to make the high school\na college, nor a preparatory school for one; that the interests of the four\nshould not be made superior to those of the ninety-six ; but that such\nstudies should be taught as will best promote the interests of the great\nmajority, and that no more studies should be pursued than can fairly\nand reasonably be mastered in the time and with the means provided.\nAssuming that the elementary studies have been mastered in the\ngrades, as indicated,\n\nthen\n\nthe high-school\n\ncourse\n\nshould consist of (1)\n\nthose studies that are of general use and the least special in their nature;\n(2) those additional studies that afford the best mental discipline, considering also their usefulness.\nSuch a course would include a larger study\nof arithmetic and history and grammar, the study of algebra and geometry, of American\n\nand English\n\nliterature,\n\nof physics, of the science\n\nof\n\ngovernment or economics, and of one foreign language; and that language should be chosen the study of which gives the best training in the\nscience of grammar, in the use of language and the close discriminations\nthereof, and the best mental discipline.\nIn my judgment, the Latin most\nnearly covers the desired points.\nIts utility in giving a more perfect\nknowledge of English words is very great, far exceeding that of any of\nthe modern languages.\nThis plan would eliminate the study of modern languages, that, to be\npractical, must be studied in early youth, when the vocal organs are flexible ; of the sciences, the utility of which is dependent on years of study;\n\nand of all such specialties\n—as stenography, typewriting, and telegraphy\n—that\n\nare no more entitled to places in the high-school curriculum than\narts.\n\nare the mechanical\n\na\ne\n\n"}
{"page": 997, "printed_page": null, "text": "Administration]\n\nTHE\n\nTRUE\n\nFUNCTION\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOL\n\n987\n\nThe true function, then, of the public school is that the education\ngiven therein shall be (1) practical for the everyday life of the pupil;\n(2) thorough, not superficial; (3) in the line of giving mental strength\nand discipline.\nThoroughness will make bread winners and good citizens.\nSuperficialness will have as its results failures in life and indifferent citizens.\nIf no more is attempted in our public schools than can be\nthoroughly mastered by the pupils in the time devoted to public-school\nlife, then that education will take on anew meaning; then the highschool graduate who can write a legible hand, spell correctly, read intelligibly, and has a proper familiarity with figures and the use of good\nlanguage, will cease to be the exception to the rule; then will it cease to\nbe an open question whether the schooling has incapacitated the pupil\nfor the ordinary avocations of life ; then will the taxpayer have some\nrelief from the\n\nheavy public burdens, as, also, a consciousness that there\n\nhas been a full equivalent received for the expenditures made.\n\nDISCUSSION.\nWo. S. Mack, Aurora, Ill.—The true\n\nfunction\n\nof the public\n\nschool\n\nshould be goy-\n\nerned by the community, as it is impossible to prescribe a definite curriculum for all the\nschools in the country.\n\nF. D, PEAsE, Cedar Falls, Ia., was\nteach a number of the so-called fads.\nJoHN E. BRANDEGEE,\n\nUtica, N. Y.,\n\nopposed\nstated\n\nto bankrupting\n\nthat the gentleman\n\naddress on “The True Functions of the Public Schools”\nquestion, but had discussed the question of high schools.\n\nP.\n\nN.\n\nSrteGLER,\n\nDayton, O., maintained\n\nshould be to make safer and\n\nbetter\n\nthe municipality to\n\nhad\n\nwho\n\ndelivered\n\nnot discussed\n\nthat the object of the\n\npublic\n\ncitizens, that all new ideas in education\n\nthe\n\nthe real\n\nschools\n\nshould\n\nbe\n\ntested, and boards should not be backward in so doing; that the high school is the people’s college, and its curriculum should be regular college work.\nB. R. VINEYARD,\n\nSt. Joseph,\n\nMo., held that the paper read by Mr. Sears was, in\n\nthe main, correct.\nHe said boards of education stand between those people who want to\nspend too much money for education and those people who do not want to spend any\nmoney; therefore, it was the duty of the board to do the best with the means at its com-\n\nmand and to see that pupils receive a good practical education.\nWo.\n\nH. BENNETT, Milwaukee, Wis., said it is impossible\n\nto leave it to a commu-\n\nCommunities do not realize the advantage\nnity to decide matters pertaining to education.\nTeachers should stimulate new ideas and do all in their power\nof progress in education.\nto put them in practical use. Teachers’ conventions were held for the purpose of making\nprogress in education, and the same was true of the conventions of the boards of education.\n- ApRIAN\n\nHoutKamp,\n\nMilwaukee, Wis.—The\n\npublic-school\n\nsystem\n\nis the bulwark of\n\nthe nation, and the foundation of it cannot be built too strong. Boards of education\nshould see to it that pupils receive such a training that, when they graduate, they will be\n\ncapable of meeting the battles of life.\n\n"}
{"page": 998, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n988\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n[School\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nAll schools\nW.N. Sueats, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Florida.—\nIf but 1 per cent. reached\nshould be public, from the kindergarten to the university.\nthe university, and although the desired result was not accomplished, nevertheless the\npeople were benefitted thereby, as the education obtained by the I per cent. was a\nblessing to the public.\n\nSELECTION\n\nBY\n\nT. H.\n\nOF SCHOOL\nMETHODS\n\nWATKINS,\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nBOARDS— A COMPARISON\nIN-OPERATION.\n\nOF\n\nBOARD\n\nKY.\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION,\n\nLOUISVILLE,\n\nThe subject, “Selection of School Boards—A Comparison of the\nMethods in Operation,” from the fundamental requirements of the case\nmust be treated chiefly from a statistical standpoint ;consequently, if this\npaper should in any manner prove instructive, the absence of entertainment may be pardoned.\nFor convenience, we may arrange the principal (102) towns and cities\nof the United States into two classes:\n(1) those whose census shows a\npopulation of 22,000 to 50,000 ; (2) those whose census shows a population of 50,000 or more.\n\nOf the first class (50 towns) the statistics already published in school\njournals indicate, concerning the constitution of school boards:\nAveragemumber Of members.eei) ote aeie eee\neee eee\nPAN erAge Lenmar Ol, Of COs ata'seraisisioersysrabe arctemcu cysean eieenicr coke alede ee\neae\n\n12\n3 years\n\nINUmIDErOL tows\n\n41\n\nthat elect .se,.- iret\n\nnantes\n\nretele ae ceiey a mera\n\nNumber of towns that ap pOumteertcte sens -cyeners eters eters eee\nMowns where\n\nboards\\serve from-wards.\n\n4.07\n\ncele\n\neee eee\n\neck a eae\n\nse ieee\n\ntae\n\n9\n\nenero\n\n17\n\nas\n\nowns where boardstserve .“atilargey jaime\nseein tser eer tee nee 31\nTowns where boards have combined methods................-.22002\n\nFrom correspondence with officials of the fifty-two larger cities of the\nUnited States is digested the following tabulation :\nSCHOOL\nCities,\n\nBOARDS\nMem,\n\nOF\n\nCITIES\n\nTerm.\n\nOF\n\n50,000\n\nAND\n\nAAlDaniyy INs Mone ccs © 7p\neo enivnelecun ener: 84\n\n7\n3\n\nAppointed at large by mayor.\nElected from wards.\n\nINU EME\n\n6\n\nAppointed\n\n(OE aeoaoe o alts\n\nUPWARDS.\n\nHow constituted,\n\nby city council—three\n\nfrom city at large,\n\nfourteen from seven wards, and one ex officio.\n\nBaltimore, Md.......\n\n22\n\n2\n\nAppointed\n\nby joint session of city council; mayor is\n\nex officio.\n\nBoston, Mass........\nBridgeport, Conn....\nBrooklyn, N. Y......\n\nButialow Ns\n\nVeneer\n\n24\n12\n45\n\n3\n3\n3\n\nElected at large.\nElected at large.\nAppointed by mayor.\n\nHas no board, but a “school committee ” of board of\naldermen. Superintendent elected at large every\nfour years.\n\nbe\n\n"}
{"page": 999, "printed_page": null, "text": "aa\n\nSELECTION\n\nAdministration ]\n\nOF CITIES\n\nOF SCHOOL\n\n50,000\n\nAND\n\n989\n\nSCHOOL\n\nBOARDS\n\nCities.\n\nMem.\n\nTerm.\n\nCamden, Najie......\nCharlestony S.C...\n\n8\n10\n\n2\n\nChicago,\n\nss ements\n\n21\n\nAppointed at large by mayor. .\n\nCincimnatiy, Op\nseis\nCleveland, sO8 es ae.\n\nsd\n7\n\nColumbus;\n\n19\n\nElected from wards.\nElected at large.\nElected from wards.\nElected from districts.\n\n4\n\nOF\n\nBOARDS\n\nUPWARDS—continued.\n\nHow constituted,\n\nAppointed at large; mayor member ex officio.\nElected, six from districts; appointed, four by goy-\n\nernor.\n\nDenver.\n\nOcc noc...\n\nGolicn brates\n\n6\n\nMoines, Ia......\n\n6\n\nDetroit, Machi <i... ..<.\nEvansville, Ind......\n\n16\n3\n\nIndianapolis, Ind....\njesse City, .Ney «35.3\n\n11\n13\n\nDes\n\nKansas City, Mo.....\n\n6\n\nLos Angeles, Cal....\nLouisville, Ky.......\n\n9\n14\n\nByaniswMASSin, steps oi\n\n21\n\nLincoln; Neb.:.......\n\n9\n\nMemphis,\n\n5\n\nTenn.....\n\nElected at large.\nElected from wards.\nAppointed by mayor.\nbd\nBW\nOw\nAww\nb\n\nElected by wards.\nAppointed by mayor — one from each of twelve wards,\none at large.\nElected at large.\nElected by wards.\nElected by legislative districts.\nElected, seven each year, term one year.\n\nWe\nNH\nD\n\nElected, four each year, term\n\nw\n\npresident of council members ex officio.\nElected at large.\n\n21\n\nSchool\n\npeople delighted\n\nwith a\n\nAppointed by non-partisan commission of four.\n\nThis\n\ncommission appointed by mayor.\nMinneapolis,\n\nNewark\n\nMinn...\n\n7\n\nNevye.ase..o\n\n30\n\nHew\n\nHaven, Conn...\n\n9\n\nNew\n\nOrleans, La....\n\n20\n\nNew YorksaN. Vion...\nOakland; Cale acc...\n\n22\n11\n\nOniaha; Nebo.\n\n15\n\nPaterson,\n\n8\n38\n\nNediscsc.-\n\nPhiladelphia, Pa,....\n\nPittsbunc basses\n38\nProvidence, R. I1..... 33\nReading; Pas... ~~ 64\nRichmond, Va.......\n9\nRochester, N. Y...... 20\nSt. Joseph, Mo......\n6\nSt outss NMEOE tec .c, 12\nSipe Spivle Ibs\na eacio e i\n\nSalt Lake City, Utah.\nSan Francisco, Cal...\n\n10\n12\n\nmayor and\n\nElected every two years, three at one time and two at\n\nthe next time.\nsmall board.\nMilwaukee, Wis.....\n\nthree years;\n\npy\n\nWN\nWN\nw\n\n(Law of 1897.)\n\nElected at large, biennially, two members, then two,\nthen three.\nElected from wards.\nElected at large.\nAppointed, twelve by city council, four by governor\nof state.\nAppointed at large by mayor.\nElected, seven from wards, four at large.\nElected at large.\nAppointed by mayor from wards.\nAppointed by a commission composed of the judges\nof the Common Pleas Court.\nElected from districts,\nElected ten each year from wards, three ex officio.\n\nElected from wards.\nElected at large.\nElected from wards.\n\nElected atilarge.\nElected at large.\nAppointed at large by mayor.\nElected, two from each of five districts.\nElected at large.\nbw\nwD\nAB\nADDN\nFw\nW\n\n"}
{"page": 1000, "printed_page": null, "text": "“\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nNATIONAL\n\n990\n\nMem.\n\nCities.\n\n19\n\nDy TACuses Nie Vices:\n\nOF\n\nCITIES\n\nOF\n\nBOARDS\n\nSCHOOL\n\n50,000\n\n[School\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nUPWARDS—continued.\n\nAND\n\nTerm.\n\nHow constituted,\n\n2\n\nElected, one from each of nineteen wards.\n\n(Proposed\n\nnew charter is five at large.)\nAol evekoy ORR on onnece\nABrernioyay, INP Wisoocoae\n\n15\naS\n\n2\n2\n\nElected by wards.\nAppointed at large by mayor.\n\nTEOG INE NE.\n\nhid cri f\n\n7\n\n3\n\nAppointed at large by mayor.\n\nWashington,\n\nD.C...\n\nII\n\n3\n\nAppointed\n\nWilmington,\n\nDel....\n\n24\n\n4\n\nElected\n\nRESUME\n\nOR\n\nby government commissioners.\n\nfrom wards.\n\nDEDUCTION.\n\nFrom the fifty-two larger cities:\nNumber that elect cece vrs crac ctiyess af cvetene ona aoe ee) cat gee te\neee\nNumber that ap POM iscrs awa aa alekeas ayetoiee tint eae: ie oferta\nie ae wea ee\nNumberthateomabime\n\notis\n\n32\n17\n2\n\nsacs ssc) sre aeeededees = rer) ssa <1sertisloraial syAliana\n\nOf those that elect :\n\nBiyicw\n\nAld Satonneyn erent oe tarclsseny« cysbaterayay wtagsteaeme Mawehae = etorsuaioe = cae oreakong Meh\n\nINURE AR aS a gored nob iee Soh bee Loto ct! SopMr hc Gan oy Sho\nSO TIA DUS City ter ayeatenik SUSUS asta Saree aalthe ah Tae AUT\nesd AE SaSe\n\neS\n\nos oly eo\nne\n\n12\n2\n\nOf those that appoint :\nTOCGUM WATS MAlae eett macrolide Gicte eee ieneheeevavay > aaa clatrenauate eregehonaete\nAEBS Cima lerspanapnlerale ehan dracteohiea. ae tonsl a pecetele ia)vhs ealSegoe sich oka crore aanayen oan\nBy peculiar methods...... Tle BRS “ooNS anal ela Ble. state etatta’s Myelo tars carsales\nIAVEraAgerSIZELOL DOATAS Macca Ome. a sels oe eiMonldone © = Bie id Sa enemies eeMee ees\n\n2\n12\n3\n17\n\nAvera Emeril OLtOMCE a. cteie sulersve atstelee Sie olsls cree, sisi<isveqeuelc cvamueiaie: shoteialaieroiterad\n\n3% years\n\nLargest boards.\n\nSmallest. boards,\n\nMULE SETI tate sree sto oa\nNeale arctan tetsle i ce talyns\n\nrae\nSac\n\n84\nkon\n\nIBKOOKLVN eprctes\nstated, ere lerers:\n45\nlladelpiar\nade totes\n38\nIEUEUS DUI Segyccoreesyedel\n<3!citesiuofetate oye 38\n\nByansvillen\nMemphis¥acccec\n\na\n\nate sec cess\nreer\neerie\n\n3\n5\n\nSt. Joseph cessor\neats cieeee ene\nDesrMoim sien citeracds valerie\nKansas Cityca.\niti eerracren\n\n6\n6\n6\n\nFor term of election:\nMora termypoti2 vears a. cng ee arses aciselncnekc ocean\n\nHloraytetiniOf 3 -yeansiras\nor attermyoitAsvears)\n\neee ieeae\n\n15 cities\n\nereterete oe\n\n2ZrCilles\n\nerent leeds ee tees errs\n\n7 cities\n\neG on paomacreuery a menace ere\nsc ishut tenance rset\n\nHora. tern Of 5 SVCarsia. scl ecceus=cryyoaieeh\nbak aera eee meer\nno city\nRoriatterm\nOf 6 SyGans sac.shstt-1ayca dehasacn nay poet eRe\nem CHUTES\n\nHora term ot 7 2vears isatia8 uc. asicict See\n\ntenet hee eer\n\nI city\n\nFrom the above, the three-year term is evidently the most popular.\nDividing the territory roughly into sections — North, South, and great\nWest (including Indiana, but not Ohio in the West)——we find for the average size of the boards:\nSES\n\nOe\n\nnr\n\nRan\n\nHK Nr er -docsintan Mali Gou'A Satin Sacre alo oe\n\nDOUtHE a lgutasta aphasia de “aaeater eteeta en\n\nNUCH Ch\n\naoe\n\nOnc\n\nctorennntt\n\n24\n\neter\n\n125\n\nck On sino Merobeiat 4664 550A bcoob cuss\n\n10%\n\nshowing that in territorial development the tendency is toward smaller\nboards,\n\n"}
{"page": 1001, "printed_page": null, "text": "Administration]\nThe\n\nSELECTION OF SCHOOL BOARDS\n\n991\n\nhigh average of the North is due, to no small extent, to the one\n\nstate, Pennsylvania, where the conservation of Teutonic blood is not\nprone to innovation or experiment.\nAs a sample of the school methods\n\nof this state we quote in full the response of the secretary of Pittsburg\nCentral Board:\nThis city is divided into thirty-eight (38) subdistricts, each of which has a board of\nsix (6) directors, elected by the people of the subdistricts for a term of three (3) years.\nThese boards have power to levy tax, borrow money, purchase ground, erect buildings,\nand elect teachers.\nThe Central Board is composed of thirty-eight (38), each subdistrict electing a member once in three years. The Central Board has charge of the high schools, pays all\nteachers’ salaries, adopts the course of study for the entire city, and purchases books and\nsupplies, which are furnished free to the pupils.\nThe Central Board receives its money by appropriation from the council, the amount\nbeing included in the general levy; the funds required by the subdistrict boards are raised\nby direct tax in the respective subdistricts.\n\nFrom statistics and answers to inquiries it appears that the tendency\nof the times is toward boards with smaller membership and longer terms.\nIt is evident that three years is the popular term, and if one-third of the\nboard be subject to change each year, it is likely that nine will ultimately\nprevail as the model number of members.\nThe sentiment is rapidly growing in favor of members, whether\nappointed or elected, serving from the city at large and not from wards\nor districts.\nConcerning the questions: How should school boards be constituted ?\nand, What should be their province or limitation in the discharge of\nofficial duties? no ventilation of the individual views of the writer would\nbe as valuable as opinions already at hand of well-known and experienced\neducators.\n/\nAt\n\nthe Woman’s\n\nEducational\n\nAssociation,\n\nin Boston, a letter from\n\nPresident Truman J. Backus of Packer Collegiate Institute recommended\nthat\n1. The business administration and scholastic administration of public schools should\nbe kept as separate as possible. There should be centralized authority and responsibility\nin each of the administrations.\n2. There should be in the board of education a committee on instruction. The head\nof the business depattment of the school system should, I think, be a member of each of\nthese committees, without a vote.\n\n3. The board of education in a city where the population is as heterogeneous as it is\nwith us should be appointed (probably by the mayor) — not elected by the people.\n\nPresident Gilman of Johns Hopkins University also sent a letter, in\nwhich he made the following recommendations:\nIt seems to me that in a large town there should be a small board of education, made\nup by the best men that can be enlisted, without regard to the wards in which they reside.\n\n"}
{"page": 1002, "printed_page": null, "text": "St,\nel\nV\n\n992\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nThis board should serve without pay, but it should\npaid clerical assistants.\n\nIt should\n\ninclude\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[School\n\nbe -relieved of details by properly\n\nmen who are capable, as the water commis-\n\nsioners, the park commissioners, the police commissioners, the harbor commissioners\n\nare\n\ncapable of directing a very important branch of the public service.\nWhen such a board is organized, it will be clear that there are three main branches of\nthe work: (1) financial accountability; (2) buildings and equipment; (3) education.\nI do not see how it is possible to administer such a great system without a corps of\nhighly competent persons, who are properly paid for their services, and are held to strict\n\naccountability by the general board.\nclasses :\n\nThese paid officers will, naturally, belong to three\n;\n\n1. Accountants, to be chosen, as the\n\ntellers\n\nand\n\nbookkeepers of a bank are chosen,\n\nfor their fidelity and accuracy.\n2. Properly qualified inspectors of buildings, men who understand the arts of construction, heating, plumbing, etc.\n:\n3. Educational guides and leaders, men and women, worthy of appointment in any\neducational institution, because of their knowledge, character, and administrative powers,\nas well as their devotion to the service of the public through the agency of the publicschool system.\nThey should be supervisors and inspectors of the work of instruction.\n\nSecretary Hill of the State Board of Education and Superintendent\nSeaver favored President Draper’s plan for a small school board for legislative purposes, and the establishment of two departments for business\nand instruction.\nFor calm, deliberate, conservative opinions, based upon observation in\nmany cities and in all sections, perhaps the fairest are summed up in the\nApril School Board Journal by Frank A. Fitzpatrick :\nI believe that there can be no general law laid down as to what is the best type for a\nboard of education.\nIt is a question of communities, of development, and of evolution.\n\nEach community has its own problems to solve, its own peculiar environments, and the\nneeds of this community vary at different periods of its growth.\nIn communities where\nthe board of education is large there is usually a developing public sentiment in favor of\na change from a large board to a small board.\nIn communities where the board of education has been for a number of years a small one there is a tendency in favor of a larger\nor more representative body. Nor can one general law be laid down upon the question\nwhether members of boards of education shall be appointed by the mayor or by judges of\nthe district court, elected by the people at large, or by wards.\nIt is, of course, important\nthat the quality of the members of the board of education shall be high. But there is\nroom fora great deal of discussion as to what we mean by quality. It is not at all certain\nthat the most cultivated and best educated people in the community will make the best\nmembers of a board of education.\nThere are many instances where representatives from\nthis class of people have been distinctly the worst members on the board, so far as the\ninterests of the schools are concerned.\nReform boards that are elected during times of\nexcitement, with the idea of correcting some great alleged evil, and composed of the best\ncitizens, are often much worse, so far as the\n\ninterests\n\nof the schools are concerned, than\n\ntheir predecessors.\nThe really vital interests of the schools, so far as they are affected by the efficiency or\nnon-efficiency of a board of \"education, are the treatment by the board of questions\n\ninvolved in the election of a superintendent and teachers, the dismissal of teachers, and\nquestions concerning the course of study and the adoption of text-books.\nThe best schools are to be found where the people in charge are not clamoring for\n\nwi\n\n—\n\n"}
{"page": 1003, "printed_page": null, "text": "Administration]\n\nSELECTION OF SCHOOL BOARDS\n\n993\n\nmore power, and where they are not changing the course of study every other\nyear.\nPrimarily, the character of the work done in schools depends upon the quality of teaching.\nAll the other accessories are incidental and immaterial.\nA few simple changes in the by-laws of a board of education will greatly simplify\nthe problem.\n‘The object of any rational reform is threefold: (1) To segregate the purely\nprofessional\n\nsides of the schools,\n\nas far as the initiative\n\nis concerned, into the hands of\n\nthe superintendent.\n(2) The maintenance of a certain freedom among the teachers and\nprincipals, within certain board limits. (3) The segregation of the interests represented\nby the business side into such simple forms as will enable the members of the board of\neducation to do more than their duty without devoting an undue amount of time to the\npublic service.\nThe board of education ought to run the schools, through its executive officers.\nIt ought not to be forced to spend hours of its time debating details. If reformers\nwould confer with the right spirit with their local school boards, instead of rushing off to\n\nthe legislature to secure new legislation, wise changes could easily be made.\n\nDISCUSSION.\nJOHN E. BRANDEGEE, Utica, N. Y.— From the admirable paper by Mr. Watkins,\n- read in connection with the article of Professor Boykin, in the Lducational Review for\nMarch, 1896, which goes more into detail as to the workings of some exceptional city\nsystems, it is clear that no one system of selecting school boards has yet received any\nwide or general acceptance.\nThis is probably mainly due to two causes:\nFirst, the\nrecent rapid growth of our cities, which has made the problem of school government a\nconstantly changing one; and, second, the lack of opportunities for comparison and discussion of the systems of different communities.\nThis latter cause will be minimized and\nsimplified by the growth and work of this Department of School Administration of the\nNational Educational Association, and we may confidently anticipate the development in\nthe near future of a uniform and efficient system prevalent throughout the country, not\nbased on fancied local necessities, nor hampered by local ignorance, passion, and prejudice, but resting upon broad experience and wide observation.\nThis uniform general plan must be based on principles of universal application, while\nit is elastic enough in details to meet the varying needs of different communities.\nIn\nworking towards this result, we are met at the outside with the fact, so forcibly presented\nby Mr. Frick, that there is in each city an existing and established order of school affairs,\nOur diverand that hardly any two cities of considerable size are alike in their systems.\ngencies and differences, therefore, render imperative the formation of such bodies as this\nThey also compel conservatism\ndepartment and the holding of such discussions as this.\nin action, because hasty action does not necessarily, not even probably, result in permaWe must progress\nBut conservatism is not inaction.\nnent and healthy advancement.\nalong right lines. Many a plan which seems perfect on paper proves faulty in practice.\nWe cannot inaugurate a workable system merely by passing a resolution to do so. But\nwe\n\nmay\n\nand\n\nshall, by investigation,\n\nby comparison, and by experiment, work out har-\n\nmonious and practical general principles which will serve as a uniform basis of school\nadministration throughout the country.\nPermit me to submit a few considerations bearing on the general subject, for the\npurpose of eliciting discussion and comparison of views :\nFirst, should we not definitely determine what are the proper functions of a school\n\n"}
{"page": 1004, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n994\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n[School\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nThere is\nboard before we attempt to lay down rules for its selection and organization.\nimmediate\nand\nsupreme\nhave\nshould\nboard\nschool\nthe\nthat\nopinion\ndoubtless a widespread\nUpon this theory, the adoption\ncontrol and direction of every detail of school activity.\nof a course of study, changes\n\nin text-books,\n\nimprovements\n\nin methods;\n\nqualifications,\n\nselection, assignment, and discharge of teachers; the basis of promotions both for teachers and pupils, and every other purely professional duty, should be discharged by the\nboard. Itis evident that, if these duties are to be performed in an ideally perfect manner,\nthe board should be composed of professional educators, of persons whose lives have\nbeen spent in acquiring the intricate and technical knowledge necessary to the proper\ndetermination\n\nof these\n\nprofessional\n\nquestions,\n\nand\n\nnot composed, as is now\n\nusual,\n\nof\n\namiable and well-meaning, but untrained individuals, who leave their business for a few\nhours in each day or week and faithfully but hopelessly endeavor to acquaint themselves\nwith these details. The uniform opinion of expert writers on this subject seems to be\nthat of Mr. Fitzpatrick, as quoted by Mr. Frick, which states asthe first object of any\nrational reform “to aggregate the purely professional side of the school, so far as the\nThe Committee of Fifteen\ninitiative is concerned, into the hands of the superintendent.”\nsays: ‘The whole matter of instruction must be placed in the hands of a superintendent\nof instruction, with independent powers and adequate authority, who is charged with full\nThese cogent quotations afford a clew as to what is the proper function\nresponsibility.”\nof a school board.\nFocalize responsibility for the professional work upon the superintendent, and leave\nto him the working-out of the details.\nSo on the business side of your duties —employ\ncompetent heads in each department, as repairs, construction, purchase of supplies; and\nhold them strictly responsible.\nUpon the board will still rest the ultimate responsibility\nfor all departments.\nThe analogy of the board of directors of a corporation, so strikingly\nused by Mr. Mack at Buffalo last year, is very appropriate.\nThe school board, like the\ndirectors of a large corporation, should not be occupied with the details and routine of the\nbusiness.\nRather it should be its high office to occupy itself with results.. If the results\nare good, you may be sure that your business is being well conducted, and that well-meant,\nbut ill-directed interference on your part will be productive only of evil and confusion.\nIf the results obtained are not satisfactory, you should ascertain whether this is owing to\nfaults in your general policy, or to defective execution of that policy. This determined,\nchange the plan or improve its execution.\nFix the responsibility, and then act fearlessly.\nIf these be the proper functions of a school board, it would seem to follow that in its\ncomposition and selection it would be preferable to have a small body elected or\nappointed from the city at large, and not from districts, and having a term of office suffici-\n\nently long to permit forming and carrying out a consistent policy.\nA large board is apt\nto be indifferent as well as unwieldly.\nIt leads to a divided and shifting responsibility.\nIt relegates its work to committees, which means lack of uniformity and unity of purpose.\n\nIt magnifies differences and dissipates effective energy.\nA board selected or appointed from the different districts is by its very nature conflicting, sectional, and divergent.\n\nA board having a short term of office is unstable, incon-\n\nsistent, and variable.\nIt also usually lacks that experience and knowledge which are\nessential to a proper consideration of the problems constantly arising.\nThe great necessity is to arouse in the community a keen sense of the real object of the public-school\nsystem.\nWhen this is once done, the right kind of men will find places on the board,\nwhether they take office directly from the people or immediately through the mayor or\nsome other appointing authority. It seems humiliating, if not ludicrous, to have to\n\nadmit that in most of our American cities the chief and only end and aim of the public\n\neducational\n\ntrustees.\n\nsystem is persistently\n\nand\n\nperversely ignored\n\nin the selection\n\nof school\n\nThe real and only true purpose of the schools is to educate the children,\n\nTo\n\nS\nee\n\n"}
{"page": 1005, "printed_page": null, "text": "Administration]\n\nSELECTION\n\nOF SCHOOL\n\nBOARDS\n\n995\n\nthe carrying-out of this purpose, board, superintendent, teachers, and all the rest are but\nagencies and instrumentalities.\nNo individual or set of individuals, no ambitions or\n\nschemes, should be paramount in importance to the child and its proper education.\nThe indispensable tests of eligibility to any official position in the school system should\nbe competency to perform the duties of the place and a steadfast purpose to devote every\nenergy to the intellectual development of the pupil.\nLet me ask, in all fairness, whether, in the vast majority of our American\n\ncities, these\n\ntests are applied in the selection of the members of our school boards.\nAs a matter of\nfact, in this respect are not our schools made the football and plaything and tool of partisan or factional advantage, of personal ambition or malice, and too often of speculation\nor pecuniary profit?\nToo many times are men selected for this important office to\n“strengthen the ticket,” to conciliate this or that faction, to attract this or that race or\nsectarian following, to pay some political or personal debt, to fatten the party purse or to\npunish the partisan enemy, to help a friend or to harm a foe. How often do we find men\nforcing or attempting to force themselves into this important office to make sure of a fat\ncontract\n\nfor themselves\n\nor\n\ntheir\n\nfriends, to provide\n\na place for some\n\npoor relation, to\n\n“organize” the schools in aid of their personal ambition, to “get even” for the removal\nof some discredited and discarded teacher or employé, or, perhaps, most unworthy of all,\nto wreak some personal vengeance or gratify some personal spite !\nThese things are common—far too common,\nYet in many communities they are\nendured without censure, and sometimes even with complacency.\nWherever this is the\ncase, there is a departure from what should be our high ideal. The welfare of the child\nis sacrificed for the benefit of the party, the faction, or the individual.\nThe public service\nis debauched, and the public interest is forgotten.\nUntil the popular conscience is so\nawakened\n\nas to insist, first and foremost, that the board shall devote all its energies to the\n\ncomplete education of the child, and until most school boards recognize this to be the\nwhole sum and substance of their duty, it will make but little difference whether they are\nappointed or elected.\n\nTo\n\nthe attainment\n\nof that end, this department, by reason\n\nof its\n\nrepresentative character, its wide extent, and its earnestness of purpose, has presented to\nit an opportunity which should not be neglected or thrown aside.\nMrs. ALICE BRADFORD\n\nWILES, Freeport, I1l.—School\n\nboards\n\nshould hold superin-\n\ntendents responsible for just results. They should, however, stand part of the responsibilities of hiring and discharging teachers and selecting text-books.\nBoards should not\ninterfere wich the technicalities of educational work; that should be left to the superintendent and teachers.\n\nPRESIDENT H. L. Gerz.—I am opposed to the granting of too much power to the\nsuperintendent, which will lead, if carried to its logical conclusion, to one-man power. It\nis un-American, and I hope the day will never come that the authority of the entire management of the public-school system vested in the superintendent will be looked upon as\nAmerican.\nMembers of school boards should not go into the schoolrooms and direct the\ndetails of the educational\n\nwork, it is true; but they should\n\nbe the responsible head and\n\nhave in charge the entire management of the school system.\nA, J. LINDEMANN, Milwaukee. — Directors of corporations plan with and consult the\nsuperintendent regarding the business that they may be engaged in, and I believe that\nboards of education should do the same thing.\n\nJouN B. Jonss, Utica, N. Y.—The difficulty with boards of education is that they\nhave not the backbone to discharge a superintendent after they have lost confidence in\nhim.\n\nBoards of education having in their employ a superintendent in whom they have\nconfidence have no trouble in the management of the school system for which they are\n\nresponsible,\n\n"}
{"page": 1006, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL\n\n996\n\n[School\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nCONSTRUCTION— THE IMPORTANT\nSCHOOLHOUSE\nTO BE ATTAINED IN THE PLANNING AND\nBUILDING OF SCHOOLHOUSES.\n\nBY\n\nA. H.\n\nKIRCHNER,\n\nARCHITECT,\n\nST.\n\nLOUIS,\n\nMO.,\n\nSCHOOL\n\nENDS\n\nBOARD.\n\nEver since man has arrived at any degree of civilization and luxury,\nhe has demanded for himself something more than the Tartar’s tent or\nthe shepherd’s hut, and out of man’s demands for something more than\nmere protection architecture was born.\nWith every system of religion that has appeared upon the earth a corresponding system of architecture has appeared, which has influenced and\ntinctured all modern\n\narchitectural\n\nforms, and\n\nnow\n\nnearly nineteen\n\ncen-\n\nturies of Christianity have peopled the world, and as yet we are without\nany definite system as regards the symbolism or materialization of school\nbuildings.\nOf all types of buildings the school building stands out most conspicuously in its want\n\nof rational treatment.\n\nChurches, theaters, office build-\n\nings, each have had the best talent of the combined civilized world ; but\nthe school building, so important an element in the prosperity and progress of our country, is as yet far from perfection, and yet I believe the\nday is surely approaching when we can thoroughly consider the physical\nwelfare of our children as well as the mental training.\nTo secure a perfectly sanitary, useful, convenient, practical, and, lastly,\nornamental success in a school building deserves the serious attention of\n\nevery right-minded architect\nwith the school system.\n\nand every public-spirited\n\nman\n\nconnected\n\nThe architect has duties, but so also has the school board for which he\n\nlabors.\n‘The architect should be prepared to provide for such conveniences, such arrangement of light and shadows, should give such attention to details of comfort and practical working of the classes, should ©\nunderstand in its practical operation the relation of the teacher to the\nchild and the child to the teacher, that school days shall be reminiscent,\nnot of tacks\n\nin seats, jackknife-carved\n\nbenches, pasted-up\n\nwindows,\n\nand\n\ndisfigured walls, but a memory of a dignified, self-respecting, serious yet\njoyous youth, such a youth as builds itself up into citizens of the greatest\nnation —manly and womanly beings, that shall lead in everything that\ntends to make man more manly and woman more womanly— proper surroundings for those that are determined to lead in civilization.\nThe\n\nschool\n\nboard, on the other\n\nhand, has no light task, either, for it\n\nmust bear the responsibility of the results in their entirety.\n\nwr\n\n"}
{"page": 1007, "printed_page": null, "text": "Administration ]\n\nSCHOOLHOUSE\n\nCONSTRUCTION\n\nTo begin, then, at the beginning, the first move\n\n997\n\nis the selection of a lot\n\nfor the building.\nTo those who never have given it their serious consideration the selection of a school\n\nlot is fraught with\n\nmuch\n\nlabor, and\n\nmembers\n\nof school\n\nboards who are called on for the first time to do this important work\nshould take time for reflection, and look on the purchase as not being a\ntemporary affair of a few years, but a purchase for many years to come.\nBut no sooner does the public find out that a lot is to be selected for this\npurpose than every real estate agent in the town, every owner of a lot—\ngood, bad, or indiffer\n—ent\nbegins a wild scramble to make a deal. Each\nmember is besieged by every friend or relative he ever possessed, until he\nfinds himself, unless a man of rare discretion and judgment, confused and\nsometimes even forced to favor some sink-hole unfit for any building purpose, let alone a school.\nThe lot should by all means be high, for proper drainage; the neighborhood should be moral; it should be free from proximity to noisy\nmanufacturing interests, from the dangers of steam and electric cars, from\ndisease-breeding dairies and stagnant ponds.\nIt should be located on properly finished streets, to insure comfortable\nmeans\n\nof access\n\nto and\n\nfrom\n\nschool,\n\nand\n\nto avoid\n\nannoyance\n\nto both\n\nteachers and parents, as well as to the children themselves.\nThe building itself should be placed in the center of a spacious lot,\nleaving room thereby for trees and other attractive improvements.\nThe lot on both sides and rear should have a close board fence, along\nwhich seats can be built ; the front should be of such description as the\nexpenditure may warrant, as a matter of appearance.\nThe first floor of the school building should be at least five feet above\nthe terraced lot, and the terrace of said lot should be not more than three\n\nfeet above the street level.\nThe height of the first floor above the terrace affords sufficient light for\nthe basement, which is an important factor in all school buildings, and the\ngeneral height above the street prevents the distraction of the pupils.\nAll materials used in the construction of school buildings should be\nof a permanent character ; hence all basements or cellars should have the\nwalls of stone, since it is-impervious to water and less liable to disintegrate. The stonework should extend above the soil.\nSo far as brick buildings are concerned, both red brick with terracotta trimmings and buff brick with light stone trimmings give a harmoOther combinations seem to give a\nnious and pleasing color scheme.\n“spotty” effect.\nFireproof buildings throughout are certainly the most desirable, but\nwhere economy will not permit\n\nof the entire\n\nbuilding being fireproof, it\n\nis an essential feature to have at least the corridors so built.\n\n"}
{"page": 1008, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n998\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[School\n\nHowever, fireproofing will by no means prevent a panic, no matter\nhow much previous explanation you may have given to the children;\ndiscipline by principal and teachers alone can prevent a stampede when\nthe children are once started.\nAll exterior sheet metal work should be copper, on account of its perToo much care cannot be taken in selecting materials that are\nmanency,\nand not the cheapest, for the cheapest cost more in the end\nbest\nthe\nof\nin the shape of repairs arising from the daily wear and tear.\nWhere land and materials are reasonable, two-story rather than three-\n\nThey are easier to manage for those in\nstory buildings seem desirable.\ncharge, they are more rapidly emptied, and necessitate less climbing of\nstairs for girls of tender years.\nHowever, those interested must not lose sight of the fact that a threestory building is more compact and can be built for less money than a\ntwo-story building having the same number of rooms and designed to\naccommodate an equal number of pupils.\nSchool buildings should have one central entrance in front, designed\nwith some thought of its attractiveness, as it adds to the general appearance of the whole.\nIts characteristic features ought to distinguish it from\na jail or an asylum for idiots.\nThis central entrance is for visitors; it affords additional egress for\npupils in case of accident; and, when locked, prevents a superintendent\nfrom stealing in upon the unsuspecting teacher at the most inopportune\ntime.\nThis entrance leads to a main corridor running the entire length of\nthe building, and thus divides the class-rooms on each floor into groups\nof two or four rooms on each side of the corridor.\nSide entrances should be provided, one on each side of the building—\none for boys and one for girls—connecting with the main corridor and\nconnecting immediately with stairways, one on each side of the main\ncorridor.\nCorridors should be very wide—not less than twenty feet— giving an\nopportunity for wardrobe screens for both boys and girls, and affording\npractical help in the dismissal of pupils.. The doors in wardrobes swing\nboth ways, and the panels are filled with wire screens.\nThe top part of\nthe wardrobes is of wire screening.\nThe wardrobes are left open at the\nfloor, and, with wire screening, all allow the air to circulate freely. In\ndamp weather the wearing apparel has a chance to dry by the time for\ndismissal.\nThere\n\nshould\n\nbe a sufficient\n\nnumber\n\nof stairways,\n\ncentrally located\n\nand conspicuously placed.\nThese stairways ought to be concentrated in\na general part of the corridor, which is rightly termed a “stairway corridor.” This avoids that ceaseless tramp back and forth on the different\n\n"}
{"page": 1009, "printed_page": null, "text": "Administration]\n\nSCHOOLHOUSE\n\nCONSTRUCTION\n\n999\n\nfloors. ‘The stairways themselves should be of easy rise and suthciently\nwide tread ; not less than five feet in width, with strong hand rail, balustrade, posts, and newels.\nAll sharp corners and tempting ornaments\nshould be abandoned.\nThe proper discipline should be exercised at all times during the use\nof the stairways, and the architect thereof not be led by a doting\nmother into stretching a wire netting after the manner of a “ Ringling\nBros.” trapeze performance, when her rebellious offspring slides down\nthe balustrade and falls to the floor below.\nWith the arrangement of corridors mentioned before, it is possible to\nhave each room connect directly with the corridor by means of two openings, the doors of which swing both ways, and are provided with glass\npanels.\n‘These doors have the advantage of being noiseless, of conforming to the law of opening outward, of taking up less space, and of always\nbeing closed.\nClass-rooms should be twenty-seven feet by thirty feet for\na quota of forty-five pupils, thereby giving to each pupil eighteen square\nfeet of floor space. The height of room should be uniform, and, with the\nfloor space mentioned before, should be at least thirteen feet, giving each\npupil two hundred thirty-six and one-fourth cubic feet of air space.\nThis\nought to satisfy the most exacting board of health, whether it be a political pull or a combination of misguided reformers.\nEach class-room ought to be provided with a wardrobe for the teacher,\nin which there is a washstand and other conveniences, also a large closet\nfor books and materials required by the pupils.\nEach school should have a good-sized principal’s office, and an additional room\n\nfor library, reference\n\nbooks, and cabinets.\n\nIn large schools, where the same grade occupies more than one room,\nit is desirable that the rooms be connected by means of sliding doors,\nbecause many lessons and exercises of different character can be given\nwith more uniformity of results, in the least amount of time.\nBy this arrangement of corridors, stairways, and connecting rooms,\nthe necessary supervision is facilitated.\nIn the absence of one teacher\nof connecting rooms in the corridor and stairway, the other teacher is\nenabled to supervise the adjoining room as well as her own room.\nThis\nis an immaterial consideration in small schools.\n\nThe finishing of the rooms should be uniform and as cheerful as possible.\n\nThe\n\nwoodwork\n\nshould\n\nbe\n\nnatural\n\nwood,\n\noiled\n\nand\n\nvarnished.\n\nRough plaster with a good water-color tint makes a pleasing wall. When\nthe ceiling is plastered, it should be smooth plaster of Paris finish and\nwhite.\n\nBare brick walls, without decorative accessories, are too suggestive\n\nof a prison cell, and the light reflections therefrom are very disagreeable.\nDouble flooring, well stripped and deadened with heavy building\npaper, is inexpensive and far more cleanly than interlinings of refuse\n\n"}
{"page": 1010, "printed_page": null, "text": "1000\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n—\n\n[School\n\nmortar and rubbish used between wooden joists. For obvious reasons,\npicture moldings should be placed in every room.\nCareful inspection should be made as regards the suitability of the\nseatings in every room in every school; age and grade are no criterion,\nfor a certain grade in one locality might demand an entirely different set\nof desks from the same grade in another locality.\nSeats should be graded from front to rear, to accommodate pupils of\nNearly all teachers prefer single desks on account of\ndifferent stature.\nThe color of desks is a matter of fancy; the\ndiscipline and sanitation.\ndark ones, however, repair more satisfactorily than the light ones.\n\nDesks should be placed in the rooms so that the light falls over the\nleft shoulder and back of the pupils ;and with eighteen square feet of floor\nspace to each pupil, the desks can be so placed as to provide proper\naisles.\nThe question of platforms for teachers is a debatable one.\n‘There are\narguments for and against the platform.\nIt seems to be the fashion at\npresent to dispense with them, and thereby relieve the teacher of the\naccusation of being a kind of policeman rather than a friend and helper,\non the same level.\nNo teacher ever finds that she has too much blackboard space.\nIn\nthe past year I have inserted panels of slate in the folding doors between\nrooms, and am told that they are quite convenient, especially in rooms\nwhere children face the folding doors.\nWhen I speak of blackboards, I mean natural slate boards, for there is\nno\n\nsatisfactory\n\nsubstitute\n\nfor a slate\n\nboard,\n\nwhich,\n\nonce\n\nset, becomes a\n\npermanent fixture.\nBefore leaving this subject of furnishings I should like to call attention\n\nto the fact that nothing as yet has been found entirely satisfactory for\nregulating the windows through which the sun streams.\nInside folding blinds are expensive, clumsy, and nearly always dirty.\nVenetian blinds are also expensive, and in need of repairs about twothirds of the time.\n\nOrdinary window-shades\n\nare\n\nperishable,\n\nnoisy, and\n\nopen to the criticism of the drawing supervisor, by allowing the light to\nleak in on the sides.\nOne of the most important features in a school\nbuilding is the lighting of class-rooms.\nThere should be enough windows to give square feet of light equivalent to about 30 per cent. of the\nfloor space of rooms.\nWith four and three-fourths square feet of light\nper pupil a class-room seems to be sufficiently lighted.\nIn order to secure this amount of light, two sides of the room must\nbe utilized for windows.\nEnough light cannot be obtained by the German method of lighting, which permits the entrance of light from one\nside only, and which may serve very well in other buildings, but which\nbecomes intolerable in rooms having southern exposure only, into which |\n\n"}
{"page": 1011, "printed_page": null, "text": "Administration]\n\nSCHOOLHOUSE\n\nCONSTRUCTION\n\nIOoI\n\nthe sun beats all day. Several years ago ribbed glass, on account of its\nrefractory properties, was used in wide-mullioned windows of one of our\nschools, and, as a result, in a very short time the eyesight of the pupils\nwas so impaired that the ribbed glass was removed and plain glass substituted.\nWindow panes must be large enough to admit.a free-entrance of light,\n‘The\nthat the eye may not be wearied by shadows and cross shadows.\nwindows must be so placed that the ceiling and the distant corners of the\nroom will be well lighted.\nCorridors can be lighted by means of large transoms over each door,\nby windows on stair landings, and by large windows at the end of the\ncorridor.\nIn large cities, where space is limited for school yards, conveniences\nshould be placed in finished basements, and, no matter what the economy\nmay be in other directions, no expense should be spared to make these\nconveniences thoroughly sanitary in every respect.\nNot only the architect, but the principals and teachers, should have a constant’ supervision\nover these conveniences.\nIn the school building of the present, next to light, there is hardly a\nquestion which demands so much attention as the heating and ventilating. The day for furnishing mere heat has gone by.\nThe public demands absolute and perfect comfort for each pupil. To\nthis end, after a thorough investigation of all kinds of heating and ventiJating apparatus, I can safely recommend a power system by which the\nfresh air is forced over a heated surface into the class-rooms at a rate\nwhich insures each pupil the requisite amount of fresh, warm air. A certain safe degree of temperature should be established in all schools and\nregulated automatically.\n+\nPersonally I consider the Johnson system of heat regulation, manufactured in Milwaukee, to be the only reliable one, and\n\nwhich\n\nhas been\n\nused successfully in the St. Louis schools for the past five years. This\nrelieves the teacher of all responsibility and worry, and permits her to\ngive her undivided attention to the instruction of the classes, for with a\n\nsatisfactory power system of heating there is no necessity for meddling\nwith the windows or doors.\nSo far as removal of foul air from class-rooms is concerned, it is only\n\npossible in a perfect manner by means of ‘exhaust fans.” However, the\nspace around the smoke flue, if it is sufficiently large, may be utilized as\na conductor of foul air by connecting it with the different class-rooms.\n— it is a good thing\nIn a large school —twenty-four rooms, for instance\nto place the boiler house outside of the main building, thus leaving space\nin the basement for other purposes.\nDuring my connection with the St. Louis\n\npublic schools,\n\nseveral\n\n"}
{"page": 1012, "printed_page": null, "text": "1002\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[School\n\n“desirable accessories have occurred to me, some of which I have been\nTwo of the schools have automatic clocks in the tower,\nable to secure.\n\nconnecting with the class-room clocks, all regulated by a master clock\nplaced in the principal’s office. One school has a modeling room in the\nbasement, arranged with long tables and benches of different heights. A\nroom with a northern light properly distributed for the use of the drawing classes exclusively has become a necessity in a large school having\nhigh-grade pupils.\nI have always wished to add a lunchroom, in which, with some degree\nof comfort, pupils might eat their luncheon, and thereby keep the classroom free from dirt and refuse.\nA washroom connected with the lunchroom would add materially to the comfort of both teachers and pupils.\nBefore closing, I should like to call your attention to some of the\nnoticeable mistakes in school buildings .in different cities, and which can\nbe easily avoided by any school board:\nNo front entrance, improperly\nconstructed\n\nvestibules,\n\nmansard\n\nroofs;\n\ndark,\n\nnarrow,\n\nand\n\nsteep\n\nstair-\n\ncases ; winding stairs; poorly placed staircases ; stone flagging for floors\nand\n\nstairs; dark,\n\nrooms\n\nnarrow\n\naccompanied\n\ncorridors ; bare brick\n\nby very\n\ntion; dark woodwork ; posts\n\nsmall\nor\n\nrooms;\n\ncolumns\n\nwalls;\n\nnoisy,\n\nin rooms;\n\nsome\n\nvery\n\nof mill\nfloors\n\nlarge\n\nconstruc-\n\nof different\n\nlevel; poorly lighted rooms; colored and ribbed glass panes; no wardrobes for pupils; and kindergartens in the same building; but the worst\nof all is an original plan to which no practical addition can be made.\nYou have noticed, doubtless, that I have confined myself entirely to\npublic schools in large cities and have left untouched the subject of rural\nschools, schools in small towns, and schools in thinly peopled districts,\nwhich, after all, require more consideration, judgment, and experience in\n\nthe building than city schools, for each individual school possesses\nenvironments peculiar to itself alone; but no matter where the school\nbuilding is located, it must be a structure suitable to its Pa.\nIt must\naid the teacher, not retard her.\n\nIn a school building there can be no pleasant little nooks and corners,\nso often conducive to attractive ornamentation, but be the exterior\n\never\n\nso plain, there is no excuse why the interior should not be practical and\ncheerful ; and yet, when all is said, a school building is only a school\nbuilding, and where is the school board that does not have to make one\ndollar do the service of five, and where the taxpayer who does not think\nthat each dollar in the school fund ought to have the purchasing value of\nten?\nAnd lastly, the architect of any school board, besides knowing his\nown profession well, must be thoroughly acquainted with the daily\nroutine of school life.\nDuring my twenty-three years’ connection with school work in the\n\ne\n\n"}
{"page": 1013, "printed_page": null, "text": "Administration]\n\nSCHOOLHOUSE\n\nCONSTRUCTION\n\n1003\n\nSt. Louis schools the most valuable suggestions have come to me from\nthe teachers in the grade work, and I have discovered for myself that the\nschool building is no place for theories or experiments.\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\nADRIAN HouTKamp, Milwaukee, Wis.— Having listened attentively to the very\nexcellent paper just read by Mr. Kirchner, one would readily say, what more can be said\non the subject, for it does seem as if everything needed in and about a school building\nhas been brought to our attention.\nTo lead the discussion on this topic, however, I will\nsay that no greater wrong can be done a child than to deprive it of its possibilities for\nfuture health and happiness by placing it in buildings, for six hours a day, that are\ntotally unfit to house it. To remedy this all too frequent source of trouble and aggravation was the object of the committee in bringing out this topic.\n“We plant the seeds of knowledge in the minds of children with infinite care, and\nthen, with proportionate carelessness, we neglect their frail bodies.” Care for the physical\nshould be the first thought of every wise parent and teacher.\nThe schoolhouse of the\npast could not boast of the imposing curriculum which is the pride of our schools of today,\n- but it sent forth robust, rosy-cheeked, hearty boys and girls. There were no gymnasiums,\nno calisthenic exercises in that past, but there was an out-of-door life which developed\nbrawn and quickened the brain.\nThe first consideration in the building of a school should be a suitable site; and one\nwithout proper drainage should not be accepted at any price. When we understand that a\ncommon brick will absorb a pint of water, and that moisture rises up and along the bricks\n\nof a building about as fast as it will run up a series of lumps of sugar, the importance of\nproper drainage becomes readily apparent.\nThe folly and bad effects of choosing a low site can be seen in a school building in\nthis city, where, while the city purchased a space of 150 X 300 feet, with a slope of\nsome\n\nsix to seven\n\nlowest end\n\nfeet on the long side of the same, the building was\n\nplaced\n\non\n\nthe\n\nof the tract, so that all surface water would run foward the building, instead\n\nof away from it. How good results are to be obtained when men so little understand the\nrequirements of a building I fail to see. Too frequently, however, the interests of the\nlot owner figure more prominently in the purchase of a site than does the good of the\nchildren.\nToo much light is as injurious as is an insufLight is the second important matter.\n\nficient amount of it.\n\nThe idea that light should come over the left shoulder of the child\n\nThe light should neither be too strong for the\nis good, but that alone is not sufficient.\none nor yet too weak for the other. Indeed, the great cause of defective sight so prevalent among school children in these days is caused by the light being insufficient, requiring a straining of the optic nerves.\nOut of 53,000 children examined in the city of Baltimore, 9,051 were found with\n\nsight so impaired that it was declared unsafe for them to remain at school any longer.\nIf this is the condition of things in that city, itis reasonable to suppose that the same\ntrouble will be found in all cities.\nHaving been troubled personally with the glaze of a varnished desk or table, I am of\nthe opinion that that is the real cause of the trouble, in that it in a measure blinds and\n\nblurs the vision.\n\nA close observer will find that, when the light is too strong for the\n\n"}
{"page": 1014, "printed_page": null, "text": "1004\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\npupils who sit near the windows, and\n\n[School\n\nthe curtains are drawn, the pupils sitting in the\n\nfarther end of the room have an insufficient amount of light, and must strain every nerve\nto do their work.\n\nThe\n\nremedy,\n\nit would\n\nseem, would\n\nlie in double\n\ncurtains, one to let\n\ndown from the top to the center, the other to pull up from the bottom to the center; that\nsurely would control the light more equitably. The highly varnished desks or seats\nshould not be allowed in the schoolroom, as that is an undoubted source of trouble.\n\nProper ventilation is certainly to come under the consideration of this topic, and it\nhas occurred to me that the matter of ventilation is overdone at times. The builder\nguarantees that so many square feet of fresh air shall be forced into the building in a\ngiven time, and, to insure that amount, machinery altogether too strong for the needs of\nthe building is put in, and a direct draft is the result. When that is the case —and it is\nso in at least two of the schools in this city— it becomes a positive detriment to the welfare of both pupil and teacher.\nThe size and number of rooms should be carefully con-\n\nsidered, as well as their exposure to cold and heat, not forgetting the number of pupils\nthat are to attend the daily sessions.\nA remedy can and should be found.\nWhile not directly a part of the construction of a building, the matter of equipment\ncertainly becomes a part of it. In this connection, then, a few words on seating.\nA\nrecent investigation in the city of Cleveland showed that nearly four thousand children\nwere\n\nfound\n\nwhose feet did not touch the floor when seated, and over fourteen thousand\n\nwere seated at desks either too high or too low for them. In our own city schools we\nhave noticed that boards have been placed on the floor so that the feet of the children could\ntouch the floor, while others again sat in seats altogether too low for them.\nThis certainly requires a remedy, and one is found in the new adjustable desks and seats now\n\nS\ne\n\nbeing used in many places.\n\ne\nae\n\nNy!\n\n¥\n\n"}
{"page": 1015, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIBRARY\n\nDEPARTMENT.\n\nSECRETARY S MINOTES:\nFIRST\n\nPresident\n\nMelvil\n\nMiss\n\nE.\n\nSESSION.—Tuurspay,\n\nJULY\n\n8.\n\nDewey, of Albany, N. Y., being absent, the Vice-President,\nVan Sickle, Denver, Colo., opened the meeting with a few remarks.\nMae\n\nSchreiber,\n\nState\n\nNormal\n\nSchool,\n\nMilwaukee,\n\nread\n\na paper\n\nJ. H.\non\n\nthe\n\n“Training of Teachers so that They May Co-operate with Librarians.”\nThe paper was discussed by W. R. Eastman, Miss A. V. Milner, and Miss Schreiber.\nA paper on “ Observations upon Children’s Reading ” was read by Royal W. Bullock,\nUniversity of Colorado.\nThe paper was discussed by W. R. Eastman and others.\nA paper on “Room Libraries” was read by Miss Millicent Kaltenbach, North\nDenver, Colo.\n\nProfessor\n\nRichard\n\nJones, Inspector\n\nof Literature,\n\nUniversity of the State of New\n\n- York, spoke on “ The Moral and Literary Responsibility of Librarians in Selecting Books\nfor a Public Library.”\nDiscussion followed by John W. Cook, Normal, Ill., and others.\n\n_\n\nThe following were appointed as Committee on Nominations and Organization:\nF. A, Hutchins, R. H. Beggs, W. R. Eastman, Miss A. V. Milner, Miss H. B, Ely.\n\nSECOND\non\n\nSESSION.—FRIDAyY,\n\nJULY 9.\n\nW. R. Eastman, Library Inspector, University of State of New York, read a paper\n‘ How to Make Sure of Good Books in Our Libraries.”\nWm. H. Smiley, Principal of High School, Denver, Colo., read a paper on “The\n\nRelation of the Library to Art Education in the Schools.”\nWm. Hawley Smith addressed the department on the subject, “Literature and\nDemocracy.”\nThe Committee on Nominations and Organization reported as follows :\nYour committee recommends:\n1. That the Library Department secure an enrollment of those interested in its work.\n2. That a committee be appointed to prepare and recommend lists of books and editions suited for the\nreading and reference use of pupils in the several grades of the public schools, to report at the annual\nmeeting and to make partial reports from time to time through the press, and at as early a date as possible.\n\n3. That a committee of not less than seven nor more than fifteen, which shall include the department\npresident, be appointed to report on the relations of public libraries to the public schools, indicating methods\nof co-operation by which the usefulness of both may be increased.\n4. That the appointment of these committees be made by the officers of the department acting as an\nexecutive board.\n\nThe report was adopted.\nThe following were elected as officers for the ensuing year:\n\nPresident, L. D. Harvey, Milwaukee, Wis.\nVice-President, J. H. Van Sickle, Denver, Colo.\n\nSecretary,\n\na\n\nMiss Myrtilla Avery, Albany, N, Y.\n\n.\n\nAGNES VAN VALKENBURGH,\nSecretary.\n\n1005\n\n"}
{"page": 1016, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n1006\n\nPAPERS\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nAND\n\nOPENING\n\nBY\n\nJ.\n\nH.\n\nVAN\n\nSICKLE,\n\nDENVER,\n\n[Library\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nDISCUSSIONS.\nREMARKS.\n\nGOLO.,\n\nDEPARTMENT.\n\nACTING\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\n”\n\nIt is a matter of regret to members of the department, and to no one\nmore than to the Vice-President, that Dr. Dewey finds it impossible to be\nwith us. His masterly presentation of the scope and aims of the new\ndepartment at Buffalo makes it certain that we miss much by his absence;\nyet his representatives are here to bring the message of the great state\nwhich he serves, a state which has in a marvelously effective way put its\nsplendid energy and a fair portion of its great wealth into the solution of\nthe problem of reading for the people.\nConditions are favorable for a successful initial meeting, not only\nbecause of the strength represented by the names on the programme, but\nalso because we meet here in Wisconsin among the pioneers in this\nlibrary movement.\nAs our discussions proceéd, it is reasonable to expect\nmuch help from their experience.\nThey were among the first, if not the\nfirst, to put in operation a practical plan for bringing the best books\nwithin reach of the people, and especially within reach of the children.\nFrom their published lists and methods of procedure other states have\nprofited much.\nHere two great educational forces, the library and the school, are represented.\nNeither can fulfill its true mission without the other. The\nteachers must rely upon the librarians for the supply of books ; the librarians must rely upon the teachers to train library users.\nFor the first\ntime representatives of these two great forces have met for consultation,\nwith a view to more intelligent direction of energy.\nThe librarians have been organized for twenty years, and through the\ndeliberations of the American Library Association many questions of\ntechnical library economy have been settled, and the way has been prepared for effective work by our combined forces.\nIn many localities the\nteachers have gladly availed themselves of library facilities offered through\nthem to their pupils, and mutually helpful relations have resulted.\nTo\nmake universal what has in individual cases worked well is one of the\nobjects of this department.\nThis meeting should be, in part, an experience meeting.\nSince half of the children leave school at the age of twelve, it is evi-\n\n4\n\n—\n\n—\n\n"}
{"page": 1017, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nOPENING\n\nREMARKS\n\n1007\n\ndent that education is largely an out-of-school affair. If education is not\nto stop with school, the library is the chief instrumentality for its continuance, and for its proper use the school can give the training.\nFor\nthe great masses the one thing that the school can do is to give the ability\nto read intelligently, to love to read, and to prefer literature to trash.\nIt\nis the one duty of the school to develop in the child the power to educate himself after he leaves school.\nThis it has done when it has cultiIt makes\nvated in him the reading habit and developed literary taste.\nnot so much difference what our pupils learn as what they love. What\nthey learn they will forget. What they love they will pursue through life.\nFor some years the laboratory or library method of studying literature ©\nand history has prevailed in the high school.\nAn accessible collection of\nbooks for this purpose, as well as for entertainment, is coming to be an\nindispensable part of the equipment of every schoolroom.\nProbably\nthese books should, where conditions permit, belong to the public library\nand be loaned to the school for definite periods of time.\nWhat books\nare most desirable, how to make them accessible without much red tape,\nand how to get them wisely used, are questions of importance.\nChildren can be interested in real literature much earlier than has\nordinarily been supposed.\nIt has been noticed, for instance, that children who had been in school but for two years, on the day when they\nwere permitted to read aloud from a favorite library book, read much\nmore readily, and with better expression, than from the regular reader of\nthe grade.\nThen why not always read from a favorite library book ?\nWhere this hint has been acted upon, the reading hour, too often a\nperiod of tediousness and somnolence, has been made the most delightful of the day. To have read a book, a whole book, is a matter of pride\nto the little child; while this forever beginning and never finishing, after\nthe fashion of the school reader, is disheartening.\nThe school reader\nhas its place, but there is no longer any excuse for confining the children\nto this scrappy mental and moral bill of fare. The difficulty is not now in\nfinding material, but in making a wise selection from the abundance\noffered.\nChildhood has been the discovery of this generation. We are beginInstead of suppressing their\nning to try to find out what children enjoy.\ndirection of their educathe\nin\nit\nof\nuse\nmaking\nare\nwe\nboundless energy,\ninterests and on lines\ntheir\nthrough\nmore\nthem\nWeare training\ntion.\nform is illustrated by\nextreme\nits\nin\nattitude\nold\nThe\nof least resistance.\nis in the yard.”\n“He\nWillie?”\nis\n‘Where\nthe mother who inquires:\nare eduChildren\nstop.”\nto\nhim\ntell\nand\n«Go and see what he is doing\nrestraint\nwholesome\nby\nas\nwell\nas\ndo\nto\ncated through the things they like\nand the doing of the necessary but irksome things. Children like to read\n\ninteresting books.\n\nWhen they ask for bread, why give them a stone?\n\n"}
{"page": 1018, "printed_page": null, "text": "1008\n\nNATIONAL\n\nWhat\nteacher!\n\na field\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nfor the study of childhood\n\nthe library offers to the\n\nknow children, let them\n\nIf teachers would\n\n[Library\n\nknow the literature\n\nthat children love, and, through this knowledge and the sympathy and\nWhoever would teach\ninsight thus acquired, quadruple their power.\nany other qualificathan\nimportant\nMore\nliterature.\nlove\nmust\nliterature\n—is the power of\norder\nmaintaining\nof\none\nindispensable\nthe\nexcept\n—\ntion\ninspiring interest.\nThis depends not on clearness, not on method, but on\nfeeling interest ourselves.\nThe scope of this department, as defined at Buffalo, is a broad one;\n- nothing less than all questions that pertain to literature and reading.\nI quote from the Buffalo statement: “Its field should cover fully\nschool and pedagogic libraries, but its great work should be the practical\nrecognition that education is no longer for youth and for a limited course\nin aschool to which they give most of their time, but that it is really a matter for adults as well as youth, for life and not for the course, to be carried\non at home, as well as in the schools, and to be taken up in the hours or\nminutes of leisure as the proper accompaniment of their regular business\n\nor labor. This means that education must be carried on by means of\nreading, and that, if the libraries are to furnish the books and give all\nnecessary help in their proper field, the schools must furnish the readers.”\n\nLMHEH-\n\nBY\n\nTRAINING OF TEACHERS SO THAT. THE\nCO-OPERATE WITH LIBRARIANS.\n\nMAE\n\nE.\n\nSCHREIBER,\n\nTEACHER\nNORMAL\n\nToday there is a growing\n\nsense\n\nwhat it ought to do for the reader.\n\nOF\n\nLITERATURE,\n\nVM,\n\nS\ne\nel t\n\nMILWAUKEE\n\nSCHOOL.\n\nof the importance\nSuch men\n\nof reading, and\n\nas Mabie, Scudder,\n\nand\n\nWarner are writing on the relation of literature to life, in the newspapers\nand periodicals the question is discussed, and in the educational magazines the values of literature in a course of study are pointed out and\nextolled.\nThe trend of the best thought is that literature is another chapter in the revelation of life, and that it ought to make for the life and\ncharacter of the individual.\nThis growing conviction of the importance\nof reading in the education of the child creates a new demand upon the\nschools and the libraries. The schools and libraries must so work\ntogether that the child acquires the habit of reading and a taste for good\nreading.\nIt demands of the schools that literature be made a part of the\ncourse of study in every grade, and it holds the teacher responsible for\ncarrying on the work in such a way that the child gets the most and best\n\n<6\npe\ntad\nPP\nee\n\n"}
{"page": 1019, "printed_page": null, "text": "fi\n\nHi\n\nDepartment]\n\nTRAINING\n\nOF\n\nTEACHERS\n\n100g\n\nout of his reading.\nIn his recent book Charles D. Warner, speaking of\nthe reading in the common schools, says: “Taste for good literature is\nnot developed; the habit of continuous pursuit of a subject, with the comprehension of its relations, is not acquired, and no conception is gained\nof the entirety of literature or its importance to human life.” And a\ncareful examination of conditions and results, as they exist in the schools\nand communities, convinces us Warner is right.\nHow can it be otherwise\nwhen, in the majority of schools, literature, if it is included in the course\n\nof study at all, is relegated to the higher grades and studied from a textbook, and the stuff called literature is simply a mass of names, titles, lives\nof authors, and what some one else has said about this or that piece of\n\nliterature —when the little reading there is consists in critical analyses of\na few pieces of literature?\nTurn to the educational magazines (as every\ngood teacher does) and read the lesson plans in literature which she carries out in her work.\nWhat fine lessons in language they are! The\nEvery figure is\nmeaning of every word is traced even to its derivation.\nlabeled,\n\nnumber of.feet ina line counted, and the divine music of “The\n\nBrook,” “The Skylark,” and “The Cloud” destroyed by putting them\ninto the language of the child. What lessons in science, geography, and\nhistory are those poems, into which the poet has poured his life and passion!\nIn this process of vivisection what has become of the life and the\nspirit? Is it any wonder that the result of such a process is to fill the\nchild’s mind with a disgust for literature?\n‘That it becomes a thing apart\n_ from his life, since it has no message or meaning for him?\n‘The teacher\nis a teacher of words and parsing, and not an interpreter of the sure\nthings of heaven and earth.\nIt is not an easy matter to teach from the standpoint of life; it\ndemands a broad and generous culture on the part of the teacher, and it\ndemands a careful study of the child and his interests; it demands work\nwith the individual.\nUnlike other studies, literature cannot be graded\nand marked, and it does\n\nnot\n\nlend\n\nitself\n\nto examinations.\n\nThe\n\nteacher\n\ncannot mark off the heart beats; he cannot measure the tear which starts\nto the eye in sympathy, and he cannot grade the glow in the cheek, the\n\nflash in the eye, and the ring which comes in the voice of the child as he\ntells of his joy in some heroic deed.\nThe importance of the subject, the difficulties which present themselves in carrying on the work, necessitate better training of the teachers,\nand it is the duty of the normal schools to furnish this training. The\nMilwaukee Normal School presents a course calied literature and library\nreading, designed to train teachers to carry on this work in the common\nIn this course we aim, not only to give the student teacher the\nschools.\nuplift, the power, and the mental training which come from reading, but\nwe aim to teach him\n\nhowto\n\nread, to form\n\nthe habit of reading, and to\n\n"}
{"page": 1020, "printed_page": null, "text": "(Libeay\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\nLoo\n\ngive him special training in carrying on the reading in the grades.\nstudent\n\nteacher\n\nreads\n\nthe literature, not aéout literature.\n\nHis\n\nThe\n\ninterests\n\nStarting\nunderlie the whole work and determine what he shall read.\nentire\nthe\nthroughout\nwith present interests, narrow in range, the effort\nones.\nnew\ncreate\nto\nwork is to widen these interests and through them\nis\nreading\nThe student reads from the standpoint of his own life, the\nmade a revelation of life, and lessons in courage, devotion, love, and self-\n\nsacrifice are made to touch the responsive chords in his nature, as he\ncomes into touch with the great realities of life through his reading. The\nwork in literature and library reading is divided into four parts: (1) lit-\n\nerature, in which the student learns how to read; (2) library reading, or\nreading in various lines, in which the student puts into practice what he\nhas\n\nlearned\n\nin\n\nliterature,\n\nextends\n\nhis knowledge\n\nof\n\nbooks,\n\nand\n\ngets\n\ninto touch with the world by reading what the world reads; (3) juvenile\nliterature and methods, in which the student reads\n\nchildren’s\n\nbooks\n\nand\n\ndetermines their values, studies principles and methods, and puts them\ninto practice in the grades; (4) library work, in which the student\nbecomes acquainted with some of the practical workings of a library.\nLITERATURE.\n\nThe work in literature aims especially to teach students how to read.\nFiction, poetry, and essays are read.\nIn reading fiction, if the interest\ncenters in the plot, the student’s attention is given to that. How has the\nauthor handled the plot? What is the center of interest in the plot?\nDramatic situations are noted.\nIf the interest centers in the life portrayed in the novel, he studies that. He looks at the characters as types\nof that life. He notes their dress and appearances.\nHe goes with them\nto their homes and with them to their amusements.\nOccupations, religion, and literature are examined.\nThat is, the life portrayed is made as\nreal as possible to the student, and he studies it as he would study real\nlife. Again, if the interest in the novel is of character and character\ndevelopment, he studies character as he would study it in life. In character development the student traces the changes which take place in the\ncharacter and tries to find out what has brought about these changes.\nTake “Silas Marner,” for example.\nThe aim is to make Silas Marner a\nreal character and to help the students to see the moral truth underlying\nthe novel. They are asked to trace the changes which take place in his\ncharacter; to note the relations between his character and his appearance; to find out what has brought about these changes.\nThe relations\nof Silas Marner with the community are dwelt upon.\nThe students sympathize with his loneliness and his sorrows; they love Eppie for the good\nshe does; they hate the irresolution of Gregory and the wickedness of\nDunstan ; they laugh and gossip with the village folk at the inn, and they\n\nvie\n*\n\n>a\n\n"}
{"page": 1021, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTRAINING\n\nOF\n\nTEACHERS\n\nIOIT\n\nrejoice over the redemption of Silas Marner. After living thus with Silas\nMarner, how can they help but see that, if a man loves that which is\nignoble, he will become ignoble, and how can they help but feel the wonderful power of human love and sympathy ?\nIn reading poetry, the student reads for those things which are the\nessentials\n\nof poetry—beauty,\n\nfaith.\n\nreads\n\nHe\n\nmusic, imagination, passion, insight, and\nby authors—that is, the student spends a time with\n\nthe authors’ works as a whole; listening to the pulse of the music, until\nhe knows the singer’s song; looking at the beautiful descriptions, until\nhe sees them as pictures; looks to see what is in the pictures, and how\nthey are painted, until he knows what the poet loves best to paint, what\nhe paints best, and how he paints. The student imagines with the poet\nand feels with him in his passion, until he has caught some of that passion and fire. He tries to see God, nature, and humanity as the poet\ndoes, thus making his own in some degree the insight and faith of the\nEssays the student reads for thought, not critical analysis, but\npoet.\nHe reads the essays over to get the main thoughts\nanalysis of thought.\nand the subordinate ones.\nHe thinks with the author by seeing the relations of these ideas.\nHe knits the new knowledge thus gained to what\nhe already knows.\nThe literary merit of the different forms of literature is considered\nhere, again, from the student’s standpoint.\nThe author’s manner of\nthinking and writing is considered and compared with that of other\nauthors which he has read.\nLike forms of composition are compared.\nAnd the work is considered in its trueness to the best in life. Lastly,\nthe student compares his judgments with that of others, as found in\nnewspapers, periodicals, and books of criticism.\nThe work is individual,\nand in the recitations it rarely happens that more than three or four are\nreading the same author, or that any two are reading the same book.\nThe student selects his book from carefully prepared lists, the teacher\naiming to guide his choice through his interests without dictating it.\nLIBRARY\n\nREADING.\n\nIn addition to the regular work in literature, each student reads\nsystematically throughout his entire course of two or three years, where\nthe method of reading learned in literature is put into practice in a curLines of reading in literature, history, biography, economics,\nsory way.\nsociology, science, pedagogy, ethics, art, and\n\ncurrent\n\nevents\n\nare offered,\n\nfrom which the student selects. This does not mean a certain line of\nThe student begins\nreading, and a certain number of books per term.\nanywhere\n\nand\n\nreads what\n\nhe is interested\n\nin, but it is the aim of the\n\nteacher to study his interests and so to guide his choice through his interests that his reading is broad and well balanced. After the selections are\n\n"}
{"page": 1022, "printed_page": null, "text": "1012\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nmade, the school is divided into groups of from ten to twelve students.\nEach group is made up of students who select the same line of reading,\nbut so closely are interests followed that it often happens that by the end of\nten weeks each student is interested in a different line of reading. Every\nten weeks a readjustment of groups takes place. These groups meet the\nteacher once a week to report informally upon their reading since the last\nmeeting.\nThese reports are in no sense book reviews or criticisms; they\nare rather spontaneous conferences about the reading.\n‘There is no set\nwork to turn the reading of the book into a task. The student tells what\nhe has found interesting and good, and the students talk over the books\nas people in life discuss books.\nIn these discussions the teacher seeks to\ndiscover interests, and by her contributions and questions to direct interest in new lines, and to suggest books in these lines.\nLibrary reading in\nthe grades is carried on in essentially the same way, with such adaptations of subjects and ways of reading as the child’s interests, mental development, outlook on life, and his needs require.\nEach student is furnished with a library card, on which he records his\nreading.\nThe title of the book, the author, and the time spent with the\nbook are given, and usually a brief suggestion about the book as to its\ninterest, value, or the field covered by the book.\n‘The cards are filed in\nthe literature department, and the teacher can tell at any time what a\nstudent has read.\nAs the children advance from grade to grade, they take\ntheir cards with them, and a complete record is kept of their reading from\nyear to year. It is found that the student spends, on an average, an hour\na day in this reading; when the amount drops below that, it is because\nthe book is uninteresting.\nThe study of interests and the creation of new\ninterests is the most important phase of the work.\nThe interests which are\ndeveloped out of old interests, the interests which make a student read a\nbook because some one else has read it, the interests started in other lines\n\nof work, the interests which\n\ngrow out of events\n\nchild, as well as those unexplainable\n\nhappening\n\naround\n\nthe\n\ninterests, are all utilized, and, so far\n\nas possible, met with a book.\nA child was very much interested in the\nstory of King Arthur by Frost.\nHe came back for “another book about\na knight.” ‘The story of Siegfried was given him.\nIn talking with the\nteacher about knights and their doings, the teacher told him about King\nRichard, the Lion-hearted.\nThe boy immediately wanted a book which\nwould tell him more about Richard, and “Ivanhoe” was pronounced the\n“best book I ever read.” After reading the “Talisman” the crusades\nbecame the interest, and thus the way was opened for a line of historical\nreading.\nSoon after the talk over “Ivanhoe” the teacher found a little\ngirl in the fifth grade reading “Ivanhoe.”\nIt was so far away from what\nshe had been interested in that the teacher asked: “Why are you reading\nthat?” “Oh, you and Fred seemed to think it was such a good book, I\n\nle\ned\n\n"}
{"page": 1023, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTRAINING\n\nthought I'd read it too.”\ntournaments, Saxons and\n\nCF\n\nTEACHERS\n\n1013\n\nAfter that “Ivanhoe,” King Richard, knights,\nNormans were the rage for some time in that\n\ndepartment.\n‘This same girl read ‘Seven Little Sisters.”\nThe story of\n“Little Agoonack, the Eskimo,” proved the most interesting.\n“Little\nChildren of the Cold” was next selected by her. Then followed Mrs.\nPeary’s “Arctic Journal,” and the cold countries were pronounced the\nmost interesting places in the world, and now the child is an authority in\nthat department of arctic life.\nThe student is prepared to carry on literature and reading in the\ngrades in what is known as\nJUVENILE\n\nIn this work\n\nLITERATURE.\n\nthe educational values of literature\n\nare\n\ndiscussed;\n\nthe\n\npurposes, character, and scope of the work considered.\nPrinciples underlying the instruction in literature, and methods based upon those principles, are discussed.\nModifications in the presentation of work to the:\nchildren, and in methods, because of varying conditions, are considered.\n\nChildren\n\nand their interests are studied.\n\nObservation and\n\nexperimental\n\nwork are carried on in the grades, and methods, theorized over, are tested\n\nby actual practice.\nChildren’s books in various lines are read, and their\ninterests and values determined, and lesson plans on certain books for\ndifferent grades made out.\nLIBRARY\n\nPRACTICE.\n\nEach student in his senior year takes charge of the library for a few\ndays, issuing books to the children, helping new students to find books,\nunfolding the mysteries of the card index to the juniors, and keeping\nthe room and books in order.\nThus do they come to know something of\nthe system of cataloguing books, the card index, the arrangement of\nbooks on the shelves, and other details of carrying on a library.\nStudents have entire charge of the magazines, issuing them, taking\ncare of back\n\nnumbers, and, in order to help them\n\nunderstand what\n\nan\n\nindex ought to tell, they index for use in various departments the articles\nin the current magazines.\nTo give skill in handling books and in finding things in books, references on various subjects are listed, and the\nlists used by different departments in their regular class work.\nThe student teacher who completes this course knows how to read,\nhas read a number of books in various lines, including children’s books,\n‘Two years of continuous\nand is familiar with the outside of many more.\nreading have done much toward forming a habit of reading. She has\nsome definite ideas as to the purposes, plans, and ways of carrying on\nAnd her face is turned in the right direction if through her\nthe work.\nreading and her study of the child she sees life —its needs, its possibilities,\n\n"}
{"page": 1024, "printed_page": null, "text": "IOI4\n\nNATIONAL\n\nand its aspirations—with\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nand\n\nclearer vision, and ever-growing horizon;\n\nif she has learned the keen delight, the gracious, ennobling influence, and\n\nthe divine inspiration which lie in literature for her and her children.\n\nDISCUSSION.\nW. R. EastMAN.—I would be very glad if Miss Schreiber would say something in\nreference to the point whether this scheme of the normal school can be used to advantage\nin the ordinary school.\n\nMiss SCHREIBER.— Of course, you cannot carry on any reading unless you have some\nbooks;\n\nbut the work has been carried on in Fond du Lac and in Sheboygan, in this state, by\n\nstudents who have gone out from this school.\nIn both of these places the work has been\nsuccessful.\nI have some reports which were made out by the children in Sheboygan.\nThe girls tell me they have difficulty in getting books; that they could do more and better\nwork if they had books ; they do all sorts of things to get money to get books, and they\nborrow books.\n‘The interesting thing to me is that the children are reading, and, above\nall, that they are reading in the right way.\n\nMiss A. V. MILNER.—I should like to ask Miss Schreiber what effect it has upon the\nlibrary to turn the students into it.\nMiss SCHREIBER.—\nWe are unfortunate in that we have no regular librarian to give\nout the books.\nThe books are taken care of by a member of the faculty.\nThe students\ngo in and take books and charge them to themselves.\nThe books do get off from the\nshelves, but the students take pride in keeping them in place. They have been in there\none or two days and seen how those things work; and they are, I think, a little more care-\n\nful to put the book back in its place.\nW. R. EAsTMAN.— Does your work\nof literature ?\n\ncover with definiteness a well-considered\n\nrange\n\nMiss SCHREIBER.— If I understand the question, it covers all literature.\nIn literature we begin with modern literature, because that is the literature that is part of the\nstudent’s life.\nThat is where his interests are, and we believe, if we make a reader\nof him, he will read classical literature after a while.\nFrom the literature standpoint\n\nwe get a classical literature\n\nin this way:\n\nFor instance, last quarter a young girl read\n\n“Quo Vadis;” she was interested in the life portrayed, and, talking over the novel with\n\nher, I asked her: “ Would you like to read the novel which would tell you the life from\nthe standpoint of the Christian ?” And I told her of the book “Darkness and Dawn,”\nby Canon F. W. Farrar. Then the question came: “Is this novel true tolife?”\nI said:\n“Why don’t you read Tacitus and find out ?” She read Tacitus.\nAnother young girl\nwent through about the same process, and, after she read Tacitus, she read Suetonius;\nnow the young lady is reading the classics, in translation, of course.\nWe read German literature in German.\nWe have a class reading Latin literature in\n\nagr\n\noo\n\nLatin.\n\nry\nae\noe\nws\n\n"}
{"page": 1025, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department ]\n\nOBSERVATIONS\n\nSOME\n\nON\n\nOBSERVATIONS\n\nBY\n\nROYAL\n\nW.\n\nBULLOCK,\n\nCHILDREN’S\n\nON\n\nREADING\n\nCHILDREN’S\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF\n\nIOI5\n\nREADING.\n\nCOLORADO.\n\nIn September, 1896, the department of pedagogyin the University of\nColorado, under Dr. James E. Russell, began a study of the subject of\nadolescence, not in a physiological way, but in its bearing on psychological development.\nFinding but little material that was serviceable\nfor such a study, the department issued a very comprehensive syllabus,\ncopies of which were distributed to persons in all parts of the country\nwho are interested in child study, asking them to give in detail an anonymous answer to the 120 questions of the syllabus, concerning their own\npersonal experience during the adolescent period.\nIn nearly every\ninstance the answer emphasized the influence of reading upon their mental development at this time of life.\nActing on this suggestion, the department issued a second syllabus,\nasking fifteen questions relating entirely to reading.\nFour thousand\ncopies of this syllabus were placed in the hands of the school children of\nten of the cities and towns of Colorado, and they were asked to answer\nthe following questions:\nState your sex, age, grade, school, and town.\nGive the titles of all books, not connected with your school work, that you\n\nhave read since the beginning of the school year (a period of six months).\nWhere do you generally get your books?\nWhat is the most interesting\nbook you have ever read? . What book or books have you found most helpful? What book or books have you found most harmful?\nWhat magazines and papers do you read most regularly ? Please underscore those\nthat are taken in your family.\nHow many short stories, on an average,\ndo you read each week ? Underscore the kinds of stories in the following list that you like best: stories of adventure, of travel, of great men,\nof great women, love stories, ghost stories, detective stories, and war\n\nWith whom?\nDo you discuss what you read with anyone?\nstories.\nAs a student of pedagogy in the university it has been my privilege\n,of Dr.\nto study and use the material thus collected, under the direction\nRussell, and upon it this paper is based.\nAll of the papers were studied en masse for general impressions, and\ntwo thousand of them were classified, tabulated, and averaged for accuOf these fifteen hundred were taken from North Denver,\nrate results.\n\nAs these are the only towns from which\nBoulder, and Colorado Springs.\ncomplete reports, from the third to the twelfth grade inclusive, were\nreceived, our figures and charts represent the reports of these towns only.\nWe are able to represent by figures the amount of reading done, the\n\n"}
{"page": 1026, "printed_page": null, "text": "so\n¢\nFd\n\nNATIONAL\n\n1016\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n[Library\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nsources of books, and the general preferences of pupils for various ee\nOther observations will be made, not as a matter of statisof reading.\ntics, but as conditions which seem to be indicated at the present stage\nIt should be borne in mind, also, that this is but Le beginof our study.\n\nning of an investigation from which we hope to get more definite results\nas we progress.\nTABLE\n\nSHOWING\n\nOF\n\nAMOUNT\n\nTHE\n\nDONE\n\nREADING\n\nAND\n\nBOULDER,\n\nDENVER,\n\nCOLORADO\n\nBY\n\nGrade\n\na\n\nOF\n\nNORTH\n:\n\nAverage number of short\nstories read per week\n\nAverage number of books read\nin six months\n\nBoys\n\nPUPILS\n\nSPRINGS.\n\nGirls\n\nBoys and Girls\n\nH\n\n2\n\nou\n\n&\n\nta\n\n=o\n\nCee\n\nr)\n\no\n\nh\n\ng\n\nSy\n\nCs :\n\n3\n\nge\n\ne\n\nrs é\n\n=\n\nEe\n\n@\n\n3 5\n\n-\n\nge\n\n#\n\n£2 /25| § (87) 2 [2°] & |S?| 4 [2°] 2 |8?| 2\n\nPires\nLow\n4.90)\nHounbieerrs ek ty\nPO\nHue laeeree cere 12:3 || 3-75)\nSibadow peo\n13.\nhice)\n\nSak |=3-2 1 4e4—||\n(5-2 1 0.\nSTA\n2322 a) 3330354 | AaGel\n4-2 le Se5e\n2:5 | 4:2 | 3-5 || 5-5 | 3:8 | 5-4-1\n2s\n337 1 33\n16.85\n2:4\n4c\n\nSeventh ...|\nBighth sj.\n\n14.1 |] 6.5 | 3.\n5s\n.!er5eis,|)\n5\n4-9 | Olle\n\nInga\noye Wes oe\nTenthasn a\nBleventh ..|\nMiwelithigce.||\n\n15.9 || 3-5 | 2-9 | 5.\n3.8 || 4.\n1.9)\n17.5 || 2-2 | 2.8 | 4.2 | 3.\nHest | ie\n17.8>]|\n3:4 | 2.3 | 4:\nBro\n450)\n2205\n\n18.7\n\nalles\n\n4.\n\nD2eQ\n\n428; || OS.\n4sSul|te\nSales\n\ne5.L | 5.09)\nOnna\n\nfoull\\eobs\n)\n5.4\nWeed\nete\npee\nte)\nUbe\nCeO\n4:9\n3.8 | 4.8 | 5.8 | 4.8\nac5 ||) 7621)\n4 -O1a |)Oran\noss\n\n5.0)\nOmnis\n\nNEIO i Or2\nAO\nmee\n5.\nTel Ae teen\n\n|4-2 | 3-4 i (0.60\n*Aateeseouleses\n24 | 3:67\n4.cea,\n3.A6|\n04.0\n403\" | a sO ail aes\na\nalneqeAmlende\n\nS361 AE SeS allied 52. all il).\n\ne320\n\nllle2sOmilmecs\n\nOmen\n\nteas\n“+\n\nAs to the quantity of reading, referring to the above table and taking\nDenver for example, we find that boys of the third grade are reading an\naverage of 4.9 books in six months ; that the average\n\na\nTe|\n\nfalls to 3.6 in the\n\nfourth and fifth grades, rises to a maximum of 6.5 in the seventh grade,\nthen drops quite regularly to 3 in the twelfth grade at the -end of the\nhigh-school course.\nThe same, in general, is true of Colorado Springs\nthe third-grade boys beginning with an average of 3.2 books in six months,\nrising to a maximum of 5 in the seventh grade, and dropping gradually\nto 2.3 in the twelfth grade. . In Boulder the one marked variation is that\nthe maximum amount of reading occurs in the eighth grade rather than\nthe seventh, a fact that seems to be in part accounted for by the inferior\nlibrary facilities of Boulder as compared with Denver and Colorado\nSprings.\nComparing with this the record of reading done by the girls, we\n\nh\nase)w\n\nnotice that, grade for grade, the girls read more than the boys, that, as a\n\nrule, they reach their maximum a year sooner than the boys, and that\nfrom a general maximum of 5.9 books there is a drop to 3.3 at the end\n\nof the course. —\n\na\ne\nor)\n\n"}
{"page": 1027, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nOBSERVATIONS\n\nON CHILDREN’S\n\nREADING\n\nIOI\n\nThe table representing the number of short stories read per week\nindicates the same tendencies.\nAveraging boys and _ girls together, we\nsee that third-grade pupils read 2.1 stories per week, seventh-grade pupils\n7-7 per week, and twelfth-grade 2.3 per week.\nThe principal sources of the books which the children read are school\nlibraries, public libraries, Sunday-school libraries, the home, and borrowing. ‘Their use of public and school libraries is shown in percentages in\n\nthe following table:\nTABLE\n\nSHOWING\n\nIN\n\nPERCENTAGES\n\nLIBRARIES\n\nBY\n\nPUPILS\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nUSE\n\nNORTH\n\nCOLORADO\n\nOF\n\nDENVER,\n\nPUBLIC\n\nAND\n\nBOULDER,\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nSPRINGS.\n\nNorth Denver\n\nBoulder\n\nColorado Springs\n\nGrade\n\nPublic\n\nPBI forsteis ereovosst,\n<n ies\nLCTaa eats SORE oe\nEEE ere caper\naires onydclvic\nRLMbE ereye atets Scetetete.\n3aaa\nOVELIE De. a..Wicrvaies\nhaere\nESI SHU artyewesessuee\nsees +\nINGE. (eee\nohne cheTortie\nA\nRSid te, Cok ge\nIe Ore\nIPE VERUE cre steperese<\nelexe +\nlave lit hiee = ase hersicie sysreis\n\nSchool\n\nPublic\n\nSchool\n\nPublic\n\nSchool\n\nLibrary\n\nLibrary\n\nLibrary\n\nLibrary\n\nLibrary\n\nLibrary\n\n)\n5\nas\n19\n55\n42\n5S\n70\n47\n60\n\ng2\n79\n58\n62\ne3\n42\n22\n5\n14\n12\n\n(0)\n20\n17\n18\nII\n27\n4\n7\n)\n4\n\n95\n12\n8\nII\n21\n)\n27\n39\n64\n33\n\n5\n3\n5\n24\n28\n43\n37\n41\n22\n24\n\n43\n43\n51\n8\n15\nII\nGi\n25\n25\nII\n\nTaking Denver again, we see that 92 per cent. of the third-grade\npupils use the school library and none the public libraries. In the fourth\ngrade, however, 5 per cent. begin using the public libraries, and that percentage gradually increases to 60 per cent. in the twelfth grade, while the\npercentage of those using the school libraries decreases to 12 per cent. in\nthe twelfth grade.\nIn Boulder, which\n\nhas modest school\n\nlibraries and a small free-read-\n\ning-room library, 95 per cent. of the pupils in the third grade use the\nschool library, or books furnished at schoo] by the teacher, but only a\ncomparatively small percentage through the rest of the grades find their\nAveraging pupils of all grades, only 9 per cent. in\nbooks at school.\nBoulder use the few books of the free reading room.\nIn Colorado Springs, which has good public and school libraries, 19\nper cent., on an average, use the public libraries and 20 per cent. the school\nColorado Springs, however, seems exceptionally well prolibraries.\nvided with private libraries, 36 per cent. of the pupils getting their books\n\nat home.\n\n"}
{"page": 1028, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nIo18\n\nTABLE\n\nSHOWING\n\nIN\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPERCENTAGES\nCLASSES\n\nTHE\nOF\n\n[Library\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nPREFERENCES\n\nPUPILS\n\nOF\n\nEIGHT\n\nFOR\n\nSTORIES.\n\nBOYS.\n\nGialen eta,\nStories of adventure.....\nStories -Of travel... es0.|)\nStories of great men.....\nStories of great women ..|\nHEOVE, StOTIES wa yecspersrsrere\nciel\noie\n(Ghost Stories: a.)<:cesiesie\nDetective stories ........\nWiareiStOrles terms) aise\n\nEo\n\nts\n\n=\n\nee\n\n40\n33\n47\n25\nLI\n35\n30\n87\n\n62\n56\n60\n20\n18\n33\n37\n71\n\nBh\n\nze\n\nFI\n\nao\n\n2\n\nHe\n\nshoal\n\nee,\n\nz=\n\noe\n\noe\n\na\n\nee ae fo mae\n\nem\n\na pa\n\n67\n47\n48\n12\n15\n18\n34\n75\n\n87\n55\n52\n15\n16\n32\n64\n82\n\ngI\n60\n54\n20\n19\n13\n45\n82\n\n94\n64\n63\nyf\n20\n10\n45\n86\n\n95\n72\n70\n22\n21\n14\n28\n84\n\n79\n68\n50\n14\n35\n4\n15\n75\n\n68\n66\n53\n8\n\n53\n48\n58\n16\n\n35\n7\n\n22\n4\n\n13\n73\n\n8\n48\n\nS|\n\noe\n\ne\n\nc\n\nBj\n\na\n\n59\n60\n43\n58\n67\n7\n18\n44\n\n38\n42\n48\n57\n75\n24\n5\n27\n\nDace\n\n3\n\nS\n\noS al Peed\n\ng\n\ncS\n\nRei\n\nGIRLS.\na\n\ncc\n\nGrades casfaescioiscfs z\n\nStories of adventure.....\nstories of travel... ess\nStories of great men.....\nStories of great women...|\nIO VERStOLIES aprateiucte\nses\nGITOSE;StOTIESSateryueleatn\nete\nDetective Stones)...\nWi etStORLES: peleca hicrcale stare\n\n&\n\n5\n\ni=\n\nce\n\n¢\n\na\n\n34\n23\n41\n20\n26\n36\n5\n21\n\n42\n56\n45\n43\n31\nBn\n9\n46\n\n60\n46\n39\n35\n36\n23\n25\n40\n\n80\n60\n56\n46\n38\n41\n20\n55\n\n=\n\na\n\ns\n\n5\n\n0)\n\n“a\n\nrs\n\n2\n\n=|\n\nZ\n\n=\n\n75\n46\n38\n48\n50\n30\n32\n48\n\n70\n62\n57\n58\n47\n15\n12\n46\n\n65\n52\n48\n52\n48\n19\n21\n35\n\n60\n57\n56\n70\n56\n25\n21\n38\n\n2\n\n-\n\nThe above tables, showing the percentage of pupils that expressed a\npreference for each of the eight representative classes of stories, while not\na final test, are at least suggestive.\nFairy stories and historical novels\nshould have been added to the list, and were omitted only because, when\nthe syllabus was printed, it was not proposed to distribute it among either\nthe lower or higher grades, but simply the sixth, seventh, and eighth.\nThe taste of the boys differs somewhat from that of the girls, hence they\nare shown separately.\nWar stories seem popular with third-grade boys, and that liking\nremains well marked through the sixth, seventh, and eighth grades.\nPerhaps this fact offers a suggestion as to the best time for teaching history, though history, indeed, should not be confined to the accounts of\nbloody wars.\nStories of adventure are popular with the boys all through\nthe heroic period, reaching their maximum in the eighth and ninth\ngrades. The liking for biography and travel or exploration grows gradually to a climax in the ninth grade and remains well up throughout the\n\nBe\nte\nSe\n\n"}
{"page": 1029, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nOBSERVATIONS\n\nON\n\nCHILDREN’S\n\nREADING\n\n101g\n\ncourse.\n‘The tender sentiment\nhas little charm for the average grade\nboy, and only in the high-school course does he acknowledge any considerable use of love stories.\nIn the sixth grade he is fond of detective\nstories, but they lose their charm for him as he grows older.\nStories of adventure are popular with the girls, too, in the sixth grade,\nand stories of travel are always enjoyed.\nThe girl likes biography, but\nin the high school, true to her sex, she prefers stories of great women\nrather than great men.\nPity it is that the biographies of so few of the\nworld’s many great women are written.\nThe taste for love stories\nincreases steadily to the end of the high-school course.\nBeyond that we\nhave no records.\nSuch are the conclusions at which we arrive from a statistical study of\nthe reports.\nThe observations which we shall make may seem less\nauthoritative than the figures, but we give them as our convictions at\nthis stage of the investigation.\nThe maximum amount of reading is done in every instance between\nthe sixth and eighth grades, the average being in the seventh grade, at\nan average age of 14.1 years, or near the advent of the adolescent period.\n_ Knowing this, we are not surprised to find that the girls reach their maximum in each individual school a year earlier than do the boys. It may\nbe worthy of notice that several high-school pupils wrote: ‘‘ We have no\ntime to read books not connected with ourschool work.” The maximum\nreading of short stories is also done in the seventh grade, but while, as\nan average, this occurs at the same time as the maximum reading of\nbooks, yet the individual pupil who reads an unusual number of short\nstories seldom reads many books.\nThere is probably no question as to\nwhich is more profitable, the books or the stories.\nConcerning the sources of books, the figures submitted do not indicate the most significant fact, namely, that good library facilities influence the quality of reading much more than they do the quantity.\nIn\nGeorgetown, for example, which has almost no library facilities and\nwhere 65 per cent. of the pupils “ borrow” their books, almost as much\nreading is done as in Colorado Springs, but the quality is very inferior.\nA seventh-grade Leadville boy, who\nTo take a concrete illustration:\n‘ Peck’s Bad\nborrows his books, submits the following list as read:\n‘ Wanderand\nJames,”\nBoy,” “ Diamond Dick,” “ Buffalo Bill,” ‘ Jesse\ngirl, who\nJunction\nGrand\ning Billy.” Or this one, of a twelve-year-old\n“Against\nBride,”\n“vets her books at home,” and has read “The Outlaw’s\nFate,”\n\n“The\n\nBeautiful\n\nWretch,”\n\n“What\n\nLove\n\nWill\n\nDo,”\n\n“ Mona’s\n\nChoice,” “ One Life One Love,” and eight more similar ones. These are\nJudging from the reports of\nextreme cases, but they show the tendency.\nthe children themselves, I have no hesitation in saying that the best class\nof reading for children is furnished by the school library, and after that\n\n"}
{"page": 1030, "printed_page": null, "text": "(Lineaty\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n1020\n\nthe public library, home library, and Sunday-school library, in the order\nlIcan also say that of the schools from which we have reports\nnamed.\nnone show so uniformly a good quality of reading, and such evidence of\ngeneral efficiency of the library, as does North Denver under a system\nof room libraries.\nThis leads us to notice again the table of preference, which impresses\nus with the fact that when 95 per cent. of the boys prefer adventure or 75\nper cent. of the girls prefer love stories, that is just what they are going\nto read, and the duty, for the time, of the teacher\n\nor\n\nis to see\n\nlibrarian\n\nthat they get adventure and love, pure and true to life, rather than some\nnamby-pamby substitute for adventure or a false and vicious misrepresentation of the soul’s deepest emotion.\nAnother fact that appears strongly in the individual papers, though it\nis lost in the general average, is that during the period of maximum\nreading they read, as one boy expressed it and as his paper showed,\n‘‘everything they can lay hands on,” but this is the formative period, and\nbefore the end of the high-school course they have settled down pretty\ndefinitely to one class of reading, whatever that may be.\nThe lists of periodicals taken in the home show that some attention is\nneeded along this line. A superabundance of daily papers or light-story\npapers is the rule, and a carefully selected list of real newspapers and\nstandard magazines is exceptional.\n‘The report of a sixteen-year-old girl\nin Pueblo will illustrate the point.\nShe says:\n“I have read only the\nNew York Weekly and the Fireside Companion,” and those are the only\npapers marked as taken in the home. To the questions which follow, the\nsame girl answers: ‘The most interesting books I have ever read are ‘ East\nLynne’ and ‘Repented at Leisure.’”\nThe most helpful?\n“I really\nhaven’t found any of them very helpful.”\nThe most harmful?\n‘ There\nare very few books that harm me.”\n\nYea, verily, very few.\n\nThe testimony of the pupils as to what books are helpful or harmful\nis usually very wisely given.\n‘Those pronounced helpful are such as the\nmost\n\ncareful\n\nlibrarian\n\nwould\n\nselect,\n\nand\n\nthose\n\ndenounced\n\nas\n\nharmful\n\nshow that above the fifth grade the average pupil knows full well what\nhad better be left unread.\nSome are even so conservative as to declare\nagainst “The Arabian Nights” and “The Scarlet Letter.”\nOccasionally some facetious answer would be given. Various high-school girls\nnamed the dictionary, the cookbook, and the pocketbook as most helpful,\nand one boy asserted that Ceesar’s “Gallic War” was the most harmful\nbook and a translation thereof the most helpful. But such answers were\nfew, and more often would be found replies like that of a sixteen-yearold philosopher, who said:\n\n“I think that almost any book, rightly read,\n\nmay be helpful.”\nTo a body of librarians probably general facts and figures are more\n\n1.\n|\n\n"}
{"page": 1031, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nROOM\n\nLIBRARIES\n\nx\n\nhie\n\ninteresting than are details, but to the student of psychology the individual papers are of far greater moment.\nThe librarian might be interested\nin the fact that 75 per cent. of the pupils discuss their reading with some\none, for by discussion the reading of books, either good or bad, is promoted, but the psychologist values more highly answers to the question:\n“With whom do you discuss your reading ?”” A fourth-grade girl answers:\n“The short stories I tell my little brothers and sisters, and the long ones\nCompare with that the\nI tell to my papa when he isn’t feeling well.””\nreply of a fifteen-year-old boy, who says: ‘‘No one. Mother says, ‘Keep\nTwo pictures we have of\nit to yourself, it is not interesting to me.’”\nIn answer to the same queshome life and its influence on character.\ntion a high-school girl says, ‘‘With the gentlemen who visit the house,”\nand a young man of eighteen says, ‘‘ With my sweetheart and my sweetHere is emphasized another factor which may not be\nheart’s mother.”\nignored in studying the motives of conduct in pupils of the public\nschools.\nObjections may be urged to the manner in which this study has been\nconducted and to some of the observations presented.\nGranted.\nAll\nmethods are somewhat faulty, and no one has reached ultimate truth. We\ncan only say that in common with all who, having assumed the grave\nresponsibility of training immortal souls, feel the need of a more thorough\nknowledge of the material with which they work, we have been working\nin one way toward such knowledge.\nWe believe that from our study thus\nfar we have obtained some clearer notions of child life and the forces that\nshape and mold its destiny.\nIf any such have heen imparted by this\npaper, its mission is fulfilled.\n\nROOM\n\nBY\n\nMILLICENT\n\nLIBRARIES.\n\nKALTENBACH,\n\nNORTH\n\nDENVER,\n\nCOLO.\n\nTo endeavor to set forth the merits and advantages of the “room\nlibrary” in so many words is a task both difficult and unsatisfactory, as\nactual experience in its use is necessary for due appreciation.\nAs it is yet in “embryo,” the good results are not so apparent as they\nwill be in the course of a few years, when the heightened appreciation of\nthat which is good in literature can be traced to the source of its cultivation, the room library.\nOn this subject teachers of experience become enthusiastic, and but\none opinion prevails as to what these books are doing towards cultivating\nTheir influence\ntaste, as well as increasing the guanéity of matter read.\n\n"}
{"page": 1032, "printed_page": null, "text": "1022\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n[Library\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nextends beyond the schoolroom into the home, as is shown by numerous\nrequests for renewal of books to enable parents to read them.\nThe third- or fourth-grade “storybook” serves frequently to awaken\ninterest among the older members of a family. This being accomplished,\nthe “ public library ” becomes to them more than a “ name.”\nCan other than good result from this daily contact with a library\ncontaining carefully selected books, which often, in the guise of a “storybook,” present dry text-book facts in such a way as to arrest the attention\nand ultimately awaken the interest of the most indifferent pupil ?\nThe hours pupils are compelled to spend in the schoolroom are not\nconsidered tedious, if less of the routine work is required, and they are\npermitted to grow and expand by means of the numerous books satisfying their varied tastes, and conveniently close at hand.\nA common complaint from pupils old enough to recognize the injustice done them is that to their parents anything not bearing the label\n“text-book” is a “storybook,” and, as such, a waste of time.\nAlthough\nlavish with study hours, these same parents will do all in their power to\nrepress this desire for reading, by imposing unnecessary tasks when lessons are finished and there is a tendency to indulge in reading.\nJust here the “room library” affords those children an opportunity\nto satisfy their desires by furnishing them during school hours with\nstory- or reference books, either of which will do much toward rounding\nout and broadening their ideas.\nWe are all acquainted with the bright, restless pupil, who does not\neven give you the satisfaction of finding fault with his recitations, as he\nis always able to say something on\n\nany sudject, although\n\nnever\n\nguilty of\n\nstudying, at least not during school hours.\nExcite his interest in the\nlibrary books by giving him an opportunity to tell in class all that he can\nfind on a certain subject, and suggest certain books you know are to be\nfound in the room.\nHis surplus energy being spent in this direction,\nyou have disciplined him without destroying his remnant of pride.\nOn the contrary, his success in the quest places him on a pedestal.\nIn\naddition, you have been spared an unsatisfactory argument, which rarely,\nif ever, leads to the end of all discipline, ¢. ¢.,the formation of character.\n\nThroughout the lower grades much of the interest taken in these books\nis dependent on the teacher.\nThe reading of a few pages from a book\nyou particularly desire the children to read will generally awaken an\ninterest, to say nothing of the encouragement given by permitting them\nto talk during school hours about the characters introduced in these\nstories.\nIt is encouraging to note the influence the well-read pupil exerts over\nhis fellow-pupils, both in and out of school, as these books serve as\nthemes for conversation at any and all times. Thus unconsciously the\n\nRe\n\n"}
{"page": 1033, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nROOM\n\nLIBRARIES\n\n1023\n\naverage pupil, influenced by the brighter ones, acquires a taste for reading\nand research.\nThis becomes second nature to him on leaving the grades,\nand serves to connect him with the public libraries, even though following\nsome humdrum occupation, which would ordinarily have a narrowing\neffect.\n\nAgain, when the pupil is required to get material froin other than the\ntext-book, for composition or recitation work, how often does he resort\nto the hackneyed excuse that “the book was not in the public library\nwhen he wanted it’! Such a thing is probable, and the teacher is bound\nto accept\n\nit, but too often is it the excuse of the indifferent\n\nhad made little or no effort.\n\npupil, who\n\nHow different it is when the room\n\nlibrary\n\ncontains the books needed, and the teacher is able to note what effort has\n\nbeen made on the part of the pupil!\nAs an incentive to procure cards for the public libraries there can be\nno question of the influence of the room library. Where 5 per cent. of\nthe pupils who entered eighth grade possessed cards before room libraries\nwere instituted, now\n\nthe reverse is true, and\n\n95 per cent. possess\n\nthem.\n\nTheir recitations are so much facilitated by use of the public-library books\nthat others hasten to procure cards in order not to be considered stupid.\nIt would seem that the ladder by which the pupils rise in the estimation of their fellow-pupils has for its rungs library cards. ‘To feel assured\nthat it is not merely an unhealthy desire to own cards and to be surrounded\nby countless books, the teacher questions about the contents, and rarely,\nif ever, does she find a book carelessly read, while she has yet to find the\npupil whose sole desire is to possess books whose bright covers are their\nonly recommendation.\nI venture to say that those in charge of the public\nlibraries find school children better able to select books than formerly, and\nthat the storybooks are not the only books appreciated by pupils in the\n\ngrades.\nThe reference books selected for the various grades are such as refer\npupils to higher, broader authority.\nShould they desire to search further,\nwhat more natural than to procure needed books from the public libraries ?\nIn this way these libraries are made a part of each grade in the public\nschools rather than “something apart,” to be used after entering the\nhigh school.\nTo give an idea of the extent and character of the libraries in the\npart of Denver referred to by the preceding speaker, I would say that each\nroom, beginning with the third grade, has its own permanent collection of\nbooks, the selections being based on the needs. of the pupils in the\ndifferent grades ; the number of books varying from some forty volumes\nin the lowest grade to eighty or one hundred volumes in seventh or\neighth grades, additions being made from time to time, as suitable books\nare found.\n\n"}
{"page": 1034, "printed_page": null, "text": "1024\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nIn third grade, storybooks, including fairy tales, fables, and attractive\nBy the teacher’s skillful handling, simple poems\nnature stories, abound.\nPupils in the\nlibrary are made interesting.\nthis\nin\nfound\nin “nature”\nthe schoolin\nwhile\nbooks\nthe\nof\nuse\nmake\nto\nencouraged\nare\nlower grades\nindividual _\nobserve\nto\nteacher\nthe\nenabling\nthereby\nhome,\nat\nroom as wellas\ntastes and direct them in the proper channels.\nFourth-grade books permit the pupil to indulge his taste in similar\nIn the fifth grade we\nlines, with the addition of readable history stories.\nLongfellow, Lowell,\nHolmes,\nBryant,\nincluding\npoetry,\nof\nfind volumes\nsee pupils reading\nto\nuncommon\nnot\nis\nit\nand\nWhittier,\nTennyson, and\nwith all absorbing interest the standard poems. _The parents marvel at\n‘such appreciation of poetry,and in some cases are generous enough to\nadmit that it is due to the superior equipment of the schoolroom and to\nthe teacher’s guidance, rather than to look upon their children as prodigies.\nSixth-grade books give scope for indulgence in somewhat the same\nlines, with the addition of books of travel.\nBiographical stories occupy\nan important place on the shelves, also. In seventh grade, pupils will use\na greater variety of books, as well as a larger number.\nThe books chosen\nare such as will satisfy the taste for fiction, history, science, etc. The\nwork in the scoolroom being such as will call for thorough reading in one\nor more of these lines, their presence alone insures their use.\nInvestigations seem to show that at this age pupils read indiscriminately, and the use of the room library under the teacher’s guidance will\ndo much toward overcoming depraved tastes.\nThe eighth-grade library shows a decrease in the number of storybooks, not because they are less popular, but the pupil’s taste for fiction\nhas been cultivated to such an extent that he can be trusted to make his\nown selections, and the public libraries furnish him with all he may require.\nThe shelves in this grade are filled with the best of reference books. ‘These\nare in constant use as the grade work demands.\nResearch and experience\nhave shown that the pupil is not satisfied with one authority, as was\nformerly the case, before the taste for research was cultivated.\nIt is gratifying to note the originality displayed when the pupil has\nconsulted these different authorities and drawn comparisons.\nThe work\nin literature can be of a relatively advanced nature, as the taste of the\npupils has been cultivated in the lower grades.\nThe keen interest\ndisplayed in the study of standard poems is in marked contrast to the\nblank look which greeted the teacher in former years when a poem was\nmentioned.\n‘The moral bearing is not the least of the advantages of the\nroom library.\nEach pupil feels the responsibility of keeping the shelves\npresentable, and the books in good condition ;while the disappearance of\na book means.a\nreflection on the honor of the room as well as on that of\nthe individual, so that even the light-fingered pupil holds the library\n\n"}
{"page": 1035, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nRESPONSIBILITY\n\nOF LIBRARIANS\n\n1025\n\nsacred.\nThe circulation of these books need impose no extra work on the\nteacher.\nOn inquiring into devices used, we find them as numerous as the\nteachers, and characterized by extreme simplicity, while systematic enough\nto guard against loss.\nIn most rooms pupils act as librarians.\n\nTHE\n\nBY\n\nMORAL\nAND\nLITERARY\nRESPONSIBILITY\nLIBRARIANS IN SELECTING BOOKS FOR\nWee BLIGHID RAR,\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nRICHARD\n\nJONES,\nTHE\n\nSTATE\n\nLITERATURE\nOF\n\n[STENOGRAPHIC\n\nNEW\n\nINSPECTOR,\n\nOF\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF\n\nYORK.\n\nREPORT. |\n\nDoes the librarian have any responsibility for the choice of books?\nI believe Dr. Poole takes the ground that he has no responsibility ; that\nhe should give the public the kind of books the public wants.\n‘This\nposition is taken by some librarians.\nThe other position, taken by the\nlibrarian at Allegheny City, is that the librarian is responsible, not only\nfor the moral quality of the books, but for their literary quality as well\nHe excludes many books, not because they are vicious, but because they\nare not literature.\nHe says they do not do any harm, except that they\ntake up the time of the reader.\nAnd you recall that Ruskin says: ‘ You\nmust remember, if youread this, you cannot read that.”\n\nMatthew Arnold\n\nsays: “The good is the enemy of the best.’’ This is a very important\nquestion, and will come into prominence more and more as libraries are\nestablished\n—as it becomes recognized that it is the duty and the function of the city to establish libraries at public expense.\nThe question\nwill come up more and more: What right has the librarian to say we\nshall not have the books we want — in libraries supported by public taxation?\nThe library movement is comparatively recent.\nIn previous years\nwe have not thought it the duty of the state to provide libraries.\nOur\nconceptions as to what the function of the state is are undergoing great\nmodification. Little by little we find the state assuming functions formerly\nIn the\nsupposed to belong to private individuals and private initiative.\nBut\npeople.\nOld World the state is supposed to furnish recreation for the\nliterature is one of the fine arts, and libraries should be classed with royal\n\nmuseums and art galleries and royal theaters and all forms of art supported\nby the public. And what is true of other forms of art and their control\nI had the fortune to live\nand direction ought to be true of libraries.\nfor a number of months in Dresden, where the music is supported by the\n\nstate.\n\nThe deficit of the Royal Opera House is made up by the state.\n\n"}
{"page": 1036, "printed_page": null, "text": "1026\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nThe newspapers frequently contained warnings to the director that he\nshould not cater too much to popular taste; that he should maintain a\nhigh standard of art; that he should not, for the sake of full houses,\nThe same thing was true when I lived\nlower the standard of the music.\nare warned that they must keep the\nmen\nthose\nContinually\nin Munich.\nof that ? My idea is— persignificance\nthe\nis\nwhat\nNow,\nstandard up.\nis based upon this belief —\nargument\nmy\nbut\nwrong,\nhaps I am entirely\nacquire and retain a high\nto\nand\nstruggle,\na\nis\ncivilization\nthat to attain\nnatural man is more or\nthe\nthat\neffort;\ngreat\ncosts\ncivilization\nstate of\nless of a savage; that, if we are going to have a highly civilized state of\nsociety, we must make an effort to keep the standards up; not only in\nliterature, but in music as well. You know classical music is not popular.\nA taste for what is called classical music must be cultivated.\n\nThe natural\n\nman prefers a more simple and less musical form of music— the tomtom, it may be. The taste for every one of the forms of art must be cultivated.\nIf Iam wrong in this idea, my whole argument falls to the\nground.\n‘The average man needs to be reminded continually that, if we\nare to have the highest possible form of civilization, we must maintain a\nstruggle to keep it up. I remember the first time I ever appreciated the\nfact that to make pottery is an art.\n\nI had read, of course, with my litera-\n\nture classes Longfellow’s poem “ Keramos,” but it did not mean much\nto me; but when I stood for the first time in a great museum filled with\nthe product of the potter’s art, then! realized for the first time that this\nis an art, to develop which men have given their lives.\nI remember how\nLongfellow, in the poem “ Keramos,” speaks of him:\nA madman, as the people say, who breaks his tables and his chairs to feed his furnace fires,\nNor cares who is unfed if they are fed, nor who may live if they are dead.\n\nNow, we do not appreciate, I think when we buy beautiful ware to\ndecorate our homes— we do not appreciate the fact that there was a time\n\nwhen there was no such ware, and that a man gave up his life to develop\nthat art. I think that many a community does not realize that the songs\nthey sing in worship, and that the books they read, and that the theology\nwhich they preach, came from older communities and were the result of\nsome great struggle upon the part of some great genius.\nAs the poet has said : “ We are the heirs of all the ages.” Then this\nheritage of ours, this civilization, is the result of a great struggle ; and\nwhen people say that the great public do not like good literature— that\nthey like this other sort of literature, and that they must have what they\nlike —it seems to me that is giving up the whole problem of civilization.\nPeople must be taught to like that which is worthy.\nSuppose they do not\nread at all?\n\nI, as inspector of literature, will say that, to me, it makes no\n\nparticular difference whether they read or not, unless they read what is\n\na\n\n"}
{"page": 1037, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nRESPONSIBILITY\n\nOF LIBRARIANS\n\n1027\n\nvaluable.\nI should prefer my boys should not read at all than to read\nsome of the books which have been mentioned by the gentleman from\nColorado.\nI should prefer that they would never open a book than to\nread those books.\n\n‘There are, of course, grades of excellence ; and what\n\nhas been said, and so well said, I agree with heartily — that we must consider the tastes and aptitudes of pupils at various ages, and give them the\nkinds of literature which they want ; but give them as good literature as\nBut to consider that, because they won’t read good litera-\n\nthey will read.\nture, we must\n\ngive\n\nthem, at public\n\nexpense, that which\n\nis inferior, that\n\nWhat is the basis of\nwhich belittles them, I think it is entirely wrong.\nthe public library ? The soundest basis is that it is a part of the educaI think it is not a part of the function of the\ntional system of the state.\nI should approve most heartily of\nstate to provide mere amusement.\nsupporting a high order of music in a town, provided we could arrange\nI should say it would make a\nit that the best of music would be given.\ntown much more attractive to have the highest form of music maintained\nat public expense.\nI should approve of maintaining an art gallery; I\nshould approve of maintaining various forms of art. I believe it is part\nof the function of the state to maintain a library.\nBut if the library is\nnot an educational institution, and if the boys and girls are not to be\nby it, then I don’t\n\nbelieve\n\nmade\n\nbetter\n\nshould\n\nsay that the library has no\n\nliterature ; which\n\nis not\n\nin the public\n\nlibrary at all.\n\nI\n\nright to buy ordinary, cheap, flashy\n\nliterature, in the\n\nfirst place, and\n\nwhich, if not\n\nunmoral, is negative in its morality.\nThen, to conclude, it seems to me the librarian in Allegheny City\nwas entirely right in the position which he took.\nPerhaps he was a little\nunfortunate in giving expression to some reflections upon some of the\nauthors whose books he excluded.\nHe didn’t personally express any\nopinion, but he quoted some opinions which were rather severe, and some\nwho had in their youth read those books were offended by the remarks\nquoted by the librarian.\n\nBut the principle, I believe, is sound.\n\nI cannot\n\nbelieve that the librarian is merely to register the wishes of the boys who\nwant “Buffalo Bill” or “ Peck’s Bad Boy,” or the books of this class\nwith which the press is swarming. The duty of the librarian is to elevate\nthe standard of taste in a town. His function is an educational function.\nHe represents among books what the director of music represents in great\nHe is to elevate as rapidly as possible the standard of\nopera houses.\ntaste of the town.\nI should make, therefore, the words of our great leader, our\n\ncommis-\n\nsioner of education—TI should make his words the motto for the libraYou remember he has said that ‘it is through literature that the\nrians.\ngenius of the race, appearing in exceptional individuals, instructs the\nmultitude, educates man’s insight into the distinction of good from evil,\n\n"}
{"page": 1038, "printed_page": null, "text": "1028\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nreveals to him his ideals of what ought to be, and elevates the banner of\nhis march toward the beautiful good and the beautiful true.”\n\nDISCUSSION.\n\nJoHN\n\nW. Cook, Normal, Ill.—I wish\n\nto speak\n\nmay draw your own conclusions.\nWhen about seven or eight years of age, I began\n\nfrom\n\npersonal\n\nexperience, and you\n\nto read certain books and papers,\n\nand I continued to read them for six cr eight years. I read “Sixteen String Jack” and\n“Dick Turpin,” and all of those English books, biographies of highwaymen, and quite\ninnumerable books and story papers of similar character.\nSome of them I now think of\nas bad; many of them were very mild and inoffensive; and by degrees I was lifted out\nof that kind of literature by coming in contact with Dickens. But Iam obliged to confess\nthat I am not sorry that I read that miserable stuff. I am glad I read it. I do not mean\nto say that, if I had my life to live over again, in choosing between good books and bad,\nI would choose\n\nthese books;\n\nbut, having no choice, I am thankful\n\nthat I read\n\nall those\n\nbooks and papers instead of reading nothing.\n¥F. A. HutcuHins. — There are two things that connect themselves in the two papers\nthat I should like to bring together at this time.\nI believe it would be entirely unnecessary for boys to read the class of books that have been lately mentioned, if we had suffcient material drawn from the study of the preferences of the children in Colorado, as is\nshown in those tables of Mr. Bullock.\nThe taste for adventure is a natural taste. The\nboy comes to these stories of ‘Jesse James ”’ and\n\nsimilar\n\nstories because he wants\n\nstories\n\nof adventure, not because he wants the filth that those stories contain.\nTake the adventures of Paul Jones, Francis Marion, Daniel Boone, Kit Carson, as a basis—there is no\n\nhistory that is richer in romantic episodes than American history, and we ought to be\nusing it. The boy of thirteen or fourteen years of age wants stories of men—men who\nhave done\n\nsomething in the world;\n\nhe admires\n\nthem, and wants\n\nto follow\n\nin their foot-\n\nsteps. He has studied men —individual men.\n‘The next thing he wants is to know the\ntimes of those men.\nTo study man is history. And the boy who has had the right kind\nof material in the lower grades will come to Fiske and Parkman without being told.\n\nLouis H. GALBREATH, Normal, Ill.—I believe we ought to honor the library as an\neducational institution. I believe we ought to guide the reading of the child. Now, while\nI think we ought to press along that line which Dr. Jones has given, I also believe in\nwhat is implied in Dr. Cook’s speech.\nIt is true that we cannot get children to read on\nthe highest plane. They have tastes of their own, and it is true that they read along the\n‘line of their tastes. But the question is slightly different from that. They will read along\nthe line of their ability to get hold of books. The question arises whether we shall use, as\na principle of selection, the one Dr. Jones has given us or the one Dr. Cook has implied\ninhis speech, I think we must emphasize largely the principle of Dr. Jones, but, on the\nother hand, we must be in sympathy with the other kind of work. We must not condemn\nthe boy who is reading those books, as we might condemn a boy who was smoking cigarettes. Let him see that we are in sympathy with him and lead him step by step to some-\n\nthing higher. But shall we use the library to that end? I am inclined to think not. For\nI think that a boy who wants to read that kind of literature will get hold of a great deal\nof it.\n\ntae\ntema\nym\nRe),\n\n«y\n(\n\ntne\n\n"}
{"page": 1039, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nRESPONSIBILITY\n\nOF LIBRARIANS\n\n1029\n\nI believe the representation given in the first paper for normal schools is almost\nideal. I liked particularly one point, in which Miss Schreiber emphasizes the necessity of\ngetting the student teacher to work along with the child. What is the classic reading for\na boy or girl? Whatis classic for the adult is not classic for the little child. If Dr. Jones\nmeans that we should select what the adult thinks is classic, it is a mistake.\nThe problem for us, as teachers and librarians, is, what is classic for the children of the fourth,\nfifth, sixth, or seventh grades?\nIt is proper for us to find out what children will read with\n\ninterest, what they will read through’ preference, and what is of the highest value to the\nchild of a given age. In thus finding out what is classic, we will be able, it seems to me,\nto work in accord with both principles —the principle which Dr. Jones sets forth, and also,\nto some extent, that which was implied in the illustration given by Dr. Cook.\nMr. Barsour, Rockford, Il.—We cannot always say what a community must\nread; we have to take it where we find it. A rudder is of no value to a ship until you\nget the ship in motion.\nto reading.\n\nYou cannot cultivate the taste of a community until you get it\n\nI might give you a history of that department of the work in our town.\nWhen our\nlibrary was first organized, fiction was about 80 per cent. of all our reading. Last year\nour report showed that fiction was 59 percent.\nWe have made no noise about the matter,\nbut the library board, in connection with the librarian, has gradually withdrawn the lighter\nclass of books which the people read when our library was first organized, and has supplied its place with a better and higher class of literature.\nThe boys and girls who come\nto our library today do not ask for the material the boys and girls did twenty years ago.\n“It isnot there. They know comparatively little about it. They do call for and secure and\nread the higher and better class of fictitious literature.\nI am in accord with the statement Dr. Jones made, as a theory, that perhaps it is better for them not to read at all than\nto read acertain class of books.\nPractically, I think it is not the best way. We must\n\nget them to reading before we can direct them. After we get them to reading, we can\nexercise a supervision over what they read, and supply its place with a better class of\nliterature.\n\nDr. JoNES.— Perhaps I should repeat what I thought I said, that I believe we ought\nto find, by such methods as have been suggested to us this afternoon, what the tastes of\nboys and girls are, and then, as this gentleman has said here, give them the best literature\nalong those lines. I do not mean to say that we should set up an ideal standard and\ncompel all children to read the books we approve, or none at all. We should recognize\na children’s standard.\nAs to what my friend, Dr. Cook, says, I have always had a great\nadmiration for his mental ability, more so because I believe he has done as well as he has,\n\nnot because of the literature he read, but in spite of it.\nThe state of New York, as you know, furnishes traveling libraries. ‘The state supplies these libraries to any community that wants them, on any subject that they call for.\nAny individual, under proper restrictions, can get any single book in the extension library.\nNow, suppose\n\nthey send\n\nfor “ Trilby,”\n\nor “Tess,” and then “Jude, the\n\nObscure,”\n\nand\n\n“« Sorrows of Satan,” and then want some more of this decadent literature. My position\nis this, that the state has no right to buy at public expense those books and send them\nout through the state. Now, I appeal to you if this is not the right position.\nA. W. RANKIN, of Minnesota.—I have an intense interest in seeing the publicI think the methods of\nschool teachers fall into line with the librarians in this work.\nof the librarians, if\nwork\nthe\ninjure\npositively\nas\nsuch\nare\nteaching reading in the schools\ntheir standards are as high as those set by Dr. Jones. We have scrap books for readers.\nThe children pore over them day after day for four or five years. And by that time, if\nthey have any reading\n\ntendencies at all, they are\n\nbound\n\nto find some such books as the\n\n"}
{"page": 1040, "printed_page": null, "text": "EDUCATIONAL\n\nNATIONAL\n\n1030\n\ngood Doctor and myself found\nteaching of reading.\nand on it there should\n\nin our youth.\n\n{Library\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nI think there should be a reform in the\n\nFirst, there should be a table consecrated to the work of reading,\nbe the best books the community can afford and can donate to the\n\nschool. Second, the reading class in reciting should partake more of the nature of a\nreading circle. It should not be the old stereotyped plan of teaching the children the\nmechanics of reading. From the first primary grade it should aim to teach children how\nIn the third place, I would have a large supply of books given to\nto find out something.\nthe primary grades. I have noticed the process through which two small girls learned to\nThe two children have spoiled those\nread. I have in my library hundreds of books.\nI have seen a little girl of six going out to\nbooks, but they have learned to read them.\nplay with Longfellow’s poems under her arm, and in the intervals of play she was reading\n“Hiawatha.”\n\nMr. Yust, of The University of Chicago.— It seems to me in this question of the\npublic library we must bear in mind that it is not for children only, but for all the people,\nold as well as young.\nThe function of the library is no longer the conservation of knowledge, but rather the dissemination of knowledge, making it more an educational force and\nfactor.\n\nOf course, there are, at the present time, certain\n\nlibraries that should\n\ntake prac-\n\ntically all books.\nOtherwise, how is the library going to perform its function, which we\nshould not lose sight of, the conservation of knowledge, the preservation of books?\nOtherwise, how in future times are we going to get a proper idea of the time?\nHow\nshould we know what were the ideals or the defects of society in the times of the Greeks\nand Romans, if we did not have the lower Greek comedies, if we did not have the satires\nof Juvenal?\nSo, it seems to me, there are some libraries, like the British Museum, the\n\nNational Library of Paris, that should take in all books; not for general circulation.\nNow, how shall we keep the child from getting these books?\nThere comes a time\nwhen he should have access to these books in order to form his own opinion. Now, the\nteachers co-operate with the librarian in Evanston on a plan by which the teachers supervise the reading of the children. In that way the pupil is given certain books at a certain\nage, and afterward given more books.\nAnd by and by he is given books that in the first\nstage of his reading would have been harmful.\nIt seems to me that here we should try to\nharmonize these interests, and adopt some plan suitable for the various schools and\ngrades.\nE, A. JonEs, of Ohio.— When\n\nthe lady from Denver was outlining the plan in one of\n\nthe Denver schools, I think she said they had\n\ntwenty books\n\nin one grade, and so on, up\n\nto eighty volumes in the eighth grade, as a room library. It seemed to me it would be of\ngreat interest to all teachers to know the names of these volumes supplied to pupils in the\nthird year and fourth year, etc. This matter of’ pupils’ reading is one of great interest to\nteachers and great importance to the state. There is no question about that. And one\nof the greatest difficulties in the way, it seems to me, is in the fact (I believe it is a fact)\nthat the average teacher is not familiar with the best books.\nI asked a little while ago\nthe question if in Colorado they had a pupils’ reading course.\nIf they have one, it has\nhad a great influence in the results as manifested upon those charts.\n\nWe\n\nhad a reading\n\ncourse a number of years ago, and I know, if those questions were submitted to the children in our state, we should get very different results from those we should have had four\nyears ago, before that course was adopted.\nAnd it seemsto me this section could not do\n\na more important or practical work than to suggest this list of books that would be the\n\nbest books, or as nearly as possible the best books, for the third, fourth, and fifth years.\n\nThat, it seems to me, is a practical line of work, of great importance.\n\nC. C. Rounps, New York, N. Y.—I went through an experience like Brother Cook’s,\n\nand I read it until I got sick of the whole infernal stuff; and I wish I had not read more\n\nPE\n\n"}
{"page": 1041, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nRESPONSIBILITY\n\nOF LIBRARIANS\n\n1031\n\nthan half of it, even if I had gone fishing the rest of the time. We speak of exciting an\ninterest in order to get children to read. I asked a little girl one day why she was reading a certain book. She said: “I want to find out what it says.” Stevenson tells us of\na Welsh blacksmith, twenty-five years of age, unable to read, who heard a chapter of\n“Robinson Crusoe.”\nHe learned to read Welsh, in order to read the book; and then he\n\ncould not find the book in Welsh.\nThen he learned to read English.\nA gentleman told\nme of this case: A sailor went on a long voyage in command of 2 ship. You know the\ncommander of a ship on a long voyage leads a very lonely life. The only book there\nwas on this ship was a copy of Shelley’s poems.\nWhen that sailor reached London\nagain, he was a cultivated\n\ngentleman;\n\nthe last time my friend saw\n\nhim\n\nhe had every\n\naspect of a cultivated gentleman.\nWhat we read gives us our thoughts.\nThe time lost reading bad books cannot be\nmade up. There is so much that is beautiful and inspiring in literature that we cannot\nafford to waste our time on books that are not of the best.\nI know a little boy who, last\nOctober, began to learn to read.\nThe other morning, in Chicago, he read us the news in\nthe Chicago 77idune.\nHe has a library and has made a classification of literature. He\ndivides all books into two classes: real books and made-up books.\nMost fairy stories he\ndoesn’t like; Russian fairy stories he likes pretty well. One point I urge; I know it to\nbe essential.\nWe don’t take pains enough to show our pupils the beauty of English\nstyle. I tried it with a grammar school; taking a recess quietly, I picked up a volume of\nDe Quincey and read quietly to myself.\nThe pupils were still in five minutes and came\nabout my desk to listen. If you show children the beauty of perfect English speech, you\nhave done more than anything else to free them from the baneful style of these objectionable authors.\nChildren appreciate the things that are lovely and of good report, if you\nput them before them.\nNow, if I could not get my food except by having the whole corn ground up, cob\nand ail, I would take it that way.\nBut I would rather have the regulation johnny-cake.\n1 am glad I learned to read young.\nI exhausted the whole country side to find reading;\nsome was good and some bad.\nPerhaps at that time it was the best thing that could be\n\ndone ; but I have suffered all my life because nothing better could be done. My children\ndid not have to go over that road, Brother Cook, which I traveled over from sheer hunger,\nand at fifteen years of age they had a better knowledge of literature than I had ten years\nlater than that.\nThe cultivating influence of the right book makes it important that the right book\nbe selected; and I believe it important that the child be led along in the line of thought\nthat will give a desire for that book.\nWhat we want to guard against is that which is\nvicious directly and that which is vicious in suggestion.\nThe London librarian, Mudie,\nfound it necessary to buy two thousand copies of Marie Corelli’s last book.\nIt is a sad\nstate of affairs when Mudie has to do that. The patchiness of reading and the badness\nof a great deal of it make it important to be able to cull out what is good, that children’\nmay not start in the wrong direction.\nCHARLES R. VANDERVOORT, Peoria, Il.—It is my good fortune, perhaps, to be a\nmember of the library board of a library of about 60,000 volumes. And the matter of the\nresponsibility of the directors in supplying books for the public has disturbed us a great\ndeal. Iam glad to have heard these discussions.\nI think I can go home better prepared to exercise the functions of a library director. It was my good fortune, also, to\nI have just come from Philaattend the meeting of the American Library Association.\ndelphia here. There was great interest in the meetings of this section of the National\nThe American Library Association is twenty-one years of age\nEducational Association.\nthis year, and I heard a great many prominent librarians express themselves as very glad\n\nof this organization and very sorry that they could not attend—the\n\npresident and vice-\n\n"}
{"page": 1042, "printed_page": null, "text": "‘h\nf\n\n1032\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nA great many of our teachers have not on their\npresident, and quite a number of others.\n1 was very glad\ntongue’s end the names of books suitable for children of any given age.\nto hear Miss Eastman, assistant librarian at Cleveland, say that they are getting up a\nThe teachers have a set of questions,\ncatalogue that is made by the pupils themselves.\nwhich they give to the pupils, about the books they have read, and their opinion of them;\nand those are collated and classified and turned over to the librarians.\nJ. W. Coox.—I\n\nmy remarks would\n\nsupposed\n\nPlease note what I said.\n\nattract\n\nsome\n\nattention and criticism.\n\nI did not say I was glad I had read those\n\nl said I was\n\nbooks;\n\nglad I had read them instead of reading nothing.\n\nNow, we are what we are as civilized beings through education chiefly. And I would\nnot abate a whit the force of heredity. The natural man is not only at enmity with God,\nbut with his fellow-men and civilization in general. The habit of reading has to be\nacquired. Itis an art. We do not take to it naturally, asa duck to water.\nIt is acquired\nby practice, constant repetition. We cannot oblige people to read.\nIt is like the matter\nof drinking. You can provide the water for the horse, but you can’t make him drink.\nSo much in regard to this habit. Now, it seems to me the moral of my own experience is\nthis, that the tastes of children must be consulted;\n\nand, if the child is so organized that\n\nit must be something that is lurid, why, then the best lurid thing must be put in his neighborhood.\nGet him to read. If you can’t get him to read what is best, for heaven’s sake,\nget him to read something. I believe the books so full of adventure and mawkish sentimentality touch a responsive sentiment.\nIf I had been asked at the time I was reading\nabout Claude Duyal and Dick Turpin what profession I would select, I believe I should\nhave said I would be a highwayman.\nBut I think I should have been a very tenderhearted highwayman under the tuition of Claude Duval.\nI think these stories are in\na way the Odyssey stories of our time; and that is what makes those stories so attractive. But we must come to the child and reach him where he lives, and induce him to\nread in that particular world in which he is interested; and then follow him up, week\nafter week and month after month, until after a time, perhaps, he will say, as Brother\n\nRounds said a few minutes ago, that he regrets those things and wishes he had devoted\nhis time to better purposes.\nBut if we have to give them this very pronounced literature,\nwe will start them on that and keep the matter in our own hands, and get them to read\nthe better books as we can.\nMiss A. V. MILNER.—A\n\ncame\n\nto me\n\nlittle boy in the school\n\none day, and he said:\n\n‘Kit Carson’\n\nin?”\n\n“Tam sorry,”\n\nwhere\n\nDr. Cook\n\n“Is ‘Huckleberry Finn’ in?”\n\nand I both are\n\nIt was\n\nI said, “but we haven’t got ‘Kit Carson.”\n\nhave you got ‘Jesse James,’ or any of those books?””\n\nI said: “We have not.\n\nout.\n\n“Is\n\n‘Well,\n\nBut you come\n\nwith me, and I will find you something.”\nHe has been in the library eversince.\nThe\nother day he came to me and said: “Won’t you please come and find me a book? I\ncan’t tell very well myself; something with adventure in; I suppose it has to have a little\nhistory.”\n\nHOW\nBY\n\nTO MAKE\nW.\n\nSURE\n\nR. EASTMAN,\n\nOF GOOD BOOKS\n\nLIBRARY\nOF\n\nINSPECTOR,\nNEW\n\nIN OUR LIBRARIES.\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nSTATE\n\nYORK.\n\nThe true public library contains material for the education of the\npeople. During the years of school life the young are being trained to\n\n"}
{"page": 1043, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMAKE\n\nSURE\n\nOF GOOD\n\nBOOKS\n\nIN OUR\n\nLIBRARIES\n\n1033\n\nuse this material.\nThey are made acquainted with books.\nThey are\ntaught to read and think and search, and when school days are over their\neducation is fairly begun.\n\nIf they have\n\nbeen well\n\ntrained and\n\ninspired,\n\nas they can be inspired, they will carry it on for themselves, provided the\nmaterial is furnished, and I think we shall all agree that the community\nis as much bound to supply the means of this wider, lifelong development\nas to provide the public school.\nWhat we call education usually begins with the doing of required\ntasks.\nBut real education must have the element of freedom and delight\nin the task. The character of the boy is determined by what he loves to\ndo. The class-room puts him under obligation; the library offers him\nopportunity.\nHe needs the influence of both.\nBut the opportunity is\nto last long after the obligation has ceased.\n\nIt is, therefore, a vital matter\n\nIf they have no power to attract,\nthat the books shall be wisely chosen.\nor, if attracting, they fail to instruct or help or inspire, the charm of the\nlibrary is departed.\nThe supply is plentiful.\nIn 1896 there were 5,189 new books published in the United States, of which 1,012 were classed as fiction.\n1895 there were 5,101, of which 1,050 were fiction.\nIn England\n\nIn\nthe\n\nyearly output was somewhat larger. In France it was more than twice as\ngreat. With this excessive supply we can well afford to pass by every doubtful book.\nLibraries are usually limited in means to buy, and must be all\nthe more careful on that account to use only the best. The books we\nwant are in the market, but it is a serious problem to find them.\n1. From\n\nthe library\n\npoint\n\nof view\n\nwe\n\nneed, first of all, to fix the\n\nresponsibility for the selection of books.\nIt rests with the board of\ntrustees or committee that controls the library.\nThey may delegate\ntheir power to the librarian, the teacher, or to a subcommittee of their\nown number, but they are bound to know that this librarian or teacher\n\nfully deserves their confidence, and they must themselves remain responsible to the community that put the library under their control.\nThere are trustees who shirk this duty altogether and offer to buy any\nbook that anybody wants ; a course that will soon be found to be fatally\nSome will buy at haphazard, each one\nextravagant, absurd, and unfair.\nof the board picking up now and then a package of new books, as they\nSome buy the books that are most talked about,\nattract attention.\nbecause people ask for them, and so the strangest, most romantic, or most\naudacious books keep up an excited interest in the library and work\nSome are so anxious to fill their shelves at the least\ninsidious mischief.\nexpenditure that they spend their time hunting for bargains at the secondWith care they can undoubtedly obtain some choice works\nhand stores.\nof standard\n\nattractive\n\nliterature,\n\npower.\n\ntimeliness,\n\nand\n\nothers have thrown aside, and\n\ntheir\n\nbut the result\n\nThey get what\n\nlacks\n\nfreshness,\n\n"}
{"page": 1044, "printed_page": null, "text": "1034\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\npatrons feel that it is an inferior, second-hand provision, while the literary\nFor all this the board of conworld about them is full of what is new.\ntrol is responsible.\n2. The second important point is to have a distinct idea of the differ‘To some it is a mere matter\nence between a good book and a bad one.\nOne falls in\nof taste. One book pleases them and another does not.\nwith their own way of looking at things, and the other goes right against\nBut the wise judge of\ntheir cherished views of life, morals, or politics.\nbooks is acting in the public interest and cannot allow himself to be\nswayed by personal prejudice.\nA book may be a very good book and\nvaluable to the community even if he does not enjoy reading it.\nThe library has no right to set itself up as a censor of public morals,\nforbidding men to read anything.\nBut since it has important functions\nto discharge toward the public, it is bound to choose those books best\nsuited to its purpose, and must understand that purpose clearly and\nadapt the means to the end.\n:\nThere are some accepted standards of right and wrong, and everyone\nwill.admit that a book as well as a man, in order to be admitted into good\nsociety, must be at least honest, truthful, pure-minded, and considerate of\nothers; and, in order to be respected, it must have some seriousness of\n\npurpose.\nA man may be.a genial companion, a good story-teller, enjoy\na laugh and a frolic with the children now and then, and still retain your\nrespect.\n\nBut if he is a confirmed trifler,\n\na clown, and nothing\n\nelse, or if\n\nhe uses the language of the slums, you will not choose him for the companion of your children.\nSilliness or weakness or lack of purpose or\nmorbid sentimentalism will rule out a book when we have serious business\non hand. Any book that makes it seem profitable or pleasant to do\nwrong, that leaves a reader weaker or worse than when he began, is a bad\nbook.\n‘The good book makes its appeal to the higher nature, informs\nthe mind, strengthens the moral fiber, suggests better possibilities. Ifyou\nread a book for information, it should be substantially and honestly\naccurate and clear in style. If you read for recreation, the story or the\nfun should\n\nbe true\n\nto life, wholesome\n\nand\n\nclean, and, moreover,\n\nwell\n\nexpressed, in good, honest English, without exaggeration or bombast. If\nyou read for inspiration, it should be a book that opens lines of intellectual, moral, or spiritual enlargement, a sort of “window” book, out of\n\nwhich you may gain broad views of life and its opportunities.\ngood books.\nAnother\n\npoint must\n\nbe considered.\n\nA book\n\nSuch are\n\nmay be good in itself,\n\ntrue, accurate, clear, and inspiring to some readers, and yet not be at all\nadapted to the particular place to be filled. Libraries differ greatly, and\nthe interests of each constituency must be kept in view. Libraries are\nlarge and small. They are in city and in country.\nSome are for working\n\nig\nAor”\n\n"}
{"page": 1045, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMAKE\n\nSURE\n\nOF GOOD\n\nBOOKS\n\nIN OUR\n\nLIBRARIES\n\n1035\n\npeople, some for common schools, some for advanced scholars.\nThe\ngood book is the book that meets the need of that place and those readers\nat that time; and of this no one is qualified to judge who is not familiar\nwith the conditions.\nWith the best intentions it is not easy to apply the\ntest.\n\nI will not stop here to speak of editions, paper, type, binding, etc.,\nthough these, too, are essential to the goodness of a book.\n3- My third point is that in the selection of books the library needs\nThis is a person of intelligence and judgthe assistance of an expert.\nhas for years cultivated\n\nment, who\n\nan\n\nacquaintance with literature.\n\nHis\n\nHe\neye running down a long list of books is among acquaintances.\nknows the old authors at a glance, and can soon take the measure of new\naspirants\n\nfor favor.\n\nPublishers,\n\ntoo, have\n\nto\n\nhis mind\n\ntheir\n\nown\n\ndis-\n\ntinct reputation for issuing books of a certain order of excellence, so\nthat the imprint is the best introduction.\nThe expert also has the library\nsense strongly developed.\nHe knows what is expected of these books,\nand, as a skilled workman,\n\nhe picks\n\nhis tools\n\nfor use.\n\nEvery week\n\nthe\n\nlist of new books is studied.\nFor the ordinary library he does not want\nthe law books, the medical or theological books, the various technical\ntreatises, or the cheaper, paper-covered books. About one in five may be\nThis proportion will give about\nmarked for more careful consideration.\nIt will not be difficult, on second\n1,000 American books in the year.\nthought, and by the exercise of a cultivated critical sense, still further to\nThen the real task of systematic examreduce this number by one-half.\nIf he is so\nThe reviews must be studied and indexed.\nination begins.\nhappy as to be permitted to handle the volumes themselves, he can often\nmakea shrewd guess at the library value of a new book in a few minutes,\nBut many of the\ntaking note of its points as a horseman judges a horse.\nbooks must be actually read, and the work can no longer be done singlehanded.\nIt will be seen, however, that the expert can render essential\nservice, and\n\nthat, in order to be sure of good books, each library should\n\nhave its own expert, its trained librarian, or, perhaps, one of its trustees\nwho will cultivate this ready skill, assiduously and systematically, year by\nIf but fifty books\nWe must, every one of us, learn to be experts.\nyear.\nor twenty books are added in the year, so much the greater is the need\nof the wisest selection.\n4. Librarians,\n\nteachers, and trustees, whether experts or not, need to\n\nThey need to\nknow the book which is put into the hands of a reader.\nknow more than they can learn by their unaided efforts. This knowledge\nMuch of this labor will be lost\ncan be gained only by the labor of many.\nBut it is\nunless organized and its results secured and made available.\neasy to see that there is a work here which could be done if the right\nsteps were taken, and that information\n\nabout\n\nbooks, both\n\nnew\n\nand\n\nold,\n\n"}
{"page": 1046, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n1036\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n[Library\n\nASSOCIATION\n\ncould be gathered which would be of ,unspeakable value to libraries and\ntheir patrons.\nIt is not so easy to say who shall be elected to carry on this labor of\nexploration, nor in what way the due rewards of service shall be rendered,\nfor it will cost\n\nmoney.\n\n‘There\n\nare, at least, three\n\nessentials\n\nof success:\n\nimpartiality,\n\n(1) admitted ability on the part of the critic; (2) absolute\nand (3) sufficient compensation.\nIt is, perhaps, conceivable that the work might be organized as a\nA body of expert critics might be secured, each of whom, by\nbusiness.\nlong experience, would be able to touch the vital points of the new book\nin his own department and promptly write a note that would describe\nEvery quarter, or every month,\nthat book to the perplexed librarian.\nthese notes could be gathered and distributed to subscribers.\nWhether\nAnd, when we\nsuch an enterprise could be made to pay is doubtful.\nconsider the business interests affected by such a publishment of opinion,\nit is also a question whether a private enterprise could permanently retain\npublic confidence in its absolute impartiality.\nAgain, the work might be organized by representative bodies of librarians\n\nor\n\nteachers.\n\nAs, for instance,\n\nthis\n\ndepartment\n\nof\n\nthe National\n\nEducational Association might appoint, here and now, a committee to\nobtain and report information about books suitable for school libraries.\nIt might secure ability and impartiality, leaving the matter of expense to\nbe provided for. This department might, I think very properly, take\naction in this direction by the appointment of a standing committee on\nbooks, to which should be referred all suggestions on this vital subject,\nwith power to prepare lists or to approve in its own discretion such lists\nas may be presented to it from any source.\nA judicious committee on\nbooks might be of great service.\nThe American Library Association has,\nfor some\n\nyears, had its publishing section, which\n\nhas, from time to time,\n\nissued partial lists of the desired character, such as “Sargent’s Reading\nfor the Young” and the lists of ‘“‘ Books for Clubs of Girls and Women,”\nwhich have proved to be of great value, although, in the nature of the\ncase, not kept up to date. There is also the catalogue of 5,000 volumes\nexhibited as a model library at the World’s Fair in 1893, and published\nby the United States Bureau of Education, for which the American Library\nAssociation is responsible.\nBut the organized department of criticism, for which we are seeking,\ncan be maintained to the best advantage by the state or national government. This ought at once to secure ability, impartiality, and support. We\nhave long had at Washington a library of Congress.\nIt has now the best\nlibrary building in the world, and I trust we are soon to have in it a truly\nnational library. Two copies of every copyrighted American book are\nplaced there by law. Is it too much to ask from that library a monthly\n\n"}
{"page": 1047, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMARE\n\nSURE\n\nOF GOOD\n\nBOOKS\n\nIN OUR\n\nLIBRARIES\n\n1037\n\nbulletin of information in certain lines about some selected books, suited\n\nfor school and village libraries, a publication which shal! be of such a\nhigh character as to command the respect of the educational world ?\nBut, while waiting for this, each state department of education, each\n\nstate library commission,\n\ncan be actively at work in aiding\n\nthe choice\n\nof\n\nbooks.\nIn Wisconsin, and some other states, the state superintendent is\nrequired by law to publish annual or biennial lists. If these departments\nand commissions in the several states were in regular communication,\nthey might greatly aid one another by division of the labor of examination or by handling each other’s lists in advance of publication, with the\nThis should be done, not in the spirit of\nprivilege of using the best.\ncompetition, but with the feeling that they achieve the highest triumph\nwhose word is most widely copied, because most worthy of trust.’\nThere is still a serious difficulty to be met in regard to the question\nof time. With our present facilities it is impossible to obtain descriptions\nsuch as are desired in time for the practical guidance of libraries where\nthere is a strong demand for new books. ‘This difficulty can be overcome\nonly by securing from the publishers the use of advance sheets.\nPermit me, in closing, to outline the plans of the University of the State\nof New York to aid the choice of books. This university, it should be said,\nis not a teaching, but a supervisory institution.\nThe state library is\nunder its care, and the services of trained experts on the staff are at its disposal. Six hundred secondary schools, 175 libraries, besides 100 colleges\nand technical schools, are under supervision. The law authorizes anyone\ninterested to apply to the state library for advice in selecting books or on\nany other\n\nlibrary question.\n\nAn\n\noccasional\n\nlist of $500 worth of books\n\nrecommended for secondary schools is published, being carefully selected,\nclassified, and annotated.\nIn the past four years thirty annotated lists of\ntraveling libraries have been issued, including 2,000 titles, besides a few\nspecial-subject lists.\nIn connection with the extension department,\nlibraries have been furnished to lecturers and study clubs, and these special lists, some in print, some in manuscript, may be obtained on application.\n\nAt the close of each year a list of 300, 400, or 500 books\n\nyear, selected with the aid of experts outside\n\nthe state\n\nof the\n\nlibrary, has been\n\nsubmitted to the librarians of the state and some others, with\n\nan invita-\n\ntion to mark fifty books best suited for a village library, and send back\nthe list. The returns have been summarized and the list printed a second\ntime in the order indicated by the number of votes for each book. This\nproblem has led many a librarian to a more careful scrutiny of the quality\nof books.\nThe state also offers to school and public libraries a bounty on the\nbuying of approved books by duplicating the money so used.\n\nOf course\n\nthere are conditions and limits set for the enjoyment of this privilege.\n\n"}
{"page": 1048, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n1038\n\n[Library\n\n~\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nApproval involves the tedious examination of long lists submitted, and\noften the ungracious duty of rejecting some books must be faced, with\nBut it tends to secure\nthe corresponding disappointment of the library.\nthe standard. State\nof\nraising\ngradual\na\nand\nselection\ncareful\nmore\nmuch\nEven local\nbest.\nthe\nonly\nuse\nto\ncare\ngreater\nmeans\nexcellence\naid for\ndependent\nalso\nare\npublic\nthe\nto\nopen\nlibraries\nto\ncities\nby\npaid\nsubsidies\nby the\namount\nin\nlimited\nand\ncirculation,\ntheir\nof\napproval\nstate\nby law on\nlimit of approval.\nTo make sure of good books in libraries we need: (1) responsibility ;\n(2) a clear conception of what is good; (3) expert help, and (4) information.\nLists are needed, but mere lists are not enough.\n‘There must be reasons\n\nfor\n\neach\n\nchoice, and, with all the\n\nreasons\n\nbefore\n\nthem,\n\nthe\n\nlocal\n\nboards of control are responsible to their own constituencies for the\nresult.\nEternal vigilance is the price of success, and we must help one\nanother to watch.\n\nTHE\n\nRELALION\n\nBY\n\nWM.\n\nH,\n\nOF\n\nSMILEY,\n\nLHL LIBKAKY IC\nIN THE SCHOOLS.\n\nAL\n\nPRINCIPAL\n\nDISTRICT\n\nDENVER,\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\nEVGCAIiws\n\nNO:\n\n1,\n\nCOLO.\n\nThe movement by which art education in this country came to be\nconsidered a legitimate. part of public education began, if I remember\nrightly, in Massachusetts, some twenty-five years ago, under the diréction of Walter Smith, and it has always seemed to me unfortunate that he\nadvocated its introduction almost entirely from the industrial point of\nview.\nAt that time it was hoped and expected, as I think some will\nremember, that through the teaching of design in the schools, when the\npractice should become general, the artistic quality of American manufactured goods would be speedily raised.\nIn consequence, the drawing\nexhibits of those early days were very largely handed over to the wouldbe designer of prints, wall papers, and book covers.\nThe unfortunate\nresult has been that the desire to defend the introduction of drawing in\nthe schools from this practical standpoint has served to keep from view\ncertain fields of work of vastly more importance to general culture, and in’\nwhich there is large room for helpful co-operation on the part of libraries.\nIt seems to me that, in order to secure the best results from art education,\n\nwe should invite other forms of instruction that belong just as closely to\nart education\n\nand are very likely more prolific of results than even draw-\n\n"}
{"page": 1049, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nRELATION\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nLIBRARY\n\nTO ART\n\nEDUCATION\n\n1039\n\ning itself. In fact, the helpfulness of the library to such work depends\nin no small degree upon the view taken of the fundamental purpose of\nart instruction.\nLet us admit, once for all, that we do not teach design to make\ndesigners, or drawing to make artists ;no more than we teach arithmetic\nto make bookkeepers or engineers.\nIt is, however, the educator’s duty\nto be able to show in what respect the mass of pupils have gained enough\nfrom any subject to justify its forming a part of the public-school curriculum.\nNow, I firmly believe that, unless we can justify art instruction on\nthe ground of securing cultivated power of vision and sensibility of taste,\nand, furthermore, appreciative joy in the objective world because of such\npower, then we can hardly make a valid plea for its retention in old\nTherefore, drawing teachers should insist,\nplaces or its adoption in new.\nin season and out of season, that their pupils are learning to see, rather\nthan to draw, to measure relative size, relative gradation of tone in all\nits compass from white to black, to see masses as the artist sees them, to\nselect for expression characteristic details as the artist selects them.\nIf\nsuch be the purpose of instruction, power of appreciation will far outstrip\nmanual execution ; but appreciation of skillful execution will keep even\nThat trained sight is far less\npace with appreciating power of vision.\ncommon than it ought to be is the testimony of all experts in whose callI recently heard a bitter coming such power of vision is a necessity.\nplaint from an editor of the incapacity of young reporters to see in relative proportion of importance the details of the commonest incident, to\nFrom the naturalist, from the\nsay nothing of reporting them truthfully.\nnovelist, from the corrector of college themes and high-school compositions, we hear the same complaint.\n\nCan we\n\ndoubt, then, the necessity of\n\nteaching intelligent seeing ?\nLandscape in its bolder form and larger masses is in truth loved by\nour people; witness their passion for public parks, for seashore and\nmountain scenery, for the striking glories of sunrise and sunset; but we\ngreatly need to be taught to look for refinements of form and of color.\nIn illustration of my meaning let me say that nothing in nature is more\nconspicuous than the varying curvature with which the tree masses of\nvarious species outline against the sky; nothing is more effectively used\nby the landscape artist in his composition; yet the ordinary observer\npasses striking illustrations of it in almost absolute unconsciousness;\nfew ever note in masses of foliage the grays or blues reflected from the\nsky; and I have noted the look of startled wonder with which students,\nwhen the fact was called to their attention\n\nfor the first time, noted\n\nthe\n\nvivid blue of shadows cast on snow.\nIn the modeling and color wark of the kindergarten, and in the\nelementary grades, nature study is doing much to cultivate such refine-\n\n"}
{"page": 1050, "printed_page": null, "text": "1040\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nment of sense-perception as I have suggested, and such work is quite as\ndeserving of the name of art instruction as the actual drawing which we\nBut our chief consideration is to find out\nfirst think of under this term.\nwhat the library also can do to cultivate refined taste among teachers\nand pupils; how it can supplement the department of drawing, if there\nbe one; howit can do something to make good such deficiency, if it\nexist.\nMy first suggestion is that the relation of the library to teacher\nand student requires that it be an inviting place, a place that from its\ndecoration and its arrangement shall, in both form and color, give pleasure\nto the artisticsense.\nHowever humble its collections, every library should\nindicate an affectionate desire to house worthily its treasures of literary\nbeauty. The Boston Library has set an example destined to bear fruit\nin numberless places. In every library let something be done; but,\nwhether much or little, let it be done in the spirit that is everywhere\napparent about the marvelous building referred to; where all is done\nIt\nwith deliberate purpose of feeding the eye upon artistic loveliness.\ndoes not need money to accomplish this, so much as it needs great thought,\ngreat care, and the best artistic advice within reach.\nSo, again I repeat,\nfrom the tinting of the walls to the framing of the inexpensive prints that\nmay adorn them, let everything show simplicity and unity of artistic\nThe library in most communities is the only public organization\npurpose.\nthat can naturally assume to itself the guidance by example of the artistic\nfeeling of the community.\nIn most communities the library should say\nto itself: ‘‘ My duty is the curatorship for this community of all products\nof artistic expression ; not simply of the artist as he speaks through the\nprinted page in poem and novel, but of that artist as well who reveals his\nthought to men, it may be through the sculptured figure, the shapely\nvase, the painting.”\nTherefore, I affirm again that on entering any\nlibrary, however small, it should be evident at once that its governing\nboard recognizes this duty to the community in the expenditure of some\nportion of its funds.\nIt need be very little. A Japanese flower vase of\nexquisite shape and color, to be used daily to display the beauty of a\nsingle spray of blossoms, as nature exhibits them, not as we see them in\nthe vulgar masses of the florist’s window; half a dozen Japanese color\nprints ;a few photographs correctly framed or matted; merely these may\nbe enough\n\nfor a beginning.\n\nLet the source, cost, and, if possible, the\n\nreason for the choice of each article be neatly indicated on cards of uniform shape and size, that the imitative instinct of the library users may\nreadily profit from such casual suggestions.\nNo minutie of this kind\nare too slight to be attended to carefully.\nTeachers often fail to attempt\noy schoolroom decoration simply because of a lack of knowledge of\njust such mechanical details. As in most schoolrooms wall space is lacking for any kind of picture display, libraries should keep conspicuously\n\n"}
{"page": 1051, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nRELATION\n\nOF THE\n\nLIBRARY\n\nTO ART\n\nEDUCATION\n\n1041\n\nin view a light wooden screen covered with burlap, either plain in color\nor of some fine shade, in which this material is now so extensively used\nfor draperies.\nSuch a screen is an invaluable and effective piece of\ndecoration, if kept constantly hung with the effective prints that appear\nwith almost every issue of the illustrated journals.\nA library attendant\ntold me not long since that she could make a reading demand for almost\nany book by simply suggesting its title to two or three readers over the\ncounter; that the increase in demand was almost in geometrical ratio.\nI\nfeel sure that similar results can be accomplished through teachers in the\nuse of illustrative material in the schoolroom.\nBut the great work of the library will be done in bringing to the\nnotice of teachers the masters of illustration in the literature of childHow many have ever stopped to think of the incalculable evil\nhood.\ndone in vitiating the taste of children through cheap picturebooks, grotesque in color and design, such as are sold by the ton at the holiday\nCheap reproductive processes have improved their artistic\nseason?\nquality immensely in the past five years, but still the best work—work\nwhere the personality of the artist may outweigh his text even one hundred to one, as do Caldecott’s illustrations in his “Sing a Song for Six“pence’’— reaches but few children, and is comparatively unknown to\nteachers.\nNow, I feel sure that a high level of artistic sensibility may be\nsecured in most children between the ages of five and ten by their\nbecoming perfectly familiar with a few such books as I have in mind.\nThe child’s sense\n\nis so\n\nimpressionable, his eye\n\nmemory\n\nso keen, that I\n\nbelieve we have little conception of what a field for genuine culture we have\nleft neglected in the masterpieces of illustrated literature for children.\nChildren are veritably greedy for vivid pictures of adventurous life and\nIn our public library is a juvenile room,\ndramatic or humorous incident.\ncontaining some two thousand volumes, from which the young people\nmay make\n\ntheir\n\nown\n\nselections ; take\n\nthe books\n\nfrom\n\nthe\n\nshelves\n\nand\n\nhandle them at will. One morning last week I visited the room, hoping\nto find Jessup’s “ Misadventures at Margate” or his “Jack of Rheims,”\nThough I found neither, I found good\nor something from Caldecott.\nTwain’s “Huckleberry Finn,” illusMark\nof\nvolume\nodd\nan\nin\nevidence\nthe very best was keenly loved by\nof\nillustration\nthat\nKemble,\nby\ntrated\nthe users of that room.\n\nIt had been rebound, and was now past the pos-\n\nsibility of repair; but whether pictures or print, every one of its dirty,\ndog-eared, thumb-tracked pages had been preserved with what seemed\nPlace the work of such artists as Caldecott,\nlike religious veneration.\nJessup, Crane, and Howard Pyle in the hands of your pupils, and jon will\nalways find them winning affectionate regard, with a correspondingly\nwholesome effect upon their taste.\nHow little credit has in the past been given the artist for his work is\n\n"}
{"page": 1052, "printed_page": null, "text": "1042\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n[Library\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nshown by the fact that the work of the artist is uncatalogued in the\nlibrary. Sargent and Abbey, whose work for the Boston Library ranks\nthem with the greatest of the great, have no place, for their own sake, on\n\nlibrary cards. The teacher who is interested in securing such work will\nfind difficulty in discovering it, unless she knows the name of the author\nIt would be of great assistance, therefore, if the\nfor whom they work.\nlibraries would issue special lists of illustrators and their works, and if\nsuch works were reserved in a conspicuous place, for teachers’ use, until\nThey are unlikely to reach the schoolroom in any\nthey become familiar.\nother way, but once let their humanistic effect be felt there, and they will\nnever be found absent.\nThe library should keep at hand all catalogues of artistic reproductions, whether prints, casts, or photographs.\nIt should bring to the\nnotice of teachers collections of such extraordinary beauty and cheapness\nas the series of one hundred wall pictures published by Seaman of Leipzig\nlast year. It should carefully mount and preserve for lending to the\nschools reproductions of famous works, such as appear as full-page illustrations in Harper's Bazaar and the leading art journals.\nGathered\ntogether in portfolios, they make excellent loan collections to be passed\nfrom school to school.\nIn one of the most wretched districts of our city,\nin a kindergarten room, regular exhibitions for the children of the neighborhood have been held, and great interest has been aroused by allowing\nvoting contests for favorite pictures. Sometimes, by request, these pictures have been loaned for home decoration through the summer vacation,\nand have been regarded with an affection that would astonish more wellto-do homes, where\n\nthe\n\npictures\n\nare\n\noften\n\nhardly\n\nmore\n\nthan\n\nso°much\n\nupholstery. The library may encourage the making of collections of\npictures for educational or artistic purposes, by distributing to the schools\nthe quantities of illustrated magazines that sometimes accumulate, but\nwhich are not needed for binding.\nIn brief, the library should do all that\nit can to encourage the teacher and the student to look at nature herself,\nor as she appears in the plastic arts transmuted through the alembic of\nman’s imagination.\nToo few appreciate the joy that comes from such culture.\nSome college classmates were once watching from a New Hampshire hilltop the\nglories of a summer sunset. The scientist of their number began speculating on the reasons for the relative positions of certain colors on the\nilluminated clouds; the poet of their number, impatient at his speculations at such a time, declared\n\nthat the man was blind whose emotions in\n\nthe presence of such heavenly beauty did not hush for the moment his\nhabitual impulse to draw mathematical inferences.\nWhatever we may\nthink of the poet’s conclusion, we must admit that for the mass of men\nhis attitude of mind is the one that reaps greatest joy; jand in thesegdays,\n\nFm\n5\n\n"}
{"page": 1053, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nRELATION\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nLIBRARY\n\nTO ART EDUCATION\n\n1043\n\nwhen men seek so eagerly, often so unsuccessfully, for happiness, all that\nwe can do should be done to open the eyesof men to the wealth of beauty\nand of joy that may be theirs merely by turning cultivated eyes upon it.\nTherefore, I affirm that the larger part of all art instruction should have\nfor its object the cultivation of taste for what the world has found to be\nbeautiful, not for the purpose of imitative reproduction with pencil and\nbrush\n— few will ever attain to skill in the use of these— but that the\nattempt at expression of form and color may give greater knowledge of\nthe laws of beauty, that the zsthetic revelation of the universe to the\nsense of sight may be clearer, and that the pure joy of such revelation\nmay vastly increase the happiness of men.\n\n"}
{"page": 1054, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 1055, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIST OF LIFE AND\nARRANGED\n\nBY\n\nSTATES,\n\nCLASSES,\n\nACTIVE\n\nAND\n\nREVISED\n\nYEARS\n\nTO DECEMBER\n\nOF\n\nMEMBERS.\n\nCONTINUOUS\n\nMEMBERSHIP.\n\n1, 1897.\n\nIn preparing this list, the Secretary has found the records of annual membership\nvery imperfect, especially in the earlier years.\nEvery effort has been made, with the\nassistance of the members, to correct all errors.\nIt is too much to hope that this has been\nfully accomplished.\nFurther corrections will be made as errors are discovered.\nAll\nwhose names appear in the following list are invited to send to the Secretary, at once,\ncorrections of errors and omissions.\nMany early members of the association who have contributed largely to its growth\nand success are enrolled under recent dates because their membership has not been continuous, and no plan for indicating irregular memberships -has been adopted.\nMany\nothers have paid the dues for omitted years, received the volumes of proceedings, and\nobtained credit from the earliest years of their attendance.\nThis privilege is still extended\nto all who wish to avail themselves of it.\nAll active members are urged to co-operate with the Executive Committee in extending this list until it includes the leading educators of every state, to the end that the\nassociation may receive their active support, and may in turn render most efficient service\nthrough its meetings, its organized plans for educational investigation, and its published\nreports.\n\nThe annual active membership fee will be due at the time of annual meeting, and\nmay be paid by a railroad membership coupon delivered to the Treasurer, by cash payment to the Treasurer during the annual meeting, or by cash remittance to the Secretary\nbefore September I of each year.\nThe marginal years indicate the date of the commencement of continuous annual\nmembership for those whose names immediately follow. The indented years indicate\ndate of appointment to present educational position. The names of deceased members\nare indicated by a *.\nExtra copies of this list may be obtained by remitting thirty cents to the Secretary, Irwin\n\nShepard,\n\nWinona, Minn.\nALABAMA,\nACTIVE\n\n1882,\n1888.\n\n1892.\n1894.\n\n895.\nee\n\nMEMBERS,\n\nJuLia S, TuTwiLer.\n;\nuh\nPrincipal Alabama Normal College for Girls, Livingston.\nJ. H. Puitries, A.M., Marietta Coll., O.; Ph.D., Southern Univ., Ala.\n1883. Superintendent of Schools, Park Ave. and arst St., Birmingham.\nes\n:\nF.M, Roor.\n1887. Principal of Public Schools, 513, roth St., Birmingham.\nLucien V. La Taste.\n;\n]\nes\nAgent University Publishing Company, Box 558, Montgomery,\noun Massey, A.M., ’74, LL.D., ’79, Univ. of Ala.\n4\n1876. Present ‘Alabama Conference Female College, Tuskegee.\nTyas\nMary A. CAHALAN.\n1884. Principal of the Powell School, 2311, 4th Ave., Birmingham.\nA Po\n. B. CUNNINGHAM.\n1886. Principal of Paul Hayne School, 600 S. 27th St., Birmingham,\nJ\n;\noun T. Grecory, ’89, C.E., Alabama Polytechnic Inst.\n1894. \"Principal Grammar School, 996 Government St., Mobile.\nJ\n\n1045\n\n"}
{"page": 1056, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n1046\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n~\n\nALABAMA—Contznued.\n1895.\n\nRosert\n\nA. MIcKLE, A.B., ’86, Davidson Coll., N. Car.\n\n;\n\nPrincipal Jefferson St, Grammar School, Mobile,\n\nf\nz\nGrammar Department, Public Schools, 110 N. Conception St., Mobile.\n*SoLOMON PALMER, Ph.D., ’92, State Nor. Coll. of Ala.\nPresident of Atheneum College for Girls, East Lake.\nJames K. Powers, A.M.,’73, LL.D., ’97, Univ. of Ala. |\n:\n1897. President University of Alabama, University.\nCHARLES BEN VAN Wie, Ph.M., Ph.D., ’94, Ill. Wesleyan Univ.\n1888. Department of Pedagogy, State Normal College, Florence.\n;\noun D. Yersy, A.B., ’79, Southern Univ.\n1894. Superintendent of Schools, 996 Government St., Mobile.\n,\nKate\n\n1897.\n\nE. Moon.\n\nA.C. Moors, A.B., ’87, S. Car. Coll.\n;\nPrincipal of High School, Birmingham.\n\nARIZONA.\nACTIVE MEMBERS,\n1895.\n\nLypra L, Hunt.\n:\n1894. Superintendent U.S. Indian Boarding School, San Carlos.\nJames McNaucuton, A.B., ’62, A.M., 65, Ph.D., ’87, Allegheny Coll.\n1895. Principal Territorial Normal School, Tempe.\n\nARKANSAS,\nACTIVE MEMBERS,\n1887,\n1890,\n\n1895.\n\n1896,\n\nTuomas A, FuTRALt, A.M.,.Univ. of Tenn,\nSuperintendent of Schools, Marianna.\nJosrau H. Sunn, A.B., A.M., ’70, Northwestern Univ,\nEditor ‘Southern School Journal,’’ 2121 Cumberland St., Little Rock.\nGrorcE B, Cook.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Hot Springs,\nAxsBiE W, DRAUGHON.\nTeacher in 4th and sth Grades, Central School, 392 Grand Ave., Hot Springs.\nJ. L. Hottoway, A.M., Missouri State Normal.\n1889. Superintendent of Schools, r2th and K Sts., Fort Smith,\nMay Monnier,\n1892. Grammar Dept., Jefferson School, cor, Perry and College Sts,, Helena,\nW. W. Rivers, A.B., ’86, A.M., 89, Univ. of Miss,\n\n1894. Superintendent of City Schools, Helena,\nJ. H. Hinemon, ‘A.M., ’93, Arkadelphia Coll.\n;\n1895. Superintendent of Schools, 1220 Olive St., Pine Bluff.\n\nEpwin F, Horne.\n\n1897.\n\n~\n\n1893. Principal ezst St. School, 912 W. 14th St., Little Rock.\nA. L, PEAcHER, A.M., Wooster Univ., O.\n1895. Superintendent of Schools, Van Buren,\nHENDRIX COLLEGE,\n\nA. C, Millar, President, Conway.\n\nFs\n\nCALIFORNIA,\nLIFE DIRECTORS.\n1881.\n\nAnpDREw J. Ricxorr, A.M., LL.D., Univ. Ohio.\n\n1888,\n\n2429 Bancroft Way, Berkeley.\nLeRoy D. Brown, A.B., ’79, A.M., ’82, Ohio Wesleyan Univ,; Ph.D., ’83, Baker Univ.\n\nSan Luis Obispo,\n\nLIFE MEMBERS,\n1870.\n1877.\n\n1879.\n1880,\n\n1884.\n\n1886,\n1888,\n1889.\n\nR. M. Maney,\n\n635 Grant Ave., San Diego.\nAnna KALFusS DE JARNETTE,\nPublisher, San José.\nJames H, Hoosz, A.M., ’64, Ph.D,, ’73, Syracuse Univ.\n255 S. Euclid Ave., Pasadena,\nMrs. Repecca D. Rickorr.\n2429 Bancroft Way, Berkeley.\nNatuan C, Twininc, A.M., ’61, Milton Coll., Wis.\n1895. Principal of Victoria School, 1224 Walnut St., Riverside.\n\nC. Y. Roop,\n\n1893. Superintendent of Schools and Principal of High School, Santa Barbara.\nResecca F, ENGLIsH.\n1891. Critic Teacher, State Normal School, 141 S. roth St., San José.\nAucusta W. Hose.\n1888, Teacher in Grammar Grade, 1633 Hyde St., San Francisco,\n\n"}
{"page": 1057, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIFE\n\nAND\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n1047\n\nCALIFORNIA—Continued.\n1887.\n1890,\n189x.\n\nACTIVE MEMBERS,\nEpwarp T. Prerce, LL.B., ’77, Union Univ.; Ped.D., ’94, N. Y. Nor. Coll.\n\n1892. President State Normal School, Los Angeles.\nMrs. Leontine T, NEwcoms.\n1310 Larkin St., San Francisco.\nEar Barnes, M.S., ’90, Cornell Univ,\n2\nDepartment of Education, Leland Stanford Jr. University, Stanford University.\n\nEvMeEr E. Brown, Ph.D., ’90, Halle.\n1893.\n\n1893.\n1894.\n1895.\n\nProf. of\n\nScience and Art of Teaching, Univ. of Cal., 2341 Channing Way, Berkeley.\n\nJames A, Fosnay.\n:\n1895. Superintendent of Schools, 2341 Scarff St., Los Angeles.\nCuartes C, Van Liew, Ph.D., ’93, Jena.\nState Normal School, Los Angeles.\nLewis B. Avery, B.S., ’83, Tabor Coll., Ia.\n1895. Principal Union High School, Redlands,\nWALTER J. BaILey.\n1895. County Superintendent of Schools, 1067 Front St., San Diego.\nSAMUEL T. BLACK.\nState Superintendent Public Instruction, Sacramento.\nTuro. B. Coms7ock, B.Ag., 68, Pa, State Coll.; B.S., ’70, D.S., ’86, Cornell Univ.\nEx President University of Arizona, Los Angeles.\nMELvILLe Dozier, Ph.B., ’67, Furman Univ., S.C.\n1895. Vice-Principal State Normal School, 829 W. 11th St., Los Angeles.\nAtte M, Fevker, Grad., ’84, State Nor. Sch., San José.\n1892. Critic Teacher, State Normal] School, 468 S. 6th St., San José,\nCHARLES Epwarp Hutton, A.B., ’53, A.M., ’61, St. John’s Coll., Md,\n1890, Instructor in State Normal School, 1007 W. 21st St., Los Angeles.\n\nTuos, J. Kirk,\nCounty Superintendent, Fresno County, 1637 N. J St., Fresno.\nJosEery Le Conte, A.B., ’41, A.M., 745, LL.D., ’79, Univ. of Ga.; LL.D., ’96, Princeton;\n\nM.D., 45,\n\nColl. of Phys. & Surg., N. Y.; B.S., ’51, Harvard Univ.\n1868. Professor Geology and Nat. Hist., Univ. of Cal., 2739 Bancroft Way, Berkeley.\nJ. B. Montux, A.M., ’81, Iowa State Univ.\n1896. Principal 28th St. School, 217 E. 24th St., Los Angeles.\nUNIvERSITY OF CALIFORNIA,\nPres., Martin Kellogg, LL.D., Bushness Place; Secretary of Board of Regents, E.\nW. Davis, B.L., Berkeley.\n1896.\n\n1897.\n\nE, Morris Cox, A.B., Haverford Coll., Pa.\n1897. Principal of Public Schools, Box 16, Santa Rosa.\nMrs, C, L, PLACE.\n“4\n1897. Principal Training Department, State Normal School, 129 E, Julian St,, San José.\nHarriet E, Dunn.\neat\n1884.\n\nTeacher of History and Civics in State Normal School, Los Angeles.\n\nFree Pusric Liprary,\n:\n;\nGeorge A, Mullin, Secretary, San Francisco,\n\nFERNANDO SANFORD.\n\né\n3\nies\nae\n1891. Professor of Physics, Leland Stanford University, Stanford University.\nState Norma ScHooL,\n;\nDr. Edward T. Pierce, President, Los Angeles,\nCOLORADO.\nLIFE DIRECTOR.\n1888,\n\nAARON Gove.\n\n1886,\n\nLIFE MEMBER.\nFRANK Howarp CLarK.\nSuperintendent of City Schools, 409 Petroleum Ave., Florence.\n\n1874.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, High School, Denver.\n\nACTIVE MEMBERS.\n1884.\n\n1887.\n\n1890.\n\n1892,\n\names H. Baker, A.B., ’73, A.M., ’75, LL.D., ’92, Bates Coll.\nJ\n1892. ; President University of Colorado, Boulder.\nRosert H. Bzccs, B.S., ’68, Illinois Coll.\n1880, Principal Grammar School, 2427 Ogden St., Denver.\n‘\nCuartes V. ParKER, B.S., ’97, Denver Univ.\nr8qr. Superintendent of City Schools, Fort Collins.\nPa.\nColl.,\nWaynesburg\n’84,\nPh.D.,\n’76,\nZ. X. Snyper, A.B.,\n1891. Pedant State Normal School, Greeley.\nWarren E. Knapp.\n1884. Principal of Franklin School, 507 South Tremont St., Denver.\na\n_C. GREENLEE, Grad. State Nor. Sch., Edinboro, Pa.; A.M., ’95, Waynesburg Coll., Pa.\n1890. Superintendent of Schools, Dist. No. 2, 549 5. Tremont St., Denver,\nes\n\n"}
{"page": 1058, "printed_page": null, "text": "1048\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nCOLORADO—Continued.\n1892.\n\n1893.\n\n1894.\n\n1895.\n\nWo. H. Smitey, A.B.,’77, Harvard Univ. |\n.\n1892. Principal High School, Dist. No. 1, 2112 Lincoln Ave., Denver.\nAMES H. VAN SICKLE, A.B.,’96, Univ. of Colo.\n:\nr8or. Superintendent of Schools, North Side, 3247 Bryant St., Denver.\n:\nHewrieEtra B. AyrES.\nce\n1882. Teacher in Gilpin School, Denver.\nCuares A. BRADLEY, Grad., ’77, U. S. Military Acad.\n,\n1894. Principal Manual Training High School, 27th and Franklin Sts., Denver.\nJosEpuine Ditton, Grad., ’92, State Nor. Sch., Oswego, N. Y.\n1897. Teacher in Whittier School, 1738 Pearl St., Denver.\nEpGAR Rotun Downs, A.B.,’76., A.M., ’8z, Williams Coll.\n. 1894. Principal North Side High School, 12, r7th Ave., Denver.\nS. ARTHUR Jounson, B.S., ’91, M.S., ’95, Rutgers Coll.\n.\n~0@\nfey Instructor in Mathematics and History, High School, District No. 2, 315 S. r2th St.,\nDenver.\nH. M. Barrett, A.B., ’90, A.M., ’93, Allegheny Coll.\nTeacher Latin and English, High School, 223, 20th Ave., Denver; Editor ‘‘Colorado\nSchool Journal.”\nA. E. BearpsLey, B.S., ’78, Cornell Univ.\n1892. Professor of Biology State Normal School, 1412, roth St,, Greeley.\nHELEN Mar Brown.\n1894. Principal Sheridan School, 1541 Race St., Denver.\n\n~\n\nGerorceE L. Cannon, JR.\n’\n1887. Instructor in Geology and Biology, High School, District No. 1, Denver.\nWitutaM V. Casey.\n,\n1893. Superintendent of Schools, 820 Pine St., Boulder.\nCuas. Ernest CuapsEy, A.B., ’92, A.M., 793, Stanford; A.M., ’94, Columbia,\nPrincipal of High School, 1328, 3d Ave., Durango.\nFrep Dick, A.M., Hamilton Coll., N. Y.\nPrincipal Normal and Preparatory School, Kittredge Block, Denver.\nJoun Drerricu.\n:\n1893. Superintendent of City Schools, 1407 N. Nevada Ave., Colorado Springs.\nE. Waite Exper, A.B., ’91, A.M., ’94, Princeton.\nScience Master, State Preparatory School, 803 Spruce St., Boulder.\nJoun B. Garvin, B.S., ’86, Univ. of Illinois.\n\n1890.\n\nJoun A. Hancock,\n\nInstructor in Chemistry, High School, Dist. No. 1, 2536 W. 34th St., Denver.\nM.L., ’90, Univ. of Wis.; A.M., ’93, Stanford Univ.\n\n1897. Assistant Professor of Psychology, Univ. of Colorado, Boulder.\nEp. F, HERMANNS.\n1891. Principal of High School, District No. 2, 400 Broadway, Denver.\nMrs. F. R. Houcuan.\nPrincipal of Gilpin School, Denver.\nJosrru P. JAcxson, LL.B., ’79, lowa Univ. ;A.M., ’80, Oskaloosa Coll.\n1894. Superintendent of Schools, Box 743, Leadville.\nNora JONES,\nElizabeth, Elbert Co.\nJoun F. Keatine, A.B., ’92, Ohio Wesleyan Univ.\n1896, Superintendent of Public Schools, Dist. No. 20, rr02 Lake Ave., Pueblo.\nCuas, J. Line, B.S., ’90, Cornell Univ.\nInstructor in Physics, Denver Manual Training High School, Box 17, University Park.\nCrara L. Lirttez.\nTeacher in Public Schools, 1625 Downing Ave., Denver.\nJ. S. McCiune.\n1879. Superintendent of Schools, District No. 1, 423, 11th St., Pueblo.\nMiss A. N. Mitter.\n1887. Principal Garfield School, 1037 S. oth St., Denver.\nDora M. Moore.\n;\n1893. Principal Corona School, 1031 Emerson St,, Denver.\nC, M, OsensauGu.\n1891.» Principal Swansea School, 250 S. Clarkson St., Denver.\nCHARLES SKEELE Parmer, A.B.,’79, A.M., ’82, Amherst; Ph.D., ’86, Johns Hopkins,\n1887. Professor of Chemistry, University of Colorado, Box 643, Boulder.\nSrpney Futter Situ.\nInstructor in Physics, High School, District No, 1, 1470 Steele St., Denver.\nE. R, Snyper, B.Ped., ’95, Col. Nor. Sch.\n1897. Principal of Public Schools, New Windsor,\nJessie Wine.\n1897. Teacher in Primary Department, rs Block St., S., Pueblo.\nW, J. Wiss, B.S., 84, A.M., ’88,\n1893. Superintendent of Schools, 1864 South Washington St., South Denver.\nJ. S. Youne, A.B., ’90, A.M., ’94, Kan. Nor. Coll.\n:\nProfessor of United States History and Grammar, State Normal School, Greeley.\n\na\n\n"}
{"page": 1059, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIFE\n\nAND\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n1049\n\nCOLORADO— Continued.\n1896.\n\n1897.\n\nO. J. BLAKESLEY, B.S.\n\n1896. Superintendent of Schools, La Junta, Colo.\nIpa Brock Hasvup, Ph.B., Ill. Wes. Univ.\n1892. Principal of High School, 21x Broadway, Pueblo,\nMrs, Z. X. SNYDER.\nGreeley.\nMayne B. Crownover,\nPrimary Teacher, Whittier Building, r44r Penn Ave., Denver.\nIzora Scorr,\nAssistant in High School, Pueblo.\nState Norma ScHoot.\n\nJoseph F, Daniels, Librarian, Greeley.\nCONNECTICUT.\nLIFE DIRECTOR.\n1884.\n\nBiIRDSEY GRANT NORTHRUP, LL.D., ’72, Williams Coll.\nEx-State Superintendent of Schools and Lecturer on Village Improvements, etc.,\nClinton.\n\n1884.\n\nHenry BarnarD, LL.D., ‘52, Yale, Harvard, and Union;\n\nLIFE MEMBER,\nL.H.D., ’87, Columbia.\n\nEx-U. S. Commissioner of Education 1866-70, 28 Main St., Hartford.\n\nACTIVE MEMBERS.\n\n1888,\n\n1889.\n1892,\n\nGerorcGE B. Hurp.\n1885. Principal Winchester School District, 59 Lake Place, New Haven.\nCas. W. DEANE, A.M., ’86, Ph.D., ’92, Allegheny Coll.\n1893. Superintendent of Schools, 429 State St., Bridgeport.\nDavin N. Camp, A.M., ’53, Yale.\n1854. —\nSupt. of Schools, Manager of New Britain Library, 9 Camp\n\nSt., New\n\nTitain.\n\n1893.\n\n1894.\n\n1895.\n\n1896.\n\n1897.\n\nRACHEL KING.\n1894.\n\ni\njae Training Class and Supervisor of Free Kindergartens, 38 Howe St., New\naven.\nFREDERICK A. CuRTISS.\n1892. Principal High School, Old Saybrook.\nNatTHAN L. BisHop.\n1877. Superintendent of Schools, Central District, 7 Huntington Pl., Norwich.\nC. N. KENDALL.\n1895. Superintendent of Schools, New Haven.\nMyron Tracy ScuppEr, A.B., ’82, A.M., ’86, Rutgers Coll.\nHillhouse High School, New Haven.\nE. Herman ARNOLD, M.D., ’94, Yale.\nDirector Anderson Normal School of Gymnastics, 15 Wall St., New Haven.\nGeo. W. GAMBLE.\n1895. Superintendent of Schools, New Canaan,\nJoseru A, Graves, Ph.D., Yale.\n188z. Principal South School, 28 Charter Oak Place, Hartford.\nF. E, Howarp.\n:\n1890. Supervisor of Music, 85 Congress St., Bridgeport.\nEmma G, OLMSTEAD.\n:\ni\nPrincipal of Training School, Bridgeport.\nTHEODORE NEUMANN, Ph.D.\n;\n;\nés\n1894.\n\nProfessor of Natural Science, Hotchkiss School, Lakeville.\n\nDELAWARE,\nACTIVE MEMBERS.\n1891.\n1892.\n\nane\n;\nEpwina B. Kruse.\n1876, Principal High and Grammar School No, 16, rath and Orange Sts., Wilmington,\nColl.\nArpert N. Raus, A.M.,’67, Princeton; Ph.D., ’79, Lafayette; LL.D., ’95, Ursinus\n\n1894.\n\n1888. President Delaware College, Newark.\nob\nIsaac T, Jounson, A.B., ’8z, A.M., ’86, Haverford Coll,, Bay\n1881. Principal Friends’ School, 4th and West Sts., Wilmington.\n\n1896.\n\nA, H. Berwin, A.M., ’88, Hamilton Coll.\n> ie\n1888. Principal High School, 817 Adams St., Wilmington.\n\nDISTRICT OF COLUMBIA.\nLIFE DIRECTORS,\n1864,\n\n1876,\n\nZALMON RicHarps, A.B., ’36, A.M., 739.\n\n1301 Corcoran St., Washington.\n’94, Univ. of Pa., ’95, Yale;\nWituram Torrey Harris, A.M., 69, Yale; LL.D. ’70, Univ. of Mo.,\n,\n\nPh.D.,\n\nBrown Univ.\n’93,\n‘ 1880. United States Commissioner of Education, Washington.\n\n"}
{"page": 1060, "printed_page": null, "text": "1050\n\nNATIONAL\n\n1880,\n\nJ. Ormonp Witson, A.M., ’74, Dartmouth Coll.\n\n1880.\n\nJoun Hitz.\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nDISTRICT\n\n1892,\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nOF COLUMBIA—Continued,\n\nSecretary American Colonization Society, Custodian National Educational Association, 450 Pennsylvania Ave., N, W., Washington.\nLIFE MEMBERS.\n\n1884.\n\n1889.\n\n1887. Superintendent of Volta Bureau, cor, 35th and Q Sts., Washington.\nALEX. GRAHAM BELL,\n:\n:\n1331 Connecticut Ave., Washington.\nRt. Rev, Joun J. Keane, D.D., Laval; LL.D., Harvard. —\n‘\n1886, Late Rector Catholic University of America, Washington.\nACTIVE\n\n1879.\n1892,\n\nMEMBERS,\n\nW. N. Hammann, A.M., ’64, Univ. of Louisville; Ph.D., ’85, Ohio State Univ.\n:\n1894. National Superintendent of Indian Schools, 930 F St., N. W., Washington,\nWo. BRAMWELL PowELL, A.M., 67, Lombard Univ.\n;\n1885, Superintendent of Schools, Franklin School, Washington,\nMrs, Sara A, SPENCER,\n\n1893.\n1894.\n1895.\n\n1896,\n\n1897,\n\n1891. President of Spencerian Business College, 7th and D Sts,, Washington.\nJoun Eaton, Ph.D., Rutgers Coll.; LL.D., Dartmouth Coll.\nEx-U. S. Commissioner of Education, The Concord, Washington.\nSusan PLESSNER Po.tock, Grad. of Kg. Nor. Inst., Berlin.\nPrincipal Froebel Normal Institute and Kindergarten, 1426 Q St.,N.W., Washington.\nALLAN Davis, B.S., ’90, Columbian Univ. ;LL.M., Nat. Law School, Washington.\n.\n\n1890. Principal Business High School, First St., between B and C Sts,, N.W,, Washington\nAnnA TOLMAN SMITH. |\n‘\n:\nSpecialist, Bureau of Education, Washington.\nCarRIE E, SYPHAX.\n1887. Teacher in Public Schools, 1447 Pierce Place, Washington.\nB. L, Wuitman, A.B., 787, A.M., ’90, Brown Univ.; D.D., ’94, Bowdoin Coll,\n1895. President of Columbian University, Washington.\nPownatan W. Rosertson, M.Accts,, ’81, Eastman Nat. Bus, Coll.\n1893. Washington Business High School; 1894, Columbian University, 1753 Madison\nAve., N. W., Washington.\nPaut A, STEELE,\n1895. Teacher in Washington Business High School,\n1st St., between B and C Sts.,N. W.\nWashington.\nREBECCA STONEROAD, Graduate Oswego Normal School.\n1889. Director of Physical Training, Public Schools, roth and H Sts., Washington,\nCourt F, Woop, LL.B., ’85, LL.M., 786, Columbian Univ.\nPrincipal of Wood’s Commercial College, 311 E. Capitol St., Washington,\nFLORIDA.\nACTIVE\n\n1893.\n1894.\n1895.\n\nMEMBERS.\n\nWo. N. Sueats, A.B.,’73, A.M., ’76, Emory College, Ga.\n1892. State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Tallahassee.\nMrs. W. SCHLEPPEGRELL-KEPPLER,\nPrincipal of Froebel Academy, 315 Laura St., Jacksonville,\nO, Ciutz, LL.D., Agri. Coll., Mich.\n1893, President of State Agricultural College, Lake City.\nJ. L. Hottincswortn, A.B., ’88, Emory Coll., Oxford, Ga.\nCounty Superintendent of Public Instruction, Bartow.\n\nGEORGIA.\n1890.\n\nW. H. Baker.\n1868.\n\nLIFE MEMBER,\nSuperintendent of Schools, Chatham Academy, Savannah.\n\nACTIVE MEMBERS.\n1887,\n\n1894.\n\n1895.\n\nEver\n\nB. Situ, A.M., ’82, Emory\nColl., Oxford, Ga.\n1895. Department of English, State Normal School, Athens.\nOtis AsHmore, A.M., Univ. of Ga.\n1896. Superintendent of Schools, Savannah.\nG.G, Bonn, A.M.,’95, Univ. of Ga,\nSuperintendent of City Schools, Dearing St., Athens.\nLawton B. Evans, A.M., Univ. of Ga.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Richmond County, 415 McIntosh St., Augusta,\nWituiaM M, SraTon, A.M., ’or, Univ. of Ga,\n1892. Principal Boys’ High School, 142 Jackson St., Atlanta.\nATLANTA UNIVERSITY.\nPresident, Rev, Horace Brumstead; Dean, Rev. M. W. Adams, Atlanta,\nG, R. Gienn.\n\nState School Commissioner, Capitol, Atlanta.\n\n|\n\n"}
{"page": 1061, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIFE\n\nAND\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\nIO$1\n\nGEORGIA — Continued.\n1895.\n\n1896,\n\nJosErH S, Stewart, A.B,, ’83, Emory Coll.; A.M., ’97, Univ. of Ga,\n1897. President North Georgia Agricultural College, Dahlonega.\nUNIVERSITY OF GEORGIA.\nChancellor, Dr, Wm. E, Boggs; Secretary, W. D. Hooper, Athens.\nTuomas E, WI1tiAMs.\n1892, County School Commissioner, Berrien County, Sparks.\nD. Q. Asporr, A.M., ’78, Emory Coll., Ga.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 654 Mulberry St., Macon.\nE, E, Situ, A.B., B.S,\nGeneral Southern Agent, D. C, Heath & Co., 304 Kiser Building, Atlanta.\n\nN. E, Ware,\n1891, Superintendent of Public Schools, Hawkinsville.\nJ. H. Wircuarp,\n1896. County School Commissioner, Terrell County, Dawson,\nNaTuan B, Younc, A.B., ’88, A.M., ’9r, Oberlin Coll.\n1897. Department of Pedagogy, Georgia State Industrial College, College, Chatham Co,\n1897.\n\nW. F. Staton, A.M., Emory Coll. and Univ. of Ga.\n\n1879. Superintendent of Public Schools, 336 Courtland St., Atlante:\nJessie May SNYDER.\n1896. Primary Supervisor of City Schools, 1133 Second Ave., Columbus,\n\nIDAHO.\n:\n1886,\n1888,\n1893.\n\nACTIVE MEMBERS,\n\nF, B, Gautt, M.S., ’80, Cornell Coll., Ia.\n1892, President University of Idaho, Moscow.\nJames C, Brack, Ped.M., ’94, Ped.D., ’95, School of Pedagogy, Univ. of City of New York,\n1897. President State Normal School, Albion.\nJ. J. ALLISON.\n1896. Superintendent of Schools, Boise City.\n\nILLINOIS.\nLIFE\n\n1884.\n1887.\n\n1890.\n\nDIRECTORS,\n\nALBERT G, LANE.\n1891. Superintendent of Schools, 430 W. Adams St., Chicago.\nCiara Conway, A.M., ’88, Peabody Nor. Coll,\nFounder and Organizer of Clara Conway Institute, Memphis, Tenn, ; University of\nChicago, Chicago.\nNEWTON CHARLES DouGuHeERtTy, A.M., Ph.D.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Peoria.\n;\nCuar es I. PaRKER.\nPrincipal South Chicago High School, 893, 71st Place, Chicago.\nStrate TEaAcHERS’ AssociATION OF ILLINOIS,\n:\nPres., J. W. Hays, Urbana; Sec’y, Joel M. Bowlby, Metropolis.\n\n18or.\n\nJosuua Pixs, A.M., ’65, University of Chicago.\n1874. Superintendent of City Schools, Jerseyville.\n\n1870.\n\nIra WILDER ALLEN, A.B., ’50, Hamilton Coll., N. Y.; A.M.,’52,\nAlbany Law School; LL.D., ’74, Union Christian Coll., Ind.\n612 W. 6oth Place, Station O, Chicago,\nAvex. Forses, A.M.\n315-321 Wabash Ave., Chicago.\n\nLIFE MEMBERS.\n\n1876\n1880.\n1882.\n\n1884.\n\nColl., O.; LL.B., ’63\n\nGzo. P. Brown.\n\n:\nEditor ‘* Public School Journal,’”’ Bloomington.\nHarriet N. Morris, A.M., ’86, Nat. Normal Univ.\nUpper Alton.\nAucustus J. CHENEY, B.S., ’57,\nDartmouth Coll.\n\"Agent G. & C. Merriam Co., 316 N. Grove Ave., Oak Park.\nWestern\nJ\nEmmy A. Haywarn, A.B., ’74, A.M., ’78, Antioch Coll., O. |\n2470 Washington Ave., Sub-Station 35, Chicago.\nEpwin C. Hewett,\n‘\n‘Associate Editor “‘ Public School Journal,” Box 42, Normal.\nHenry Raas, LL.D.\nE\n225 S. Jackson St., Belleville.\nACTIVE\n\n1880.\n\nAntioch\n\nMEMBERS.\n\n5\nF\nFrancis W, Parker, A.M., Dartmouth Coll.\n1883. Principal Chicago Normal School, 6640 Honore St., Station O, Chicago,\n\n1884.\n\nALBERT R, SaBIN.\nPark, Chicago.\n1887, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, 2509 Vernon Ave,, Irving\n\n1886.\n\nL, M, Dittman,\n\nAssistant Manager American Book Co., 521 Wabash Ave,, Chicago.\n\n.\n\n"}
{"page": 1062, "printed_page": null, "text": "Fe\n\nNATIONAL\n\n1052\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nILLINOIS — Continued.\n1886,\n\nF\ny\nS, GEER.\n1886 Official Stenographer Nat, Educa, Assn,, roo Washington St., Chicago.\nrae\nWixuiaM Jenkins, A.M., ’86, Hamilton Coll.\n6031 Vernon Ave., Chicago.\nA. F, Nicutincate, A.B., 66, A.M., ’69, Wesleyan Univ., Conn.; Ph.D., ’or, Upper lowa Univ.\n1892. Superintendent of High Schools, 2175 Sheridan Road, Station X, Chicago.\n\n1887,\n\nJoun C, ELLis,\n\n1888,\n\nTuomas Cuar.eEs, A.M., Antioch Coll., O.\n\n’\n:\nEducational Publisher, 211 Wabash Ave., Chicago.\n\n1889.\n\nO. F. BARBOUR.\n1866. Principal of Kent School, 512 N. Court St., Rockford.\nREED SAVAGE.\n;\n1895. _ Principal Graded School, Box 106, Paris.\n\n.\n\n,\n\nDealer in Kindergarten and other Educational Materials, 211-213 Wabash\nChicago.\nAnprew S. Draper, LL.B., ’71, Union Univ, ; LL.D., ’89, Colgate Univ.\n1894. President University of Illinois, Urbana,\n:\n\nAve.\n\nRoserr G. Younc, B.S., ’74, Ph.B., ’88.\n1896.\n\n18go,\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, Rock Island.\n\nJoun E. BraDiey, Ph.D., ’79, Univ. of N. Y.; LL.D., ’93, Williams Coll,\n|\n1892. President Illinois College, r202 W. College Ave., Jacksonville.\n\nJoun W. Coox, A.M., Knox Coll.; LL.D., Blackburn Univ.\n1890. President Illinois State Normal School, Normal,\n°\nCuarces A, McMurry, Ph.D., Halle.\n:\n:\n,\n1896. Extension Lecturer, University of Chicago, 6439 Greenwood Ave., Chicago.\nWirtram\n1891.\n\nLucas\n\n1885.\nF, J. ALBrEcHT,\n\nSTEELE,\n\nA.M., ’80, Monmouth\n\nColl., Ill.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, 462 N. Cherry St., Galesburg.\nMember of Nat. Geographical Soc.\n'\n\nEducational Publisher, 175, 5th Ave., Chicago.\nF, Fisx, A.B., ’60, A.M., 63, D.D., ’88, Wesleyan Univ., Conn.\n1888, Prin. Academy and Prof, of Ped.,*Northwestern Univ., 1625 Judson Ave,, Evanston,\nDana W, Hatt, A.M., ’93, Colby Univ., Me.\n1894. High School and College Department, Ginn & Co,, 378 Wabash Ave., Chicago,\nM, A, Wuitney, A.B., ’90, A.M., ’93, Colby Univ.\n1896. Superintendent of Schools, 227 Hill Ave., Elgin.\nC, M. BaRDWELL,\nSuperintendent of East Side Schools, 59 S. Lincoln Ave., Aurora.\n\nHerbert\n\n1892.\n\nApert\n\nW, Crancy, Grad. National Normal School.\nEducational Publisher, 531 Wabash Ave,, cor, Langley Ave, and 39th St., Chicago\nE, Gretremy,\n1895. Assistant High School, 246 N. Academy St., Galesburg.\n\nMrs, Mary\n\n1893.\n\nP, R, WALKER,\n1884. Superintendent of Schools, 716 N. Church St., Rockford.\nO, T. Bricut.\nCounty Superintendent of Schools, 907 The Temple, Chicago.\nGro. W. Brown.\n\nPresident Brown’s Business College, Jacksonville.\n\nf\n\nARCHIBALD O, CoppincTon, M.L., ’83, Univ. of Ill.\nPrincipal Knickerbocker School, 1190 Sheffield Ave., Chicago.\nMrs. J, N. Crousg.\n1890, Director Kindergarten College, 2231 Prairie Ave., Chicago.\nLincoin P, GoopuuE.\n\nbf\n\nWitiiAM O. Kron, A.B., Western Coll., Ph.D., Yale,\n1897. Psychologist Eastern Illinois Hospital for the Insane, Hospital.\nFRED R, NicHots.\n\n.\n\nPrincipal Wentworth School, 7029 Yale Ave., Chicago.\n\n_ 189r.\n\n’\n\nInstr. in Physics, Eng. High and Man. Train, Sch,, 126 S. Jefferson St., Chicago.\n\nMrs, Arice H, Purnam.\n\n1881, Superintendent Froebel Association, 4815 Kenwood Ave., Chicago.\nLucy S. Sirkg.\n1890, Assistant Special Teacher in Drawing, Public Schools, 3307 Rhodes Ave,, Chicago .\nALICE E, Soruitr.\n1890. Principal Kenwood School, 4020 Prairie Ave., Chicago.\n“Cuartes H. Tuurser, Ph,B., ’86, Cornell; A.M., ’90, Haverford Coll.\n1895. Dean Morgan Park Academy, Morgan Park.\nVotney UNDERHILL, Ph.B., ’7r. LL.B., ’75, Univ. of Wis.\n1875. Principal Carpenter School, 296 S. Paulina St,, Chicago.\n1894. Ira T. Eaton,\nPublisher, Eaton & Co., The Temple, 184 LaSalle St., Chicago.\nArtuur C. Fresuman, B.S., 784, M.S., 92, Nat. Nor. Univ., O.\nStudent in Philosophy, University of Chicago, 5700 Jackson Ave., Chicago.\n\np\n\n‘\n\n;\n\n"}
{"page": 1063, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIFE\n\nAND\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n1053\n\nILLINOIS — Continued.\n\n1894, *JosEPH C. JoNnEs,\nWerner School Book Co., Editor, 489 E. 42d St., Chicago.\nMrs. A. G. Lane.\n430 W. Adams St., Chicago,\nH. M. Stauson, Ph.B., ’77, Univ. of Mich.\n1892. Superintendent of Schools, 1840, 6th Ave., Moline.\nL. D. Voss.\nAgent for D, C, Heath & Co,, 355 Wabash Ave., Chicago.\n\n1895.\n\nJ. N. ApEE, Ph.B., *9t, Northwestern Univ., Evanston.\n1896, Principal of Public Schools, Summit,\nB. D. Berry,\nAgent for Silver, Burdette & Co., 262-264 Wabash Ave., Chicago.\nJuiia E. Burkey,\n\nPh.D., Zurich.\n\n1892. Associate Professor of Pedagogy, University of Chicago, Chicago.\nJames C, Burns,\n1888, Superintendent of Schools, 1064 E, Boston Ave., Monmouth.\nS, Liti1an ByinctTon,\n1894. Director of Music, Public Schools, 1723, 6th Ave., Moline.\nF. L, Catxins, Grad. Northern Ind. Nor. Sch.\n1894. Superintendent of Schools, Delavan.\n\nW. H. CAmpBELL.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Joliet.\n\nJ. H. Cottins,\nSuperintendent of Schools, 715 S, 7th St., Springfield.\n\nMrs, Jutia H. Coiiins.\n715 S. 7th St., Springfield.\nHenry C, Cox, A.M., ’73, Abingdon Coll.\n1884. Principal Froebel Grammar School, 850 W. 21st St., Chicago.\nMay M, CrockeEt.\nEpwarp\n\n1891. Principal Irving School, 400 S. 18th St., Quincy.\nC, DELaANo.\n1877. Assistant Superintendent of Schools, 59 Aberdeen St., Chicago.\n\nW. H. Ducker.\nPublisher, 378 Wabash Ave., Chicago.\n\nJ. H. Freeman, A.M., ’88, Bates Coll.\n1896,\n\nAssistant State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Springfield.\n\nE. A, GASTMAN.\n1862, Superintendent of Schools, 464 W. North St., Decatur,\nWo. M. Girrin, A.M., ’82, Lawrence Univ., Wis.; Ph.D., ’94, State Nor. Coll., N. Y.\n1889, Vice-Principal Chicago Normal School, 7710 Emerald Ave., Chicago.\nNEwELL D, Givsert, A.M.,, ’79, Ill. Wes. Univ.\n’\n1887.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, 413 N. Pine Ave., Austin,\n\nJoun H. GrossMAN.\n1886, County Superintendent of Schools, Lanark,\nR, A. Hatcut, A.B., ’75, A.M., ’78, Shurtleff Coll., Tl.\n188z, Superintendent of Schools, 1129 Warren St., Alton.\nWiit1aM R, Harper, A.B.,’70, Muskingum Coll, ;Ph.D., ’75, Yale; D.D., ’91, Colby Univ.;\nUniv, of Nebr.\n:\nq\nE\n1890, President of University of Chicago, soth St. and Lexington Ave., Chicago,\n\nLL.D.\n\nELIZABETH ELARRISON,\n;\n?\nPrincipal of Kindergarten College, 10 Van Buren St., Chicago,\nMary S, L. HarrTIGAn.\n.\nPrincipal of Hoerner School, 7409 Morgan St., Chicago,\n\nMary Hartmann, A.M.. ’88, Lombard Univ.\n1882,\n\nW. H. Hartcu.\n\n1892.\n\nP. C, HAyDEN,\nHarry HELMER.\n\nCuas, HERTEL.\noe\n\nInstructor in Mathematics, Illinois State Normal School, 109 Normal Ave., Normal.\n\n:\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, Oak Park.\n\n,\n\n;\n\nTeacher of Music, Public Schools, 400 S, 18th St., Quincy.\n:\n315 Wabash Ave., Chicago.\n‘\nSuperintendent of Schools of St. Clair County, Belleville.\n\nAMALIE HOFER.\nEditor ‘‘ Kindergarten Magazine,”’ 1207 Woman’s Temple, Chicago.\n°\n_ A, HornpercER, A.B., ’84, A.M., ’87, Bucknell Univ., Pa.; Ph.D., ’89, Bellevue Coll.\n1895. Superintendent of Schools, 425 S. 7th St., Pekin.\nJ\n;\n:\nJackman, A.B., ’84, Harvard.\nS.\nNae GR os Dept. of Nae Sci., Chicago Nor. School, 6916 Perry Ave., Station O, Chicago,\n;\n;\n:\nS, Kepzir, Grad. Kan. Agri. Coll., ’77.\n, Neti\n\naa.\n\n1897.\n\nProfessor of Household Economy and Hygiene, Bradley Polytechnic Institute, 214\nFredonia Ave., Peoria,\n\n"}
{"page": 1064, "printed_page": null, "text": "105 4\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n~~\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nILLINOIS — Continued.\n1895.\n\nBases\n\nA, KENDALL,\n\n:\n\n188s.\n\n5\n\n;\n\nPrincipal Ellsworth Sch., Secretary Il. Pupils’ Reading Circle, cor. Sleight and\nMechanic Sts., Naperville.\nFRANKLIN M, Kenpatt, B.S., Cornell Univ.\nWith Ginn & Co., 378 Wabash Ave., Chicago.\n;\nEFFIE J, K1LBouRNE,\n1891. Head Assistant Kenwood School, 4123 Lake Ave., Chicago,\nJ\n:\nf\n,\nMiss Vasut1 A. LAMBERT,\n1886, ‘Teacher in Jefferson Park School, 4280 Milwaukee Ave., Chicago; res., Palatine\nLEs.iE Lewis, A.B., ’66, A.M., ’69, Yale.\n;\n:\n1889. Assistant Superintendent of Schools, 5605 Madison Ave., Chicago.\n\nWo. S. Mack.\n\n;\nWestern Manager, Prang Educational Company, 151 Wabash Ave., Chicago.\n. J. McGiynn,\n:\n;\ndes\n1888. Teacher of Science, High School, 316 St. Louis Ave., East St. Louis.\n,\nA, L. McLaueutiin,\nAgent for Sheldon & Co., 315-321 Wabash Ave., Chicago.\nKate S, O’LEary.\n:\n;\n1882, Teacher in Public Schools, 208 S, Hickory St., Joliet.\nC. M. PARKER,\n,\nEditor of the ‘* School News,” Taylorville.\nC, F, PuILBroox.\n\n1892. Superintendent of Schools, Rochelle,\nJonaTHAN PipER, A.B., lowa State Univ.; A.M., Bowdoin Coll.\nInstitute Instructor, 521 Wabash Ave., Chicago.\nALBERT R, Rosinson, A.M., Northwestern Univ.\n:\n1891. Principal Chicago English High and Manual Training School;\n\n'\n,\nresidence, Hinsdale.\n\nKE. H, Scorr.\n:\nEducational Publisher (Scott, Foresman & Co.), 378 Wabash Ave., Chicago.\nJames P, SLApE, A.M., ’72, Shurtleff Coll. |\n\n424, oth St., East St. Louis.\nW. S. Smytu, A.M., 66, Wesleyan Univ., Conn.; Ph.D, ’76, Syracuse Univ.\nEducational Publisher (D. C, Heath & Co.), 378 Wabash Ave., Chicago.\nLypia E, SNYDER.\n1893. Teacher in Public Schools, 2622 Hartzell St., N. Evanston,\nLititz S, STEPHENSON.\n1893. Teacher 4th Grade, Park Ridge, 1028 Dempster St., Evanston.\n*Joun H, Tear, A.M., ’96, Ill. Wes. Univ.\n\n1889,\n\nPrincipal Washington School, 846 Walnut St., Chicago.\n\nFrank D, THomson.\n\n1895.\n\nPrincipal of High School, 228 Tompkins St., Galesburg.\n\nJ. E. Turner, A.B., ’94, A.M., ’95, Lincoln Univ.\n1896. Principal of High School, 327 E. r2th St., Alton.\n\nE. O. VaILe.\nEditor of the ‘ Intelligence,’’? Oak Park.\nNATHAN T. VEATCH.\n1887, Superintendent of Schools, Rushville,\nJ. W, Warr.\n\nEditor of ‘‘ Business Education,” 1723, 6th Ave., Moline,\nW. E. Warr.\nhacia Graham School, Director Principals’ Male Quartette, 4453 Emerald Ave.,\n\nC. W, WEEKs.\n\n1896,\n\nicago.\n\n1888. Supervisor of Music, 320 Congress St., Ottawa.\nOxiver S, Wesrtcorr, A.M.,’56; D.S.,92, Brown Univ.\n1883, Principal North Division High School, Chicago, Maywood;\nDanger A. Wuire, A.B., ’83, Harvard Univ. ; LL.B., ’92, Lake Forest Univ.\n1896. Principal of Everett School, 3318 Dearborn St., Chicago.\nbs\nR, Mapex. Ware,\n1891. Head Assistant, Bismarck School, r051 N. Central Park Ave., Chicago.\nHarry G, Witson.\n1879. The American Book Company, 52t Wabash Ave., Chicago.\nHarriet N, WINCHELL.\nPrincipal of Tilden School, 133 E. Circle Ave,, Norwood Park, Chicago.\nMary E, AHERN,\nEditor of ‘‘ Public Library,” Library Bureau, 125 Franklin St., Chicago.\nC. J, Avert, B.S, and A.M., ’78, Baldwin Univ.\n_ Manager of the Albert & Clark Teachers’ Agency, Elmhurst.\nB, F, Armiracg, A.B., *80, A.M., ’84, Dartmouth Coll,\nSuperintendent of City Schools, 79 Charleston St,, Mattoon.\nELizaBETH BAUMGARTNER,\nPrincipal Teachers’ Training School, St, Nicholas Hotel, Springfield.\n\nee\na\ne\n\n"}
{"page": 1065, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIFE AND ACTIVE MEMBERS\na\na\nen\n\nees\n\n1055\nSD\n\nILLINOIS — Continued.\n\n1896,\n\nALFRED BayLiss, M.S., °73, Hillsdale Coll., Mich.\nPrincipal of Township High School, Streator.\nS. S. Beccs, A.M., N. E. Ohio Nor, Coll.\n1896. Superintendent of City Schools, Beardstown.\nCuas, A, BENNETT, B.S., Worcester Polytechnic Inst,\nProfessor of Manual Training, Bradley Polytechnic Institute, Peoria.\nR. W. Burton, A.M., Beloit Coll.\nCounty Superintendent of Stephenson Co., Court House, Freeport.\nWiiuiaM J. Butron.\nManager Werner Book Co., 160 Adams St., Chicago,\nANNICE B, Butts,\nPrincipal of Kenwood Institute, 40, 47th St.,Chicago.\nNELLIE M, CARPENTER.\nTeacher in Graham School, 6344 Stewart Ave., Chicago.\nEvizABETH BLANCHARD Cook, A.M., Wheaton Coll.\nPresident Woman’s Educational Union, 316 Washington Boul,, Chicago.\n\nGro. W. Davis.\nPrincipal Hawthorne School, 1430 Montrose Boul., Chicago.\n\nWitiiam C. Donce.\n1887. Principal of Franklin School, 2268 Kenmore Ave., Station X, Chicago.\nMABEL E. DouGHERTY.\n906 E. Bluff St., Peoria.\n;\nMrs, Mitiiz M, Eakins,\n1892. Head Assistant Beale School, 6233 Peoria St., Station O, Chicago.\nJoun H, Fintey, A.B., A.M., Knox Coll.\n1892, President of Knox College, Galesburg.\nH, A, Foresman, A.M., ’90, Lafayette Coll.\nPublisher (Scott, Foresman & Co,), 307 Wabash Ave., Chicago.\nRoBERT FORESMAN.\nEducational Publisher (Silver, Burdette & Co,), 262-264 Wabash Ave., Chicago.\nH, L, Grant, M.S., Lawrence Univ.\nx889. Principal of Franklin School, 303 Chambers Ave., Peoria,\n:\nG, CHARLES GRIFFITHS.\n1893. Principal of Schools, Park Ave. and S, Boulevard, Austin.\n7\nCHARLES W, GROVES.\n1897. Superintendent of Schools, Dixon.\nLe Roy Hatsey, A.B., A.M.\n\n1897. Agent for Henry Holt & Co., 378 Wabash Ave., Chicago.\n,\nJ. W. HEnnincer, B.S., 8x, M.S., 84, LL.B., ’ox.\n1896. Superintendent of Schools, 1004 W. Grove St., Jacksonville.\nJ. F. McCuttoucH.\n;\nAgent for Silver, Burdette & Co., 262-264 Wabash Ave., Chicago.\nMARGARET McDona.p.\n;\n1886. Teacher in Pullman School, 405 E. 64th St., Chicago.\nMrs. Lipa B. McMurry.\n‘\n1892. Training Teacher, Primary Department, State Normal Univ., Normal.\nAppa V, MEACHAM.\n:\nTeacher in Public Schools, 601, 6th Ave., Peoria.\n\nMary A. NIcot.\n:\nE\nC\n;\n1889. Teacher of Literature in Township High School, 606 N. Sterling St., Streator.\nMrs. SarAH J. O’KEEFE.\nf\n‘\n.\nPrincipal of Schools, Chicago; Arlington Heights.\nF, B. Ormssy.\nW. B. Owen.\n\nPrincipal Public Schools, Perkins Bass; Station O, Chicago.\nAgent, Publishing\nsonville.\n\nHouse, Ginn & Co., Chicago; residence\n\nR. S. Pace, A.M.\n1895. Superintendent of Schools,\nBERTHA PAYNE.\np\n\nFreeport.\ntae\n‘\nPrincipal of Chicago Froebel Association, Hinsdale.\nWo. C, Payne.\n5\n;\n‘\n1896, Principal Gladstone School, Chicago; residence, Hinsdale.\nWitiiaM J. Princte, A.M., Ph.B., LL.B.\nPrincipal of High School, Aurora.\n:\nMary I, Purer.\n1893. Principal La Fayette School, 1902 Barry Ave., Chicago.\nGrace REED, A.B., 784, Univ. of Chi¢ago; LL.B.,’96, Kent Coll. of Law.\nPrincipal of Grammar School, 4342 Chicago Ave., Chicago.\n;\nAd\nJ. W. Roserts.\ni\nChicago.\nW. F. RocHELEAU.\nSuperintendent of City Schools, Streator.\n\n851 Grove St., Jack\n\n"}
{"page": 1066, "printed_page": null, "text": "1056\n\n1896,\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nILLINOIS—Continued.\n;\n,\nD. Francis SELLARS.\nPrincipal Franklin School, 715 S. Main St., Jacksonyille.\n.\nf\nMase FE. SMALLWoop.\n1892. Teacher Englewood High School, 322 W. 65th St., Station O, Chicago.\n\nW. W. SPEER.\n1895.\n\n1897.\n\np\nAssistant Superintendent of Schools, 6454 Armour Ave., Chicago.\nArnotp Tompkins, A.M., ’g91, Univ. of Ind.; Ph.D., ’96, Univ. of Ohio, Athens. —\nProfessor of Pedagogy, Univ. of Illinois, 410 John St., Champaign.\nFrank N. Tracy.\n.\n;\n1881. Superintendent City Schools, 316 Harrison Ave., Kankakee.\nCuartes R. VANDERVORT, A.B., ’80, A.M., ’87, Eureka, Ill.\n:\n1885. Principal Greeley School, 519 N. Jefferson Ave., Peoria.\nRicHARD WATERMAN, JR., B.S., ’92, Mass. Inst. of Tech.\n}\n:\nF\n1896. Sec’y of the Ed. Com. of the Civic Federation of Chicago, 26 Scott St., Chicago.\nJ. D. Wituas, A.M., ’72, Hillsdale Coll., Mich.\n,\nGeneral Agent, Maynard, Merrill & Co., 15x Wabash Ave., Chicago.\nFrancis M. Woops, A.B. and A.M., Northwestern Univ.\n,\nManager, Educational Aid Association, 51 Sacramento Ave., Chicago.\nEmma V. BAILEy.\n:\nTeacher in 7th grade, 340 North Oakley Ave., Chicago,\nWo. J. Bartuotr, A.B., Univ. of Ill.; B.S., Ind. Nor. Sch.\n1888. Principal of Von Humboldt School, rz Roslyn Place, Chicago.\nFRANCIS S, BELDEN.\n;\nRepresentative of E. H. Butler & Co., 211 Wabash Ave., Chicago.\nHomer BEVANS.\n:\n1884. La Salle School, 353 W. 60th Place, Station O, Chicago.\nWo. J. Biack,\n3\n1887, Principal of Sherwood School, 6620 Lafayette Ave., Station O, Chicago.\nEMANUEL R, Boyer, A.B., Harvard.\n1890, Professor of Biology, Englewood High School, 536 W. 61st St., Chicago.\nMarcaret E, Burke.\nPrincipal of Talcot School, 871 Fulton St., Chicago.\nDe os Buzzet1, M.S., ’74, Univ. of Mich.\noe\nof Irving Park Grammar School, 1233 Irving Park Ave., Station 35\nicago,\nJ. F. CASEBEER,\nTeacher of Natural Science in Collegiate Institute, Geneseo.\n\nGro, A, CHASE.\n\nPrincipal of Public Schools, Winnebago.\nF.C, CLENDENEN,\n1886, Superintendent of Schools, Cairo.\nCuas, T. ConcEr, B.A., ’70, Univ. of Minn.\nAssistant Principal of Cambridge School for Boys, 99 E. 47th St., Chicago.\nE. G, Cootey, Ph.B.\n1893. Lyons Township High School, La Grange.\nEmma Coy.\nPrincipal Hall School, 521 Walnut St., Rockford.\nMrs. Guas, R, CRANE.\nPres, of Parents’ Educational Assoc, of Chicago, 2559 Michigan Ave., Chicago.\nJANE E, DALE,\nWinnetka.\nELLEN Davis.\nPrincipal of Douglas School, 379 W. Tompkins St., Galesburg.\nCrarissa E, Eta,\n1888. Drawing Department, State Normal School, Bloomington.\nF, D, Farr, A.B., 92, Univ. of Vt.\nState Agent for Silver, Burdette & Co,, 262 Wabash Ave., Chicago.\nM. ExizaBeTH Farson,\n1889. Principal of Brown School, 134 Warren Ave., Chicago,\nMrs, Exizapetu E, Fisk,\n1884, Principal of Geo. Schneider School, Chicago; 1028 Dempster St,, Evanston.\nL. R, Firzer,\n1890, County Superintendent of Schools, 616 E, 2nd St., Belvidere.\nMary C, Foote,\n1891, Principal of School, r24 Auburn Place, Rockford.\nJ. M\n\nFrost, A.M., Hobart Coll.\n1806, Superintendent of Schools, Hinsdale,\n\n:\n\n)\n\ne\nee\ne\nee\n\nJ. W. Grgson.\n1896. Principal of Schools, Naperville,\nMary GiLLEspPiE.\n1893. Principal High School, Winnetka,\nNELLIE GILLESPIE,\n1893. Assistant in High School, Winnetka.\nA. V. GREENMAN.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 331 Spruce St., Aurora.\n\na\na\ne\n\n"}
{"page": 1067, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIFE\n\nAND\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n1057\n\nILLINOIS—Continued.\n1897.\n\nJosrru C. Gornon, Ph.D.\n1897. Superintendent of Institute for the Deaf and Dumb, Jacksonville.\nJENNIE E. GuRNEA.\nTeacher in Public Schools, Downer’s Grove.\n\nFRANK H. HAL.\n\nSuperintendent of Institute for the Blind, Jacksonville.\nJAMES HANNAN.\n\n3\n\n1890.\n\nAssistant Superintendent of Schools, 5136 S. Park Ave., Chicago.\n\nS. A. Harrison, A.B., 82, A.M., ’88, Univ. of III.\n1892. Principal of Burroughs School, 3104 S. Park Ave., Chicago.\nDup.Ley G. Hays, Graduate State Normal.\n1896. Chicago Normal School, 550 W. 6oth Place, Chicago.\nMrs. Kate A. HENDERSON.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 307 Webster St., Joliet.\nR. M. Hircu.\nPrincipal Dore School, 151 S. Robey St., Chicago.\nMrs. E, A. Hupparp.\nSupervisor of Primary Schools, 113 Bartleson St., Joliet.\nS. B. Hursx.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 611 W. 3d St., Sterling.\nA. W. Hussey, B.S., Nat. Nor. Univ.\n1896. Superintendent of Schools, Geneseo.\nSAMUEL M, Inctis, M.A., Blackburn Univ,\n1894. State Superintendent of Public Instruction, South State St., Springfield.\nG, OvEpDIA JACOBS.\n1895. Head Assistant Eighth Grade, 170 N. Morgan St., Chicago,\nJ. A. JOHNSON.\nPrincipal Mark Sheridan School, 189, 29th St., Chicago,\nEmma F. JoNEs.\nTeacher in High School, rr3x S, 6th St., Springfield.\nC. H. Kaman, B.L., Univ. of Ill.\nTeacher of Modern Languages in High School, 810, 6th Ave., Peoria.\nELLA KENNEDY,\nTeacher in Public Schools, Peoria,\n\nSARAH A. KIRKLEY,\n1895. Principal of Grant School, 150 Park Ave., Chicago.\nHENRIETTE M. KNIsPEL.\n1871.\n\nTeacher in Public Schools, 308 Charles St., Belleville.\n\nCart J. Kron.\n1891.\n\n;\nHead of Physical Training Department, Chicago Normal School, 6817 Honore St.,\nStation O, Chicago.\n.\n;\nCepuas H. Leacu.\nPrincipal of A, H. Burley School, 523 Greenleaf Ave., Station Y, Chicago,\nL. B. LEE.\nChicago.\n:\nLIncoLN UNIVERSITY.\nPresident, A. E, Turner; Secretary, C. E. Conant, Lincoln.\n;\nd\n/\nFRED. B, MAXWELL, Ph.B., ’87, Beloit, ’92, Cornell Univ.\nTeacher of Biology, West Div. High School, Chicago, 308 Franklin Ave., River\nForest.\nMary McCowen.\n;\nPrincipal Day Schools for the Deaf, 6550 Yale Ave., Chicago,\n;\nF, M. McKay.\nPrincipal Anderson School, 6x Alice Court, Chicago.\nF\nWALTER REYNOLDS MircHELt, B.S., ’87, Univ. of Ill.\nDepartment of Biology, High School, 433, 57th St., Chicago,\nMONTGOMERY,\n.\n:\nOral Class for the Deaf, Public Schools, 6550 Yale Ave,, Station O, Chicago.\n\nsea\n\nR. T. Morcan, A.M., Wheaton Coll.\n1886, Superintendent of Schools, 710 College Ave., Wheaton.\n:\nFrank L. Morse, A.B., ’86, A.M., ’89, Brown Univ.\n4 Principal of Hayes School, 1543 Fulton St., Chicago.\noe\n:\n.\nFanny E, OLIver.\n1890. Principal of Montefiore School, 390 Washington Boul., Chicago.\nie\n\nnH. Owen.\n\nre\n\n‘Superintendent of Schools, Carlinville.\n\nae\n\nHucu A, Owen, Graduate of State Normal School.\n1891. Principal of High School, Box 193, Maywood,\nee\n\nos\n\ni\n\né\n;\ntnson, A.M., 74, Ph.D., 97, McKendree Coll.\nCarBasar ‘ Brolessor of Physical Sciences, South Illinois University, 335 Walnut St.,\nbondale.\n:\nA, PHELPS,\nTeacher in Hayes Grammar School, 14 S. Hoyne Ave., Chicago.\n\n"}
{"page": 1068, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n1058\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nILLINOIS — Continued.\n897.\nay\n\n:\nMary R. PIERCE.\nTeacher of Music, 19t Oakwood Boul., Chicago.\n:\n.\nFREDERICK W, Piapp, A.B., ’85, Dartmouth Coll,\n1890. Assistant in High School, 2539 N. 42d Ave., Station 35, Chicago.\nMrs, ANDREA\n\n‘\n\nAge\n\nHorerR PROUDFOOT.\n\nEditor ‘‘ Child Garden,” 1400, The Auditorium, Chicago.\nJoun K, Rassweier, A.M., ’g90, Northwestern Coll.\n1876, Superintendent of Schools, Downer’s Grove,\n\n.\n\n’\n\nLouise D, RENNICK,\n\nTeacher in Pullman School, 7142 Evans Ave., Station R, Chicago.\n4\nRopert H. RENNIE,\n:\n‘\n1889. Principal of Gresham School, 817 W. 87th St., Chicago.\n:\n:\nRossins,\nA,\nGeorcE\nTeacher of Manual Training and Drawing, John Worthy School, 778 S. California\nAve,, Chicago.\n\nH. L. Roperts.\n\n1896.\nJ. L. Roperrson,.\nGrEorGE W, Rowe.\n\n‘\n\n;\n\nSuperintendent of Public Schools, Farmington.\n\n-\n\n:\nCounty Superintendent of Schools, Court House, Peoria,\n:\n173-175, 5th Ave., Chicago.\n\nGeorcE H. Royce,\n\n;\nAgent for Educational Publishers, 267 Wabash Ave., Chicago.\nGerorGcE H, SHoRNEY.\nHope Publishing Co., 167 Wabash Ave., Chicago.\nEpwarp O, Sisson, B.S., ’86, State Agr. Coll.; A.B., 93, Univ. of Chicago.\nDirector of Bradley Polytechnic Institute, Peoria.\nALBERT L, Situ, Ph.D., ’90, Berlin.\n‘\n;\n1890. Professor of Chemistry, Englewood High School, 6531 Union Ave., Sta, O, Chicago.\nE. R, Situ.\nAgent for D, C, Heath & Co., 378 Wabash Ave., Chicago.\nMrs. HELEN E, STARRETT.\nPrincipal of Scoville Place College Preparatory School for Girls, Lake St,, Q@ak Park.\nJoun H. STEHMAN.\n188z. Principal of Avondale School, 1571 Kimball Ave., Chicago.\nALBERT L. STEVENSON, B.S., ’82.\n1885. Principal of Oakland Grammar School, 106, goth St., Chicago.\nLizziz P, Swan.\nCataloguer Wisconsin Normal Schools; res., Rockton,\nA. J. TIFFANY.\nPublisher ‘‘ Natural Science Cabinet,’ 210 E. goth St., Chicago.\nEmma J. Topp.\n283 Downer Place, Aurora,\nHenry L. Totman,\nsi Ser\neG of Physicians and Surgeons, 929 Chicago Opera House Block,\nicago.\nWiLiiam WELTON,\n1893. Principal Public Schools, Lansing.\nJoun F. Wicks,\n\n1890.\n\nPrincipal Boody School, Decatur.\nINDIANA.\nLIFE DIRECTOR.\n\n1877.\n\nJAMES HENRY Smart, A.M., ’72, Dartmouth; LL.D., ’83, Ind, Univ.\n1883. President of Purdue University, 191 Columbia St., Lafayette,\n\n1876,\n\nWm. A. BELL, A.M.,’63, Antioch Coll.\n1871. Editor of ‘Indiana School Journal,” 6614 N. Penn St., Indianapolis,\nMoszs C, Stevens, A.M., ’83, Earlham Coll.\n\n1880.\n\nJoun S, Irwin, fare\nA.B., xe\n’42,mnWestern\neeepee\nUniv, of a.;Pa.: M.D..’?\nM.D., ’47, Univ.\ni of Pa.;\n\nLIFE\n\n1883.\n\nMEMBERS.\n\nProfessor of Mathematics, Purdue University, 1: Waldon St., W. Lafayette.\n\n; LL.D., ’75, Univ.\ni ol isay\n\nACTIVE MEMBERS.\n1885. Mary E, Nicuotson.\n:\nOD Ae\nake ae ie\nPrincipal of Normal School\nchool, 1222 Broadway, Indianapo\nlis.\ni\ni\n1891.\n\n1889.\nW.S. Atmonp.\n1893.\n\nPrincipal of High School\n5\nae\n\n~\n\nthS\n\nsea\nSuperintendent of Schools, cor. Monroe and Willson Sts.,\nDelphi.\n\n"}
{"page": 1069, "printed_page": null, "text": "opener\n\nLIFE\nANDSeeACTIVE\nwasabi\nPN MEMBERSee oh\n\n1059\nLOD\n\nINDIANA—Continued,\n\n1891,\n\nJEssE H. Brown.\nLecturer on Art and General Educational Subjects, 1615 Broadway, Indianapolis.\nMiss N. Cropsery.\n1894. Assistant Superintendent of Schools, 235 College Ave., Indianapolis.\n\n1892.\n\nEDWARD Ayres, A.B., *78, A.M., ’85, Amherst Coll.\n1890, Superintendent of Schools, 115 Ferry St., Lafayette.\nWo. L, Bryan, Ph.D., ’92, Clark Univ.\n1887. Professor of Philosophy, 1893; Vice-President, Indiana\nALBERT E. HumKeE.\n1891. Superintendent of Schools, Vincennes.\nJosrepx Swain, B.L., M.S., Ind. Univ.; LL.D., Wabash Coll.\n\n1893.\n\n1893.\n\nUniversity, Bloomington.\n\nPresident of Indiana University, 328 Kirkwood Ave., Bloomington.\n\nH. G. Woopy, B.S., National Normal Univ.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 213 W. Mulberry St., Kokomo.\n1894.\n\nGro, W. Benton, A.B., ’84, A.M., ’87, Wabash Coll.\n1888, Instructor in Chemistry, High School, 2428 Broadway, Indianapolis.\nGro, W, Hurrorp, A.M., ’67, Antioch Coll.\n1892. Principal of High School, 223 Park Ave., Indianapolis.\n*Mrs. Susan G. Patrerson, A.M., ’79, University of Wooster.\n1894. Superintendent of Schools, Union City.\n1895. W. C, BELMAN,\n1883. Superintendent of Schools, r30 Ogden St., Hammond.\nEpwarp Boyte, A.B., Univ, of Mich.\n\n1888,\nH, B. Brown.\n\nSuperintendent of City Schools, Michigan City.\n\nPresident Northern Indiana Normal School, 53 Jefferson St., Valparaiso.\nWILLIAM PaxTon Burris, Ph.B., ’91, A.M., ’93, DePauw Univ.\n1891. Superintendent of Schools, Bluffton.\nGEORGE STOCKTON BurRROuGHS, A.B., ’73, A.M., ’76, Ph.D., ’84, D.D.,’87, Princeton; LL.D.,’95,\nMarietta Coll.\n1892. President of Wabash College, 506 S. Washington St., Crawfordsville.\nJ. A. CARNAGEY, A.B., ’81, A.M., ’84, Hanover Coll., Ind.\n1890, Superintendent of City Schools, 1039 Franklin St., Columbus.\n\n:\n\nT. F. Fitzcipson,\n1890, Advisory Superintendent of Elwood Public Schools, Elwood.\nW. B, FLICK,\n,\n;\n;\n1885. County Superintendent of Schools, 35 E. Washington St., Indianapolis.\nD. M, GEETING.\n.\n}\n:\n1895. State Superintendent of Public Instruction, 202v Central Ave., Indianapolis,\nDavin Koprr Goss, A.B., ’87, Indiana Univ.\n'\n;\n1894. Superintendent of Schools, 153 N. East St., Indianapolis,\nW. A. Hester, A.M., ’83, De Pauw Univ.\n:\n;\n1894. Superintendent of City Schools; office, 7th and Vine Sts, ;residence, 428 Chandler\nAve., Evansville.\n;\nCyrus W. Hopern, A.M., ’88, Earlham Coll.\n,\ni\n:\n1887.\n\nProf. of History and Political Science, Earlham Coll.,30 Central Ave., Richmond,\n\nFRANK L, Jones, B.S., ’90, N. Ind. Nor. Sch.\n:\n.\n1895. Superintendent of Schools, N. Main St., Tipton.\nG. F, Kenaston, A.B., ’78, Dartmouth; A.M., ’81, Univ.of Mich.\n1897. Superintendent of Schools, Crawfordsville.\n\nMary E, Rowe.\n\n3\n\n.\n\n1895. Teacher in Private School, 1415 Park Ave., Indianapolis.\nW.S. Rowe, A.B.; ’92, De Pauw Univ.\nao\n1895. Superintendent of Schools, Rising Sun.\nAMES F, ScuLL.\n\n1882.\n\n’\n\nPare\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, Room 11, Centra! Building; Rochester,\n\nW. R. Snyper, A.B., Pennsylvania Coll.\n\nW. R.\n\nWaBaSH COLLEGE.\nWetrorp\n1896.\n\n2\n\n1887, Superintendent of Schools, 319 W. Adams St., Muncie.\nJ. STEATFORD, A.B., ’85, A.M., ’89, Hanover Coll,\nJ\nSuperintendent of Schools, 62 E. 2d St., Peru.\nPresident, Geo. Stockton Burroughs;\n\n7\n\n;\n\nSec., Henry Z. McLain, Crawfordsville.\n\nD. WEAVER.\n;\n1890, Superintendent of Schools, Marion.\n\n:\n'\n:\n,\n. Bass.\nEd. “‘ Young People’s Journal,” Manager “‘ Ind, Young People’s Reading Circle,’\nBe\nx03 Commercial Club Building, Indianapolis.\n:\n:\nFrank M. BEARD, Ph.B., ’92, De Pauw Univ.\n1894. * Super armudent of Public Schools, 63 N. Jefferson St., Hartford City.\n;\n*\ns\né\n. Eviza A. BLAKER,\n1882, Superintendent Indianapolis Free Kindergartens, 2320 N. Meridian St., Indianapolis,\na\nEee\n\n"}
{"page": 1070, "printed_page": null, "text": "g\na\n\nNATIONAL\n\n1060\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nINDIANA—Continued.\n1806.\n\nF\n;\nH. W. Bowers, A.B., ’87, A.M., ’80.\n1896. Superintendent of Schools, Union City.\né\nFRANKLIN Brown, Ph.B., A.M., Earlham Coll.; Ph.D., Cornell.\n1896. Instructor in Philosophy, Ind. Univ., 404 Walnut St., Bloomington.\neos\n‘\n;\nIsaac Vinton Buspy, A.B., gr, Indiana Univ.\n1894. Superintendent City Schools, 705 S, Harrison St., Alexandria.\n:\n,\nRopert I, HAMILTON.\n1887. Superintendent City Schools, 53 Poplar St., Huntington.\n\nMites W. Harrison,\n\nA.B.,’79,\n\nOberlin.\n\n1886, Superintendent City Schools, Wabash.\nW. H. HERSHMAN.\nm\na\n1884. Superintendent City Schools, cor. Bank and Spring Sts., New Albany.\nJ. R. Houston, M.S.,’93, Moore’s Hill Coll.\n.\n1896. Superintendent Public Schools, Aurora.\nE. R. JOHNSTON.\n:\n‘\n1893. Principal State School for Feeble- Minded, Fort Wayne.\nJoun O. LEWELLEN, B.S., N. Ind. Nor. School.\n;\n1883. County Superintendent of Schools, 301 North St., Muncie.\nNanniz C. Love.\n‘\n;\n1881. Supervisor of Music, 4or East Washington St., Muncie.\nC. M. McDani&1, B.S., ’95, A.M., 793.\n'\nSuperintendent of Schools, Madison.\nWiiuiam A. Mirus, A.M., Ind. Univ.\n:\n1894. Superintendent of Schools, Attica.\nJosrru J. Mitts, A.M., Earlham Coll. ;LL.D,, Haverford Coll.\n1884. President of Earlham College, Richmond.\nB, F. Moore.\n\n1890.\n\nSuperintendent of City Schools, Frankfort,\n\nT. A. Morr,\nSuperintendent of Schools, Richmond.\nCuas. N. Peak, A.B., ’84, Moore’s Hill Coll.; Ph.B., 86, Ind. Univ.\n\n1891. Superintendent of City Schools, Princeton.\nFLora Roserts, B.S., Purdue Univ.\n1887. Teacher of English and Science, High School, Hebron Ave., LaFayette.\nHowarp SANDISON.\nVice-President, Indiana State Normal School, 434 N. Center St., Terre Haute.\nD. W. Tuomas, A.B., ’72, A.M., ’75, Ind. Asbury Univ.\n\n1886. Superintendent of City Schools, 506 Pigeon St., Elkhart.\nH. WIitey, A.B., 64, A.M., 67, Butler Univ.\n1869. Superintendent of Schools, 451 N. 7th St., Terre Haute.\nA. H. Yopver, A.B., Ind. Univ.\n1896. President of Vincennes University, Vincennes.\nFLORENCE Bass.\nPrimary Teacher, 1914 Ash St., Indianapolis.\nADELAIDE STEELE Baytor, Ph.B., ’97, Univ. of Chicago.\n\nWituiAM\n\n1897.\n\n1888.\n\nPrincipal of High School, 108 E. Hill St., Wabash.\n\nJ. W. Carr, A.B., 85, A.M., ’90, Ind. Univ.\n\n1890, Superintendent of City Schools, 178 W. 12th St., Anderson.\nJoxun Coorrr, A.M.\nPrincipal Ward School, Indianapolis; res., Brightwood.\nMiss L, A. MELHINCH.\n1896. Superintendent of City Schools, Columbia City.\nFrancis M, Merica, Ph.B., ’97, Univ. of Chicago; B.S., ’96, Wm. Taylor Univ.\nSuperintendent of Schools, La Grange.\nEpwin S. Monrog, Ph.B., ’96, Il]. Wesleyan Univ.; A.M., ’97, Hanover Coll.\n1895, Superintendent of City Schools, Box 552, Mt. Vernon.\nWit A. Myers, A.B., Indiana Univ.\n:\n1896, Principal of High School, Fortville.\nO, C. Seetye, B.A., ’80, Univ. of Mich.\nSuperintendent of City Schools, r40r Monroe St., La Porte.\nMay Wricut SEwatt, A.B., 67, A.M., ’69, Northwestern Univ.\n1882. Principal Girls’ Classical School, 633 N. Pennsylvania St., Indianapolis.\nSratE Normat Scuoor,\nPresident, W. W. Parsons, Terre Haute,\nJ. N. Srupy.\n\nSuperintendent of Public Schools, Fort Wayne.\n\nIOWA,\n1886,\n\nLIFE DIRECTOR,\nJostan Lirrie Pickarp, A.B., 44,A.M., ’47, Bowdoin Coll. ;LL.D., ’70, Chicago Univ.\nEx-President, State University of Iowa, 419 N, Clinton St., lowa City.\n\nIR\nta\nah4\n=\n4\n\n"}
{"page": 1071, "printed_page": null, "text": "IIFE\n\nAND\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n1061\n\nIOWA—Continued.\nLIFE\n\nMEMBERS.\n\n1880, *J, C. GiicurisT, A.M., ’67, Allegheny Coll., Pa.\nLecturer and Institute Instructor, Laurens,\n1884.\nPuiuie Even, Ph.B., ’72, Univ. of Wis.\n1732 Clay St., Dubuque.\nHenry J. Tayzor, A.B., ’78, LL.B., ’80, A.M., ’84, Univ. of Wis,\nLawyer, 1635 Douglas St., Sioux City.\nW. A. Wittis, A.M., ’65.\nPrincipal of Academy, 308 Church St., Iowa City.\nACTIVE\n\n1884.\n\nMEMBERS.\n\nH. H. Freer, B.S., ’609, M.S., 78, A.B., ’80, A.M., ’83, Cornell! Coll., Ia.\n\n1872, Prof, of Science and Art of Teaching and Polit. Econ,, Cornell Coll., Mt. Vernon,\nWo. F. Kine, A.B., 60, Ohio Wesleyan Univ.; D.D, ’70, Ill. Wesl\nUnive soe,\n2\n\nUniv. of Iowa, Ohio Wesleyan Univ.\n\n*\n\n1889.\n\nae\n\nae\n\na\n\nNEE\n\nae\n\ngo\n\n1863, President of Cornell College, Mt. Vernon.\nC. P, Rocrrs, A.M., ’73,, State Univ. of Iowa.\n1874. Superintendent of Schools, roo N. 2d St., Marshalltown.\nW. M. BearpsHear, A,B., A.M., LL.D.\n1871, President of Iowa State College of Agriculture and Mechanical Arts, Ames,\nHenry Sasin, LL.D., ’93, Drake Univ. ; ’94, Cornell Coll.; ’95, State Univ. of Iowa.\nState Superintendent of Public Instruction, Capitol, Des Moines,\nHomer\n\nH, SEERLEY, Ph.B., ’73, B.D., ’75, A.M., ’76, State Univ. of Iowa,\n1886, President State Normal School, 2403 Normal St., Cedar Falls.\nH, E, Kratz, A.M., ’77, Ph.D., ’90, Univ. of Wooster, O.\n\nx891. Superintendent of Schools, 805 Douglas St., Sioux City.\nO. P. Bostwick, A.B., ’78, Lombard Univ., Ill.\n1889. Superintendent of Schools, 313, 8th Ave., Clinton.\nJ. M. MEuAN,\n1884, President Capital City Commercial College, Y. M. C. A. Building, Des Moines.\nJ. T. Merrit, A.B., A.M., Otterbein Univ.\n1890. Superintendent of Schools, 518, 7th St., Cedar Rapids.\nALBERT F, Burton, B.S., ’95, M.Di., ’92, lowa Sate Nor. Sch.\n\n1892,\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, 4th Ave. and 2d St., Villisca.\n\nFRANK B. Cooper.\n1891. Superintendent of Schools, 753, r7th St., Des Moines.\nJoseru C, Hisry.\n\n1895.\n\n1896, Superintendent of City Schools, 104, 4th St., Council Bluffs,\nA. V. STORM.\n1894. Superintendent of Schools, Storm Lake.\nA. B. Warner, A.M., ’79, State Nor. Sch., Kirksville, Mo.\n1885. Superintendent of Schools, Missouri Valley.\nJ. J. Bittinesty.\n3\n1892. Principal of Schools, Pringhar.\nM. E. Crosier.\n1892, Superintendent of Schools, Walnut.\nE. D. Y. Cutserrson, B.D., 89, State Nor. Sch., Cedar Falls, Ia,\n1895. Superintendent of Schools, Ames,\n\n;\nO. E. FRENCH.\n189s. Superintendent of City Schools, 602 N. Maple St., Creston.\nLypia Hinman,\n,\n1886. Principal E, Waterloo High School, Waterloo,\n;\nO. J. LavANDER.\n1888. Superintendent of Schools, 910 Main St., Cedar Falls,\ny\nMantiE MANGUM.\n1888, Principal Washington Ave. School, 113 N. 6th St., Council Bluffs.\n:\n:\nJ. J. McConnEtt, A.M,, ’80, State Univ. of Iowa. |\n1891.\n\n,\nProfessor of Pedagogy, State University of Iowa, 331 Summit St., Iowa City.\n\n'\nW. A. McCorp,\n189x. County Superintendent of Schools, to29, 22d St., Des Moines.\np\nMary McMILLan,\n1896. Teacher in sth Grade of Public Schools, 1700, oth Ave., Council Bluffs.\nJ. J. NAGEL.\n1870. Principal Grammar School No. 4, 906 W. Locust St., Davenport.\n;\n;\nExia L, PACKER.\n1892. Teacher of sth Grade, City Schools, g12, roth St., Sioux City.\nMary RourKE, B.D.\n\n1886.\n\nO. C. Scort,\n\nPrincipal of Schools, Farley.\n\nPh.B., ’78, B.D., ’80, A.M., ’8z, State Univ. of Iowa.\n1886. Superintendent ‘ofSchools, 424 Ave. A, East, Oskaloosa.\n\n"}
{"page": 1072, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n1062\n\nEDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n4\n\n1OWA— Continued.\n1895.\n\nW.S. SHEARER.\n\n‘\n\nj\n\nUniversity Place, Des Moines.\n\nEtta SUPLEE.\nie\nFANNIE SUPLEE,\n\n1896.\n\n:\n\nSupervisor of Primary Training, State Normal School, Cedar Falls.\n;\nPrincipal, West Des Moines, 1045, 9th St., Des Moines.\n\nJ. E. WitiraAmson, A.M., Wabash Coll.\n:\nSuperintendent of Schools, Fairfield.\nR. C. Barrett, A.M., ’95, Cornell Coll., Ia.\n\n1886. County Superintendent of Schools, Osage.\nWILLIAM BEAL.\n.\n1895. Principal of High School, Maynard.\nJames J. Crossiey, A.B., ’91, A.M., ’97, Univ. of Iowa.\n\nm4\n\n2\n\nF\n¢\n\n1894. Supt. of Schools, Madison Co., Winterset.\nH. L. Getz, A.M., Iowa Coll.; M.D., ’74, Jefferson Med. Coll,\n1896.\n\nPresident Board of Education, 204 E. Main St., Marshalltown.\n\nC. F. McNevin, B.S., M.Acc’t.\nClaremont,\n\nGeo. I. Miter, B.S., Iowa State Coll.\n1886. Superintendent of Schools, 427 Story St., Boone.\nA. C. NEWELL, B.S., ’92, Univ. of Mich.\n.\n1894. Instructor in Manual Training, West Des Moines\n\nF. T. Opt, A.M.\nA, N, PALMER.\n\n:\nHigh Schools, 3605 Center St.,\n\nDes Moines,\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, Dubuque.\n\nCommercial Teacher, Cedar Rapids.\n\nHarrie A. PHILuips,\n\n1897.\n\nSupervisor of Kindergartens, Des Moines.\nMrs, Cuas, E, SHERIFF.\n1891. Principal Teachers’ Training School, Davenport.\nF, E, Witrarp, B.S., 789, A.M., ’92, Iowa Coll.\n1896. Superintendent of Schools, 206 W. Grant St., Marshalltown.\nJ. B. Youna, A.B., 61, A.M., ’64, Middlebury Coll.\n1878. Superintendent of Schools, 422 E. 14th St., Davenport.\nC. C, BAUMANN.\nTeacher of French and German in High School, r51z Harrison St., Davenport.\nCuRISTINE BENSON.\nPrincipal of First Ward School, 204 E. Main St., Marshalltown.\nEuGENE Brown, B.S., Iowa Agri. Coll.\nSuperintendent Cerro Gordo Co., Mason City.\nJ. L. BuECHELE.\nSuperintendent City Schools, Independence.\nH. T. BusHNeELL.\n1874. Principal of Grammar School, Farnam St, and 3d Ave., Davenport.\nC. P. Cotcrove, A.M., Univ. of Chicago.\n1896. Professor of Pedagogy, Iowa State Normal School, 1207 Clay St., Cedar Falls.\nW. A. Doron, M.S.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Eldora.\nMrs. E, Dupiey, M,A., Cornell Coll.\n1891, Teacher in High School, Paullina,\nJames F, Eaton, A.B., B.D., A.M., D.D.\n1894. Professor of Hull Educational Institute, Hull.\nHERBERT D. HAypDEN.\n_1896, Principal of High School, 310 Franklin Ave,, Council Bluffs,\nJ. F. Hirscu, A.M., ’82, Germ. Eng. Coll.\n1883. President Charles City College, Charles City.\nB.J.HorcuEem.\nCourt House, Dubuque,\nCorneE\nta Kass.\nCounty Superintendent Washington Co., Washington.\nF. E. Lark.\n\n1896.\n\nCounty Superintendent Monona Co,, Onawa.\n\nMartua E, Pret.\nMrs, Henry\n\nPrimary Teacher and Kindergartner, Edgewood.\nSasin,\nDes Moines.\n\nA. R. SALE.\n\n1893.\nW. S, SHEARER,\nJ. F. Smiru.\n\nSuperintendent of City Schools, 226 W. gth St., Mason City.\nUniversity Place, Des Moines,\n\n1895.\n\nCounty Superintendent of Schools, Waukon,\n\ns\n\n|\n\n"}
{"page": 1073, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIFE\n\nAND\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n_\n\n1063\n\nIOWA—Coxntinued.\n\n1897.\n\nState NormMat Scuoot,\n\n:\n\nH. H. Seerley, President, Cedar Falls.\nState University Liprary or Iowa,\nJ. W. Rich, Librarian, Iowa City.\nFLoRENcE L. Strasser, B.D., State Normal School,\n\n1893. Teacher in First Primary, cor. 3d and Bluff Sts., Bellevue.\nF, Srratrorp.\nSupervisor of Drawing, Des Moines.\nCyntuia Titus, B.D.\nPrimary Teacher, rroz Washington St., Waterloo,\n\nEmma\n\nA, A. WEAVER.\n\nAgent for Maynard, Merrill & Co., Webster City.\nD, Wituiams, B.D., 87.\nTeacher in First Primary, 401 Jefferson St., Waterloo,\nV. L, Witson,\nExra\n\nAgent American Book Co., Ottumwa,\nF, M. Wirrer, B.S., A.M., ’76, University of Iowa.\n1885. Superintendent of Schools, 1314 Mulberry St., Muscatine.\nC, F. Woopwarp, A.B., A.M., Cornell Coll.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, Eldora.\n\nKANSAS.\nLIFE\n1886.\n\nDIRECTORS.\n\nGero. T, FatrcuiLp, LL.D., ’93, Oberlin.\n1879. President State Agricultural College, Manhattan.\nA. V. Jewett, A.B., ’57, Middlebury Coll., Vt.\nbilene.\nA. R. Taytor, Ph.D., ?84, Lincoln Univ., Ill.\n\n1882.\n\nPresident State Normal\n\nSchool, Emporia.\n\nLIFE MEMBERS.\n:886.\n\nBoarp oF Epucation, Abilene.\nPresident, P. J. Stoddard; Secretary, J. E. Brewer.\nBoarp oF Epucation, Dodge City.\nPresident, W. H. Chapman; Clerk, A. P. Coons.\nBoarp oF EpucaTion, City ot Ottawa.\nPresident, O. M. Wilber; Clerk, F. A. Wilkinson.\nBoarp or EpucaTION.\n_\nSedgwick.\nA. G. CAMPBELL.\n:\nCouncil Grove.\nNATHANIEL COOVER.\n’\n\nPrincipal of City Schools, Wilson.\n\nE, T, FAIRCHILD.\n\nCounty Superintendent of Schools, Ellsworth County, Ellsworth.\n*WALTER M, Jay, A.M., ’90, Knox Coll., Ill.\n1890. Head Master St. John’s School, Salina,\nHenry G. Larimer, LL.B., Univ. of Mich.\nA, M. LimErIck.\n\nLawyer, 535 Kansas Ave. ; res., 216 Clay St., Topeka.\nf\n\nPrincipal of Public Schools, South Haven.\n\nJoun MacDonatp.\n\nEditor ‘‘ Western School Journal,’’ Topeka,\nPerer McVicar, A.B., 756, A.M., D.D., ’71, Beloit Coll., Wis.\nPresident Emeritus of Washburn College, Topeka.\n\nRitey Co, EpucaTIonaL ASSOCIATION,\nPresident, T. E. Lyons, Keats; Secretary, Mary G. Leonhardt, Riley.\nGero, E, Rose.\n;\n1893. Principal of High School, 2020 N. Walnut St., Kansas City.\n;\nTos, A. SAwniLL, A.B., ’74, Amherst Coll. —\nEditor of ‘‘ Concordia Empire,’’ Concordia.\nAARON SCHUYLER, A.M., Ohio Wesleyan Uniy.; LL.D., Otterbein.\nProf. of Phil, and Higher Math., Kan. Wesleyan Univ., 1316 S. Sania Fe St., Salina,\nEpmunp Stantey, A.M., ’91, Penn, Coll., Ta.\n‘\n:\n1894. Ex-State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Lawrence.\n;\nTEACHERS’ ASSOCIATION OF CowLEy Co,\nPresident, J. H. Anderson; Secretary, Rosa Doty, Winfield.\n\nD. C. Tittotson,\n\n621 Filmore St., Topeka.\n\nPuito Jesse WiLLiams, A.M., 757, Madison Univ.; D.D., ’76, Univ. of Kan,\nBaldwin.\n\n"}
{"page": 1074, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n1004\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nKANSAS\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n--Continued,\n\nACTIVE MEMBERS.\n1884,\n\n1889.\n1890,\n\n1891.\n\n1893.\n\n1894.\n\nJ. N. Witkinson,\n\n1892. Superintendent of Schools, Topeka,\no.\nArvin S. Oun, A.B., ’92, Ottawa Univ.; A.M., ’94, Univ. of Kan.\n1894. Associate Professor of Pedagogy, Univ. of Kan., 1134 Louisiana St., Lawrence.\n‘\np\nWiLuiAM C, STEVENSON.\n1890. Dept. of Bookkeep. and Penman., State Nor. Sch,, ror7 Mechanics St., Emporia.\n(ens\nFrank R. Dyer, A.M., ’92, Ohio Wesleyan Univ.\n1895. Superintendent of Schools,514 Topeka Ave., Wichita.\nJ. D. Orr.\n1890. Principal Main St, School, Fort Scott.\nFrancis Huntincton Snow, Ph.D.,’81, LL.D., ’90, Princeton.\nChancellor of University of Kansas, Lawrence.\nGrorce E. Wirxinson, M.S., ’92, Cornell Univ.\n:\n;\n1896. Student, University of Leipzig; residence, Emporia.\nDELLA CLARKE,\n;\n:\nTeacher of Music, roz5 Constitution St., Emporia.\n\nEva E, CLARKE,\n1893.\n\n1895.\n\n;\n\n,\n\n1884. Director of Training, State Normal School, 832 Merchants St., Emporia.\n:\n;\nEmory M. Woop, A.M., ’82, Ph.D., ’93, Allegheny Coll.\n1887. Professor of Mathematics, Baker University, 8th and King Sts., Baldwin.\nWitiiaM M, Davipson.\n\nPaps\n\nLibrarian of State Normal School, 1025 Constitution St., Emporia.\n\nO. P. M. McCuiintock,\n1897. Principal Clay School, rrr2 Van Buren St., Topeka.\nM. A. Battery, A.M., ’79, Wesleyan Univ. of Conn.\n1885. ‘Teacher of Mathematics, State Normal School, 218 W, 12th Ave., Emporia.\n\ny\n\nO. P. BARNES.\nWestern Agent, Ginn & Co., Leavenworth.\nJessiz L. Ciark.\n1892. Supervisor of Music, Public Schools, 1203 N. Market St., Wichita.\nFENELLA Dana.\n1889, Teacher in Public Schools, go9 Tyler St., Topeka.\nN. E. Dory,\nSuperintendent of Schools, Leavenworth.\nS. J. Hunter, A.M., Kansas Univ.\n1896. Professor of Etymology, University of Kansas, 113 Park Ave., Lawrence.\n\nMary KE ty.\n\n1897. Principal of Ward School, 305 S. Water St., Wichita.\nLipa H, Mitts.\n1895, Assistant in High School, 1203 N. Market St., Wichita.\nMiss M.S. MircHe tt, B.S., Geneva Coll., Penn.\n\n1879.\n\n:\n\nTeacher in Public Schools, 507 W. 6th St., Topeka.\n\nL. H. Muruin, A.B., ’91, S.T.B., ’92, De Pauw Univ. ;!D.D., ’97, Cornell Coll.; S.T.D., ’97, Denver\nUniv.\n1894. President Baker University, Baldwin.\nMiss C, S. NEWELL.\n1890. ‘Teacher in Public Schools, 817 W. 14th St., Topeka.\nJuiia R. Pearce, B.S.,’90, Kan. Agri. Coll.\n\n1894.\n\nLibrarian State Agricultural College, Manhattan.\n\nDavin F. Suirk.\n\n1893. Superintendent of City Schools, Cottonwood Falls.\nE, A. SIMERWELL,\n1892. Principal of Grent School, r209 N. Western Ave., Topeka.\n*N, B. THompson.\nWaterville.\nH, E. Witson,\n1890. Superintendent of Indian Schools, Netawaka.\n1896, B, D, Van Ostranp, B.S., ’84, Cornell Univ.\n1894. Superintendent of City Schools, Marion.\nJ. J. Witxiyron, Grad. Ill, Nor. Univ.\n832 Merchants St., Emporia.\n1897. Cuares A. Boye.\n1893. Director of Music, State Normal School, 831 Constitution St., Emporia.\nLizziz Dickinson.\n1885. Principal cf Ward School, 321 N. Topeka Ave., Wichita,\nLaura FLacc.\n1889, Teacher in Schools, 1301 Connecticut St,, Lawrence.\n\nC.S, Fowier.\n\nPrincipal of Schools, Burlingame,\nL, A, Lowrurr, A.B., ’94, State Univ.\n1896. Superintendent of City Schools, 617 Exchange St., Emporia.\n\n"}
{"page": 1075, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIFE\n\nAND\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n1065\n\nKANSAS — Continued.\n1897.\n\nH. B, Prarrs,\nSupervisor of Indian Schools, r205 Rhode Island St,, Lawrence.\n\nWa ter\n\nG. RIsTE,\nPrincipal of County High School, Colby.\n\nSTaTE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE,\nJulia R. Pearce, Librarian, Manhattan.\nMrs. E, Davipson WorpDeEN.\n1896, Superintendent of Primary School for Kindergartners, 1100 Topeka Ave,, Topeka.\n\nKENTUCKY,\nLIFE\n\n1877.\n\nMrs, Laura L. MonsarRatT.\nPrincipal of Seventh Ward\nACTIVE\n\n1891.\n\nMEMBERS,\n\nW.H. BarTHoLomew.\n1881, Principal of Girls’ High School, 426 Gray St., Louisville.\nSchool, 208 W, Walnut St., Louisville.\nMEMBERS,\n\nCHARLES H, Dietricu, B.S., ’78, Ohio State Univ.\n\nAgent American Book Co., Hopkinsville.\n\nMcHenry Ruoaps, A.M., West Ky. Coll.; Ph.M., Hartford Coll.\n1891. Superintendent of Schools, 317, 3d St., Frankfort.\n1892.\n\nJ. D. CoLtzMaN, Ph.B., ’91, Hartford Coll., Ky.\n1892. Principal of High School, 249, sth St., Louisville,\n\nMary F, Dopson, Grad., ’75, Paducah High School.\n1880, Assistant Principal High School, 327 N, 4th St., Paducah.\n\nJas. E. Dorvanp.\n1873.\n\nAgent American Book Co., 1807, rst St., Louisville.\n\nGerorGE O, McBroom, A.B., ’85, Drake Univ., Ia.\n1890. Superintendent of Schools, 1035 Trimble St., Paducah.\n\n1893.\n\nH.R. BLAISDELL, Ph.D., ’76.\nPrincipal of High School, 66 E. 7th St., Covington,\nE, H. Marx.\n\n1894.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, Center and Walnut Sts., Louisville.\n\nJames McGinuis.\n1891, Superintendent of Schools, 522 Frederica St., Owensboro,\n\n1894.\n\nSustz M, BARTHOLOMEW.\n426 E, Gray St., Louisville.\nJ. M. N. Downes, B.S., ’86, Glasgow, Ky., Nor. School.\n\nSuperintendent of Bellevue Schools, 132 Taylor Ave,, Newport.\nMary K. Kearinc.\n;\n1830 W. Jefferson St., Louisville.\n\n1895.\n\nLivincstonE McCartney.\nke\n1895. Superintendent of Schools, Hopkinsville.\nAvex L, PETERMAN.\n:\nEditor of ‘* The Southern School,’’ Lexington.\n* Wirey T. Poynter, D.D., ’79, Emory and Henry Coll., Va.\nPrincipal Science Hill School, Shelbyville.\n\n1896.\n\n1897.\n\nF.S. ALLzy,\nn\n1896. Superintendent of Schools, Dayton.\nW, J. McConatuy.\n\n1895. Principal of Normal School, 1454, 2d St., Louisville.\nEpwarp Taytor, A.M.,, Earlham Coll., Richmond, Ind.\nSuperintendent of Schools, rrog College St., Bowling Green,\nJ. G. CrapBe, A.B., A.M., Ohio Wes. Univ.; M.Ped., Ohio Univ.\n1890, Superintendent of City Schools, Winchester Ave. and 22d St., Ashland.\nGrorcE BenjAmin HacceEtt, B.S., ’75, Grand River Inst.\nHan,\n1876. Principal of Public Schools, toro, 5th St., Louisville.\nJ\nG. Cuinton Hanna, A.M., ’72, Calvert Coll.\n\n1895.\n\nSuperintendent of City Schools, 207 Rose HiJl St,, Versailles.\n\nAnnik G, RotuH.\n1887.\n\nTeacher in Sixth Grade, Duncan St, School, 244: W. Chestnut St., Louisville,\n\nDora SNOBODA,\n1889.\n\nTeacher in Primary Department, 2623 W. Chestnut St., Louisville,\n\nE, W. WEAVER,\n\n1894.\n\n‘\n\n;\n\n:\n\nSuperintendent of City Schools, Paris,\n\n"}
{"page": 1076, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nLOUISIANA.\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS.\n\n1889,\n\nMiss Marion Brown,\n1895. Principal of New Orleans Normal School, 1538, 4th St., New Orleans.\nGro, J. Ramsey, A.M., Hampden Sidney Coll., Va.\n;\n1885,\nPresident Silliman Collegiate Institute, Clinton,\n\n1892.\n\nGero. South,\n\n1894.\n\nMiss H, A, SuTER,\n\n1895.\n\n1878.\nWarreEN EASTON,\n\n1896,\n\n1897.\n\n5\n\nPresident of Soulé Commercial College, 603 St. Charles St., New Orleans.\n\n;\n\n:\n\nVice-Principal of McDonough High Sch., No, 2, 1426 St. Andrew St., New Orleans.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, 4117 Perrier St., New Orleans.\nB, C, CALDWELL,\n,\n1896. President of State Normal School, Natchitoches.\nCiara G, BAER,\n1891. Dir, of Physical Education, Newcomb Coll., 1532 Washington Ave., New\nB, V. B, Dixon, A.M., LL.D.\nPresident of Newcomb College, 1730 H. Clay Ave., New Orleans.\nEve.Line A. WALDO.\nKindergarten Training Teacher, Normal Sch., 6106 St. Charles Ave., New\n\nOrleans.\n\nOrleans.\n\nMAINE,\nACTIVE MEMBERS,\n1890.\n\n1892.\n\nM. C, FERNALD, A.B., 61, A.M., 764, Ph.D., ’81, Bowdoin Coll.\n\nProfessor Mathematics, Emeritus, Maine State College, Orono.\nW. J. CorTHELL, A.B., 57, A.M., ’60, Waterville Coll. ;LL.D., ’92, Colby Univ.\n1879. Principal of State Normal School, Gorham,\n\n1893. *L, A, Gray, A.M., ’61, Oberlin Coll.\n1895.\n\n1864,\nJoun S. Locke,\n1892.\nW. W.STETSON.\n1895.\n\n;\nPrincipal of Business College, 22 Carleton St., Portland.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools; President York Institute, Saco,\n<\n\nState Superintendent of Common Schools, 295 Minot Ave., Auburn,\n\nMARYLAND,\n1876.\n\nLIFE MEMBER,\nSarAH E, RicHMOND,\n1875. Vice-Principal State Normal School, 1402 Pennsylvania Ave., Baltimore.\n\nACTIVE MEMBERS.\n1885,\n\n1891.\n1892.\n\n1893.\n\n1894.\n\n1895.\n1896,\n\nHenry A, Wise, Grad, of Virginia Military Inst.\n\n1883. Superintendent of Schools, City Hall, Baltimore.\nJoun E, McCanan, A.M.,’69, Dickinson Coll., Pa.\nAssistant Superintendent of Schools, 1719 Hollins St., Baltimore.\nE, B, Pretryman, A.B., 48, A.M., ’52, Dickinson Coll., Pa.\nPrincipal State Normal School and e2-officzo State Superintendent Public Instruction,\n1200 Lafayette Ave., Baltimore,\nJoun D. WorrTHINGTON,\nSuperintendent Harford County Public Schools, Belair.\nExt M, Lamps.\n1864. Principal Friends’ Elementary and High School, 937 and toor roos5 McCulloh St.,\nBaltimore,\nRacuet E, Lams.\nTeacher in Friends’ Elementary and High School, 1109 Madison Ave., Baltimore.\nW. H. SHEtiey, A.M., lowa Wesleyan Univ.\n?\n1890. Principal of Girls’ Latin School, St. Paul and 24th Sts., Baltimore,\nDaniEt C. Gitman, LL.D., Yale.\n1875. President Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore.\nH. M. Rowe, Ph.D.\n12 N, Charles St., Baltimore.\n\nMASSACHUSETTS.\nLIFE DIRECTORS.\n1865,\n\n1887,\n\nWiii1aM Evarts SHELDON, A.M., ’69, Middlebury Coll., Vt.\n1877. Editor of “American Teacher,”’ and Business Department ‘ Journal of Education,\n3 Somerset St., Boston.\nMrs, Mary H, Hunr.\n1879. Superintendent of Educational Department of National and (1887) of World’s W, C,\nT, U., 23 Trull St., Boston.\n\nLIFE MEMBERS,\n1864, *DANIEL BARNARD Hacer, A.M., ’46, Ph.D., *71, Union Coll., N, Y.\n\n1865.\n\nPrincipal of State Normal School, 12 Summer St., Salem,\n\nRn\nSe\nR\net\not\nee\nen\nA\naft\n\n"}
{"page": 1077, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIFE\n\nAND\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n1067\n\nMASSACHUSETTS — Continued.\n1870,\n\nDantEt W, Jones,\n\n1884.\n\nJoxun Bascom, LL.D., ’73, Amherst Coll. ; D.D., ’75, Iowa Coll.\n\n1859.\n\n1886,\n\nMaster Lowell Grammar School, Boston; 4 Hawthorn St., Roxbury.\n\n1891, Professor of Political Science, Williams College, Williamstown,\nWitr1am A. Mowry, A.M., Brown Uniy,; Ph.D., Bates Coll.\nLecturer and Writer, 17 Riverside Square, Hyde Park,\n\nACTIVE\n1884,\n1890,\n\nFRANK A, FITZPATRICK,\n55 Franklin\nALBERT G, BoypEn, A.M.,\n\n1860,\nMrs, Mary Dana\n1887.\nH, E. Horr.\n1868.\nARTHUR P, SMITH,\n\nMEMBERS,\n\nSt., Boston,\n\n61, Amherst Coll,\n\nPrincipal State Normal School, Bridgewater.\nHicks,\nDirector Prang Normal Art Classes, 646 Washington St., Boston.\nSupervisor of Music, Boston Public Schools, Box 10g, Lexington.\nPrincipal South Grammar School,\n\n11 High St., Waltham.\n\n189r, *Henry W, Biake, A.B., ’71, A.M., ’74, Williams Coll.\nEditor of ‘‘ Kindergarten News,” care of Milton Bradley Co., Springfield.\nG. STANLEY Hatt,\nPresident of Clark University, 94 Woodland St,, Worcester,\nD. C. Heatu, A.B., ’68, A.M., ’71, Amherst Coll.\n1876, Educational Publisher, rro Boylston St., Boston.\nAmy Morris Homans,\nDirector Normal School of Gymnastics and Normal School of Household\ng Appleton St., Boston.\nRay GREENE Hutine, A.B., ’69, A.M., ’72, D.S., ’94, Brown Univ.\n1893. Head Master of English High School, rox Trowbridge St., Cambridge.\nA, EuGENE Noten, A.B., ’67, A.M., ’70, Yale.\n1881, Teacher of Greek and Latin, High School, 3 Wood Place, Fitchburg.\nALvIN F, Pease, A.B.,’75, A.M.. ’78, Brown Univ.\n1888,\nSuperintendent of Schools, 77 Round Hill, Northampton,\nEizaBETH H, Perry,\n1891. Teacher of Drawing, Normal School, Bridgewater.\nJoun T, Prince, A.M., Ph.D., ’89, Leipzig.\nAgent Massachusetts Board of Education, West Newton.\nLucy WHEELOCK.\nTod\nKindergarten Training, 284 Dartmouth St., Boston.\n:\n1892. O. M. BAKER.\nPublisher, 499 Main St., Springfield.\nMILTON BRADLEY.\n;\n:\n\nKindergarten Publisher, Springfield.\n\nFrepeErIc L. Burk, B.L., ’83, Univ. of Cal.; A.M., ’92, Stanford Univ.\n\n1897.\n\nFellow in Psychology, Clark University, Worcester.\n\nJoun S. CLarK.\n\n)\n\n:\n\nManager, Prang Educational Co., 646 Washington St., Boston.\nCuartes W. Etrot, A.B., ’53, Harvard; LL.D., ’69, Williams, Princeton, ’70, Yale.\n\n1869. President of Harvard University, Cambridge.\nRopert C, METCALF,\nE\n1882, Supervisor of Schools, School Committee Rooms, Mason St., Boston.\n:\nUniv,\nJ. K. Stasieton, B.S., 82, A.M., ’87, Ohio Wesleyan\n\nStudent, School of Philosophy, to Mellen St,, Cambridge.\nWiLiiaM W, TaPLey,\n;\n4\nan\nAssistant Manager, Educational Department, Milton Bradley Co., Springfield.\nGrorce A, Watton, A.M., Williams Coll.\n68 Chestnut St., West Newton.\n“y\ntes\nHenry N. WHEELER, A.B.,’71, A.M., ’75, Harvard.\n1882, Supt. of Educational Department, Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 4 Park St.. Boston.\nArruur K, Wurtrcoms, A.B., ’73, Dartmouth.\n\n1891.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, Lowell.\n\nALBERT E, WINSHIP. |\n\n;\n\n;\n\nEditor of ‘‘ Journal of Education,”’ 3 Somerset St., Boston,\n\n1893.\n\nFrancis\n\n‘\nCoGswe tt, A.M., ’8r, Harvard.\n1874, Superintendent of Schools, 257 Prospect St., Cambridge.\n\nFrank IrvinG CooPER,\nDudley St., Newton Center,\nJounson, A.B., ’91, A.M., ’92, Brown Univ.\nie Master of Williams School, 311 Chestnut St., Chelsea,\n»\n. B, Kivzon.\nPrincipal Springfield Manual Training School, 41 Orleans St., Springfield.\nee\nErnest Henry\n\nArt,\n\n"}
{"page": 1078, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n1068\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nMASSACHUSETTS—Continued.\n1893.\n\nGrorceE H. Martin, A.M., 81, Amherst Coll.\n1892. Supervisor of Schools, Boston, 388 Summer St., Lynn.\nWitt S. Monrog, A.B., ’94, Stanford Univ., Cal.\n1896. ” Instructor in Pedagogy and Psychology, State Normal School, Westfield.\n;\n,\nCuartes C, Ramsay, A.B., ’92, A.M., ’92, Harvard.\n1892, Principal of B, M. C, Durfee High School, 90 Winter St., Fall River.\n\nEpwin P, Seaver, A.M., LL.B., Harvard.\n1880,\n1894.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, School Committee\n\nRooms, Boston.\n\nFrep W, Arkinson, B.A., ’90, Harvard; Ph.D., ’93, Leipzig. 1894. Principal of High School, 95 Elliott St., Springfield.\n\nf\nFREDERICK ELMER CHAPMAN,\n1891. Director of Music, Cambridge Public Schools, 126 Oxford St., North Cambridge.\nJ. A. Russe Li.\n\n6 Allston St., Boston,\n\nEpcar O, Sirver, A.B., ’83, A.M., ’86, Brown Univ. |\nublisher, President of the Corporation Silver, Burdette & Co,, 110-112\n\nBoylston\n\nSt., Boston.\n1895.\n\nSarau Louise ARNOLD,\n1895. Supervisor of Schools, Rooms of School Committee, Mason St., Boston,\nTuomas M, BALLIET.\n1887, Superintendent of Schools, 47 Vernon St., Springfield,\nEuGENE Bouton, A.B., ’75, A.M., 80, Yale; Ph.D., 81, Syracuse,\n1894. Superintendent of Schools, 60 Elizabeth St., Pittsfield.\nJ. E. Burke, A.B., ’90, A.M., ’93, Colby Univ.\n1894. Superintendent of Schools, Lawrence,\nC, F. CARROLL,\n.\n1894. Superintendent of Schools, 666 Main St., Worcester.\nLarkin Dunton, LL.D., ’80, Colby Univ.\n1872, Head Master of Boston Normal School, 16 Ashford St., Allston, Boston.\nS. T. Dutron, A.B., Yale.\n1890. Superintendent of Schools, Colborne Crescent, Brookline.\n*GrorGE R. FowLer, A.B., Dartmouth Coll, ;LL.B., Albany Law School.\n\n1894.\n\nMember of School Board, 220 Devonshire St., Boston.\n\nRotanp W, Guss, Grad., ’81, State Nor. Sch., Pa.; A.B., ’88, A.M., ’91, Wesl. Univ., Conn.\n\n1897.\n\nInstructor in Natural Science, State Normal\n\nIsaac FREEMAN Hatt.\n\n|\n\nSchool, 5 Montana St., North Adams,\n\né\n\n1895. Superintendent of Schools, 4 Elmwood Ave., North Adams,\nPaut H, Hanus, B.S.\nAssistant Professor of History and Art of Teaching, Harvard Uniy., 60 Buckingham St., Cambridge.\n\nALBERT BuSHNELL Hart, A.B., ’80, Harvard;\n\nPh,D.,\n\nFreiburg, Baden.\n\n1897. Professor of History, Harvard University, 15 Appian Way, Cambridge.\nHARVARD UNIVERSITY.\nPresident, Chas. W. Eliot; Cor. Secretary, Richard Cobb, Cambridge.\nFrank A, Hirt, A.B., ’62, A.M., ’65, Lit.D., ’94, Bowdoin.\n1894. Secretary State Board of Education, 366 Harvard St., Cambridge.\nAustin H, KENERSON,\nAgent for Ginn & Co., Schoolbooks, 13 Tremont Place, Boston.\nCHartes H, Keyes, A.B., ’78, St. John’s Coll.\n1897. Principal of High School, Holyoke.\nALONZO MESERVE,\n:\n1886. Master of Bowdoin School, 87 Linden St., Allston Station, Boston,\nCuarves H. Morss, A.B., ’80, A.M., ’82, Harvard,\n1895. Superintendent of Schools, Medford,\nJames Puinney Munrog, B.S., ’82, Mass, Inst. of Technology.\nAuthor, 179 Devonshire St,, Boston.\nCuas, W, PARMENTER, A.B., ’77, A.M., ’86, Ph.D., ’95, Tufts Coll.\n1894. Head Master of Mechanic Arts ‘High School, Boston; res., 80 Huron Ave., North\nCambridge.\nBaronEss Rose Posse,\n1892, Director of Posse Gymnasium and Editor ‘‘ Posse Gymnasium Journal,” 23 Irvington St., Boston,\nMara L, Pratr, M.D,\n\n1896.\n\nMedical Director of Durant Gymnasium, Boston,\n\nCuaRLES ARTHUR SIBLEY, A.B., 87, Amherst.\nManager Leach, Shewell & Sanborn, 68 Chauncey St., Boston.\nJoun G. THompson, A.B., ’86, A.M., ’94, Darmouth Coll,\n1895. Principal of State Normal School, 55 Garnet St., Fitchburg,\nALFRED TuRNER, B.S., *93, Amherst Coll.\n1897. Superintendent of Schools, Turner’s Falls.\n\ne\n\n"}
{"page": 1079, "printed_page": null, "text": "2\n\nA\n\nIIFE\n\nAND\nACTIVE\nES\nee a\n\nMEMBERS\neee\n\n1069\n\nMASSACHUSETTS—Continued.\n1895.\n\nHatriE TwIcHELt,\n1896. Springfield Industrial Institute, Springfield.\nHenry WuitTemore, A.B., ’66, Darmouth Coll,\n1883. Superintendent of Schools, 34 Appleton St., Waltham.\n\n1896.\n\nCuartes H, Ames, A.B.,°70, A.M., ’73, Amherst Coll.\nEducational Publisher, with D, C, Heath & Co., 110 Boylston St., Boston.\nL, E. Amipon, A.B., *92, Mich Univ.; Grad. Student, Harvard Univ,\n1892. Superintendent of Public Schools, West Bend, Wis. ;57 Oxford St., Cambridge.\nWiuuiaM C, Bates, A.B., Harvard,\nSuperintendent ot Schools, 330 Lincoln Ave., Fall River.\nWALLACE C, Boypen, A.B., ’83, A.M., ’86, Amherst.\n1889. Master Boston Normal School, 221 Walnut St., Newtonville.\nGro. W. Brown.\n1886, Principal Jackman School, 38 High St., Newburyport.\nE_meErR H. Capen, D.D.,’77, St. Lawrence Univ.\n1875. President of Tufts College, 8 Professors’ Row, Tufts College.\n\nC. H. Cuiips.\nPrincipal Childs’ Business College, 271 High St., Holyoke.\nJoserH G. EDGERLY.\n1875. Superintendent of City Schools, 37 Atlantic Ave., Fitchburg.\n\nFRANcES H. Loox.\n.\n1892. Principal of Florence Kindergartens, 116 Elm St., Northampton.\nLincoitn Owen, A.B., ’89, A.M., ’92, Colby Univ.\n1893. Master of Rice Training School, 53 Montview St., West Roxbury.\nWALTER Scott PARKER.\n\n1894.\n\nSupervisor, Boston Public Schools, Mason St. School Com. Rooms, Boston.\n\nM. T. PritcHARD.\nMaster Boston Grammar School, 125 School St., Roxbury.\nFRANK B. RicHarpson, Grad. Amherst College, ’80.\n1894. Dean Burdett College, Boston; 9 Mishawum Road, Woburn.\nDup.ey A. SARGENT, A.B., ’73, A.M., ’87, S.D., ’93, Bowdoin; M.D., ’78, Yale.\n\n1897.\n\n1879. Director Hemenway Gymnasium, Harvard Univ., 27 Everett St., Cambridge.\nK. N. WASHBURN.\nPublisher, Springfield.\nAMHERST COLLEGE LIBRARY.\n:\nPresident, Merrill Gates; Librarian, W. I. Fletcher, Amherst.\nS. F. BLropcett, A.M., ’74, Yale.\n;\nk\nSuperintendent of Schools, 103 Union Ave., So. Farmingham.\nBoston COLLEGE.\n:\n4\n'\nTimothy Brosnahan, President; Joseph J. McLaughlin, Librarian.\nGERTRUDE Epmunp, Ped.D.,’93, New York Univ.\n,\nPrincipal of Normal Training School, 74 Huntington St., Lowell.\nLitiian E, RoGeErs.\n;\n1896. Assistant in 7th Grade, Brookline; 37 Chesley Road, Newton Center,\nMICHIGAN,\nLIFE DIRECTORS,\n\n1895.\n\nHucu A. GranaM, A.B., 87, A.M., ’92, Albion Coll. ;A.B., ’90, Univ. of Mich,\n1893. Principal of Public Schools, Mt. Pleasant,\nCuar.es G, Wuitr, A,B., ’73, A.M., ’80, Ph.D., ’90.\n1884. Superintendent of Schools, Lake Linden,\n\n1884,\n\n:\n;\nRicuarp G, Boone, A.M., De Pauw Univ. ; Ph.D., Ohio Univ.\n1893. Principal of State Normal School, 730 Forest Ave., Ypsilanti.\nB, A. Hinspate, A.M., ’7x, Williams Coll. ;Ph.D., ’87, Ohio State Univ.; LL.D., ’92, Ohio Univ.\nBigtescon of Science and Art of Teaching, University of Michigan, 74 Washtenaw\nigre\nAve., Ann Arbor,\n\nACTIVE MEMBERS.\n\n1887.\n\n1889.\n\n1890.\n1892.\n\n’\nBid\noun A, STEWART, A.B., ’75, Univ. of Mich.\n1894. \"Superintendent of Schools, 517 Washington Ave., Bay City.\n:\nWm. Austin Exts, Grad. Mich. State Nor. Sch., 83; LL.B., ’95, Detroit Coll. of Law; Grad. Mich.\n%\nState Nor. Coll., ’97.\nre\n“1885. Pencnal of Duffield Grammar School, 424, 2nd Ave., Detroit,\n‘\nColl,\nWestminster\n’9r,\nA.B., ’86, Ph.D.,\n.\nee Seige ter President Michican State Agricultural College, Agricultural College, P.O.\n:\nds\nj\nUniv. of Mich.\nA.B., ’7 ,\n:\nadei ExSete Superintendent of Public Instruction, 49 Williams St., Pontiac.\nee gs\n\na\n\nYRA\n\ni\n\n“\n:\n\n.\n'\n:\nSupervisor of Drawing, Windermere Apartments, Detroit.\nA.B., A.M., Hope Coll., Mich.\nA eece Professor of Bactish Language and Literature, Hope Coll,, 284 Maple St., Holland,\n\nJONES.\n1883.\n\n"}
{"page": 1080, "printed_page": null, "text": "1070\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nMICHIGAN—Continued.\n1892.\n\nHenry R. Patrenaitt, B.S ,’74, Univ. of Mich,\n\n.\n\n1896. Editor and Publisher, 420 Townsend St., Lansing,\nW. S. Perry, A.B., ’61, A.M., ’71, Univ. of Mich, ; M.Ped., ’90, Mich, State Nor. Sch.\n1870, Superintendent of Schools, 417 Washington St., Ann Arbor.\n\nEpwin A. StronG, A.B., ’57, A.M., 61, Union Coll.\n\n~\n\nProfessor of Physical Sciences, State Normal School, 127 Normal St., Ypsilanti.\n\nA. W. Tresser, A.B., ’91, Univ. of Mich.\n1893.\n\n1893. Superintendent of Schools, Monroe.\nMary A. GRANDY.\n:\nE\n1889. Supervisor of Music, Public Schools, Calumet.\nMrs. C, G. Wuire, Ph.B.\n:\noy\n1886. Principal of High School, Lake Linden.\n\nS. Emory WHITNEY.\nZ\n;\n188s, Principal of Cass School,53 E. High St., Detroit.\n1894.\n\nRicHarD Harpy, B.S., Univ. of Mich.\n;\n1894. Superintendent of Schools, Ishpeming.\nE. D, Pacmer, A.B., ’89, A.M., ’92, Hillsdale Coll.; A.M., ’97, Univ. of Mich.\n1895. Commissioner of Schools, Clare Co,, Clare.\nDuranp W, SprinceER, B.S., ’86, Albion Coll.\n:\n‘\n:\n1893. Director of Business Department, High School, 48 E. University Ave., Ann Arbor.\n\nEpwin C, Tuompson, M.Ped., Mich. State Nor. Sch,\n1886.\n\n1895.\n\n;\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, rxz7 Court St., Saginaw, W. S.\n\nALLEN S, WuitNEy, A.B., '85, Univ. of Mich,\n.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 405 N, Warren St., Saginaw, E, S,\nFREDERICK W, Arsury, A.B., ’83, Univ. of Mich.\nRepresenting Silver, Burdette & Co., 68 Marshall St., Battle Creek.\nFREDERICK L, Briss, A.B., ’77, Univ. of Mich.\n1887.\n\nPrincipal of High School, 46 Alexandrine Ave. E., Detroit,\n\nEcpert L, Briccs, Ph.B., ’95, McKendree Coll,, Ill.\n:\n1893. Superintendent of Schools, 70 Church St., Coldwater,\nWILLIAM WALLACE CHALMERS, A.B., ’87, Univ. of Mich, ; A.M,, ’89, Eureka Coll. ;B.Ped.,’91, Mich.\nState Normal,\n1890, Superintendent of Schools, 422 Lyon St., Grand Rapids.\nFRANK W, Cooey, B.S., ’81, M.S., ’86, Lawrence Univ.\n1893. Superintendent of Schools, 27 Mine St., Calumet.\nIra L, Forbes,\n1887, Superintendent of Schools, 18 S. Main St., Vassar.\nH. H. Frost, A.B., 785, Univ. of Mich,\n1897. ‘Teacher of Geometry and Rhetoric, Central High School, 1302 John R St., Detroit.\nAustin GEorGE, A.B., 66, A.M,, 69, Kalamazoo Coll.; M.Ped., ’93, Mich. State Normal School.\nSuperintendent of Public Schools, rrr Normal St., Ypsilanti.\nJason E, Hammonp, B.S., ’86, Mich. Agri. Coll.\nState Superintendent of Public Instruction, Lansing.\nAnna B, Herric, Grad, Oswego Normal School.\nTraining and Method Teacher, Student Chic. Univ. ;822 Adams St., Saginaw, W. S.\n\nCari C, MARSHALL.\n1896.\n\n1895. Educational Author, r25 Freling Ave., Battle Creek,\nJames W. Curppves, A.M., ’89, Wesleyan Univ.\n1897. Superintendent of Schools, Buchanan,\nA, E, Curtis, A.B., ’66, A.M., ’70, Union Univ.\n1896. Superintendent of Schools, rr3 W. Maumee St., Adrian.\n\nCora A, GARDINIER.\nTeacher in Public Schools, 186 Barclay St., Grand Rapids.\nS. B. Larrp, M,S., ’96, McKendree Coll., Ill.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 215 Pine St. North, Lansing.\nW\\., Licursopy, B.S., Mich, Agr. Coll. ; B.Ped., Mich. Normal Sch.\nPrincipal Higgins School, Woodmere; 439 Bagg St., Detroit,\nDavin MacKenzig, A.M., Univ. of Mich.\n1892. Superintendent of Schools, Muskegon,\n\nJames M, Manbevitie, Grad, Mich, State Normal School.\n1891. Principal of Amos School, 278, 24th St., Detroit.\nO, L. MILLER, A.B., ’90, Univ. of Mich,\n1893. Superintendent of Schools, Charlotte,\nNiex S, Puetprs,\nPresident of Ellis Publishing Co., Limited, 31 Marshall St., Battle Creek,\nLew, D, RemincTon.\n\n1890, Principal of High School, 1020 Adelaide-St.,. Fentom,\nW.YV. Saaz, B.S,\nSuperintendent\nof Schools, Decatur.\nJ. D. Semmrrr, A:M., *87, Hillsdale Coll,\nSuperintendentjof Schools, Niles,\n\nS\nee\na\nee\n\n"}
{"page": 1081, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIFE\n\nAND\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n1071\n\nMICHIGAN — Continued.\n1896.\n\nAnna A, SCHRYVER,\nTeacher Natural Science Dept., State Normal Coll., 617 Packard St., Ann Arbor,\nM, Scorr.\n1886. Principal Normal Training School, The Alhambra, Detroit.\nMrr, Emma A. Tuomas,\nSupervisor of Music, 91 Watson St., Detroit.\nHarriet\n\nO. I. WoopLey.\n1894.\nL. L. WricHT.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, 617 Stephenson Ave., Menominie.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, Ironwood.\n1897.\n\nH. Z. Brock, B.S., ’85, Univ. of Mich.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, Hancock.\nFrancis\n\nD, Ciarke, C.E., Univ. of Mich.\nSuperintendent of State School for the Deaf, Flint.\nDELos Fatt, B.S., ’75, M.S., ’82, Univ. of Mich,\n1879. Professor of Chemistry, Albion College, rr0r Michigan Ave., Albion,\nW. H. Fort,\nSuperintendent of Public Schools, Munising.\n\nW. F. Lyon.\n1887. Supervisor of Penmanship, 534 Greenwood Ave., Detroit.\nCuarLes McKenny, B.S., ’8z, Mich, Agr. Coll.; A.B., 89, A.M., ’92, Olivet.\n1896. Principal Central Michigan State Normal School, Mt. Pleasant.\nJoun NorTHMORE,\n1877. Superintendent of Schools, Republic.\nF. N. Scortr, Ph.D., ’89, Univ. of Mich.\nJunior Professor of Rhetoric, University of Michigan, 1 College St., Ann Arbor,\nA, L. Suaw, B.S.,’94, Olivet Coll.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Gobleville.\nGerorceE C, SHEPARD.\n1880. Supervisor of Music, 15 N. Union St., Grand Rapids.\nBELLE M, Tower.\n.\n1896. Critic Teacher, Wealthy Ave. Normal School, 531 Jefferson Ave., Grand Rapids,\nWixuraM S, WuirE, Ph.B., ’89, Albion Coll.\nState Agent for the American Book Co., Morton House, Grand Rapids.\n\nMINNESOTA.\nLIFE DIRECTOR.\n1870,\n\nWiut1aM F, PuHetrs, A.M., ’52, Union Coll, N. Y.\nDirector, State Normal Schools, 5r2 Washburn Boul,, St. Paul,\n\n1864.\n\nCaLvin SMITH PENNELL, A.M., ’50, Colby Univ.\nEx-Professor of Moral and Mental\nKnapp St., St. Anthony Park,\n\n1890,\n\nBoarp\n\nLIFE\n\nMEMBERS,\n\nPhil., Washington\n\nUniv., St. Louis, Mo., 2245\n\noF Epucation, Independent School District No. 3, Northfield.\nPresident, W. A. Hunt, M.D.;\n\nSecretary, S. Finkelson, Northfield.\n\nACTIVE MEMBERS,\n1880,\n1883,\n\n1886,\n1890,\n\n1892.\n1893.\n\n1804.\n\nD, L, Krewze, A.B., 6x, A.M., ’64, LL.D., ’87, Hamilton Coll., N. Y.\n?\n1893. Professor of Pedagogy, Univ. of Minn., 2800 Portland Ave., Minneapolis,\nIrwin SHEPARD, A.B., 71, A.M., 774, Ph.D., ’93, Olivet Coll., Mich.\n’\n1879. President of State Normal School, 1x8 W. Wabasha St., Winona.\nFreperick E. Stratton, A.B., ’71, A.M., ’74, Williams Coll.; Ph.D., gr, Ill. Wesleyan Univ,\n1892. Principal of Academy, Carleton College, Northfield.\nRopert Epuarp DEenFELD, A.B., ’76, A.M., & Amherst Coll,\n1885. Superintendent of Schools, Central High Schoo}, Duluth.\nVircit G. Curtis, A.M., Tufts Coll.\n1896. Superintendent of Schools, 768 Goodrich Ave., St, Paul.\nCuas. M, Jorpan, Ph.D., ’92, Tufts Coll.\n;\n‘\n1892. Superintendent of Schools, 615 E. 18th St., Minneapolis,\n.\nQ\nA, W, Rankin, A.B., ’80, University of Minn.\nr89s. State Inspector of Graded Schools, rs29 University Ave. S, E., Minneapolis.\n;\n:\n4\nGeorce B, Aiton, A.B., 81, A,M., ’87, Univ. of Minn.\n1893. State Inspector of High Schools, r60r University Ave, S. E., Minneapolis,\n;\n:\n,\nSaran C, Brooks,\nSupervisor of Kindergartens and Primary Work, 631 Westminster St., St, Paul.\n\nC. H. Concpon.\n\n1886.\n\nS. A, FARNSWORTH.\n1886.\n\n;\n\nSupervisor of Music, 639 St. Anthony Ave., St. Paul.\n\n|\n\n-\n\nPrincipal of Cleveland High School, 529 Case St., St. Paul,\n\n"}
{"page": 1082, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n1072\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nMINNESOTA—Coxtinued.\n\n894.\nrth\n\n;\n318 West King St., Winona.\n;\n;\nL. Grace Hopkins.\nStenographer, State Normal School, 318 W. King St., Winona.\n.\nJ. G. Hopkins,\n\nIsABEL LAWRENCE.\n\n1879, Training Teacher in Normal School, St. Cloud,\nLivincston C, Lorp,\n1888, President of State Normal School, Moorhead,\n;\nLucia M, MILLER.\nPrincipal of Webster School, 63: Westminster St., St. Paul.\nMary L, OLps.\n’\n1889. Principal of Franklin School, 301 E. 3d St., Duluth.\n\nWiiuiAm Wirt Penpercast,\n\nA.M.,\n\n’93, Bowdoin Coll.,\n\nMe.\n\n'\n\n1893. Superintendent of Public Instruction, cor. Washington and Market Sts., Hutchinson\nALEx M, Rowe, A.B., ’72, A.M., ’79, Oberlin Coll.\n1897. Superintendent of Schools, Little Falls.\n\n1895.\n\nF, J. BoMBERGER, B.S. |\n1894. Superintendent of Schools, Zumbrota,\nFLAviA DEAN,\n\n,\n\nTeacher in Grammar Grade, Blue Earth City.\n\nA, E, Encstrom, A.B., ’78, A.M., ’81, Carleton Coll.\n1881, County Superintendent of Schools, Cannon Falls.\nTuos. J. GRAY.\n‘st\nSa\n:\nUniversity of Minnesota, College of Medicine, Minneapolis.\nF, V. HupBarp,\nf\n1896. Superintendent of Schools, Red Wing.\n\nC. W. G. Hype.\n\nAsst. State Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1983 St. Anthony Ave., St, Paul.\nGero. R. KLEEBERGER.\n1895. President of State Normal School, St. Cloud.\n\nS. S. PARR.\n\nZs\n:\n- © 1889. Sup¢rintendent of Schools, 520, 2d Ave. S., St. Cloud.\nS, J. Racs.\n‘\n1887. County Superintendent of Schools, Redwood.\nEDWARD SEARING,\n1880. President State Normal School, Mankato.\nW. A, SHOEMAKER.\n1881. Teacher of Mathematics and Methods, St. Cloud.\nWiuiaM G, SmITH,\nEditor ‘‘ School Education,’’ 26 Washington Ave. S., Minneapolis.\nJas. W. Strona, A.B., 758, A.M., ’61, D.D., ’72, Beloit Coll.\n1870. President of Carleton College, 108 College Ave., Northfield.\nApotru C, TIBBETTS,\n1896. Superintendent of Schools, St. Charles.\nFRANK A, WELD,\n1895. Superintendent of Schools, 515 S. 3d St., Stillwater.\n\n1896.\n\nHarrier L, ANpDREws, A.B., ’90, A.M., ’94, Univ. of Minn.\n1895. Teacher of Latin, South High School, 432, 4th St. S. E,, Minneapolis.\nC, A. BaLiarp, B.S., ’94, Univ. of Minn.\n1894. Superintendent of Schools, Fergus Falls,\nJ. D. Bonn, B.S., Milton Coll., Wis,\n1872. Assist. Superintendent in Public Schools, 45: Marshal Ave., St, Paul.\nCLARENCE M., BoureEtte, LL,D., ’96, St. Stephen’s Coll., Annondale, N. Y.\n1895. Superintendent of Schools, Marshall,\nMrs, ALIcE W. CooLey,\n;\n1895. Supervisor of Primary Schools, 1674 Hennepin Ave., Minneapolis.\nR. W. Cranston.\nAgent for E. H. Briller & Co,, 1928 Portland Ave., Minneapolis.\nC. C, Curtiss, A. M., Hamilton Coll.\nPresident of Curtiss’ Commercial College, 50614 Nicollet Ave., Minneapolis.\nJames J. Dow.\n1875. Superintendent of School for the Blind, Faribault.\n\nErra J. Fay.\n\n1892.\n\nW. W. Hosss.\n1892,\nO. E. McFapon,\n\n1Baf Teacher Washburn Memorial\napolis ; home address, Richfield.\n\nHome, soth St, and Nicollet Ave., Minne-\n\nPrincipal N. S. High School, 48 N, 16th St., Minneapolis.\nSupervisor of Music, 3042, sth Ave, S., Minneapolis.\n\nJanet H, Nunn.\n1891.\n\nTeacher of Latin, High School, 161 W. Wabasha St., Winona,\n\n—\n}\n\nee\n\n"}
{"page": 1083, "printed_page": null, "text": "ee\n\nLIFE\na SE\n\nI\n\nAND ACTIVE MEMBERS\nee ane it See Ce\n\n1073\nei\n\nMINNESOTA—Coxtinued,\n\n1896.\n\n1897.\n\nJoHN W. OLseENn.\n1891.\nBonnie Snow.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, Freeborn Co., Albert Lea.\n\nSupervisor of Drawing, Public Schools, gor, 2nd Ave. S. E., Minneapolis.\nHELEN Forp Srapes.\n1891. Primary Teacher, 127 E. Broadway, Winona.\nJ. L. THatcuer, B.L., ’93, Univ. of Wis.\n1893. Superintendent of City Schools, Little Falls.\nJ. A. VANpyKE, A.M.,.’90, B.Ped., ’89, B.Ph., ’87, Univ. of Iowa.\n1892. Superintendent of Schools, Wabasha.\nW. F. WessTER, A.B., Univ. of Minn.\nPrincipal of East Side High School, 1025, sth St., S, E., Minneapolis.\nE. W. AvERy,\nAgent for Shelby & Co., P. O. Box 503, Minneapolis,\nI. I, BARGEN,.\nCounty Superintendent of Schools, Mountain Lake.\nWiiiiaM A, BartLett, B.S., 787, A.M., ’90, Iowa Coll.\n1896. Principal of High School, 126 W, 5th St., Winona,\nLisBetH M, Butler.\nPrincipal of Baker School, 356 Fuller St., St, Paul.\nMarGareET BuTLeErR.\nPrimary Teacher, 356 Fuller St., St. Paul.\nA. B, Curisty, Ph.M.\nSuperintendent of Schools, East Grand Forks,\nAnna H, Curisty, Ph.M., ’7o.\nPrincipal of High School, East Grand Forks,\nEste.te M, Darran, A.B., ’96, Stanford Univ,\nTeacher of Method, State Normal School, Mankato,\nHERBERT\n\nR. Epwarps,\n\nPh.B., ’9x, Alfred Univ.\n\nPrincipal of High School, Wheaton.\nFrances A, ELMER,\nTeacher of Latin, State Normal School, 116 W, Wabasha, Winona,\nLyman H, Forp, A.B., ’92, A.M., ’93, Univ. of Wooster,\n1893. Superintendent of Schools, Owatonna,\nGero, A. FRANKLIN, 777 Grad. of Nor. Sch., Normal, Ill.\n1894. Superintendent of Schools, 630 Main St., Faribault.\nLaura Hanp.\n1893. Principal of Van Buren School, 558 Lincoln Ave., St. Paul.\nGeo. C. HuBBARD.\nTeacher of Biology in State Normal School, 805, 5th Ave. S., St, Cloud.\nP, P, KENNEDY, B.S., ’go.\n1895. Superintendent of Schools, Fairmont.\n\nMary A, KEYEs.\n\n:\n\nCritic Teacher, State Normal School, Winona,\nE. A. KirxpaTrick, B.S., ’87, M.Ph., ’89, Ames.\n,\nInstructor in Psychology, State Normal School, 215 W. King St., Winona,\nLaura A. Knott, A.M., ’97, Radcliffe Coll.; Ph.B., ’87, Hamline Univ.\nHead of Depart. of English, State Nor. Sch., Lowell, Mass. ; res., Spring Valley.\n\nMary E. Lyncu.\n\nF\n\n.\n\nPrimary Teacher, 529 Sarnia St., Winona.\n\nL. J. RocHoi.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, Stearns Co., 511, 7th Ave. N., St. Cloud,\n:\n:\n.\nPrincipal of South High School, 827, r5th Ave., Minneapolis,\nWorcESTER SLACK, Ph.B., ’95, Ill. Wes, Univ.\n1876, Principal of Schools, 735 Olive St,, St. Paul.\n\nC, L, SAWYER,\nHrram\n\nAtma\n\nB, STANFORD.\n\n1894. Principal of High School, Northfield.\nStaTE NormMat Scuoot aT MOORHEAD.\n|\nLivingston C, Lord, President, Moorhead.\nStrate Norma\nx\n\nState NorMat\n\nScuoor at St, CLoup.\nGeo, R. Kleeberger, President, St. Cloud.\n‘\n,\n;\nScHoot at WINONA, |\nIrwin Shepard, President; Frances A, Elmer, Librarian, Winona,\n\nM. CorNnELIA STEVENSON,\n\n:\n\n:\n\n1887. Teacher of English in Central High School, Hampshire Arms, Minneapolis.\n:\n:\nELLEN J. STRADER.\n1897. ‘Teacher in 6th Grade, 2700 E, 27th St., Minneapolis.\nJ\ns E, WALKER.\nue\nPrincipal of Lincoln School, The Portland, St, Paul.\nF, WHEATON.\n:\n.\na\nPrincipal of Webster School, 812 E, 14th St., Minneapolis.\n=\n\n"}
{"page": 1084, "printed_page": null, "text": "1074\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nce\nFr\n—~\n\nEe\n\nMISSISSIPPI.\nACTIVE\n\n1890,\n\n. R, PRESTON.\n1896,\n:\n\n1892,\n\nDasney Lipscoms, A.M., ’81, Univ. of Miss.\n\n1894.\n\nMEMBERS,\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, Water Valley.\n:\n\n;\n\nee\n\nProfessor of English and of Belles-lettres, University of Mississippi. Oxford.\n,\n:\nRozert B, Futton, A.B., 69, A.M., ’74, Univ. of Miss.; LL.D., ’95, Univ. of Nashville.\n1875. Professor of Phys. and Astronomy; 1892, Chanc., Univ. of Mississippi, University.\n1895.\n\n1895.\n\nE. E. Bass, B.L., 83, Mo. State Univ.\n3\n1884. Superintendent of Schools, 16 Shelby St., Greenville.\n\n1896,\n\nRicuarp\n\nM. Leavett, A.B., ’59, Univ. of Miss.; LL.D., 89, Miss, Coll. _\n;\nf\n1890, Professor of History and Philosophy, Univ. of Mississippi, University.\n\nA, A. Kincannon, A.B., M.S., Lebanon, O.\n1896. State Superintendent of Education, Jackson.\n\nMISSOURI,\nLIFE DIRECTORS,\n\n1877.\n\nF. Louis\n\nSotpan, LL.D.,’83, South Carolina Univ,\n:\n1895. Superintendentof Schools, 3634 Flad Ave., St. Louis.\n\n1886,\n\nJ. M. Greenwoop, A.M.,, ’73, Univ. of Missouri.\nme\né\n1874, Superintendent of Schools, Room O, Public Library Building, Kansas City.\n\n1871,\n\nJ. B. Merwin,\n\n1886,\n\nCuarves H, Evans, A.M., ’78, William Jewell Coll., Liberty, Mo.\n\nLIFE MEMBERS,\n:\n\nEditor ‘¢ American School and College Journal,’’ 3609 Palm St., St. Louis.\n\nG. I. Harvey.\n1895,\n\nPrincipal Switzer School, 2204 Troost Ave., Kansas City.\nACTIVE\n\n1887.\n\n1889.\n\n189q1,\n\n1892.\n\nMEMBERS.\n\nCavin Mitton Woopwarp, A.B., ’60, Harvard Univ.; Ph.D., 784, Washington Univ.\n1870. Professor of Mathematics and Applied Mechanics; 1879, Director Manual Training\n\nSchool, Washington University, 3013 Hawthorne Boul., St. Louis.\nJ. U. Wuirte, B.S., ’85, Missouri State Nor. School.\n1892. Superintendent of City Schools, 410 Madison St., Jefferson City.\nGeo. L. Osporne, A.M., 768, Waynesburg, Pa., Coll.; LL.D., ’85, Central Univ., Richmond, Ky.\n1875. President of State Normal School, 2d Dist., Warrensburg.\nMrs, Matirtpa Evans RILEY.\n1887. Director of Drawing, Public Schools, 9th and Locust Sts., St. Louis. |\nL. E. Wore.\n1894. High School, 2212 Charlotte St., Kansas City.\nJoun R. Kirk.\n1895. State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Jefferson City.\nGrorcE T, Murpuy.\nAssistant Superintendent of Schools, 4946 Berlin Ave., St. Louis.\nF, D. THARPE.\nf\n:\n1884. Principal of Webster School, 3216 Anderson Ave., Kansas City.\nRicHarp Henry Jesse, LL.D., ’9r, Tulane Univ., La.\n1891. President of University of State of Missouri, Columbia,\nMary C. McCuttocn.\n1884. Supervisor of Kindergartens, 3851 Washington Ave., St. Louis.\nFLORENCE McNEat.\n\n1896.\nC. W. Rossins.\n\n1893.\n\n:\n\nEditor of ‘* American College and Public School Directory,” St. Louis.\n\nTeacher in Public Schools, 310 E, roth St., Kansas City.\n\nPresident, Central Business College, Massachusetts and 6th Sts., Sedalia, James UnNDERWoop BARNARD.\n1897. Principal of Webster School, 3038 E. 7th St., Kansas City.\nIpa K, GREENLEE, A.B., ’84.\n1896. Teacher in Public Schools, 9r7 Penn St., Kansas City.\n\nA. W. Norton, A.B., 73, A.M., ’76, Rochester Univ.\n\n1894.\n\n1896. Chair of Pedagogy, State Normal School, 413 E, Broad St.; Warrensburg.\nO. M. Woop,\n1883, Principal of L’Ouverture School, 3016 Caroline St., St. Louis.\nGrorce V. Bucuanan, A.M., ’94, McKendree Coll., Ill.\n1893. Superintendent of Schools, 614 W. 7th St., Sedalia,\nEpwin D. Luckey, B.S.D., ’87, State Normal School, Kirksville, Mo.\n1893. Principal Elleardville School, 1332 Union Boul., St, Louis,\nMrs. Mary V. NEET.\n;\n1891.\n\nTeacher of Reading and Elocution, State Normal School, Warrensburg.\n\n|\n|\n|\n\nhew\noS\n\n"}
{"page": 1085, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIFE AND\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n1075\n\nMISSOURI — Continued.\n\n1895.\n\nWittiam\n\nH, Brack, A.M.,’76, Waynesburg Coll. ; D.D., ’88, Cumberland Univ,\n\n1889,\n\nPresident of Missouri Valley College, Marshall.\n\nIra I. Camack, B.S., ’84, Earlham Coll., Ind.\n1886, Principal of Lathrop School, r515 Central St., Kansas City.\nSARAH E, Croucn.\n\n1890.\n\nLongfellow School, 2915 Charlotte St., Kansas City.\n\nArtTHuR A, Dopp, M.S.D., '86, State Normal School, Warrensburg, Mo. ;B.S., ’9s5, Harvard.\n1896. Mathematics Manual Training High School, 801 Gladstone St., Kansas City.\nMary GILpay.\nTeacherjin Jefferson School, 1403 Wabash Ave., Kansas City.\nGERTRUDE HAtt.\nTeacher in Private School, St. Louis.\nWILi1aAM Henry Lyncu, A.M., ’68, Univ. of Missouri.\n1895. Ex-President of West Plains College, Grace Ave., West Plains.\nRicHarp C, Norton, A.M., LL.D.\n1893. Department of Didactics, State Normal School, Kirksville.\nJOSEPHINE NORVILLE.\nChair of English, High School, 336 E. Webster St., Chillicothe.\nCHARLES B. REYNOLDS,\n188r. Superintendent of Schools, 412 E. Franklin St., Clinton.\nCorpiE TAYLor.\n\n409 W. 13th St., Kansas City.\n\nLouis THEILMANN, B.S., ’85, M.S., ’88, Missouri Univ.\n1888. Associate Principal of Academy, Appleton City.\nMarie L. Turner.\n\n1891.\n\nPrincipal of Public School, Clayton.\n\nUNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF Missourt.\nPres., Dr, R. H. Jesse; Sec’y, J. T. Babb, Columbia.\nEpitH WEBER.\nTeacher in Franklin School, Kansas City.\n\nJ. A. WHITEFORD.\n1896.\n\nLuu BLACKBURN,\n\nCARRIE Boun.\n\nSuperintendent of City Schools.\nTeacher in Webster School, Kansas City.\n\n108 High St., Jefferson City.\n\nE. E. Dopp.\n\n1897.\n\nDealer in School Supplies, Carthage.\nJ. Farrpanks, A.B., A.M.\n1875. Superintendent of City Schools, Springfield.\nAMELIA C, FRUCHTE.\n:\nFirst Assistant Normal and High School, 4296 Washington Ave., St. Louis.\nJOSEPHINE HEERMANS. |\n‘\n1891. Principal Whittier School, 1803 E. 7th St,, Kansas City.\nOpHELIA A, PARRISH.\n;\n,\n1896. Assist. Superintendent of Schools, 748 N. Main St., Springfield.\nW. H. Vaucun, A.B., ’77, A.M., ’79, Kirksville Nor. Sch.\n1892, High School, 4026 Peck St., St. Louis.\n:\n;\n:\nIsABELLA M. ANDREWS.\n1886. Teacher in Normal and High School, 2734 Olive St., St. Louis.\nZ. R. AsupauGu, Grad., ’72, Hillsdale Coll., Mich.\n:\n1879. With Maynard, Merrill & Co., Midland Hotel, Kansas City.\nBen. BLEwETT, A.B., ’76, A.M., ’79, Washington Univ.\n:\nAssistant Superintendent of Schools, gth and Locust Sts,, St, Louis.\nW. N. Dosson.\nj\n’\nPresident of State Normal School, Kirksville.\nPauLINE DOBSON.\nKirksville.\nR. S. Douctas.\n:\n1896. Principal of High School, Malden.\nGrace GEARY.\n1896. Teacher in Superior Normal School, 1515 Campbell St., Kansas City.\ny\n;\nExiza C, GILL.\n:\nTeacher in Public Schools, 23x0 Lydia St., Kansas City.\n.\nPETER HERZOG.\n\ns\n\nPrincipal Blair School, St. Louis.\n\nee\n\n'\n. F, Horrman, A.M., ’88, Univ. of Mo.\n1895. Professor of German, Univ. of Mo., Columbia.\n\n=\n\n. B, LOnGaN.\n\n1880,\n\nPrincipal of Schools,\n\nbys\n\n:\n\n1517 Michigan Ave., Kansas City,\n\n:\n. SALLIE C. MAGUIRE.\nchases\n1887, First Assistant, Lincoln School, 912 E, roth St., Kansas City.\n\n"}
{"page": 1086, "printed_page": null, "text": "“s\n\nNATIONAL\n\n1076\n\n1897.\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nMISSOURI —Continued.\nA.M.\n:\nPresident State Normal School Board, Cape Girardeau.\neae\n:\n:\n. A. Merritt, B.S., Harvard.\nTeacher of Manual Training, High School, Kansas City.\n:\n,\nSaraH J. MILLIGAN,\n1888. Principal of Webster Groves School, St. Louis.\n;\nA.ex H, Nog.\n1894. Principal of Laclede School, 1518 S. Broadway, St. Louis.\n\nS. McGueg,\n\nERMINE OWEN,\nH. W.\n\nPRENTIS,\n\nTeacher in Normal School, Kirksville.\n\n3968 W, Bell St., St. Louis,\nMONTANA.\n\n.\n\nLIFE MEMBER,\nJ. E. Kock.\n1896,\n\n1806.\n1897.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, 703, sth Ave., Helena.\n\nACTIVE MEMBERS,\nEverett E, Paxson.\ny\n1897. Teacher in Public Schools, 821 Granite St., Butte.\nOscar J. Craic, A.M., De Pauw Univ. ; Ph.D., Wooster Univ,\nPresident of University of Montana, 318 W, 2nd St., Missoula.\nJ. C. Tempteton, B.S., ’85, National Normal Univ., O.\n>\n1890. Teacher of Higher Mathematics and Vice-President of Montana Wesleyan University, University Place, Helena,\nJames M. Hamirton, M.S., ’90, Union Christian Coll.\n1889. Superintendent of Schools, Missoula,\nW. H. Jounson, A.M., ’90, Univ. of Kansas,\n1896, Principal of High School, Helena.\nJames Rem, A.B., ’81, McGill Coll.\n.\nPresident of Montana College of A, and M, Arts, Bozeman.\nCynTHIA E, REILEY.\nProfessor of Mathematics, University, Missoula.\nD, E, SANDERS.\n1897. President State Normal School, Dillon,\nE, A. STEERE, B.S., ’8z, M.S., ’95, Univ. of Wisconsin.\nHelena,\nE. A. CARLTON,\nState Superintendent of Public Instruction, Helena.\nMrs. M, S. Cummins, A. F. Seminary, Staunton, Va.\nProfessor of Modern Languages and Latin, Wesleyan University, Helena.\nLizziz P. Jones, A.M., ’90, Shepardson Coll.\nDillon,\nFRANK C, PATTEN.\nLibrarian, Public Library, Helena.\n\nMrs. LAuRA ZooK,\n\nSuperintendent of Custer County.\nNEBRASKA.\n\nLIFE MEMBERS,\n1376,\n1880,\n\n1884.\n1886,\n\n1890,\n\nr8qr.\n\n1892.\n\n1894.\n\nS. DEWnrrt BEALs,\nTeacher, Secretary, and Librarian of High School, 2118 Davenport St., Omaha.\nMrs. Grace B, SupBoROUGH.\n1890. Principal of Teachers’ Training School, 549 S. 26th Ave., Omaha,\nRopert Curry, A.B., ’48, A.M., ’51, Jefferson Coll.; Ph.D., ’73, Washington and Jefferson Coll.\nJ. H. Mitier.\n1890,\n\nPalmyra,\n\ni\nEditor and Publisher, ‘‘ Northwestern\n\nMonthly,’? Lincoln.\n\nACTIVE MEMBERS,\n\nLizzie L, BANKER,\n1890. Principal of Central Park School, 4736 N, 39th St., Omaha.\nHenry R. Corbett, B.S,, ’89, Hastings,\n1894. Ex-State Superintendent of Public Instruction, 206-208 Bee Building, Omaha.\nALEXANDER A. Munro, A.B., ’84, Univ. of Neb,\n\n1887.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, 1322 N. 26th St., South Omaha.\n\nC. G. PEARSE,\n1895. Superintendent of Schools, 508 City Hall, Omaha,\nW. K. Fow.er.\n1893. Superintendent of Schools, Blair,\nEpna T, MESERVE.\n1895. Teacher in Public Schools, 806 Marshall St., McCook.\n\n"}
{"page": 1087, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIFE\n\nAND\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n1077\n\nNEBRASKA — Continued.\n\n(894.\n\n£895.\n\nD.C. O’Connor, A.M., *89, Allegheny Coll., Meadville, Pa.\n1892. Superintendent of Schools, roos Lincoln St., West Point.\nAnna TIBBETTS.\n1892, Principalof Grammar School, 658 S. 17th St., Lincoln.\nCHARLES Epwin Bessey, B.S., ’69, M.S., ’72, Mich. Agri. Coll. ; Ph.D., ’79, Univ. of lowa,\n1884. Professor ot Botany, the University of Nebraska, rs04 S St., Lincoln.\nEpwin J. BopweE\nti, B.S.,’88, Dartmouth Coll,\nSuperintendent of Schools, Douglas Co., Court House, Omaha.\nH. M. Brayton,\n1892. Superintendent of Schools, Pawnee City.\nW. A, Crark, A.B.,’72, A.M., ’85, Ped.D., ’94, National Normal Univ.\n1895. Instructor in Mathematics, State Normal School, Peru.\nJ. W. CrastreE, B.S., ’90, Bloomfield Sci. Inst.\nInspector ofeNebraska High Schools, 1900 T St., Lincoln.\nA. K. Goupy, A.M., ’84, Monmouth Coll.\n303 Brace Building, Lincoln.\nIRWEN LevisTon, A.B., ’82, A.M., ’88, Dartmouth Coll,\n\n1890,\n\nAssistant Principal of High School, 312 N. erst St., Omaha.\n\nG, W. A, Luckey, A.B., ’94, Stanford Univ.\n1895. Professor of Pedagogy, University of Nebraska, 2408 Lynn St., Lincoln.\nJ. T. McKrxnon, Grad., ’83, State Normal School, Neb.\n1892. Superintendent of Schools, Exeter.\n\nJENNIE PEARSON.\n\n1896,\n\n1894. Principal of High School, Valley.\nJENNIE L. REDFIELD.\nPrincipal Lincoln School, 114 S. 25th St., Omaha.\nA. A, REED.\n1893. Superintendent of Schools, Crete.\nW. H. SKINNER.\n1893. Superintendent of Schools, 319 N. 11th St., Nebraska City.\nEmMaA WHEATLEY,\nPrincipal Mason School, Omaha,\nKate M, WICKHAM,\nTeacher in Windsor School, 34th and Martha Sts., Omaha,\nWo. J. WituiaMS, B.S., ’71, A.B., ’71, A.M., ’74, Denison Univ.\n1894. Superintendent of Schools, 510, 14th St., Columbus,\nS\nH, W. CALDWELL, Ph.B., ’80, A.M., ’94, Univ. of Neb,\nProfessor of Am, Hist. and Civics, Univ. of Neb., 2400 Lynn St., Lincoln,\nH, E. Dawes, B.S., A.M., North Western Normal,\n\n1897.\nJ. G. Haurrt.\n\nSuperintendent of Nebraska School for the Deaf, Omaha,\n‘\nCounty Superintendent of Schools, Dakota City,\n\nAuice E, Hire,\n\nWiuiaM\n\nSupervisor of Drawing, 212 S, 25th St., Omaha,\nR, JAcKSON.\n:\n;\n:\n1897.\n\n/\n\nState Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1909 G St., Lincoln,\n\nJ. Perry MINER.\n;\nWith J. H. Miller Publishing Co., Lincoln; res., Sheridan,\nJ. F. Savior, B.S., ’82, lowa Agri. Coll.\n.\n1895. Superintendent of City Schools, 1226 D St., Lincoln,\nA. H. WATERHOUSE,\n:\n1896. Principal of High School, Grand Island,\nHarry Kirxe Wo ire, A.B., ’80, Univ. of Neb.; A,M., Ph.D., ’86, Leipzig.\n1889. Professor of Philosophy, Univ, of Neb., Lincoln.\n\n1897.\n\nS, P. ARNOT.\n\n:\ns\n1896. Superintendent of City Schools, Harvard.\nKate L, Brown.\n1896. Principal of Schools, 324 S. 26th St., Omaha,\nG. F, BurkETT,\n1895. Superintendent of Schools, Schuyler.\nMartua M, BurNnHAM,\n1896. Supervisor of Drawing, Public Schools, Grand Island,\nGeo, L. FARLEY,\nCounty Superintendent of Schools, Plattsmouth.\nAnna Foos.\nPrincipal of Schools, The Madison, Omaha.\nHanna Harris.\n;\n4\n1888, Teacher in Public Schools, Central City,\nNora H, Lemon.\nPrincipal of Lothrop School, 1518 N. 26th St., Omaha,\n.\nSaraH H, McCHEANE,\nPrincipal of Long School, 2539 Capitol Ave., Omaha,\n\n.\n\n"}
{"page": 1088, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n1078\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nNEBRASKA—Continued.\n1897.\n\nGrorcE E. McLean, B.A., M.A., LL.D., Williams;\n\n1895.\n\nB.D., Yale; Ph.D., Leipzig.\n\nChancellor of the University of Nebraska, Lincoln.\n\n‘\nUNIVERSITY OF OMAHA.\nDavid M., Kerr, President, Bellevue.\nHenry Batpwin Warp, A.B., ’85, Williams; A.M., Ph.D., ’92, Harvard.\n1893. Professor of Zoology, University of Nebraska, Lincoln.\n\nNEVADA.\nACTIVE\n\n1895.\n\nMEMBERS,\n\nz\nWALTER C, GAvyHART, C,E.\n1894. Principal of High School and Public Schools, Austin.\nJ. E. Srusss, A.B., ’73, A.M., ’76, D.D., ’90.\n1894. President of State University of Nevada, oe\n\nNEW JERSEY.\nLIFE\n\nMEMBERS.\n\n1876,\n\nLanGpon SHook Tuomrson, A.M., ’84, Marietta Coll., O,; Ped.D.,’91, Univ. of the City of New York,\n1889. Supervisor of Drawing, Public Schools; 1893, Principal Metropolitan Normal Art\nSchool, r2 Park St., Jersey City.\n\n1884.\n\nSaray A, STEWART.\nAvon-by-the-Sea.\n\n1889.\n\nA. W. Moon, A.B., ’95, Indiana Univ.\n‘\n1897. Principal of School No. 2, Pleasantville.\nW.F. PowE Lt,\n:\nMinister to Haiti, Porte-au-Prince, Haiti; home address, Camden,\nLevi SEELEY, A.M., ’83, Williams Coll.; Ph.D., ’86, Leipzig.\n1895. Professor of Pedagogy, State Normal School, 482 W, State St., Trenton,\nAucGustus SCARLETT,\n1863. Principal of South Eighth St. School, 56 S. rrth St., Newark.\nSarsH Y. Ety,\n1887. Supervisor in High and Grammar Departments of State Model School, 46 Carroll\nSt., Trenton,\nJames M. Green, A.M., 84, Dickinson Coll.; Ph.D., ’90, Ill. Wesleyan Univ.\n1889. Principal of State Normal and Model Schools, Trenton,\nJANE M. Lewis,\n1865. Principal of Primary School No. 8, 99 Mercer St., Jersey City.\nS. E. Manngss, A.M., ’96, Univ. of Tenn.\n1890, Supervising Principal rst District, 425 Chambers Ave., Camden,\nBryon C, Matuews, A.B., ’77, A.M., ’92, Ph.D., ’93, Syracuse Univ.\n1885. Instructor in Greek and Economics, High School, 36 Kearney St,, Newark,\nHenry M. Maxson, A.M., ’80, Amherst Coll.\n1892. Superintendentof Schools, 439 W. 6th St., Plainfield,\nJames M. Ratston, A.M., ’82, Dickinson Coll.\n1890, Superintendentof Schools, 707 Grand Ave., Asbury Park,\nEmiry A, Rice, Ped.D., Albany Nor. Coll.\nOcean Grove.\nRANDALL SPAULDING, A.B., ’7o, Yale.\n1874. Superintendent of Schools, r4 Clinton Ave., Montclair.\nH. Brewster WILLIs. |\n1886. Superintendent of Schools, Middlesex Co., 185 Livingston Ave., New Brunswick.\nWm. R, Wricut,\n;\n1893. Principal of Franklin Public Schools, Nutley.\nMartin Luruer Cox, Ped.M., ’97, New York Univ.\n1893. County Superintendent of Schools, 4 Blackwell St., Dover.\nCuartes M, Davis, A.B.,’43, A.M., ’45, Princeton.\n1891. Superintendent of Schools, 766 Avenue A, Bayonne.\nC. B, GILBERT,\n:\n1896, Superintendent of Schools, City Hall, Newark.\nHenry E, Harris.\n1879. Principal School No, x, 64 Trask Ave., Bayonne.\nLawrence C, Hutt, A.B., ’77, A.M., Univ, of Mich,\n1887. Latin Master, Lawrenceville School, Lawrenceville.\nMiss S, M. Searte,\ni\n1893. Principal Primary Department Public School No, 23, cor, Romaine and Pavonia\nAves,, Jersey City.\nL, C. Wootry,\n\nACTIVE\n\n1890,\n\n1891.\n1892.\n\n1893.\n\n1894.\n\nMEMBERS,\n\nPrincipal Jas. Wood School, 136 E. Front St., Trenton,\nWm. N. BARRINGER, A.M., Princeton; Ped.D,, Univ. of City of N. Y.\nSupervisor of Evening and Summer Schools, Board of Education\n\nRooms, Newark.\n\nBA\nBe\ne\nNae\n\n"}
{"page": 1089, "printed_page": null, "text": "ook fe\n\nMEMBERS\nae eet eisLIFE\neure ne AND\nhat ACTIVE\nlanier\nesene\nNEW\n\n1894.\n\n1079\n\nJERSEY—Continued.\n\nRicHAarD\n\nCasg, A.M., ’8x, Brown Uniy.\n1890. Superintendent of Schools, 7x Wallace St,, Red Bank,\nMary J, Donouor.\n1895. Principal School No. 4, 33 Dodge St., Bayonne,\nBenJAmin C. Grecory, A,B., Coll. of City of New York.\n1888, Supervising Principal of Schools, 54 Chestnut Ave,, Trenton.\n\nAnna J, GUDEN.\n1892. Assistant, School No. 4, 202 Avenue D, Bayonne,\nM. AticE GutLick.\n1893. Teacher in Primary Grade, Center St., Chatham.\nJosePH A, HALtock,\n1854. Principal Grammar School, rro Third Ave., Newark,\nJ. F. D. HEINEKEN.\n1894. Principal Public Schools, 2x W. Broad St., Burlington.\nAMELIA CooPpER Hewirt.\n1894. Teacher of Chemistry, State Normal School, 33 Prospect St., Trenton.\nGaius HorrMan.\n188z. Principal of Schools, Bound Brook,\nWit. C. Incatts, A.B., 84, A.M., ’87, Brown Univ.\n1894. Principal Park Ave. School, 160 Orient Way, Rutherford.\nCart F, Kayser, Ph.D., ’92, Univ. of City of New York.\n1883. Instructor of Latin, German, and History, High School, 52 Nelson Pl., Newark.\n\nJames WILMER KENNEDY.\n1889. Principal Miller Street Grammar School, 3 Emmett St., Newark.\n\nf\n\nM. H. Kinstey, B.S., ’88, St. Lawrence Univ.\n\n1895. Superintendent of Schools of Kearney, Belgrove Drive, Arlington.\nMiss H. S. Les ig,\n1885. Principal of Public Schools, Box 26, Blackwood, Camden Co,\nN. W. PEASE.\n1867. Principal of School No. 2, 31 Morrell St., Elizabeth.\nJ. ALBERT ReEmnuHart, A.M.,’77, Ph.D., ’8x, Syracuse Univ.; Ph.B., ’76, A.M., ’77, Ph.D.,’81, Delaware Coll,\n\n1897. Principal of High School, 390 Ellison St., Paterson.\nGeo. G. Ryan, A.B., ’74, A.M., ’77, Middlebury Coll., Vt.\nx89.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 71 Paterson St., New Brunswick.\nE. H, Scuuyter, A.M., ’92, Princeton Coll,\nZ\na\n1884. Professor of Mathematics, Dr. Julius Sachs Collegiate Institute, 38 W. soth St.,\nNew York city; res., Haworth.\nFRANK H, ScosBey.\n:\n1884, Instructor in Arithmetic and Algebra, State Normal School, Trenton,\nHenry SNYDER, A.B., ’78, A.M., ’88, Lafayette Coll.\n;\n1892. Superintendent of Schools, High School, Bay St., Jersey City.\nMarcareT I, WADE.\nTeacher of Mathematics, High School, 7or Grand Ave., Asbury Park,\n1895.\n.\n\nWILSON FARRAND, A.B., 786, A.M., *89, Princeton.\n:\n1889. Associate Master Newark Academy, 544 High St., Newark.\nApa VAN STONE Harris.\n;\n;\n‘\n1897. Supervisor of Primary Instruction, Public Schools, Newark.\nLinn Marie Hawn.\n}\n:\n1896. Superintendent of Music, Public Schools, 152 Main St., East Orange.\n\nRopert MezceEr, Graduate of the Univ. of Heidelberg, ’90.\n1897. First Assist, German Department, 295 Garside St., Newark,\n\noe\n.\n:\nW. J. SHearer, A.B., A.M., ’87, Dickinson Coll,\n1895. Superintendent of Schools, office, Battin High Sch., 470 Monroe Ave., Elizabeth,\n\n896.\n\noc\n\n:\n\nMitton H. ALLEN.\n\nPrincipal of Public Schools, Branch St,, Medford, Burlington County.\n;\nf\n:\nCHARLES J. BAXTER,\nJ 1896. State Superintendent of Public Instruction, 930 Putnam Ave., Plainfield,\npi\n\nMrs, LypiA A, BENNETT.\n\n:\n\n?\n\nPrincipal of School No, 4, Ridgefield Park Township, Leonia, Bergen County.\nie\n~ Hi. B. Boice, M.D., ’88, Univ. Med. Sch., New York city.\nz891. State Normal School, 37 Southard St., Trenton.\n\nHENRY\n\nW. ELLSWorRTH.\n\n‘\n\nTeacher in State Normal School, 119 S. Stockton St., Trenton,\n\neg\n\n.\n\nAuthor and Publisher of Schoolbooks, 103 Duane St., N, Y.; residence, Montvale.\n\nMrs, OrrELL F, ELweELt.\n1876. ‘Leacher of Grammar School, Trenton.\nD. H, Farvey.\n\nDwicut Hervey, A.B., 89, A-M., ’96, Denison Univ., Granville, O.\n1896, Supervising Principal of Public Schools, Lakewood.\n\n~\n\n"}
{"page": 1090, "printed_page": null, "text": "1080\npigee\n\n1896.\n\n08\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nNATIONAL\nee eS\n\nSo\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nNEW JERSEY—Continued.\nGIS\nes\nEpwin C, MERRILL.\nresidence, E,\nPublisher, Maynard Merrill & Co., 29-33 E. xgth St., New York city;\nake\nOrange, N. J.\n:\nA. IsABEL MuLForD.\nTeacher of Botany, 36 S. Clinton St., East Orange.\nF, E, SpauLpinG, A.B., 89, Amherst; Ph.D., ’94, Univ. of Leipzig. .\n1897. Superintendent of City Schools, 54 High St., Passaic.\nj\nMiss M, J. B. Tuomas, Ped.M., ’93, N. Y. Univ.\n1889, Principal of High School, 425 Ave. E., Bayonne City.\n\n1897.\n\nApert H, WILSON,\n1892, Principal of Elmwood School, 111 Chestnut St., East Orange,\nAnna M, FELL, M.E.L., Pennington Seminary.\n1892. Principal of Cadwalader School, 304 W. State St., Trenton,\nFREE Pustic LipRARy.\nE, E. Burdick, Librarian, Jersey City.\nMary A, Lyon,\n\nP. O. Box 352, Boonton,\n,\nf\nPresident Rider Business College, Ribsam Bldg., Trenton.\nE, K. Sexton, Ped.M., ’92, Univ. of the City of New York.\nPrincipal of South St, School, 64 Ninth Ave., Newark.\nState NorMAL SCHOOL,\nJ. M. Green, President, Trenton,\n\nANDREW J, RIDER.\n\nIra Winturop TRAVELL, A.B., ’90, Williams Coll,\n;\n1893. Principal of High School, 431 W. 6th St., Plainfield.\n\n1891.\n\n1895.\n\nHiram\n\nNEW\n\nMEXICO,\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS,\n\n4\n\nHap ey, A.M,\n\n1894.\n\nVice-President, in charge of University of New Mexico, 321 S. Walter St., Albuquerque,\nCLARENCE T. HaGerty, B.S., ’90, M.S., ’95, Notre Dame Univ., Ind.\n1891. Professor of Mathematics in New Mexico College of Agriculture and Mechanical\n\n;\n\nArts, Las Cruces.\nCuar.es E, Hope, Grad., ’81, Ind. St. Nor.; B.Ped., ’93, Univ. of N. Mex.\n1891. Superintendent of Schools, 402 S. Edith St., Albuquerque.\nMrs, ELizABETH R, JACKSON.\n\n1893.\n\nMember of Examining Board, Grant County, Silver City.\n\nC. M, Licur, Ph,D., Univ. of City of N. Y.\n\n1896, Principal of Normal School of New Mexico, Silver City.\nJ. T. Perico, A.B., ’89, A.M., ’o2., Ind, Univ.\n1897. Superintendent of City Schools, Albuquerque.\n\n1897.\n\nJ. A.\n\nWoop, A.B., ’77, A.M., 780,\n\n1893.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, East Las Vegas.\n\nNEW\n\nYOKK,\n\nLIFE DIRECTORS,\n1872,\n\n1880,\n1885,\n\nE, H, Cook, A.M., \"69,Ph.D., ’89.\n22 Livingstone Ave, Yonkers.\nA, P. Maree, A.M., ’63, Ph.D., ’83, Colby Univ., Me.\n1896. Assistant Superintendent of Schools, 146 Grand St., New York.\nNicno.tas Murray Buruer, A.B., 82, Ph,D,, 84, Columbia Coll,\n1889. ssSorat of Philosophy and Education, Columbia University, 119 E. 30th St., New\n\nCares G, Hatt.\n1890,\n\nork,\n\nNew Berlin,\nCuarves R. Skinner, A.M., Hamilton Coll., LL.D,, Colgate Univ.\n1895. State Superintendent of Public Instruction, 453 State St., Albany,\n\nLIFE MEMBERS,\nJames Cruixsuank, LL.D,\n1875. Principal of Grammar School No, 12, and Evening High School, 206 S. Oxford\nSt., Brooklyn,\n1870, OxiveR CromWELL Arzy, A.M., ’65, Union Coll,\n229 Averill Ave,, Rochester.\n;\n1871, Joun Jacos AnpERsoN, A.M., ’67, Rutgers Coll.; Ph.D.,’76, Univ. of City\nof New York.\nP\n2\nAuthor of School Histories and Historical Readers, 343 Adelphi St., Brooklyn.\n1876.\nreste me on cee 57, M.S., 60, Dartmouth Coll.; A.M., Bowdoin\nColl. and Waterville\n1896. Institute Instructor and Lecturer, 256 W. rooth St., New York,\n1879, *N, A. Carkins, LL.D., Marietta Coll., O,\n1863. Assistant Superintendent of Schools, 124 E, 80th St., New\nYork,\n1864,\n\nE\ne\n\n"}
{"page": 1091, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIFE\na\n\nAND\n\nACTIVE\nee\n\nMEMBERS\n\nNEW\n\nYORK—Continued,\n\n1081\n\n1879, *Joun Kraus.\nNew York.\n1880,\n1882,\n\nEmiry M. Cor.\nPrincipal of American Kindergarten Normal School, 70, sth Ave., New York.\nJosEPHINE E. Hopcpon, Ped.M., ’or, Univ. of City of New York.\n1886, Public School No. 6, 80 Willoughby St., Brooklyn.\nMENCco STERN.\n79\nSeeof German\nNee tae,Language\n1879.\nProfessor\nguag and d Lit Literature, Stern’s4 School of Language, 27 E.\n\n1884.\n\nMrs. GEORGIANA VAN AKEN,\n1858. Principal of Day School, Ladies’ Home Mission, 63 Park St., New York,\n\n1885.\n\nTHomaAs Hunter, A.M., 66, Columbia Coll.; Ph.D., ’77, Williams Coll.\n\n189r.\n\nMrs M. J. B. Wyte.\n269 Hampshire St., Buffalo.\n\n1893.\n\nUNiversity oF STATE oF NEw York.\nChancellor, Anson Judd Upson; Secretary, Melvil Dewey, Albany.\n\n1882,\n\nWALTER S. GoopNoUGcH.\nDirector of Drawing, Public Schools, 267a Lewis Ave., Brooklyn,\nEpwarp N. Jones, A.B., A.M., Ph.D., Hamilton Coll,\n1892, Principal of State Normal School, 100 Brinkerhoff St., Plattsburgh.\nCHARLES L, Patron.\nUniversity Publishing Co., 43 E. roth St., New York,\nLouis H. GatBreaTH, B.L., ’90, Cornell Univ.\n1897. Psychology and Pedagogy, Teachers’ College, University of Buffalo, Buffalo.\nGussig Power.\n1880, Teacher, 535 Warren St., Hudson,\nGracia L, Rice,\n1892. State Director of Drawing, P. O. Box 321, Buffalo,\nT. F. Kane, A.B., ’92, Cornell Univ.\n1896, Principal of Union School and Academy, Hamburg.\nC. W. BarRDEEN, A.B., ’69, Yale.\n1874. Editor of “‘ School Bulletin,” 411 S, Franklin St., Syracuse.\nA. B. BLopGeEtr,\n\nPresident of Normal College, Park Ave. and 68th St., New York,\n\nACTIVE\n\n1884.\n\n1886.\n1887.\n\n1889.\n:\n\n1890,\n\n1889,\n\nMEMBERS,\n\nSuperintendent of School, 127 Burnet Ave., Syracuse.\n\nJoun T, BucHANaNn,\n1897. Principal of Boys’ High School, 60 W, 13th St., New York,\nJoun W. CHANDLER, Ph.D., ’77, Univ. of State of New York.\n\n1891.\n\n1894. Superintendent of Schools, Ellenville.\nEpwarp D, FarrELL, A.M., 67, Coll. of the City of New York.\n1889\nAssistant Superintendent of Schools, 163 E, 124th St., New York,\nMary A, FLEMING.\n1878. Teacher in Grammar School No, 13, 13 W. Chippewa St., Buffalo.\nAmos M., Ke toce, A.M., ’57, Hamilton Coll.\nEditor of “‘ School Journal,” 6 E. oth St., New York.\nJames M. Mite, A.M., 83, Rochester Univ. ;Ph,D., ’85, Colgate Univ.\n1888. Principal State Normal School, Oneonta.\nFrancis B, Parmer, A.B., ’58, A.M., 63, Ph.D., ’79, Univ. of Rochester. |\n1878. Principal of State Normal School, Central Ave., Fredonia.\nCuar.es B. Scort, A.M., ’87, Rutgers Coll.\nx\nInstructor in Nature Study Methods, Geology, and Geography, State Nor, School,\nOswego.\nIsaac H. Srout, A.M., ’88, Hobart Coll.\nF\n1887, State Conductor of Teachers’ Institutes, 58 Genesee St., Geneva.\nVINCENT ALDRIDGE, A.M., ’81, Syracuse.\n:\nF\n1889, Teacher of Mathematics, Boys’ High School, 32 Lenox Road, Brooklyn,\nFrancis J, CHENEY, A.B., ’72, A.M., ’75, Ph.D., ’88, Syracuse Univ,\n:\nPrecical ol State Normal and Training School, 45 Church St., Cortland.\nA. S, Downinc, A.M., Pennsylvania Coll.\nPgs\n1895. Supervisor of Teachers’ Institute and Training Classes, State Dep’t of Pub, Instr.,\n141 Allen St, S., Albany.\nMarttuew J. Exeas, A.B., ’62, A.M., ’63, Montreal Coll. ;Ph.D., ’69, St. Johns Coll.\nPrincipal of Grammar School No. 69, 121 W, 87th St., New York.\nHarian P, Frencu, A.B.,’68, A.M.,’71, Amherst Coll.\nManager Albany Teachers’ Agency, 24 State St., Albany.\nGrorce D. Hate, A.B., ’70, A.M., ’73, Univ. of Rochester.\n1871. Byncipal of Hale’s Classical and Scientific School, 409 Lake Ave., Rochester,\n‘\nDavi M. Ketsey, Grad., ’88, N. E. Conservatory of Music.\n1888, Director of Music, Public Schools, 228 Spring St., Saratoga Springs.\n\n"}
{"page": 1092, "printed_page": null, "text": "-,\nFe\nagp\n\nNATIONAL\n\n1082\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nNEW\n\n1891.\n\nYORK—\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nContinued.\n\nOssian\n\nH, Lane.\n1895. Managing Editor ‘‘ School Journal” and ‘‘ Educational Foundations,”’ 61 E, gth St.,\nNew York.\nHenry M. Lerrzicer, A.M., Coll. of City of N. Y.; Ph.D., Columbia Coll.\n1891. ‘Assistant Superintendent of Schools, 324 E. soth St., New York.\n;\n:\nALBERT LEONARD, A.B., ’88, A.M., ’91, Ohio Univ. ; Ph.D., ’94, Hamilton Coll,\n1897. Dean of College of Liberal Arts and Professor of Pedagogy, Syracuse University,\nSyracuse,\nJoun M, Mitnez, A.M., ’82, Rochester Univ.; Ph.D., ’90, Univ. of State of N. Y.\n1889, Principal of State Normal School, Geneseo.\n\nHenry S, Purpy.\n\n;\n\n;\n\nPrincipal of Union School, Brewster.\n*E, A. Suetpon, A.M., ’70, Hamilton Coll.; Ph.D., ’75, Univ. of N. Y.\n1862, Principal of State Normal and Training School, 7th Ave., Oswego.\nTuomas B, STOWELL, A.M., ’6s, Genesee Coll. ; Ph.D., ’81, Syracuse Univ.\n1889. Principal of State Normal and Training School, 6 Le Roy St., Potsdam.\nCuas, IrvinG WEBSTER.\nNew Vork Agent Prang Educational Co., 5 W. 18th St., New York.\nSamuet G, Wittiams, A.B., 52, A.M., ’55, Ph.D., ’7z, Hamilton Coll.\n1879. Professor in Cornell University, 155 BE. Seneca St., Ithaca,\n1892,\n\nTuomas O, Baker, A.M., ’92, Ph.D., University of City of New York.\n1895. Principal of High School, Yonkers.\nEias J. BEARDSLEY, C.E., A.B., ’55, A.M., Union. Coll,\n\n1889.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, City Hall, Lake and Church St., Elmira,\n\nEmmet Bexnap, A.B., ’80, A.M., ’83, Marietta Coll.\n\nwe\nwie\nO\n\n:\n\n1889. Superintendent of Schools, 206 East Ave., Lockport.\nW.H. Benepict, A.B., ’75, A.M., ’78, Hamilton Coll.\n1889. Principal School No. 8, 508 W. 3d St., Elmira.\nA. HALL Burpick,\n1890. Superintendent of Union Free School, 35 Jackson St., Stapleton.\nCuas. W. Coreg, A.B,, A.M., Ph.D,, Hamilton Coll.\n1878. Superintendent of Schools, 354 Hudson Ave., Albany.\nME vit Dewey, A.B., 774, A.M., ’77, Amherst.\n1888, Secretary of University of State of New York, Regents’ Office, Albany.\nWituaM B, FRrepDBERG, B.S., ’73, Coll, of New York; LL.B.,’77, Columbia Law School.\n1890. Principal of Grammar School No. 95, 21-23 E. r25th St., New York,\nH, E, Haves,\n1890, Manager Educational Department, D. Appleton & Co,, publishers, 72, 5th Ave.,\nNew York,\n.\nWo. B. Hartson,\nEducational Publisher, 3 and 5 W. 18th St., New York.\nMary F, Hype,\nAuthor of ‘‘ Lessons in English,’’ 208 Main St., Binghamton,\nJames LEE, M.D., ’86, Bellevue Hospital Medical Coll.\nAssistant Superintendent of Schools, 235 E, r24th St., New York.\nWitiiam H, Maxwe.t, A.B., ’72, A.M., ’74, Queen’s Univ., Ireland.\nSuperintendent of Public Instruction, 131 Livingston St., Brooklyn,\nWi1aM J, Mitne, Ph.D., Rochester Univ. ;LL.D., DePauw Univ.\nPresident State Normal College, 94 Willett St., Albany.\n\nR. V. K. Monrort, M.D., ’56, Albany\n1887,\n\nSuperintendent of\n\nMed, Coll.\nSchools, 22 Montgomery St., Newburgh,\n\nS. S. Packarp.\nPresidentof Packard’s Business College, ror E, 23d St., New York.\nAppison B, PoLanp,\n1896. Assistant Superintendent of Schools, 146 Grand St., New York.\nOscar D, Rosinson, A.B., ’69, A.M., ’72, Ph.D., ’87, Dartmouth Coll.\n1886. Principal of High School, sor State St., Albany.\nJames Winne, A.M.,’77, Hamilton Coll.\n1886, Principal of High School, 30 Hooker Ave., Poughkeepsie.\n\n1893.\n\nHenry P, Emerson, A.B., A.M., Univ. of Rochester.\nSuperintendent of Education, 122 College St., Buffalo,\nJoun ArtHUR GREENE,\n1896. Manager American Book Co., 100 Washington Square, New York,\nGEorGE GriFFirH, A.B.,’77, Hamilton Coll.; Ph.D., ’93, Ill. Wesleyan.\n1892. Superintendent of Schools, 40 Jewett Place, Utica,\nJenny B. Merrit, Ped.D,, ’92, Univ. of City of New York,\n\n1878.\n\nTutor in Pedagogy, Normal College, 112 E, 81st St., New York.\n\nJoseruine E, Rocers,\nPrincipal of Public School No, 75, 25 Norfolk St., New York,\nE\nHemp pcan ee B.L., 78, Delaware Coll.;é Ph.B., ’8z, Lafayette Coll,;\n.\nPh.D., 90, Univ. of\n1894.’ Dean of School of Pedagogy, New York Univ., Washington Sq., New York,\n\n|\n\n"}
{"page": 1093, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIFE\n\nAND\nNEW\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n1083\n\nYORK — Coxt7nued.\n\n1893.\n\nA. M. Wricut, A.M., Hamilton Coll.\n\n1894.\n\nDepartment of Public Instruction, Albany.\nJ. W. Baxscock, A.B., ’78, Cornell Univ.\n1881, Superintendent of Schools, 627 Washington Ave., Dunkirk.\n\n*EuGENE D, BaGEn, C.E., Univ. of City of New York,\n\n:\n\n1894. Superintendent of Schools, 532 E. 87th St., New York.\nFrank D, Brarttys, A.B., 85, A.M., ’88, Wesleyan Univ.\nManager, Silver, Burdette & Co., 29-33 E, roth St., New York,\nMrs, B, ELLEN BurKE.\n1895. Educational Lecture Bureau, o1, 5th St., New York.\nFrancis R, Crarr.\n1893. School Commissioner, Queens County, College Point,\nCuas, NEWELL Coss, A.B, and A.M., Syracuse Univ.\n1893. Inspector of University of State of New York, Regents’ Office, Albany.\n\nFLORENCE\n\nBrowninc Himes,\n1894. _State Instructor in Drawing, 126 Chestnut St., Albany.\n\nRicHarp Jones, A.M., ’81, Iowa Coll.; Ph.D., ’93, Heidelberg, Germany,\n1896. sea ee Instructor, University of State of New York, Regents’ Office, Capitol,\nany.\n\nCynTH1A LAGOMARSINO,\n1884. Teacher in Ladies’ Home Mission School, 63 Park St., New York.\nWitiiam A, MACKEY.\n1897. Principal Grammar School, 43 Vernon St., Buffalo,\nCuarces E. MERRILL.\nEducational Publisher, 29-31 E, roth St., New York,\nFREDERICK MonrESER, Ph.D., ’85, Univ. of Vienna, Austria; Ped.D., ’93, N. Y. Univ.\n\n1893. Lecturer, School of Pedagogy, New York University ; 1897, Teacher in Boys’ High\nSchool, New York city; Caryl Station, Yonkers,\nMrs, AGNEs O’BRIEN.\nPrincipal Primary School No. 30, 224 E. 88th St., New York.\nW. F. O’Catrtacuan, A.B., Harvard Univ.\n1894. First Assistant Grammar, No. 29, Washington and Albany Sts., New York,\nGero, A, PiimpTon,\nPublisher, 70, sth Ave., New York.\nMrs. Louise PREECE.\nTeacher of Elocution ; address, care of C. W. Bardeen, Syracuse, N. Y.\nHeEstTeER A, ROBERTS,\n\n;\n\né\n\n1886, Principal of Primary Department No. ro, 149 W. 128th St., New York,\nKATHARINE E, Rounps, B.S.,’9z, Smith Coll.\n1897. Art student, Paris, France; home address, 256 W. rooth St., New York.\nJosrpru S. Taytor, Ped.D., ’92, New York Univ.\n¢\n1885. Teacher in Public Schools, Sedgwick Park, Fordham Heights, New York,\nMARTHA VAN RENSSELAER.\nadd\n1894. School Commissioner, Second District, Cattaraugus Co., Randolph.\n1895.\n\nH. T. AMBROSE,\n\n,\n\nBook publisher, Washington Square, New York,\nIpa C, BENDER, M.D.,’go0, Univ. of Buffalo.\n’\nF\n1893. Supervisor of Primary Grades, 671 Ellicott St., Buffalo,\n;\nN. L, BENHAM.\n1890. Superintendent of Schools, 549, 4th St., Niagara Falls.\n\nC. C, BrrcHarp,\n\n:\n\n.\n\nAgent American Book Company, Washington Square, New York,\n\nANNIE M, BISSELL.\n1882, Assistant Grammar School No. 62, 265 Alexander Ave., New York.\nJ. B, CuassEaup.\n:\nDealer in School Supplies, 275 Broadway, New York.\nCotumBIA UNIVERSITY.\nPresident, Dr. Seth Low; Secretary, W. H. H. Beebe, New York.\nFanniE S, Comincs,\n1893.\n\nss\neee\n“Jor\nSg\n\nPrincipal Primary Department, Grammar School, No. 77, 42 Macon St., Brooklyn,\n\nof Vocal Music, State Normal School and Director of Crane Normal Instipn\ntute of Music, 91 Main St., Potsdam.\n\nWw. Davis.\n\n1886. Public School No. 81, Bedford Park, New\n. T. Dawson, A.B., 782, Ill. Wesleyan Univ.\n\nYork.\n\n7°\"'78 W. o4th St., New York.\n\nANN.\n\nai\n\nee\n\n,\nESTON, ~\nBuffalo,\nees Instructor in Primary Work, Teachers’ Institutes, 45 Wadsworth St.,\n\n:\nW. Frencu, LL.B., ’78, Columbia Coll.\n\"881, Principal hf Pablic Schools, Jamaica Ave., opp. Enfield St., Brooklyn.\n\n"}
{"page": 1094, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n1084\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nNEW\n\n89s.\nreer\n\nYORK—\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nPot\n\nContinued,\n\n;\n:\nR. H. Hatsey, A.B., 77, Williams Coll.\n1896, Superintendent of Schools, 228 Main St., Binghamton.\nEpwarp Haywarp, Ph.D., ’90, Union Coll.\nPrincipal of High School, 177 Genesee St., Lockport.\n4\n:\nHenprick, A.B., ’80, A.M., 83, Colgate Univ. |\nWwW\nSt., Cortland,\n1893. Conductor of ‘Institutes, Depart. of Public Instruction, 11 E, Main\nes\n¢\nWa rer L. Hervey, A.B., A.M., Ph.D., Princeton,\nTeachers’ College, Ww, r20th St., Morningside Heights, New York,\n:\nSamugt B, Howe, A.M., ’65, Ph.D., ’87, Union Coll.\n1865, Superintendent of Schools, 615 Union St., Schenectady.\nWILBER W. Howe,\n:\n1891. Superintendent of Schools, Whitehall.\nre\n.\nMrs, Sara D. JENKINS.\nIthaca,\n1895. Teacher of English, High School, Editor of “* Popular Educator,”\n\n:\n:\ns\n4\na\n\nTuos.\n\nR, Kner, A.B., ’75, A.M., ’78, Wesleyan Univ., Middletown, Conn,\n1893. Superintendent of Schools, 217 Caroline St., Saratoga Springs,\nLouisE M, LaPrEE,\n:\nDepartment Principal of School, No. 16, 671 Ellicott St., Buffalo,\nCuarces D, Larkins, Ph.B., 781, Alfred Univ.\n:\n1893. Principal of Manual Training High School, 76 Court St., Brooklyn.\nSetu Low, LL.D., ’89, Amherst; ’90, Univ. of State of N. Y., Univ. of Pa., Harvard, Trinity; ’96,\nPrinceton.\n1889, President of Columbia University, New York.\nKate PALMER MAcpona,\n.\n;\n:\nSecond Assistant in Grammar Sch, No, 6, Hunt’s Point, Station R, New York.\nJ. Mitrorp McKeEkg, Ph.,B., ’g5, Ill. Wesleyan Univ,\n1891, Principal of Union School, Silver Creek.\nF, M, McMurry, Ph.D., Jena.\n4\n1895. Dean of School of Pedagogy, University of Buffalo, 322 W. Utica St., Buffalo.\nH. D, Newson,\nManager Educational Department, Harper Bros., Franklin Square, New York,\nAnprEw V, V, Raymonp, A.B., ’75, D.D., ’86, Union Coll. ;LL.D., ’94, Williams Coll.\n1894. President of Union Coll,, College Hill, Schenectady.\nJ. M. Rice, M.D., ’81, Coll. of Phys, and Sur., New York,\naaa\nWriter, Editor of the ‘‘ Forum” magazine, 1245 Madison Ave,, New\nork,\nRovittus R, Rocers, A.B., Oberlin Coll,\n\n1890, Superintendent of Schools, 627 E, 6th St., Jamestown.\nJames E. Russe.t, A.B., 87, Cornell; Ph.D., ’94, Leipzig,\nProfessor of Pedagogy, Teachers’ College, 120th St. W., New York,\nHenry R. Sanrorp, A.M., ’64, Genesee Coll,; A.M., ’73, Syracuse Univ. ;Ph.D., *94, Univ. Coll.\nState Institute Conductor, Penn Yan,\ny\nALFRED T, SCHAUFFLER, A.B., ’65, A.M., 68, Williams.\n1894. Asst, Supt. of Schools, New York city; 23 Woodland Ave., New Rochelle,\n\nJANE A, SCHERMERHORN,\n1889. Kindergartner in Union Free School, Hillside Ave., White Plains.\nHenry G, ScuNEIDER, B,S., 787, Coll, City of New York,\nThird Assistant Grammar School No. go, 610 W. 47th St., New York,\nS. R. SHEAR,\nSuperintendent of Schools, White Plains,\nJ. Mace Smirtu, B.S., ’82, Michigan Agri, Coll.\n1897. Principal of St, John Ave, School, r22 LeRoy St., Binghamton.\nPLOWDON STEVENS, Jr., B.S., ’88, Coll, City of New York.\nSecond Assistant Grammar School No, 46, 150 W. ggth St., New York.\nJoun H. Watsu, A.B., ’73, A.M., 89, Georgetown Coll., D, C.; LL.B., ’80, Columbia Coll.\n1889. Associate Superintendent of Public Instruction, 39, 3d Place, Brooklyn,\nFrank E, WELLES, Ph.B., ’86, A.M., ’g2, Ill. Wesleyan Univ.\nProfessor of Latin and Greek, State\nNormal School, Geneseo,\n\nCuarLes F, WHEELOCK,\n\n:\n\nHead Inspector, Regents’ Office, Albany.\n\n1896.\n\nJ. S, ADAMs.\nAgent for Ginn & Co.,, 70, 5th Ave,, New York,\nMrs, Ametia D, ALpen, Graduate, ’68, State Nor, Sch,, Albany, N, Y,\n1895. Vice-President Westerleigh Coll. Institute, Boulevard, Prohibition Park, West New\nBrighton, S, I\nGro, P, ARMSTRONG.\n1892. Principal Union High School, Green St., Sayville,\nLois ADELAIDE Bancs.\n\nJARED BaRuITE,\n\nAssociate Principal in the Academic\nBangs), 43 W. 47th St., New York,\n\nClasses for Girls\n\n(Miss Whiton\nie\n\nSupervising Principal of Schools, 270 Freeman Ave., Long Island City,\n\nand Mi\nSs\n\n>\n\n"}
{"page": 1095, "printed_page": null, "text": "ofp\n\n1896.\n\nEe\n\na\n\nLIFE\nRe\n\nAND\nre\n\nBE\n\nACTIVEik MEMBERS\n\nNEW\n\nYORK—Continued,\n\n1085\n\nMrs,\n\nF, ScHWEDLER BARNES,\nEditor of ‘‘ The Mother’s Voice,”’ 12 E, 73d St., New York.\nE. M. BrisTo..\nBook Publisher, 29 W. 23d St., New York.\nKate G. BRoDERICK.\n188r. Principal of Public School No. 76, E. 68th St., New York.\nFRANK S, CAPEN, A.B., 68, A.M., ’71, Rochester Univ. ;Ph.D., ’87, Colgate Univ.\nPrincipal State Normal\n\nSchool, New Paltz.\n\n2.\n\nEucEne C. Cosy,\n1885. Principal Mechanics Institute, 38 S, Washington St., Rochester.\nLE Roy C. Cootry, A.M., Ph.D.\n1874. Professor of Physics, Vassar College, 2 Reservoir Sq., Poughkeepsie.\nCorRNELL Untversity Liprary,\nGeo, W. Harris, Librarian, Ithaca.\nHenry M. Crist,\n. Manager New York Office, Milton Bradley Co., 11 E. 16th St., New York.\n\nAnna A, CuMMINGS.\n1891. Teacher of School No. 52, 531 Plymouth Ave., Buffalo,\n=\n\nas Cotwett Dayis, A.B., ’90, A.M., ’93, Alfred Univ. ; B.D., ’93, Yale;\n\nPh.D., ’96, Nat. Nor.\n\nniv,\n\n1895. President Alfred University, 8 Terrace St., Alfred.\nGerorcE S, Davis,\n1888. Assistant Superintendent of Schools, 146 Grand St.,, New York.\nWiiiaM\n\nR. Eastman, A.B., Yale; B.S., Univ. of N.Y.\n\nInspector of Pub. Libraries, Univ. of State of New York, State Library, Albany.\nA, W. Epson, A.B.,’78; A.M., ’8r, Dartmouth Coll.\n1897. Assistant Superintendent of Schools, 146 Grand St., New York.\nEtta C, ELper,\n1892. Superintendent Buffalo Free Kindergarten Assoc., 86 Delaware Ave., Buffalo.\n\nJames A. Estee, A.M., Alfred Univ.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 17 Marshall Ave., Gloversville.\nMrs, E, D, FARRELL,\n163 E, 124th St., New York,\n\nGero, FENTON.\nAgent American Book Co., Broadalbin, Fulton Co,\nMarcaret Gowans, Graduate Posse Gymnasium.\n\nEducational and Medical Gymnast, The Buckingham, Buffalo.\nELBERT W, GrirFitH, A.M., Wes. Univ., Conn.; Ph.B., Ill. Wes. Univ.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 94 E, Main St., Norwich,\nWALTER\n\nB. Gunnison, A.B., A.M., Ph.D.\n\n‘\n\n.\n\nAssistant Superintendent of Schools, New York city; 77 Wilson St., Brooklyn.\nALFRED HALLAM.\n\nSuperintendent of Music, Mt. Vernon, 230 W, rosth St., New York,\nE, Harris.\n189s. Principal of Intermediate Department, Normal School, New Paltz.\nCarRoLinE T. HAVEN.\n1884. Principal Kindergarten Department, Ethical Culture Schools, rog W, 54th St., New\nYork,\n\nMary\n\nFrances C, Hayes,\n1893. Supervisor of Kindergarten. 354 Hudson Ave., Albany.\nF, J. HEIERMAN,\n’\n\n:\nWii\noe\n\nPrefect of Studies, Canisius College, 65t Washington St., Buffalo,\n:\n;\n.\n4\nC. Hess, B.S., 67, M.S., ’71, Coll. of City ofN. Y,\n1885, *Piatipal of Grauaet School No. 19, and (1896) Principal East Side Evening High\nSchool, 439 E. 118th St., New York.\nW. D. Hewes.\n:\n‘\n1893. Principal of High School, Shortsville.\n. W.\n\n’\n\nJenks, Ph.D., ’85, Halle.\n\n;\n\n1891. Broioccor of Political Science, Cornell University, Ithaca.\n:\nJ\nL. C. Jupp, B.S., N. Ind, Nor. Sch.\n\nFee\n\nae Mad Gie Co., 70, sth Ave., New Vork.\n\n. Kenyon,\n\nB.S., ’74,\n\nM.S.,\n\n7 7,\n\nAlfred Univ.\n\n;\n\n;\n\nde Mates ond (1891) Registrar of Alfred Univ., 33 S. Main St., Alfred.\nao eae oe ee\nROLAND S. Keyser.Regents’ Office, University of New\nYork, Albany.\n\n.\n. Maria Kraus- BoELTE.\npupae 1872. Principal of Kraus Seminary for Kindergartners, Hotel San Remo, Central Park,\nWest, New York,\nFREDERICK H. Lane, Ph.D., ’g5, Ill. Wesleyan Univ.\nBabylon,\n:\nE, Lawton.\nJ\n1889, Principal of Central Grammar School, 7 Franklin St,, Auburn.\nee a\n\n"}
{"page": 1096, "printed_page": null, "text": "1086\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nNEW\n\n1896.\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nYORK—Continued.\n\n:\n;\nLoutsE A, LoUNSBERRY.\n1896. Teacher of Music and Drawing, St. Johnsville; residence, Randall.\n‘\nTuos. B. Lovett, A.B., 62, A.M., ’65, Univ. of Rochester.\n1892. Principal of High School, ror8 South Ave., Sta. A, Niagara Falls.\nHowarp Lyon, M.S., ’90, Lafayette; A.B., 93, Harvard.\n1893. Teacher of Science, State Normal School, 35 Cedar St., Oneonta.\nF\nNATHALIE MANKELL, Graduate Central Royal Institute, Sweden.\nTeacher in Gymnastics at Franklin School and School of Pedagogy, 85 Mariner\nes\nSt., Buffalo.\n;\nA.M., ’76, Hamilton Coll,\n. Epman MassezE, A.B., ’73,\nJ\n1893. Principal Aeadentic Dept. of Union School, 528 Central Ave,, Dunkirk.\nMark M, Maycock, M.P., Syracuse Univ., 75.\nTeacher in State Normal School, 220 Jersey St., Buffalo.\nMary A, MAGOVERN.\n\n1876,\n\n;\n\n:\n\nFirst Assistant, Primary Department, Public School, No, 8, 29 King St., New York.\n\nCLARENCE E. MELENEY, A.B., ’76, A.M., ’79, Colby Univ.\n1896. ‘Assistant Superintendent of Schools, 146 Grand St., New York.\nG. R, Miter, Ph.B., ’93, Syracuse Univ.\n1893. Principal of Union School, Mattewan.\nOtis MonTROSE.\n;\nPrincipal Haldam Union School, Coldspring.\nA. S, OsBorn,\nM.A.\n\nRoot,\n\nAssociate Principal, Business University, 134 S, St. Paul St., Rochester,\n\nPrincipal of Grammar School, 1379 Niagara St., Buffalo,\n\nCuaries M, Ryon,\n1875. Superintendent of Schools, and Secretary of Board of Education, 130 Elmendorf St.,\nKingston,\n.\nExisa A, SARGENT.\n1889. Assistant in charge of the Prang Normal\nYork.\nSara A, Saunpers, Grad., ’73, Cortland St. Nor. Sch,\n\n1895.\n\n‘\nArt Classes, 3 and 5 W, 18th St., New\n\nChair of Methods, State Normal School, 40 South Ave., Brockport.\n\nJ. G. Scuurman, A.B.,’77, A.M., ’78, London Univ. ; D.S., ’78, Edinburgh; LL.D., Columbia.\n1892. President, Cornell University, Ithaca.\n:\n\nCuartes D, Srery, A.M., ’79, Amherst Coll.\n1885. Department of Latin and Greek, State Normal School, Brockport.\nS. McKee Smitu, Ph.B., ’77, Cornell.\n\n1895.\n\nPrincipal of Schools, cor, Church and Washington Sts., Chatham.\n\nMary V, SQuire,\n:\nAssistant in School No, 39, 383 Oak St., Buffalo,\nH, Morse StepHens, A.M., Oxford.\n\nProfessor of Modern History, Cornell University, Ithaca,\nEpwarp WatMSsLey Stitt, B.S., ’81, Coll. City of New York; Ped.M., ’97, N. Y. Univ.\nPrincipal of Grammar School No, 89, 134th St. and Lenox Ave., New York.\n\nApA F, THAYER.\n1893. Supervisor of Physical Training, Public Schools, 404 E, Willow St., Syracuse.\nAMELIA EARLE TrRANT, M.D., ’94, Univ. of Buffalo,\n1890. Principal of Boys’ Department, Instructor of Physiology, Masten Park High\nSchool, Buffalo,\nEmma S. WaIrTE.\nried\nSuperintendent of Training in Nebraska State Normal School; 1 Chestnut St.,\nPotsdam,\nM. H. Watratu, A.B., 89, A.M., ’92, Syracuse Uniy.\n\n1896. Principal of High School, Box 544, Troy.\nR, A, WaTErpury, A.B., ’69, A.M., ’80, Ph.D., ’86, Alfred Coll.\nEx- Principal of State Normal\n\nErra Lansinc Wentz.\nDirector\n\nof Physical\n\n—.\n\nSchool, Johnson, Vt.; Cuba.\n\nCulture, Albany\n\nFemale\n\nAcademy, Training School\n\nAlbany, and Woman’s Athletic Club, Hudson, 248 Hamilton St., Albany.\n\n1897.\n\nMrs. KATHERINE WHITEHEAD,\n1890. Principal of St. Andrews’ Kindergarten and Training School, 275\nRochester.\nMrs, Joun H. Bairp.\n;\nPrincipal of City Training Class, 39 S. Hamilton St., Poughkeepsie.\nJesste BANCROFT,\n1893. Director of Physical Training, 131 Livingston St., Brooklyn.\n\nAnna GERTRUDE Cuitps, A,B., A.M., Iowa Coll,\n1889. Teacher in State Normal School, 28 Ford Ave., Oneonta.\n\nNo. 7,\n\nSouth\n\nDr. Henry Ciark Coon, A.B., 768, A,.M., ’7z, Ph.D., ’92, Alfred Univ.\n1872, Professor of Physics and Chemistry, Alfred University, 35S. Main St., Alfred,\nEpirors’ Liprary.\nWashington Square, New York, *\n\nAve.,\n\n"}
{"page": 1097, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIFE\n\n1897,\n\nAND\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\nNEW\n\nYORK—Continued,\n\n1087\n\nWm. H. Grirrirus,\n55 Gorham St., Canandaigua.\nFrEDERIC ALLIson Lyman, Associate of the College of Musicians, ’86.\n1888. Supervisor of Musicin Public Schools, 421 Warren Ave., Syracuse.\nA. L. PEcx.\n\n1880,\n\nLibrarian of Free Library, Gloversville.\n\nJ. H. Tuiry.\nProf. and Introducer of the Sch, Savings Bank System, 181 Academy St., Long\nIsland City.\nHenry H. Varz, A. B., ’60, LL.D., 96, Middlebury Coll.\nPublisher, 322 W. 75th St., New York.\nMary G. Van O’Linpba.\nCohoes.\nZ. F. WESTERVELT, LL.D., ’95, Rochester Univ.\n1876. Superintendent of Western N. Y. Institution for Deaf-Mutes, 945 N. St. Paul St.,\nRochester.\nJessie M, WINTERTON,\n1891. Director Kindergarten Dept. and Training Class, Merington School, 118 W. 75th\nSt., New York,\n\nNORTH\n\nCAROLINA.\n\nLIFE MEMBER,\n1884.\n\nRospertT BincuaM, A.M., ’60, LL.D., ’90, Univ. of N. C.\n1873. Head Master of Bingham School, Asheville.\n\n1884.\n\nEpwin A. ALDERMAN, Ph.B.,, Univ. of N. C.; D.C.L., Univ. of the South.\n1892. President of University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill.\nLocan D. HowE tt, A.B., ’89, Univ. of N. C.\n1885. Superintendent of Public Schools, Raleigh.\nJno. J. Buarr. A.B., ’85, Haverford Coll., Pa.\n1890. Superintendent of Schools, Winston.\nCHARLES D. McIver, A.B., ’8r, D.L., ’93, Univ. of N. C.\nPresident of State Normal and Industrial College, Greensboro.\n\nACTIVE MEMBERS.\n\n_1895.\n1896.\n\n1893.\n1894.\n\nNORTH\n\nDAKOTA.\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS,\n\nEmma F. BATES.\nc\ny\n1895. Ex-State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Fargo,\nWALTER L, STocKWELL, B.S., ’89, Univ. of Minn,\n1891. Superintendent of Schools, Grafton.\nMrs. HeEten H, Stockwett, B,L., Univ. of Minn.\nGrafton,\n\n1895.\n\nGero, A. McFarvanp, M.S., ’86, Hiram Coll.\n,\nPrincipal State Normal School, Valley City.\nWessTER MERRIFIELD, A.B., ’77, A.M.,’92, Yale.\n:\nF\n1891. President of State University of North Dakota, University, Grand Forks Co,\nLura L. PERRINE, A.B., 780, Albion Coll., Mich.\n¢\n1892, Teacher of Natural Sciences, State Normal School, Valley City.\n\n1896.\n\nJosEPH KENNEDY, B,S., Univ. of Minn.\n\n1897,\n\nL. H. Aten, B.A., ’87, E. Ind. Normal School.\n.\nSuperintendent of Schools of Richland Co,, Wahpeton.\nANNA BARNUM,\n’\nCritic Teacher in State Normal School, Mayville.\nJ. G. Hatianp, M.A,, Luther Coll., Ia.\n.\n,\n.\n\nee\n\noe\n\nProfessor of Pedagogy and Principal of Normal Department, University of North\nDakota, 1102 Broadway, Grand Forks.\nEpucaATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF Nortu DaKora,\nPresident, W. E. Hoover, Casselton; Secretary, L, H. Allen, Wahpeton.\n1893.\n\nState Superintendent of Public Instruction, Bismarck.\n\nW. E. Hoover, M.S., O. W. Univ.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Casselton.\nROSALIE POLLOCK.\n:\nInstitute Teacher, 120, 8th St. S,, Fargo.\n\nOHIO.\nLIFE DIRECTORS.\n1870,\n\nEMERSON ELBRIDGE Wuite, A.M., Western\n\nReserve\n\nColl.; LL.D., ’76, Indiana Univ. and\n\nAuthor and Lecturer, 387 E, Broad St,, Columbus,\n\nMarietta\n\n"}
{"page": 1098, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n1088\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nOHIO—Coxtinued.\n\nJames H. CanrieEtp, A.B., 68, A.M., ’77, LL.D., ’93, Williams Coll,\n884.\n1895. President of Ohio State University, 1873 N. High St., Columbus,\nvee\n1888, L. W. Day, A.M., ’82, Hillsdale Coll.; Ph.D., ’84, Baldwin Univ.\n1895. Superintendent of Schools, 506 High St., Canton.\nLIFE\n\n866,\n:\n1870,\n\nMrs. DetiaA Laturop WitiiaMs, Ped.D.,\n\n1880,\n\n1879.\n\n1880,\n\nMEMBERS,\n\nUtxysses T. Curran, A.B., A.M., Miami Univ., O,\nEx-Superintendent of Schools, 622 Columbus Ave., Sandusky,\nJ\nWiti1am H. Core, A,M., Ohio Wesleyan Univ.\n1878. Superintendent of Schools, Maple St., Marysville.\n:\n\nN. Y. |\n\n’95, State Nor. Coll., Albany,\n\nTeacher of History and Literature, Ohio Wesleyan\n\nUniversity, 62 S. Liberty St.\n\nDelaware.\nREUBEN McMi.1an, A.M.,’67, Western Reserve Coll, ;Ph.D., Franklin Coll., New Athens, O.\nx- Superintendent of Schools of Youngstown, Canfield.\nHampton BENNETT.\n;\n;\n1897. Superintendent of Schools, Kings Mills.\nJ. J. Burns, A.M., Washington and Jefferson Coll. ; Ph.D., ’76, Ohio State Univ.\n\n1896.\n\nCuares\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, 602 Washington St., Defiance,\n;\n\nC, Davipson, A.M., ’82, Ohio Univ.\n\n:\n\n:\n\n;\n\nEx-Superintendent of Schools, Trustee Ohio University, 59 W. Ely St., Alliance,\n\nBettie A, Dutton,\n:\n1870, Principal of Kentucky Street School,94 State St., Cleveland.\nMrs. REuBEN McMILLan.\n\nCanfield,\n\nLewis MILLER.\n\n=\n:\nPresident Board of Trustees, Mt, Union Coll., and of Chautauqua University, Oak\n\nPlace, Akron.\nJoun B, Peastez, A.B.,’63, A.M., ’66, Dartmouth;\nOhio State Univ.\n:\n\nLL.B., ’66, Cincinnati\n\nLaw Coll.; Ph.D., ’83,\n\nDirector of University of Cincinnati and Trustee of High Schools, 330 W. 4th St.,\nCincinnati.\nEsTHER A, WIDNER.\n21 Maple St., Dayton.\n1882.\n\n1883.\n\n1884.\n1894.\n\nJames A. Ropert, A.M., ’67, Yale; Ph.D., ’83, Denison Univ,\n\n230 Sunset Ave., Dayton.\nE, W. Coy, A.M., *58, Brown Univ.; Ph.D., ’86, Princeton,\n1873. Principal of Hughes High School, Cincinnati,\nC, W. Bennett, A.B., ’66, A.M., ’69, Ohio Wesleyan Univ.; Ph.D., ’79, Moores Hill Coll., Ind.\n1874. Superintendent of Schools, 218 W. Ash St., Piqua.\nJ. A. SHAWAN, A.B., 80, A.M., ’83, Oberlin Coll ; Ph.D., ’93, Muskingum Coll,\n1889. Superintendent of Schools, 1122 Bryden Road, Columbus,\n\nACTIVE MEMBERS,\n1884.\n\nE. A, Jones, A.M.\n\n1886,\n\n1869. Superintendent of Schools, 138 E. Tremont St., Massillon.\nCHRISTINE GorDON SULLIVAN, A.M., Ph.D,\n\n1885.\n1887..\n\n1890.\n\n~\n\nSupervisor of Art Instruction, Public Schools, 1208 Elmwood Ave., Cincinnati.\n\nOscAr T, Corson, A.M., ’87.\n\n1891.\n1889,\n\n*\n\nq\n\nState Commissioner of Common Schools, The Marion, Columbus.\n\nEpwin B. Cox, A.B., ’74, Ohio Wesleyan Univ.\n1881, Superintendent of Schools, 205 W. Church St., Xenia,\nNatTHAN L, GLOVER.\n\n1872, Teacher of Music, Public Schools, 627 E. Mill St., Akron.\nL. H. Jones.\n1894. Superintendent of Schools, rg0 Euclid Ave., Cleveland.\nLouis D. BoNeBRAKE, A.M., Ph.D,\nSuperintendent of Schools, Member Ohio State Board, 107 W. Hamtramack St.,\nMt. Vernon,\n:\n:\nMrs. Apa E, Lairp.\n\n1892. Principal of Waverly School, 265 Franklin Ave,, Cleveland.\nAnna M, Oscoop,\n1893. Principal of Avondale School, 1348 Oak St,, Columbus.\nJ. P. SHarKeEy.\n;\n1885. Superintendent of Schools, and (1893) Member of State Board of Examiners, Eaton.\nSopHIE VANCE.\n1876.\n\n1891,\n\nGrammar Department, P. O. Box 463, Van Wert.\nARTHUR OWEN JONES.\n1890. Teacher of Drawing, Public Schools, 2315 Highland Ave., Walnut Hills, Cincinnati,\nW. R. Matonz, A.B., 85, Ohio State Univ.\n1891. Principal of High School, Wyandotte Block, Columbus,\nR, Anna Morris, Grad., *88, Anderson Nor. Sch. of Physical Training,\n1894. Special Teacher of Physical Culture, Public Schools, r90 Euclid Ave.,\nCleveland.\n\n"}
{"page": 1099, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIFE\n\nAND\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n1089\n\nOHIO— Continued.\n1891.\n\nEven\n\nG, REvELEy, Ped.D., ’94, State Nor, Coll., Albany,\n\nN, Y.\n1892. Supervisor of Public Schools, 190 Euclid Ave., Cleveland,\nCuares\nUnive; W.\nSuper,\nLED\ney A.B.,\n’66, Dicki\nSen\nees Coll.;-; A.M.,’82,\nA.M.,, ’82, Syr:\nSyracuse Univ.\niv.; ; Ph.D.,’74,\n3\nIl. Wesleyan\n\n1883. President of Ohio University ;1896, Professor of Greek, 752a@,, t10 UnionSt., Athens.\nF, TreupDLEy, A.B., ’78, Univ. of Ind.\n1885. Superintendent of Schools, 623 Elm St., Youngstown,\nW. J. Wuire.\n\n1888,\n1892.\n\n1893.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, 1410 E, 3d St., Dayton.\n\nC. C. Mitter, A.B., ’83, Ohio State Univ.\n1893. Superintendent of Schools, 719 W. North St., Lima.\nN. Cor Srewart, F.C.M.\nDirector of Music, Public Schools, 71 Jennings Ave., Cleveland.\nMatitpa L, WALKE.\nTwenty-sixth District School, 471 Riddle Road, Clifton Heights, Cincinnati.\nE. R. Boorn, A.M., ’95, Ph.D., ’96, Univ. of Wooster,\n1889. Principal Technical School, 14th and Elm Sts., Cincinnati.\nCuarLes Haupert, A.B., ’80, A.M., ’83, Heidelberg Univ.\n1893. Superintendent of Schools, and (1894) Member State Board of Examiners,\nBowman St., Wooster.\n'\nM. A. Kimmet,\n1880,\nSuperintendent of Schools, Poland,\nMrs. CaroLinE NEWHALL LaTHrop.\nPrincipal of Normal School, gth St., W. of John, Cincinnati.\n\n20 E.\n\nH. H, Rascuic.\n\n1874. Principal of roth District School, 618 Mound St., Avondale, Cincinnati.\nS. D. Sanor, B.S., 89, M.S., ’92, Mt. Union Coll.\n1897. Student in Graduate School, Western Reserve University, 150 Hawthorne\nCleveland,\n\nAve.,\n\nJames W. Scort, A.B., Duquesne Coll.\n1890. Superintendent of Schools, Loudonville.\nH. Scortr, A.M., ’65, Ohio Univ, ; LL.D., ’84, Ohio Univ. and Ohio Wesleyan Univ.\n1883. Professor of Philosophy, Ohio State University, 131, r5th Ave., Columbus.\nLucia SticKNEY, A.M., ’95, Oberlin Coll.\n1877. Hughes High School, Cincinnati,\nJames W. BasuHrorp, A.B.,’73, A.M., ’76, Univ. of Wis.; S.T.B., ’76, Ph.D., ’8z, Boston Univ. ;\nWiuiaM\n\n1894.\n\nD.D., ’90, Southwestern Univ.\n\n1889. President of Ohio Wesleyan University, 23 Oak Hill Ave., Delaware.\nJ. RemsEN Bisuop, A.B., ’82, Harvard.\nee\ni\nPrincipal of High School, Alpine Place, Walnut Hills, Cincinnati.\nW. W. Boyp, A.B., 784, A.M., ’86, Marietta Coll.\nr891. Superintendent of Schools, soz, 5th St., Marietta.\nC, J. Brirron.\nSuperintendent of Schools, De Graff.\n\nEmma C. Davis.\n\n;\n\n%\n\n1893. Supervisor of Public Schools, 190 Euclid Ave., Cleveland.\nARNOLD J, GANTVOORT,\nAbt\nll atten\n1894. Professor of Music, College of Music, Cincinnati.\nEpwarop L. Harris, A.B.. A.M., Ph.B.\n1889. Principal Central High School, Cleveland.\nJuria A, Harris.\nhen\n1874. Primary Department, 13th District School, Cleneay and\nCincinnati.\nHarrirt L. KEELER, A.B., ’70, Oberlin Coll.\n:\n\n1895.\n\nSpencer Aves,, Norwood,\n\n1878. Assistant, Central High School, 93 Olive St., Cleveland.\nCuarves P, Lyncu, A.B., 786, A.M., ’80, Ph.D., ’97, Allegheny Coll.\n1891. Teacher of Latin, Central High School, 146 Hawthorne Ave., Cleveland.\nE, E. RicuHarps.\n.\nPrincipal of High School, Newark.\nWiiiram O, Tuomeson, D.D., ’91, Muskingum Coll. ; LL.D.\n1891. President of Miami University, Oxford.\nGEorGceE R, Twiss, B.S., Ohio State Univ.\n;\nInstructor in Physics, Central High School, 515 Cedar Ave., Cleveland.\nAnna J. Wricut, A.B.,\n72, Oberlin Coll.\nJ .\n“West Ligh School, 94 State St., Cleveland,\nCuar.es S. Barrett, B.S., ’85, Hopedale Coll., O.\n1887. Principal sth Ave, School, 78 W. gth Ave., Columbus.\nMary BraxisTon, Ph.B,, ’93, Ohio State Univ.\n}\n7895. ‘Teacher in East High School, 1030 Madison Ave,, Columbus.\n\nWituts Boucuton,\n\nA.B., Univ, of Mich,; A.M.,\n\nDickinson Col],\n\n‘\n\nay\n1899, Professor of Rhetoric ‘and English Literature, Ohio Univy,, Athens.\nC, E, Cargy.\n1885, Superintendent of Public Schools, City Hall, Warven,\n\n"}
{"page": 1100, "printed_page": null, "text": ";\nNATIONAL\n\n1090\n\ni\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n'\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nOHIO—Continued.\n1895.\n\nS. T. Diat, A.B., ’80, A.M., 84, Ohio Wes, Univ.; Ph.D., ’94, Syracuse Univ., N, Y.\n1890, Superintendent of Schools, Lockland.\n\nCrayton\n\n4\n\nL, Dickey,\n\nf\n\n* 1883. Superintendent of Schools, Clinton, Sharon, and Perry Townships, Worthington.\nGrorcE A, Howarp,\n;\nma\n:\n\nWith American Book Company, Cincinnati.\nAnne H. Kine, B.L., ’92, Univ. of Cincinnati.\n:\nPa\n;\n,\n1894. Teacher in Public School, 3716 Morris Place, Cincinnati.\n\nJuuia C, Kose,\n1896,\n\nANNIE Laws.\n\n:\n\n5\n\n:\n\nPrimary Teacher, 337 Milton St., Cincinnati.\n\n.\n\n:\n‘\n.\nPresident Cincinnati Woman’s Club, and Recording Secretary International Kindergarten Union, 8x8 Dayton St., Cincinnati.\n\nS. Herrick Layton, B.S., ’92, O. N. W.\n:\n;\n1896. Superintendent of Schools, 49 Main St., Mechanicsburg.\nWitiaM Z. Lazensy, B.Agri., Cornell; M.Agri., lowa Agri, Coll.\n4\n.\nR\n188r, Professor of Horticulture and Forestry, Ohio State University, Columbus.\nCuas. L. Loos, Jr., A.B., 69, A.M., ’7z, Bethany Coll., W. Va.\n1888. Head of English Department, Steele High School, 132 Salem St., Dayton.\nJ. S. Lowe, A.M., 67. _\n1891. Superintendent of Schools, 24 Henry St., Ashtabula,\nS. H, Manarry, A.M.,, ’90, Muskingum Coll., New Concord, O.\n1896. Superintendent of Schools, Millersburg, Holmes Co,\nS. K. Marois, Ph.B., Ped.B., ’93, Ohio Univ., Athens.\n1881, Superintendent of Schools, Gnadenhutten.\n\nG. C. Maurer, Ph.M., ’90, Univ. of Wooster.\n\n:\n1893. Superintendent of Schools, 409 W. Ray St., New Philadelphia.\nM. R. McE roy, A.B., ’95, Univ. of Wooster.\n\n1897. Representative of the John Church Co., Cincinnati.\nW. W. McIntire, Ph.B.,’96, Univ. of Wooster,\n,\n1896, Agent for the John Church Co., 1438 McMillan St., Cincinnati.\nHenry N. Mertz, A.B.,’70, A.M., ’80, Bethany, Coll.\n«1891. Superintendent of Schools, La Belle Ave., Steubenville,\nMiami UNIVERSITY.\nPresident, William O, Thompson; Secretary, Anna J. Bishop, Oxford,\n\nCarrie E, Moores.\n1896. Teacher in College, College Hill, Hamilton Co,\nW.H. Morecan.\nSuperintendent of Schools, City Hall, Cincinnati,\nHenry M. Parker, A.B.,’59, A.M., ’65, Marietta Coll.\n1873. Superintendent of Schools, Elyria\n\nJ. W. Preirrer, B.S,, Hopedale Nor. Coll.\n1888.\nE. H. PricHarp,\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, 141 Wooster Ave., Canal Dover.\n\nPrincipal Third Int. (Gram.) School, Cincinnati; residence, Wyoming,\nR. E, Rayman.\n1897. Superintendent of Public Instruction, East Liverpool.\nW.S. Ropinson, B.S., ’9t, M.S., 793, Mt. Union Coll.\n1897. Superintendent of Schools, Ashland,\nWiLiiaM C, SKINNER.\n1896. Superintendent of Manual Training, 2145 Ashland Ave., Toledo.\nHorace A, Stoxes, A.B., ’87, Ohio Wesleyan Univ. ; A.M., ’96, Denison Univ.\n1897. Superintendent of Schools, 35 Oak Hill Ave., Delaware.\nMarGareT W. SuTHERLAND.\n1889, Principal of Normal School, 1076 Neil Ave., Columbus.\nCuartes F, Tuwinc, D.D., LL.D.\nPresident Western\nCleveland,\n\n1896,\n\nReserve\n\nUniversity and Adelbert College, 55 Bellflower\n\nSTELLA S. Witson.\n;\n1894. ‘Teacher of Physical Geography, Central High School, 97 N. 2oth St., Columb:\nP, J. ANDERSON.\n\n1895.\n\nPrincipal of Franklin School, ror Garfield Ave., Columbus,\n\nMrs, P. J. ANDERSON,\n\n‘Teacher Kindergarten Department, 101 Garfield Ave., Columbus.\nJ.J. Briss, A.M., ’86, Oberlin Coll.\n1895. Superintendent of Schools, 518 E. Rensselaer St., Bucyrus,\n\nG. B, Botenpaucu.\n1897. Principal of High School, Chilicothe,\nMarie L, Bruot.\n1889, Teacher of Elocution and Oratory, 51, 4th Ave., Cleveland.\nG, A. CARNAHAN, Farmer’s Coll., ’49.\n1867, Principal of Grammar School, 63 Beech Ave., Wyoming.\n\n1\n,\nAve,\n\n:\n\n"}
{"page": 1101, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIFE\n\nAND\n\nACTIVE\n\nOHIO—\n1896.\n\nMEMBERS\n\nIogI\n\nContinued.\n\nHowarp CHAMPLIN,\n1892. Superintendent of Writing, Public Schools, Station D, Walnut Hills, Cincinnati.\nTressa M. Corcoran.\n1886. Assistant Principal, 8th District, Insco Apartments, Dayton.\nB.S. Cox, Lit. D,\n1894. Superintendent of Schools, Sidney.\nF. B, Dyer.\n1885. Superintendent of Schools, Madisonville.\nM. J. FLANNERY,\n1890. Superintendent of Schools, Beaver Creek Township, Green Co,, Jamestown,\n\nAucust F. Forrste, Ph.D., ’90, Harvard Univ.\n1892. Teacher of Physics, Steele High School, 2t7 W. Grand Ave., Dayton.\nW. L. Futon.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Clyde.\nJENNIE GiFForD, B.S., ’67, A.M., ’80, Nat. Nor. Univ., Lebanon, O.\n1874.\nPrincipal of Preparatory Dept., Buchtel Coll., 107 S, Union St., Akron.\nA. E. Grappine, A.M., ’9r, Bethany, W. Va.\n1894. Superintendent of Schools, LaRue.\nJ. P. Gorpy, Ph.D., Leipzig Univ., LL.D.\nProfessor of Pedagogy, Ohio State University, Columbus.\nLemira W. HUGHES.\n1892. Principal Normal Training School, The Lennox, Cleveland,\nFrepDeErickK Atwin Kine, A.B., A.M.\nTeacher of Latin and Greek, Hughes High School, rro Huntington Place, Mt,\nAuburn, Cincinnati.\nMrs, FRANCES W, LEITER.\nSuperintendent Department of Physical Education, Nat. W. C. T. U., Mansfield.\nAnna E, Locan,\n1896. Teacher in Intermediate Grade, Westwood, Cincinnati.\nJ. V. McMILxan.\nx893. Superintendent of Schools, Dennison.\nGeorcE M, PLuMMER.\nPrincipal of Ward School, 623, 4th St., Marietta.\nWixpur V. Roop., A.B., ’73, A.M., ’76, Oberlin Coll.\n\n1880,\n\nPrincipal of High School, 113 Adolph Ave., Akron.\n\nS. L. Rose.\n\n1897.\n\n1896. Superintendent of Schools, 219 N. 2d St., Hamilton.\nMary E. SrocKLEMAN,\nBuchtel College, Akron.\nCiara G. Taco.\n1891. Principal of South Case School, 26 Hawthorne Ave., Cleveland.\nHarriet E. TERREL.\n.\n1890. Principal of Scranton Schools, 381 Jennings Ave., Cleveland.\nR. S. Tuomas, Ph.B., Madison Univ.\n1897. Superintendent of Schools, 2r0 Prospect St., Warren.\nAnna M, P. Tucker.\nv\n:\nPrin, of Anna M, P. Tucker School of Ethical and Physical Culture, 878 Case Ave.,.\nCleveland.\nCLEVELAND Pustic LIBRARY.\nWilliam A. Brett, Librarian, Cleveland.\n\nLeritia L, Doane.\n1889. Institution for the Deaf, 1097 Oak St., Columbus,\n\nCora M. Gaver.\n\nSpecial Teacher of German, 2765 Broadway, Cleveland,\nJames Francis Jones, B.S.,’93, Harvard; M.D., ’96, Med. Coll. of Ohio.\nProfessor of Biology, Marietta College, Marietta,\n:\n2\nIsABELLA A, KoLBE,\nNorwood Public School Teacher, 189r Walker St., Cincinnati,\nRose Morrison.\n:\n1894. Teacher in Normal School, 415 Sibly St., Cleveland.\n;\nMase L, Pray.\nDirector of Physical Training, 1727 Summit Ave,, Toledo,\nGrorcE W, Reapy, A.B., A.M., L.B.\nY\nf\n1887. Superintendent of Schools, Painesville.\n\n‘ca\n\nC, RipcE.\n\nA C, Sitcox.\nnhs\n\nWith the American Book Co., s, e, cor. Nelson Ave, and{Helen St., Mt, Auburn,,\nCincinnati,\nA\nTeacher in 8th Grade, 2765 Broadway, Cleveland,\n\nEpwarp M. Van CLeve, A.B., ’86, A.M., ’89, Ohio Wes, Univ.\n\n1892.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, Barnesville.\n\n"}
{"page": 1102, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n10g2\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\na\"\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nOKLAHOMA,\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS.\n\nDavin R, Bovp, A.B., ’78, A.M., ’81, Univ. of Wooster.\n1892. President of University of Oklahoma, Norman.\nte\nTHomreson, B.S.\n.\n\n;\nic?\n\n4 anne\n\nate\n\nth\n\n,\n\n]\n;\n\nPrincipal of Preparatory Department, A, and M. College, Stillwater.\n\nOREGON.\nLIFE DIRECTOR.\n.\n\n\"ote\n\nPortland University, University Park.\nLIFE\n\n.\n\n;\n\n:\n\nC.C. Srratron, D.D.\n\nHenry M.\n\nJames,\nJ\n\nay\n\nMEMBER,\n\nj\n\nA.B., ’61, A.M., 764, Williams Coll.\n370, r4th St., Portland.\nACTIVE\n\n,\n\nMEMBERS,\n\nEpwin DeVore RESLER, A.B., ’91, Otterbein Univ.; A.M., ’97, Ohio State Univ.\n1897. Superintendent of Public Schools, Eugene.\n.\nJ. H. ACKERMAN.\nwest)\nPrincipal Harrison St. Grammar School, Portland.\nE. B. McEtroy, A.M., ’83, Christian Coll.; Ph.D., ’84, Williamette Univ.\n1895. Professor of Ethics, University of Oregon, Eugene.\nM. G. Royat, A.B., ’75, A.M., ’78, W. Univ., Salem, Ore.\n1892.\n\n897.\nnoite\n\n1893. President E, Oregon State Normal School, Weston.\nCHARLES FRIEDEL, Ph.D., ’95, Leipzig.\nProfessor of Physics in University of Oregon, Eugene.\nPENNSYLVANIA.\nLIFE\n\nDIRECTOR,\n\n1879.\n\n}\n:\nTEACHERS’ INSTITUTE. |\nPresident, Dr, Wm, H, Samuel; Secretary, Mary Wallace, Philadelphia.\nRepresentative for 1898, Andrew J. Morrison, 1430 N. 7th St., Philadelphia.\n\n1876.\n\nEpwarp Brooks, A.M., ’58, Union Coll.; Ph.D., ’76, Lafayette, Coll., Washington\nColl., Hyatts Military Academy,\n:\n\nLIFE\n\n1879.\n\nMEMBERS.\n\n.\n\nand Jeffersom\n\nz891. Superintendent of Schools, 597z Drexel Road, Philadelphia.\nRACHEL FosTER AVERY.\nSomerton.\nSimon Gratz, A.M., Univ. of Pa.\nPresident of Board of Education, r919 Spruce St., Philadelphia.\n\nEDWARD SHIPPEN\n1880.\n1891.\n\nEx-President Board of Education, 532 Walnut St., Philadelphia,\nEDGAR ARTHUR SINGER, Ph.D., ’96, Univ. of Pa.\nx\n1887. Assistant Superintendent of Schools, 4662 Penn St., Philadelphia.\nEvipHALet Oram Lyte, M.S., Millersville; A.M., Ph.D., Franklin and Marshall Coll.\n1887. Principal Pennsylvania First State Normal School, Millersville.\n{\n\n1879.\n\n1881.\n1884.\n1887.\n\n1889.\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS,\n\nGro. Morris Puitirs, A.M., ’74, Ph.D., ’84, Bucknell Univ.\n1881. Principal of State Normal School, West Chester.\n‘\nANDREW J, Morrison.\n1883. Assistant Superintendent of Schools, 1430 N. 7th St., Philadelphia.\nGro, H. Stour.\n1888. Supervising Principal of Boys’ Grammar School, 3746 Powelton Ave., Philadelphia.\nNatuan C, ScHarrrer, LL.D., ’95, Western Univ. of Pa.\n1893. State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Harrisburg.\nCHARLES DEGARmo, Ph.D., ’86, Halle.\n1891. President of Swarthmore College, Swarthmore.\n\n1891.\n\nE, Mackey, A.B., ’78, Mercersburg Coll.\n\n1892.\n\n1896,\nExiza A, Bisuop,\n\nBoys’ High School, Reading.\n\nPrincipal of Primary School, 2rr Pine St., Harrisburg.\nCyrus Bocer, A.M., Franklin and Marshall Coll,\n1890. Superintendent of Schools, 1112 Lehman St,, Lebanon.\nR. K, Bugnrve, A.M., *78, Ph.D., ’87, Franklin and Marshall Coll., Pa.\n1880, Superintendent of Schools, 408 Manor St., Lancaster.\nW. Witperrorce Dearricx, A.B., ’76, A.M.,, ’79, Mercersburg Coll.\n1891. Professor of Psychology and Pedagogy, Keystone State Normal\n\n.\nSchool, Kutztown,\ni\n\n‘\n\n"}
{"page": 1103, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIFE\n\nAND\n\nACTIVE\n\nPENNSYLVANIA—\n1892.\n\nMrs, Constance\n\nMEMBERS\n\n1093\n\nContinued.\n\nMACKENZIE DURHAM,\nSan Eg) de Macoris, Santo Domingo, West\n\nIndies; 4816 Florence Ave., Philadel-\n\nla,\n\n,\n\nH. W. Fisuer, Grad, State Nor. Sch., Millersville, Pa.\n1875. Supervisor r7th Ward Schools, 350 Lehigh Ave., Pittsburgh.\nJos. K. Gorwats, A.M.\n\n1872, Superintendent of Schools, 19 E, Chestnut St., Norristown.\nMary J. LAMBERTON,\nr89x. Supervising Prin, of George W, Childs Sch., 4403 Osage Ave, West Philadelphia.\nE. C, Lavers, A.M., Ped.D., Ph.D.\nPrincipal of High School, 324 Cattell St., Easton.\nHerman T, Lukens, A.M., ’88, Univ. of Pa.; Ph.D., *gr, Jena,\n1895. Docent in Psychology, Clark University, Worcester, and Lecturer\nCollege, Bryn Mawr, 53: Marshall St., Philadelphia,\nJoun A. M, Passmore, M.S., ’62, State Nor. Sch., Millersville, Pa,\n1890, Agent American Book Co., 318 S. 42d St., Philadelphia,\n\nin Bryn Mawr\n\nS. C, Scumucker, A.M., ’85, M.S., ’90, Muhlenberg Coll., Pa. ;Ph.D., ’93, Univ. of Pa.\nProfessor of Biological Sciences, State Nor. Sch., 610 S. High St., West Chester.\nH. H. Spayp.\n1883. Principal of Public Schools, P. O, Box 310, Minersville.\nJ. Liserty Tapp.\n1884. Director of Industrial Art School, 319 N. 32d St., Philadelphia.\n\n1893.\n\nC. A. Bascock, A.M., ’71, LL.B., ’83, Hamilton Coll.\n1883. Superintendent of Schools, 313 Petroleum St., Oil City.\nM. G. BRuMBAUGH, A.M., ’93, Ph.D., ’94. Univ. of Pa.\n1893. President of Juniata Coll,, and (1894) Professor of Pedagogy, Univ. of Pa., 311\ngoth’ St., Philadelphia.\nJames A. Dewey, M.E., ’84, State Nor. Sch., Mansfield.\n1890. Superintendent of Schools, Newport Township, Wanamie.\nLoyat FREEMAN Hatt, M.E.D., State Nor. Sch., Indiana, Pa.\n\nS.\n\nPrincipal of First Ward Schools, Butler.\nWiriiam Henry SAMvuEL, Ph.D., ’92, Univ. of Pa.\n1878. Supervising Principal Public Schools, 2505 N. rath St., Philadelphia.\nANDREW Tuomas Smitu, Ped.D., ’*93, School of Pedagogy, Univ. of N. Y.\n1885. Professor of Pedagogy, State Normal School, West Chester.\nPAULINE W. SPENCER.\n\n1893.\n\n1894.\n\nTeacher of Literature, Girls’ Normal\n\nSchool, 3421 Race St., Philadelphia.\n\nEmma J. LoncstretH, M.E., ’76, State Nor. Sch., West Chester, Pa.\n1894. Teacher of History, Girls’ High School, 1416 Euclid Ave., Philadelphia.\n\nMiss M.J.McCRACKEN,\n1887. Assistant Principal, Franklin School, 4632 Center Ave., Pittsburgh.\nFRANKLIN H. SawveL, A.M., Hopedale Coll. ;Ph.D., ’86, Wittenberg Coll.\n1890.\n\nProfessor of English Literature and Philosophy, Thiel College, Greenville.\n\nJames F. C, SIcKEL.\n:\n1883. Assistant Superintendent of Schools, 637 N. 4oth St., Philadelphia.\n\nCuartes K, Witmer, A.B., ’88, A.M., ’9t, Franklin and Marshall Coll,\n1893.\n\n1895.\n\nPrincipal of High School, United States Hotel, Lebanon.\n\nS. H. Avsro, Ph.D., Colgate Univ.\nPrincipal of State Normal School, Mansfield.\nGro. Howarp Curr, A.M.\n:\np\n1893. Principal Philadelphia Normal School, 1507 N. 17th St., Philadelphia.\nA. D, CoLtEecrove, A.M., 784, Allegheny Coll.\n:\n1883. Superintendent of City Schools, 73 Euclid St., Corry.\nW. G. Gans.\n:\n)\n1892. Supervising Principal of Public Schools, Connellsville.\nMary Hens, B.E., 87, Keystone Nor. Sch., Kutztown.\n\n1887. Teacher in Public Schools, Eshbach.\nJames MacAutster, A.M., LL.D., Brown Univ. ;LL.B., Univ. of N. Y.; Officier d’Académie, Paris,\n\n1890.\n\nPresident of Drexel Institute, Philadelphia,\n\né\n;\nMrs, Mary E, Mumrorp.\nMember of Board of Public Education, r4or N. 17th St., Philadelphia,\nB. F. PATTERSON.\n;\nSuperintendent of Schools, rrr George St., Pottsville.\n\nTuED, PERSHING.\n\nat.\n\n‘\n\n:\n\nRepresentative of Publishing House, Philadelphia,\n\nRev, J. W. SHANAHAN.\n\n}\n\n;\n\n;\n\n1894. Superintendent of Parochial Schools, 48th St. and Lancaster Ave., Philadelphia.\n.\nf\nSypnry T. Skipmore, A.M., ’85, Amherst Coll,\n1893. Professor of Natural Sciences, Normal School, 1706 N. 18th St., Philadelphia.\nH. M. TRASK.\n2\n\nAgent for Silver, Burdette & Co., 1328 Arch St., Philadelphia.\n\n"}
{"page": 1104, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n1094\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIA TION\n\nPENNSYLVANIA — Continued.\n\n=\nJ. Grorce Becur, M.S., Lafayette Collie\n1893. Superintendent of Lycoming County, Muncy.\nR. M, Carco.\n‘\n1868. Principal Mt. Washington School, 127 Sycamore St., Pittsburgh.\n;\nok\nWatson CoRNELL.\nSupervising Principal Logan Grammar School, 1725 N. 16th St., Philadelphia.\n\n1896.\n\n:\nL. O. Foose, A.M., ’78, Penn. Coll., Gettysburg.\n1879. Superintendent of City Schools, 705 N. 2d St., Harrisburg.\n\nJoun Arruur Gizsson, A.B., ’9t, Allegheny Coll,\n1896.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, 418 N. McKean\n\nSt., Butler.\n\nGrEorGE HowELt.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 1007 Scranton St., Scranton.\n\nrm\n\nW. L. MacGowan, A.B., Allegheny Coll., Ph.B. and Ph.M,\n\n.\n\n1890.\nC, B, McCase,\n\n.\n\nPrincipal of North Braddock Borough Schools, Halkett Ave., Braddock.\nS. R. McCrurz, A.M., ’94, Ph.D., ’97, Grove City Coll.\n1893. Principal of High School, 616 Jones Ave., North Braddock.\nTueroporz B. Noss, A.M., ’82, Ph.D., ’83, Syracuse Univ.\n1883. Principal State Normal School, California.\nW. RIvDLE.\nEducational Author, Lancaster.\n\na\nTK\ni\n\n:\n\nNee\n\nSuperintendent of Schools; office, East St. Building, Warren.\n\nJ. N, Situ.\n\n4\n\n1875.\n\n;\n\nPrincipal of 6th Ward School, 18 Franklin St., Allegheny City.\n\nJupson Perry WELSH, A.M., ’84, Ph.D., ’90, Lafayette Coll., Easton, Pa,\n\n;\n\nty\nNps\n\n*\n\n1897.\nN\n\nwy\n;\n\n;\nCMe\n\n,\n\net\n,\n\n1890. Principal State Normal School, Bloomsburg.\nMARGARET CATHARINE ZILLAFRO, M.E.D., State Nor. Sch., Edinboro,\n1893. Primary Teacher, 4th Ward Schools, 56 Kennedy St., Bradford,\n;\nFRANCIS BuRKE BrAnprT, A.B., ’92, Harvard; Ph.D., ’95, Columbia.\n1896. Professor of Pedagogy, Central High School, 1637 S. r5th St.,{ Philadelphia.\n:\nC. E. Extncer, M.D.\nPhysical Director State Normal School, 15 Normal Ave., West Chester.\nFREE Pustic Liprary.\nJohn Thomson, Librarian, 1217-1221 Chestnut St., Philadelphia.\nN. P. McNeEtis.\nInspector of Parochial Schools, St. Joseph’s Protectory, Pittsburg.\nState Norma ScuHoor Liprary.\n\\\nS. A. Albro, President, Mansfield.\n\nRHODE\nLIFE\n\n1882.\n\nTHomas\n\nW. BICKNELL, A.M., ’60, Brown Uniy.; ’78, Amherst Coll,; LL.D., ’84, Drury Coll. ”\n719-721 Industrial Trust Building, Providence.\n\n1890.\n\nWiiiiam KE, Witson, A.M.,’75, Monmouth Coll,, Ill.\n1892. Principal State Normal School, 387 Olney St., Providence.\n\n1891.\n\nTuomas B, Stockwe\ntt, A.M., ’65, Brown Uniy.\n\nACTIVE\n\nfs\n\n1892.\n\nBENJAMIN Baker, A.M., ’78, Brown Univ.\nA\n1890: Superintendent of Schools, to Mt, Vernon Court, Newport.\nGrorce E, Cuurcu, A.B., ’72, A.M., ’78, Amherst Coll.\n1889. Principal Peace Street Grammar School, 37 Adelaide St., Providence.\nGitman C, FisHEr, A.B., 69, A.M., 86, Colby Univ.\n\n*\n\n1894.\n\n,\n,\nan\n3\n“\n\n\"ae\n\nAy\n\n1875. Commissioner of Public Schools, Box 1432, Providence.\nHorace S. Tarsett, A.M.,, 62, Werleyen Univ.; LL.D.,’96, Brown Univ,\n1884.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 169 Power St., Providence.\n\\\n\n:\n\nmars\n\nMEMBERS,\n\n‘\n\nbee\n|\n\nPY\n\nISLAND.\nDIRECTOR,\n\n1896.\ni\n\n1892. Superintendent of Schools, rro Central Ave,, Pawtucket.\nWALTER BAttou Jacoss, A.M., ’8s, Brown Univ. |\n\n1895. Associate Professor of Pedagogy, Brown University, 362 Point St., Providence.\nAppy L. Martatr, B.S., ’88,M.S., ’90, State Agri. Coll., Kan.\n1894. Teacher Manual Training, High School, rx Greene St., Providence.\nVictor FrazEx, A.B,, ’89, Dalhousie Coll., Halifax.\n1893. Teacher in High School, 08 Prospect St., Providence.\nEien LE Garpe,\n1893. Physical Director of Schools, 10 Mawney St., Providence,\n:\nMrs. Evia M. Pierce,\n\n1891.\n\nSupervisor of Grammar and Primary Schools, City Hall, Providence,\n\nBrssiz M. ScHoLFietp, ;\nSupervisor of Primary Work in Public Schools, 83 Vernon St., Providence,\n\n"}
{"page": 1105, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIFE\n\nAND\nRHODE\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n1095\n\nISLAND—Coxttnxed.\n\n1896. W. R. WuiTTLz, A.B, ’83, A.M., ’88, Colby Univ.\n1891. Principal of Schools, 56 Eden St., Westerly.\n1897. D. W. Horr.\nSupervisor of Penmanship, 19 Beacon Ave., Providence,\n\nSOUTH\n\nCAROLINA.\n\nLIFE MEMBER,\n1891.\n\nMartTHA SCHOFIELD,\n1865. lounder, General Manager, and Treasurer of Board of Trustees of Schofield Normal\nand Industrial School, Aiken,\n\n1895.\n\nD. B. Jounston, A.M., ’80, Univ. of Tenn.\nPresident Winthrop Normal and Industrial School, Rock Hill,\n\n1896.\n\nE. S, DREHER, A.M., ’93, Roanoke Coll., Salem, Va,\n1895. Superintendent of Schools, Columbia,’\nW. H. Hanp.\n\nACTIVE\n\n1893.\n\nMEMBERS.\n\n.\n\nSuperintendent of City Schools, Chester.\nSOUTH\n\nDAKOTA.\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS,\n\nWo. H. H. Beapte, A.B., 61, A.M., ’64, LL.B., 67, Univ. of Mich.\n1889. President of State Normal School, Madison.\n\nJosEru W. Mauck, A.B., ’75, A.M., ’77, LL.D., ’95, Hillsdale Coll.\nx891. President of University of South Dakota, Vermillion.\nMATTIE JONES.\nKate TausMaANn,\n1895.\n\nTeacher in Indian Industrial School, Flandreau.\nPrincipal of High School, 514 S. Jay_St., Aberdeen.\n\nFRANK CRANE, B,S,, Galesville Univ.\nSuperintendent of Public Instruction, Aberdeen.\nEta EL.iotr.\nTeacher Primary School, 8x8 W. xoth St., Sioux Falls.\n\nGerorcE M, Smitu, A.B., ’73, A.M., ’77, Colby Univ.\n\nProfessor of Greek and Pedagogy, University of South Dakota, Vermillion.\n\n1896.\n\n1897.\n\nEpmunp J. VERT, Ph.B., Ped.D.\n:\n1895. Superintendent of Schools, 504 Lynn St., Yankton,\nA, H, Avery.\n1894, Principal Public Schools, Woonsocket.\nALEXANDER STRACHAN, A.M., ’82, Univ. of Rochester.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Deadwood.\n\ni\n\nTENNESSEE.\nLIFE\n\n1886.\n\n1889.\n\nDIRECTORS.\n\nWiiiiam Roserrson GARRETT, A.M., 57, Win. and Mary Coll.; Ph.D., ’91, Univ. of Nashville.\nProfessor of American History, Peabody Normal College, 813 5. Summer St.,\nNashville.\n‘\nBoarp oF EpucaTION oF NASHVILLE.\nPresident, E. G. Connette; Secretary, Wm, R. Payne, Nashville.\n\nACTIVE MEMBERS.\n1887,\n\n1889.\n1892,\n\n1604,\n1895.\n\nWuarton Stewart Jones, A.B., ’73, Kentucky Univ.\n\nEiza CrosTHWAIT.\n1896,\n\nJ\n\n1881. Principal of Memphis Institute, 501 Vance St., Memphis.\nW. T. Wuire, A.B., ’77, A.M., ’93, Univ. of Tenn.\nt\n1885, Principal of Girls’ High School, 508 Broad St., Knoxville.\nWituiam H. Payne, LL.D., Univ. of Mich, ;Ph.D., Univ. of Nashville,\nChancellor of University of Nashville and President of Peabody Normal College, 16\nLindsley Ave., Nashville.\nA, T, Barrett, A.B, and A.M., ’69, Univ. of Rochester; LL.D., ’85, S.W. Univ.\n1891. Superintendent of City Schools, roor E, gth St., Chattanooga,\nJoun Brapon, A.B., A.M., Ohio Wesleyan Univ. ; D.B., lowa Wes. Univ.\n;\n1867. President of Central ‘lennessee College, 82 Maple St., Nashville.\n'\nLessee and Principal Boscobel College, and President of National Bureau of Education, 306 Wilcox Building, Nashville.\n\nJames A, Henry, A.B.,’83, Atlanta Univ.\n1886.\n\nPrincipal of High School, 207 Grove St., Chattanooga.\n\n/\n\n"}
{"page": 1106, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n1096\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nTEXAS,\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS,\n\n1874.\n\nArex. Hoce, A.M., ’57, Randolph-Macon Coll. ;774, William and Mary Coll; ’89, Univ. of Ala.\n1892. Superintendent of Schools, 303 Lamar St., Fort Worth.\n\n1883.\n\n{\nJoseru Batpwin, A.B.,’52, A.M., ’56, LL.D., ’90, Bethany Coll.\nProfessor of Pedagogy, University of Texas, 1801 Congress Ave., Austin.\n\n1892.\n\nH. C. Prircuetr, A.M.,’78, Pritchett Institute, Glasgow, Mo.\n;\n1891. Principa] of Sam, Houston Normal Institute, Huntsville.\n\n1894.\n\nOscar Henry Cooper, A.B., ’72, Yale; A.M., LL.D., ’91, Univ. of Nashville.\nCarthage.\nA. H, Witkins.\n418 Main St., Dallas.\n\n1895.\n\nD. S. Bopennamer, A.B..’70, A.M., ’73, B.D., ’74, Ph.D., ’84, C.E., ’92, Cumberland\n\nProfessor of Mathematics, Trinity University, Tehuacana.\n\nJames M, Cartyie, A.M., Emory Coll.,Ga.\n\ni\nUniv.\n\n,\n\n1881.\nState Superintendent of Publig Instruction, Austin.\nJ. M. Fenpiey, A.B., 82, Univ. of Nashville,\n1885. Principal of Avenue L School, 3202 Avenue N, Galveston.\nT. G. Harris, A.B., ’76, A.M., ’80, Carson Coll., Tenn.\n1895. Superintendent of Schools, Austin.\nH. S. Parsons, A.B., 86, N. Ind, Nor. Sch.\n\n1896.\n\n1896. Vice-President of Grayson College, Whitewright.\nW.S. Sutton, A.M., ’84, Arkansas Univ.\n1897. Professor of Pedagogy, University of Texas, 1812 Congress Ave., Austin.\nJ. L. Lone.\nSuperintendent of Public Schools, High School, Dallas.\nGrorGE TAYLOE Winston, B.L.,’74, Cornell; A.M., Davidson Coll.; LL.D., Trinity.\n1896. President of University of Texas.\n\n1897.\n\nJoun A. Motpstap, A.B., ’94, Luther Coll., Decorah, Ia.\nPrincipal of Lutheran College, Clifton.\n\nUTAH.\nACTIVE MEMBERS,\n1892.\n\nALLEN ALLENSwortn, A.M.\n1886,\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, Fort Douglas.\n\nGrorcE CaroTHErs YOUNG.\n1892.\n1895.\n\nSupervisor of Music, Public Schools, 344 East First South St., Salt Lake City.\n\nD. R. Avcssurc, B.P., *84, Syracuse Univ.\n\n1891.\n\nSupervisor of Drawing, Public Schools, 6 Thornton Ave., Salt Lake City.\n\nWILLIAM JASPER Kerr, B.S., D.B.\n\n1894. President of Brigham Young College, Logan,\nJ. F. Micispaucu, A.B., ’89, Univ. of Mich.; M.D., ’83, Univ. of Pa.\n\n1890. Superintendent of Schools, 209, 13th East St., Salt Lake City.\nJames E, Tartmace, Ph.D., F.R.S.E., F.G.S.\n1893. Deseret Professor of Geology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City.\nUNIVERSITY OF UTAH,\nPresident, J. T, Kingsbury ; Secretary, David R, Allen, Salt Lake City.\n\n1896,\n1897.\n\nM, ADELAIDE Hotton,\n1897, Primary Supervisor, The Manitou, Salt Lake City,\n\nA, O, CLARK,\nPrincipal of High School, rosg, 3d St., Salt Lake City.\nJ. M. Tanner.\n\nPresident of Agricultural College, Logan.\n\nVERMONT.\nLIFE MEMBER.\n1889.\n\nEpmunp WentwortH WriGHt, A.B., 66, A.M., ’69, Harvard Coll.\nTeachers’ Examiner, Lunenburg.\n\n1894.\n\nMason S, Stone, A.B., ’83, Univ. of Vt.\nState Superintendent of Education, Montpelier.\n\nACTIVE\n\n1895.\n\nMEMBERS,\ni)\n\nHeErsert J. Smitu, A.B., °88, A.M., ’9r, Colgate Univ.\nLibrarian of the University of Vermont, 32 Orchard Terrace, Burlington.\n1896. ‘Herpert J. Jones, Ph.B., ’94, Cornell Univ,\n1894. Superintendent of Schools, St. Johnsbury.\n\n"}
{"page": 1107, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIFE\n\nAND\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n1097\n\nVIRGINIA.\nACTIVE\n\n1894.\n\nMEMBERS,\n\nMaximizian P. S, Groszmann, Ped.D., ’93, New York Univ.\nComenius Grove, Vareo, Louisa Co.\nJoun H. Baper,\n1893. Superintendent of Schools, Staunton.\nWixuiaM F, Fox, A.M., ’58, Richmond Coll.\n1889. Superintendent of Schools, City Hall, Richmond.\n\nE. C. Grass.\n1896,\n\n1897.\n\n1893. Superintendent of Schools, 622 Madison St., Lynchburg,\nAvsert H. Tutte, M.S, ’68, Penn. Coll.\n1888, Professor of Biology, University of Virginia, 1 West Lawn, University of Virginia,\nCharlottesville.\nCevesti4 S. ParrisH, Ph.B., ’96, Cornell Univ.\n1893. Professor of Mathematics and Pedagogy in Randolph Macon Woman’s College,\nLynchburg.\n\nWASHINGTON.\nLIFE\n\nMEMBER,\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS,\n\n1891.\n\nJoun Hutt, A.M.,’76, tli, Wes. Univ.\nUrban, Sinclair Island.\n\n1891.\n\nFRANK J. BARNARD.\n1890. Superintendent of Schools, 7th Ave. and Marion St., Seattle.\nD. Bemiss, A.M., ’66, Univ. of Toronto.\n1889. Superintendent of Schools, 1307, 3d Ave., Spokane.\nJ. T. Forrest, Ph.B., ’83, Central Univ. of Iowa.\n1885. Superintendent of Schools, Chehalis.\nRevuBeEN S, Bincuam, A.B., A.M., Hamilton Coll.\n1896. Superintendent of City Schools, 616 Tacoma Ave., Tacoma.\nC. F. Reeves, B.S., ’78, M.S., ’81, Pa. State Coll.\n1894. Professor of German, University of Washington, Columbia City.\nStaTE NorMAt SCHOOL.\nP, A. Getz, President, Ellensburg.\n\n1895.\n\n1806.\n\n1897.\n\nWEST\nLIFE\n\nT. MARcELLUS\n\nVIRGINIA.\nDIRECTOR,\n\nMARSHALL,\nGlenville.\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS,\n\nW. H. Anverson, A.M., ’89, Bethany Coll.\n1885. Superintendent of Schools, 45, 14th St., Wheeling.\nJ. WALTER Barnes, A.M., West Virginia Univ.\n\n1892, Principal of State Normal School, Fairmont.\nByrp PritLeRMAN, B,S., ’89, Knoxville Coll.; A.M., ’94, Westminster Coll.\n1895. Professor of English Language, West Virginia Colored Institute, Charleston.\nRopert A, ARMSTRONG, A.M., ’90, West Virginia Univ.\neet\n1893. Professor of English Literature, and (1897) Vice-President, West Virginia University, Morgantown.\nD,. W, SHIELDS.\nWheeling.\nD, M. Wits.\nPrincipal Commercial Dept., West Virginia University, Morgantown.\n;\nJ. N. Deaut, A.B., ’93, Harvard.\nPrincipal State Normal School, West Liberty.\n\nCuas, W, Evans.\n1897.\n\n;\nSuperintendent of Schools, Fairmont.\n\nJoun A. Myers, A.M,, Ph.D.\n4\nDean of West Virginia Agricultural College, Morgantown.\n\nDora B. Rocers.\n\n1894. First Assistant in High School, 1323 Market St., Parkersburg.\nFREDERICK W. SanpERS, A.B., ’83, Coll. of City of N. Y.; A.M., ’92, Harvard Univ.;\nUniv. of Chicago.\nass\n;\n1897. Asst. Prof. of Pedagogy, West Virginia Univ., Morgantown.\n\nWISCONSIN.\nLIFE MEMBERS.\nGrorGr SUMNER ALBEE, A.B., 764, Univ. of Mich.\n1871. President of State Normal School, Oshkosh,\n\nPh.D., ’o5\n\n"}
{"page": 1108, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n1098\nSSS\nee\noe\n\neee\n'\n\nWISCONSIN— Continued.\n1884.\n\n:\n\nALUMNI ASSOCIATION, STATE NORMAL ScHooL,\n\nPresident, Lutie E. Stearns; Secretary, Annette Rosenthal, Milwaukee.\nJoun ArtHuR Ayiwarp, B.L., 784; B.L. (Law), ’90, Univ. of Wis.\n17 W. Doty St., Madison.\n\nGrorcE Beck, M.S., ’63, Univ. of Mich,\n\n514 Elm St., Platteville.\n.\nBetorr City Scuoor Boarp.\n\n’\n\nPresident, C. W. Merriman; Secretary, A. N. Bort, Beloit.\n:\n.\nBoArD OF EDUCATION OF THE CITY OF JANESVILLE.\nPresident, Fred. L. Clemons; Clerk, John Cunningham, Janesville.\n\nBoarp oF Epucation, La Crosse.\nPresident, Dr. O. G. Winters;\nBoarp oF EpucaTion, MILWAUKEE.\n\n-\n\nSecretary, Albert Hardy.\n:\n\nPresident, Charles Quarles, ‘539 Farwell Ave.; Secretary, Henry E, Legler, City\nHall, Milwaukee,\n\nBoarp oF EDUCATION.\nOshkosh.\nBoarp oF EpucaTION.\nWatertown.\nBoarpD OF REGENTS, STATE NORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS.\nPresident, A. E. Thompson, Oshkosh;\n\nSecretary, S. S. Rockwood, Portage,\n\nCrry SuPERINTENDENTS’ AND SUPERVISING PRINCIPALS’ ASSOCIATION OF WISCONSIN.\n\nPresident, D. D. Mayne, Janesville; Secretary, F. E. Doty, Waupaca.\n\nJarrus H. Carpenter, A.M., 74, Yale; LL.D., ’76, Univ. of Wis,\n1868. Professor of Law, University of Wisconsin, 315 Wisconsin Ave., Madison.\nWiiiarp H. CHANDLER,\n1895. State Inspector of High Schools, Madison\n* Epwin A, Cuaron, A.B., ’54, A.M.,’57, Dartmouth.\nEx-President State Normal School, Platteville, Brodhead.\n\nL. H, Crarxk.\n1892.\n\nHead of Mathematical Department, State Normal School, River Falls,\nCounty TEACHERS’ AssocIATION, MILWAUKEE County,\nPresident, Herbert J. Piper, Bay View; Secretary, John E. Roch, S. Milwaukee.\nJoun Q, Emery, A.M., Ph.B.\n1895. State Superintendent of Public Schools, Madison.\n\nJoun T, Fiavin.|\n1874. County Superintendent of Schools of Dodge County, Watertown.\nL. D. Harvey, Ph.D., ’91, Milton Coll.\n1892, President of State Normal School, 225, 23d St., Milwaukee.\nA.J. Hurron.\n1894.\nInstitute Conductor, State Normal School, rr05 Main St., Whitewater.\nCuas, H. Nve.\n1893. County Superintendent of Schools of Grant County, 48 Elm St., Lancaster.\n\nJ\n\nW. D. Parxer, A.M., Univ. of Wis.\n1874. President of State Normal School, River Falls.\n\nJoun B, Parkinson, A.B., A.M., Univ. of Wis.\n\n:\n\n:\n\n1885.\n\nVice-President and (1867) Professor of Constitutional and International Law. University of Wisconsin, 803 State St., Madison.\nPRINCIPALS’ ASSOCIATION,\nMilwaukee.\nPusiic ScHoot TEACHERS OF JANESVILLE.\n\nSuperintendent, D, D. Mayne; Secretary, Jennie Peterson, Janesville,\nSamvuEL Suaw, A.M., Univ. of Wis.\nDistrict Attorney, Crandon, Forest Co.\nRosert C. SPENCER.\n|\n1863. President of Spencerian Business College, 178 Prospect Ave., Milwaukee,\n\nJosuua Stark, A.B., 748, Union Coll., Schenectady, N. Y.\n388 Boylston Place, Milwaukee.\nState HistToricaL Society oF WISCONSIN.\nPresident, John Johnston, Milwaukee; Secretary,\nReuben G. Thwait\nison\nLibrarian, Isaac S, Bradley, Madison.\nee\nMies ea\nState Norma Scuoor AT PLATTEVILLE,\nPresident, Duncan McGregor; Secretary, Carol Goff, Platteville.\nState Norma\n\nScuoor, ATHEN@uM\n\nLiterary\n\n5\n\nSociety,\n\nPlatteville,\n\nStaTE Norma\n\nScHoor, PHILADELPHIAN\nPlatteville.\n\nSOcIETY,\n\nJ. W. Stearns, A.B., ’60, A.M., 64, Harvard; LL.D., ’74, Chicago Univ.\n1888, Professor of Philosophy and Pedagogy, and (1897) Director of School of Education,\nUniv. of Wis,, 512 Wisconsin Ave., Madison.\n\n|\n\n—\n\n"}
{"page": 1109, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIFE AND ACTIVE MEMBERS\nWISCONSIN—\n\"\n\n1884.\n\n1099\n\nContinued.\n\nI, N. Srewarrt, B.S., ’62, Univ. of Wis.\nEditor, Staff of Milwaukee ‘‘ Daily Journal,” 426 Van Buren St., Milwaukee,\nTEACHERS’ ASSOCIATION OF WISCONSIN.\n\nPresident, G, G, Williams, West Superior; Secretary, W. H. Cheever, Milwaukee,\nCorps, INTERMEDIATE AND UPPER SECTION,\nMilwaukee.\nTEACHERS’ Corps, PrimARY SECTION.\nMilwaukee.\nJ. B. THayver,\nMadison.\nSLAs ae C, Wurrrorp, A.B,, ’53, A.M., ’58, Union’ Coll., N. Y.; D.D., ’85, Blackburn Univ.,\ninois.\n1858, President of Milton College, Milton, Rock Co.\nTEACHERS’\n\nACTIVE MEMBERS,\n1884\n\n1889,\n\nMrs, Eva D, KeEttoce.\nEditor of ‘‘ Primary Education,” 237 Langdon St., Madison.\nALBERT SALIsBuRY, Ph. D., Milton Coll., Wis.\n1885. President of State Normal School, Whitewater.\nSanrorp A, Hoorer, A.B.,’72, A.M., ’82., Beloit Coll.\n\n1890.\n\nJupson E. Hoyt, A.B.,’ 80, Univ. of Wis.\n\n1887\n\n1893.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, 512 Wilson Ave., Menomonie,\nMarie Doyte.\n1894. Supervisor of Practice, State Normal School, West Superior.\nMrs. Exxia N, ALLEN.\n1897. Supervisor of Practice, State Normal School, Platteville.\nI. C. McNEIL1,\n1896. President State Normal School, West Superior.\nMrs. I. C. McNEIu.\nWest Superior.\nM. V. O’SHEa, B.L., ’92, Cornell.\n1895. Professor of Educational Psychology and Child Study, Univ. of Wis., Madison,\nWo. Gero. BRUCE.\nEditor of ‘‘ American School Board Journal,’’ 435 Hanover St., Milwaukee.\nMary F, Hatt.\n\n1891.\n1892\n\n;\n\na\ni\noS\na\n\n1893.\n‘\n\n1894.\nSupervisor of Primary Work, City Hall, Milwaukee.\nNettiE D. KIMBERLIN,\n.\n1890. Supervisor of Physical Training, Public Schools, 558 Jefferson St., Milwaukee.’\nBuet T, Davis.\n’\n1896. Superintendent of Schools, 71 Washington St,, Oshkosh,\nR. B. DupcGeon, A.B., ’76, Univ. of Wis.\n‘\n1891. Superintendent of Schools, 520 Jefferson St,, Madison,\n\ny\n4\n\nPrincipal South Side High School, Milwaukee.\n\n~ x894.\n\n=\n\neee!\nSP\n\nDaniEt Futcomer, A.B.,’84, A.M., 88, Western Coll., Ia,\n1895. Professor of Psychology and Pedagogy,\nwaukee,\n\n=\n\nD.D. Mayne,\nre\n\n1893.\n\nState Normal\n\n’\nSchool, 639, 29th St., Mil-\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, 226 S. Main St., Janesville.\n\nGeo. P, PERRY.\n\na\n\nPrincipal of 7th District School, 1218 Caledonia St., La Crosse.\n*\nA\nT. B. Pray, A.M., ’72, Univ. of Chicago.\nCiara M,. Apams,\n\n1895.\n\nG. L. Bowman.|\n1896,\n\nWarren J. BRIER.\n1889.\n\nC. E, Brown.\nr\n\nPreeident of State Normal Schcol, 402 Pine St., Stevens Point.\n;\n‘\nGrad. State Nor. Sch., River Falls, Wis.\n\nFirst Assistant, 20th District School, 1075 Teutonia Ave,, Milwaukee.\n\nTeacher of Mathematics and Reading, State Normal School, 1513 John Ave., West\nSuperior.\nProfessor of Literature and Institute Conductor, State Normal School, River Falls.\n\n1034 Spaight St., Madison.\n\nC, R. Cross.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, Oconomowoc,\n\n.\n\n. H. Exson, A.B., Univ. of Ind. —\n\n“4\n\neg\n\n:\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, West Superior.\n\nY, Giitan, A.M.,, 787, Ill Wesleyan Univ.\n:\nA\n:\n7892) Editor brates Teacher,”’ 141 Wisconsin St., Milwaukee.\n\nMina H. Martin.\n;\nTeacher in Fifth Grade, Stoughton.\nes\n\na\n\nEen C. Sain,\n\n1895.\n\nA.M.,\n\nL. Sasin, B,S., ’93,\npe\n\n’95, Univ. of Wis.\n\nPresident of Milwaukee and Downer Colleges, 614 Milwaukee St., Milwaukee,\n\nUniv. of Wis.\n\n[]\n\nof\n\nCounty Superintendent of Public Instruction of Dane Co., Windsor.\n\n"}
{"page": 1110, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n1100\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nWISCONSIN—Continued.\n1895.\n\n/\n“\n:\nH. O. R. Srerert.\n1889. Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Milwaukee.\nF\n$\nH. A. Simonps, A.B., ’83, A.M., 786, Amherst Coll.\n7890. Spent ntmadent of Schools and Principal High School, 934 Clark St., Stevens Point.\nCarrié J. SmitH.\n4\n1894. Asst. Supervisor of Practice, State Normal School, River Falls.\nRoser C, Swart, A.M., ’95, Univ. of Wis.\n\n1884.\n\nInspector of Practice Teaching, State Normal School, 37 Elm St., Oshkosh.\n\nSaMmuEL B. Topp, Ph.B.\n5\n1 E, Main St,, Madison,\nE. V. WERNICK.\n.\ny\n1895. President of Board of Education, Hillsboro.\nCuar.es F, A. ZIMMERMAN, Ph.B., ’96, Ill. Wes. Univ.; A.M., ’96, Charles City Coll.\n1388. Principal of 17th District School, 622 Otjen St., Milwaukee.\n1896,\n\nWALTER ALLEN,\n1882,\n\nBs\nPrincipal r2th District School, 502 Greenbush\n\n5\nSt., Milwaukee.\n\nWs. H. Beacu,\n\n:\n7\nProfessor of History and Civics, East Side High School, 106 Farwell Ave., Milwaukee.\n\nFrancis H, BENSON.\n1892. Teacher in School for the Blind, High School Department,\n\nJENNIE BoNFOEY.\n\nWo. O, Brown.\n1894.\nARTHUR\n\n‘\nJanesville.\n\nTeacher in 7th District School, 166 Juneau Ave., Milwaukee.\nPrincipal of High School, 414 Stewart St., Green Bay.\n\nBuRCH,\n\nAssistant Superintendent of Public Schools, 116, 32d St., Milwaukee.\nW. H, CHEEVER,\n1893. State Institute Conductor, 229, 23d St., Milwaukee.\nOris C. Gross, B.S., ’90, Univ. of Minn,\n1896. Superintendent of Schools, 338 Oxford Ave., Eau Claire.\nMary Hint.\nz891. Assistant Teacher, 17th District, 881 Mound St., Milwaukee.\nMrs, Eva G. McCvurKeEn, Grad., ’86, Ill. State Nor. Univ,\n1897. Teacher in Public Schools, Rhinelander,\nHarrietr B, MErriLt, B.S., ’90, M.S., ’93, Univ. of Wis.\nInstructor of Biology in High School, 661 Jackson St., Milwaukee.\n\nW. L. Morrison.\n\nCity Superintendent and Principal of High School, Neilsville.\nKate S, NELSON,\n\nGrade Teacher, rro Park Ave., Janesville.\nMae E. SCHREIBER.\nTeacher of Reading, Literature, and Director of Library, Normal School, Milwaukee.\nEmma WILLARD SHRIEVES.\nj\n.\n1895. Physical Training Department, State Normal School, 2834 Cedar St., Milwaukee.\n\nGro. C. Suutrs, Ph.M.\n\n,\n\nTeacher of Mathematics and History, State Normal\nwater.\n\nSchool, 306 Main St., White-\n\nH. L. Terry,\nSuperintendent of Schools, Waukesha,\nMarion L, WriGut.\n\nPrimary Teacher, Stoughton.\n\n1897.\n\nR. L. Barton,\n\n1893.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, Chippewa Falls.\n\nMrs, HELEN E. BATEMAN,\n\nTeacher of Literature in German Seminary, Milwaukee.\nJoun Brrp,\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, 904 Cass St., La Crosse.\nMiss C. J. CALDWELL.\n‘Teacher in State Normal School, River Falls.\nJutia CAMPBELL.\n1880.\n\nCr PlGARY.\n\nAssistant Teacher in Public Schools, 202, 24th St., Milwaukee.\n,\n\n:\n\nSupervisor of Practice Teaching, State Normal School, 1703 Cedar St., Milwaukee.\n\nW, G. Croucn, A.B., ’75.\nTeacher in High School, Portage.\nG. E. Cutver.\n1893. Orn\nof Physical Science, State Normal\n‘oint,\nEper Daror,\nPrincipal of High School, Plainfield.\nJ. H. Derse,\n1892,\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, Black River Falls.\n\nSchool, 1104 Wisconsin\n\nSt., Stevens\n\n"}
{"page": 1111, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIFE AND ACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\nSON:\n\nWISCONSIN— Continued.\n\n1897.\n\nM, Luetia\n\nDonce.\n418 Niagara St., Eau Claire.\nN.S. Donatpson,\n1883. Principal of Grammar School, 1323 Caledonia St., La Crosse.\nF. E, Dory, B.L.\nPrincipal of High School, Waupaca,\n\nJ. T. Epwarps.\nSuperintendent of City Schools, Marinette.\nMrs, J. Q. Emery,\nMadison.\n\nA. L, Ewine.\nTeacher of Natural Science, State Normal School, River Falls.\nMrs. Mepora DopGEe Gammon, Grad. Froebel Asso,, Chicago.\nPrivate Kindergarten, Ripon; 408 Exchange St,, Kenosha.\n\nALBERT GUTTMAN,\n1886, Principal of Schools, Manitowoc.\nW, J. Hammixt, M.L,\n1896. Principal of High School, Jefferson,\nN. A. Harvey, Ph.D.\n1896, Teacher in State Normal School, 2007 Hughitt Ave., West Superior.\nMrs, P. H,. Hewitt,\n1896, Teacherin High School, 612 St. Clair St., Manitowoc.\nMAarGARET HosForp,\n1886, Teacher of History and Algebra, State Normal School, Main St., Whitewater,\nA. R,. Jottey, A.M.\n1883. Superintendent of Schools, Mineral Point.\nELLEN C. Lioyp Jones.\nProprietor of Home School, Hillside.\nJane Lioyp JonEs.\n1887. Principal and Proprietor of Home School, Hillside.\nW. W. JonzEs.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Washburn.\nWw. T. Lanctey, B.S., Mich. Agr. Coll.\nAssistant Principal of High School, 2130 John Ave., West Superior.\nMrs, W. T. LANGLEY.\n2130 John Ave., West Superior.\nJ. W. Livincston, Grad. State Normal School.\n1897. Institute Conductor in State Normal School, 419 Pine St., Stevens Point.\nMary L. Luce.\nf\n1893. Teacher in 17th District School, 219 Austin St., Milwaukee.\n2\nEmma J. LUEBKE,\n1895. Principal of roth District Primary School No. 1, 872, roth St,, N, W. Station, Milwaukee.\nHarriet Ceci, MAGEE,\nDirector of Drawing, Oshkosh.\n\nC, O. Marsu.\n\n1893.\nJ. K. McGrecor.\n\nPrincipal of Schools, Antigo.\n\nOuiver NEEDHAM,\n\nGrad., ’96, State Normal School.\n:\nStudent in Normal School, P. O. Box 30, Midway.\n\n440 Lake St., Eau Claire.\nE. C. Mevanp, B.L.,’89, Univ. of Wis.\nPrincipal of Windsor High School, De Forest.\nCuartes O, Merica, A.M., LL.B,\nPrincipal of 2d District Schools, 530 Washington St., Appleton.\nT. B. Mitts.\nSenator 11th District, West Superior.\nJoun G. NAGELER.\n.\n1896. Principal of Primary School, 2517 Elm St., Milwaukee.\nP. T. NELson,\n\nPrincipal Ward School, 238, 21st St., Milwaukee,\nErnest J. Norris.\n1896. Principal of Schools, Hammond.\n\n4\ni\nRegent Normal Schools, West Superior.\nMrs. W. D. ParKER.\nRiver Falls,\nC, W. Pearson, A.B., 6s, Earlham Coll.; A.M., Ph.D., ’69, Gottingen.\n1887. Professor of Modern Languages, 718 Church St., Beloit.\nFRANK OSTRANDER.\n\nJ. P. Pererson,\n\n1894.\n\nMARGARET PRICE.\n\n:\n\nCounty Superintendent, West Denmark.\nCumberland, Wis.\n\n"}
{"page": 1112, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n[1O2\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nWISCONSIN — Continued,\n1897.\n\nWatrer S. Rankin, A.M., ’63, Ph.D., ’88, Princeton.\n1867. President of Carroll College, 201 Kast Ave., Waukesha.\nGE H, REED.\n1897. Principal of South Milwaukee Schools, 403 Cedar St., Waukesha.\neer\n. E. RiorDAN,\n1889. Principal of High School, go9, sth St., Sheboygan.\n4\nL, D. Roperts,\n'\n1888. County Superintendent, Shawano.\n+\nnS. RogseEter, B.L., ’88, Univ. of Wis.\nane\n1896. Superintendent of Schools of Sauk County, Prairie}du Sac.\nCorne1iA E. RoGErs.\n‘\n1882. Teacher in State Normal School, Whitewater.\n\n4\n\n. F. Sims.\n\nEpwin\n\n1896.\n\n7]\n\nbel\n\n;\nTeacher of Geography and Civics in State Normal School, River Falls.\n\npy\n\nR. SmirH.\n\n.\n,\nCounty Superintendent, Manitowoc.\nHarriet E, Smiru, Grad. Oshkosh Nor. Sch. |\n;\n1892. Principal of 16th District Primary School, 2409 Cedar St., Milwaukee.\nNe ure M, Situ.\n,\n1891. Teacher in Milwaukee Schools, 1023, 7th St., Milwaukee,\nJessiz F. SNYDER.\n\nGrade Teacher, Williamsburg.\n\nJ. W. Switer.\n1880.\n\nSuperintendent of State School for the Deaf, Delavan.\nSCHOOL,\nPresident, George S, Albee, 434 Algona St., Oshkosh,\nMiss J. L. Terry.\nTeacher in Model Department, State Normal School, River Falls.\nMrs. Emma Howeti ToLierson.\n1896. Teacherin Milwaukee Public Schools, Footville.\nSratrz NorMAL\n\nJ. M. Turner,\nE, W. WALKER,\n\nNora\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, Burlington.\n\nInstitute Conductor, State Normal School, r910 John Ave., West Superior. '\n\nC, WATERS,\n\nDewitt St., Portage.\n_M. Watson.\n1896, Kindergartner, West Superior.\nA, W. WEBER.\nPrincipal of High School, Fort Atkinson.\nELiten G. WEEKS,\n720 Ontario Ave., Sheboygan.\nAuten B, WEsT, Grad., ?84, Whitewater State Nor. Sch.\n1893. Principal of High School, Lake Mills.\nFRANCES WETTSTEIN\nPrincipal of School for the Deaf, 224, 34th St., Milwaukee,\nEpirH\n\nH. A, Wuippte.\n\nPrincipal of High School, Whitewater.\nEmma WIiLLETT.\n\nPrimary Teacher, New London.\n\n\\\n\nWitiiam Hitt Witiiams, B.A., ’84, M.A., ’87, Williams Coll.\nTeacher of Mathematics in State Normal School, Platteville.\n\nWYOMING,\n1894.\n1895.\n\nACTIVE MEMBERS,\n\nEstTEvLLe REEL,\n\n1894. State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Capitol, Cheyenne.\nHenry Merz, B.S., A.M., Blackburn Univ,\n1888, Professor of Philosophy and Social Science, University of Wyoming, 407, 9th St\nLaramie.\n\"\n\nEMANUEL Stuver, B.S., ’7 ,\n\nM.S., ’85,\n\nNat. Nor. Univ.\n\nPhAD:,795, Wyo. renal and Scientific Coll.\n\n1895,\n1897... J. O. Cuurcuity.\n\nean\n\nBae\nOM\n\nMie BY 2\n\nDee,\n\nPresident Wyoming Normal and Scientific College, Rawlins.\n\ni\n\nON\n\nae\n\n;\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, 2504 Ferguson St., Cheyenne,\n\nLiprary, UNIVERSITY oF WyomMING.\nPresident, Frank Pierrepont Graves;\n\nLibrarian, Grace Raymond Hebard, Laramie,\n\nALASKA,\n1895.\n\ne\na\ne\ne\ne\n\n;\n\n;\n\nACTIVE MEMBER,\n\nCassia Patron,\n1894. Teacher of School No, 2, Sitka, Alaska,\n\nae\ne\na\n‘\n\ne\n=\nSt\nly\n\n°sat\n>\n\n"}
{"page": 1113, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIFE\n\nAND\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n1103\n\nCANADA,\n\nACTIVE MEMBERS.\n1890.\n\nJames L. HuGuHEs.\n\n18gr.\n\nSAMUEL\n\n1895+\n\nInspector of Schools, cor. York and Richmond Sts, ; 58 Henry St., Toronto.\nBower Sincratr, A.M., ’93, Univ. of Toronto.\n1893. Vice-Principal of Normal School, Ottawa,\n4)\nMrs. AvA M. HuGuEs.\nSuperintendent of Kindergartens, Public Schools, 58 Henry St., Toronto.\n\nHUNGARY.\nACTIVE MEMBER.\n1893.\n\nBria\n\nKriicsy, State High School Teacher’s Diploma, ’81,\nState High School, 6th District at Budapest, VI Lovag Utca 18, Budapest, Hungarys\n\nMEXICO,\nACTIVE\n\n1897.\n\nMEMBER,\n\nMrs. Otive E. Weston, Grad., ’85, of Froebel Kindergarten Asso,\n1896, Principal of Normal Kindergarten Departmentin Denny School, Puente de Alvarado,\n1441, City of Mexico.\n\n"}
{"page": 1114, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX TO LIST OF\nLIFE DIRECTORS, LIFE AND ACTIVE MEMBERS.\nCapital letters following years indicate:\nMember;\n\nD, Life Director;\n\nL, Life\n\nA, Active Member.\n\nDeceased members are indicated by a *.\nAbbott, D, Q., Ga., 1896, A.\nAckerman, J. H., Ore., 1895, A.\nAdams, Clara M., Wis., 1895, A.\nAdams, J. S., N. Y., 1896, A.\nAdee, J. N., Ill., 1895, A.\nAgricultural Coll., Kan., 1897, A.\nAhern, M. E., Ill., 1896, A.\nAiton, George B., Minn., 1894, A.\nAlbee, George Sumner, Wis., 1884, L.\nAlbert, C. J., Ill., 1896, A.\nAlbrecht, F, J., Ill., 189z, A.\nAlbro, S. H., Pa., 1895, A,\nAlden, Mrs. Amelia D., N. Y., 1896, A.\nAlderman, E, A., N. C., 1894, A.\nAldridge, Vincent, N. Y., 1891, A.\nAllen, Mrs, Ella N., Wis., 1892, A.\nAllen, Ira W., Ill., 1870, L.\nAllen, L. H., N. Dak., 1897, A.\nAllen, Milton H., N.J., 1896, A.\nAllen, Walter, Wis., 1896, A.\nAllensworth, Allen, Utah, 1892, A.\nAlley, F.S., Ky., 1896, A.\nAllison, J. J., ldaho, 1893, A.\nAlmond, W. S., Ind., 1891, A.\n‘Alumni Asso., Milwaukee, Wis., 1884, L.\nAmbrose, H. T., N. Y., 1895, A.\nAmes, Chas. H,, Mass., 1896, A.\n\nAmherst Coll. Library, Mass., 1897, A.\n\nAmidon, L. E., Mass., 1896, A.\n\nAnderson, John J., N. Y., 1871, L.\nAnderson, P. J., Ohio, 1896, A.\nAnderson, Mrs. P. J., Ohio, 1896, A.\nAnderson, W. H., W. Va., 1890, A.\nAndrews, Harriet L., Minn., 1896, A.\nAndrews, Isabella M., Mo., 1897, A.\nArbury, Frederick W., Mich., 1895, A.\nArey, Oliver C,, N. Y., 1870, L,\nArmitage, B. F., Ill., 1896, A.\n\nArmstrong, George P., Mass., 1896, A.\n\nArmstrong, Robert A., W. Va., 1894, A.\n\nArnold, E, Herman, Conn., 1896, A.\n\nArnold, Sarah L., Mass., 1895, A.\nArnot, 5S, P., Neb., 1897, A.\nAshbaugh, Z. R., Mo., 1897, A.\nAshmore, Otis,\nGa., 1894, A.\nAtkinson, Fred W., Mass., 1894, A.\n\nAtlanta Univ., Ga,, 1895, A.\n\nAugsburg, D, R,, Utah, 1895, A.\nAvery, A. H., S. Dak., 1896, A,\n\nAvery, E. W., Minn., 1897, A.\nAvery, Lewis B., Cal., 1895, A.\nAvery, Rachel F,, Pa., 1879, L.\nAylward, John A,, Wis., 1884, L.\nAyres, Edward, Ind., 1892, A.\nAyres, Henrietta B., Colo., 1893, A.\nBabcock, C. A,, Pa., 1893, A,\n\nBabcock, J. W., N. Y., 1894, A,\n\nBader, John H., Va., 1894, A,\nBaer, Clara G,, La., 1897, A.\n*Bagen, Fugene D., N. Y., 1894, A.\nBailey, Emma V., TiL., 1897, A,\nBailey, M. A., Kan,, 1895, A,\nBailey, Walter J., Cal., 1895, A.\nBaird, Mrs. J. H., N.Y., 1897, A.\nBaker, Benjamin, R, I., 1892, A.\nBaker, James H., Colo., 1884, A.\n\nBaker, O, M., Mass., 1892, A.\nBaker, Thomas O., N. Y., 1892, A.\nBaker, W. H., Ga., 1890, L.\nBaldwin, Joseph, ‘l'ex., 1883, A.\nBallard, C, A., Minn., 1896, A.\nBalliet, Thomas M., Mass., 1895, A.\nBancroft, Jessie, N. Y., 1897, A.\nBangs, Lois A., N. Y., 1896, A.\nBanker, Lizzie, Neb,, 1890, A.\nBarbour, O, F., Ill., 1889, A.\nBardeen, C. W., N. Y., 1890, A.\nBardwell, C. M., Ill., 1892, A.\n\nBargen, I. I., Minn., 1897, A.\n\nBarhite, Jared, N. Y., 1896, A.\nBarnard, Frank J., Wash., 1891, A.\nBarnard, Henry, Conn., 1884, L\nBarnard, James U., Mo., 1893, A.\nBarnes, Ear], Cal., 1891, A.\n\nBarnes, Mrs, F. S., N. Y., 1896, A.\n\nBarnes, J. Walter, W. Va., 1893, A.\n\nBarnes, O, P., Kan., 1895, A.\nBarnum, Anna, N. Dak., 1897, A.\nBarrett, A, T., Tenn., 1894, A.\nBarrett, Chas. S, Ohio, 1895, A.\nBarrett, H. M., Colo., 1895, A.\nBarrett, R. C., Iowa, 1896, A.\nBarringer, Wm. N.,.N, J., 1894, A.\n\nBartholf, Wm., J., lll., 6897, A.\n\nBartholomew, Susie M., Ky., 1894, A.\nBartholomew, W. H., Ky., 1877, L.\nBartlett, Wm. A., Minn., 1897, A\nBarton, R. L., Wis., 1897, A.\nBascom, John, Mass., 1884, L.\nBashford, James W., Ohio, 1894, A.\nBass, E. E., Miss., 1895,A.\nBass, Florence, Ind., 1897, A.\nBass, Geo. F., Ind., 1896, A.\nBateman, Mrs, H, E., Wis., 1897, A.\nBates, Emma F., N. D., 1893, A.\nBates, Wm. C., Mass., 1896, A.\n\nBaumann, C, C., Iowa, 1897, A.\n\nBaumgartner, Elizabeth, Ill, 1896, A.\nBaxter, Chas. J., N. J., 1896, A,\nBayliss, Alfred, Ill., 1896, A.\nBaylor, Adelaide S., Ind., 1897, A.\nBeach, Wm, H., Wis., 1896, A.\nBeadle, Win. H, H.,S, Dak., 1890, A.\nBeal, Wm., Iowa, 1896, A,\nBeals, S. DeWitt, Neb., 1876, L.\n\nBeard, Frank M., Ind., 1896, A.\nBeardshear, W. M., Iowa, 1888, A.\nBeardsley, A. E., Colo., 1895, A.\nBeardsley, Elias J., N. Y., 1892, A.\nBeattys, Frank D,, N. Y., 1894, A.\nBecht, J. George, Pa., 1896, A.\nBeck,\nGeorge, Wis., 1884, L.\nBeggs, Robert H., Colo., 1884, A.\nBeggs, S. S., Ill., 1896, A.\nBelden, Francis S., Ill., 1897, A.\nBelknap, Emmet, N. Y., 1892, A.\nBell, Alex. Graham, D. C., 1884, L.\nBell, Wm, A., Ind., 1876, L.\nBelman,\nW. C., Ind., 1895, A.\nBeloit City School Board, Wis., 1884, L.\nBemiss, D., Wash., 1895, A.\nBender, Ida C., N. Y., 1895, A.\n\n1104\n\n~—s\n\n"}
{"page": 1115, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX\n\nTO LIFE\n\nBenedict, W. H., N. Y., 1892, A.\nBenham, N, L., N. Y., 1895, A.\nBennett, Chas. A., Ill., 1896, A.\nBennett, C, W., Ohio, 1884, L.\nBennett, Hampton, Ohio, 1880, L.\nBennett, Mrs, Lydia, N. J., 1896, A.\n\nBenson, Christine, Ia., 1897, A.\n\nBenson, Francis H., Wis., 1896, A.\nBenton, Geo, W., Ind., 1894, A.\nBerlin, A. H., Del., 1896, A.\nBerry, B. D., IIl., 1895, A.\nBessey, Chas. E., Neb., 1895, A.\nBevans, Homer, i., 1897, A.\nBicknell, Thomas W., R. I., 1882, D.\n\nBillingsly,J. J., lowa, 1895, A.\nBingham, Reuben S., Wash., 1896, A.\nBingham, Robert, N. C., 1884, L.\nBirchard, C, C., N. Y., 1895, A.\nBird, John, Wis., 1897, A.\nBishop, Eliza A., Pa., 1892, A.\nBishop, J, Remsen, Ohio, 1894, A.\nBishop, Nathan L., Conn, 1895, A.\nBissell, Annie M., N. Y., 1895, A.\nBlack, James C., Ida., 1888, A.\n\nBlack, S. T., Cal., 1895, A.\nBlack, Wm.\n\nBlack, Wm.\n\nH., Mo., 1895, A.\n\nJ., Ill., 1897, A.\n\nBlackburn, Lulu, Mo., 1896, A.\n\nBlair, Jno. J., N. C., 1895, A.\nBlaisdell,\nH. R., Ky., 1893, A.\nBlake, Henry W., Mass., 1891, A.\nBlaker, Mrs. E. A., Ind., 1896, A.\n\nBlakesley, O. J., Colo., 1896, A.\nBlakiston, Mary, Ohio, 1895, A\nBlewett, Ben., Mo., 1897, A.\nBliss, Frederick L,, Mich,, 1895, A.\nBliss, J. J., Ohio, 1896, A.\nBlodgett, A. B., N. Y., 1890, A.\nBlodgett, S. F., Mass., 1897, A.\nBoard of Ed., Abilene, Kan., 1886, L.\nBoard of Ed., Dodge City, Kan., 1886, L.\nBoard of Ed., Janesville, Wis,, 1884, L.\nBoard of Ed., La Crosse, Wis , 1884, L.\n. Board of Ed., Milwaukee, Wis., 1884, L.\nBoard of Ed., Nashville, Tenn., 1889, D.\nBoard of Ed., Northfield, Minn., 1890, L.\nBoard of Ed., Oshkosh, Wis., 1884, L\nBoardof Ed,, Ottawa, Kan., 1886, L.\nBoard of Ed., Sedgwick, Kan., 1886, L.\nBoard of Ed., Watertown, Wis., 1884, L.\nBoard of Regents, State Nor. Sch., Wis., 1884, L.\nBodenhamer, D. S., Tex., 1895, A.\nBodwell, Edwin J., Neb., 1895, A.\nBoger, Cyrus, Pa., 1892, A.\nBohn, Carrie, Mo., 1896, A.\nBoice, H. B., N. J., 1896, A.\nBolenbaugh, G, B., Ohio, 1896, A.\nBomberger, F. J., Minn., 1895, A.\nBond, G. G., Ga., 1894, A\n\nBond,J. D., Minn., 1896, A.\nBonebrake, Lewis D., Ohio, 1890, A.\nBonfoey, Jeunie, Wis., 1896, A.\nBoone, Richard G., Mich., 1884, A.\nBooth, E. R., Ohio, 1893, A.\n_ Boston College, Mass., 1897, A.\nBostwick, O. P., Iowa, 1891, A.\nBoughton, Willis, Ohio, 1895, A.\nBoutelle, C. M., Minn., 1896, A.\nBouton, Eugene, Mass., 1895, A.\nBowers, H. W., Ind., 1896, A.\n\nBowman, G. L., Wis., 1895, A.\nBoyd, David R., Okla., 1892, A.\nBoyd, W. W., Ohio, 1894, A\n\nBoyden, Albert G., Mass., 1890, A.\n\nBoyden, Wallace C., Mass., 1896, A.\nBoyer, E. R., Ill., 1897, A.\nBoyle, Chas. A,, Kan , 1897, A.\nBoyle, Edward, Ind., 1895, A.\nBraden, John, Tenn., 1895, A.\nBradley, Charles A., Colo,, 1893, A.\nBradley, John E., Ill., 1890, A,\nBradley, Milton, Mass., 1892, A.\nBrandt, F. B., Pa., 1897, A.\nBrayton, H, M., Neb., 1895, A.\n\nBrier, Warren J., Wis., 1895, A.\n\nAND\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\nBriggs, Egbert L., Mich,, 1895, A.\nBright, O. T., Ill., 1893, A.\nBristol, E. M., N, Y., 1896, A.\nBritton, C, J., Ohio, 1894, A,\n\nBrock, H. Z., Mich., 1897, A.\nBroderick, Kate G,, N. Y., 1896, A.\nBrooks, Edward, Pa., 1876, L,\nBrooks, Sarah C., Minn., 1894, A.\n\nBrown, C. E., Wis., 1895, A.\n\nBrown, Elmer E., Cal., r89r,A.\nBrown, Eugene, Iowa, 1897,A.\nBrown, Geo. P.,, Ill., 1880, L.\nBrown, Geo, W., Ill., 1893, A.\nBrown, Geo. W., Mass., 1896, A.\nBrown, H, B., Ind., 1895, A.\nBrown, Helen M., Colo,, 1895, A.\nBrown, Jesse H., Ind., 1891, A,\nBrown, John F., Ind., 1896,A.\nBrown, Kate L., Neb., 1897, A.\nBrown, Le Roy D., Cal., 1888, D.\nBrown, Miss Marion, La., 1889, A.\nBrown, Wm. O., Wis., 1896, A.\nBruce, Wm. G., Wis., 1893, A.\nBrumbaugh, M. G., Pa., 1893, A.\nBruot, Marie L., Ohio, 1896, A.\nBryan, Wm. L., Ind., 1893, A.\nBuchanan, Geo. V., Mo., 1894, A.\nBuchanan, John T., N. Y., 1890, A.\nBuechele, J. L., lowa, 1897, A.\nBuehrle, R. K., Pa., 1892, A\nBulkley, Julia, Ill., 1895, A.\nBurch, Arthur, Wis., 1896, A.\nBurdick, A. Hall, N. Y., 1892, A.\nBurk, Frederick L., Mass., 1892, A.\nBurke, Mrs. B. Ellen, N. Y., 1894, A.\nBurke, J. E., Mass., 1895, A.\nBurke, Margaret E., Ill., 1897, A.\nBurkett, G. F., Neb., 1897, A.\nBurnham, Martha M., Neb., 1897, A.\nBurns, James C., Ill., 1895, A.\nBurns, J. J., Ohio, 1880, L.\nBurris, Wm. P., Ind., 1895, A.\nBurroughs, Geo. S., Ind., 1895, A.\nBurton, Albert F., Iowa, 1894, A.\nBurton, R. W., Ill., 1896, A.\n\nBusby, Isaac V., Ind., 1896, A.\nBushnell, H. T., Iowa, 1897, A.\nButler, Lisbeth M., Minn., 1897, A.\nButler, Margaret, Minn., 1897, A.\nButler, Nicholas M., N. Y., 1885, D.\nButton, Wm. J., Ill., 1896, A.\nButts, Annice B., Ill., 1896, A.\nBuzzell, Delos, Ill., 1897, A.\nByington, S. Lillian, Ill., 1895, A.\nCahalan, May\nA., Ala., 1895, A.\nCaldwell, B. C., La., 1896, A.\nCaldwell, Miss C. J., Wis., 1897, A.\nCaldwell, H. W., Neb., 1896, A.\n*Calkins, N. A., N. Y., 1879, L.\nCalkins, F. L., Ill., 1895, A\n‘\nCammack, Ira I,, Mo., 1895, A.\nCamp, David N., Conn,, 1892, A.\nCampbell, A. G., Kan., 1886, L.\nCampbell, Julia, Wis., 1897, A.\nCampbell, W. H., Ill., 1895, A.\nCanfield, James H., Ohio, 1884, D.\nCannon,\nGeo. L., Colo,, 1895, A.\nCapen, Elmer H., Mass., 1896, A\nCapen, Frank S., N. Y., 1896, A.\n\nCarey, C, E., Ohio, 1895, A.\n\nCargo, R. M., Pa., 1896, A.\nCarlisle, James M., Tex., 1895, A.\nCarlton, E. A., Mont., 1897, A.\n\nCarnagey, J. A., Ind., 1895, A.\nCarnahan, G. A., Ohio, 1896, A.\nCarpenter, J. H., Wis., 1884, L.\nCarpenter, Nellie, Ill., 1896, A.\nCarr, J. W., Ind., 1897, A.\nCarroll, C. F., Mass,, 1895, A.\nCary, C. P., Wis., 1897, A\n\nCase, Richard, N. J., 1894, A.\nCasebeer, J, F., Ill., 1897, A.\nChadsey, Chas. E., Coio., 1895, A.\nChalmers, W. W., Mich., 1895, A.\nChamplin, Howard, Ohio, 1896, A.\n\nL105\n\n"}
{"page": 1116, "printed_page": null, "text": "1106\n\nEDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\nNATIONAL\nne\n\nChandler, Jone W., N. Y., 1890, A.\nChandler,\nWillard H., Wis., 1884, L.\nChapman, Frederick E., Mass., 1894, A.\nCharles, Thomas, Ill., 1888, A.\n*Charlton, Edwin A., Wis., 1884, L.\nChase, Geo. A., Ill., 1897, A.\nChasseaud, J. B., N. Y., 1895, A.\nCheever, W. H., Wis., 1896, A.\nCheney, Augustus J., Ill., 1884, L.\nCheney, Francis J., N. Y., 1891, A.\nChilds, Anna G., N. Y., 1897, A.\nChilds, C. H., Mass., 1896, A.\nChristy, A. B., Minn., 1897, A.\n\nChristy, Anna H., Minn., 1897, A.\nChurch, George E., R. I., 1892, A.\nChurchill, J. O., Wyo., 1897, A.\nClair, Francis R., N. Y., 1894, A.\nClancy, Albert W., Ill., 1892, A.\nClark, A. O., Utah, 1897, A.\nClark, Frank H., Colo., 1886, L.\nClark, Jessie L., Kan., 1895, A.\nClark, John S., Mass,, 1892, A.\nClark,\nL, H., Wis., 1884, L\nClark, W. A., Neb.. 1895, A.\nClarke, Delia, Kan., 1894, A.\nClarke, Elva E., Kan., 1894, A.\n\nClarke, Francis D., Mich., 1897, A.\nClendenen, F. C., Ill., 1897, A.\nCleveland Pub. Library, Ohio, 1897, A.\nCliff, Geo. H., Pa., 1895, A\nClough, W. G., Wis., 1897, A.\nClute, Oscar, Fla., 1895, A.\nCobb, Chas. Newell, N. Y., 1894, A.\nCoddington, A. O., Ill., 1893, A.\nCoe, Emily M., N. Y., 1880, L.\nCogswell, Francis, Mass., 1893, A.\n\nColby, E. C., N. Y., 1896, A\nCole, Chas, W., N. Y., 1892, A.\nCole, Wm. H., Ohio, 1870, L.\nColegrove, A. D., Pa., 1895, A.\nColeman, J. D., Ky., 1892, A.\nColgrove, C. P., Iowa, 1897., A.\nCollins, J. H., Lll., 1895, A\nCollins, Mrs. Julia H., Ill., 1895, A.\nColumbia University, N. Y., 1895, A.\nComings, Fannie S., N, Y., 1895, A.\nComstock, Theo. B., Cal.,1895, A.\nCongdon, C. H., Minn., 1894, A.\nConger, Chas, T.., Ill., 1897, A.\nConway, Clara, Il]., 1887, L.\nCook, E.. H., N. Y., 1872, D.\nCook, Elizabeth B., Ill., 1896, A.\nCook, Geo. B., Ark., 1895, A\nCook, John W., Ill., 1890, A.”\n\nCooley, Mrs. Alice W., Minn ., 1896, A,\nCooley, E. G., Ill., 1897, A.\nCooley, Frank W., Mich., 1895, A.\n\nCooley, Le Roy C., N. Y., 1896, A.\n\nCoon, H. C., N. Y., 1897, A.\nCooper, Frank B., Jowa, 1894, A. \"793\nCooper, Frank Irving, Mass., 1893, A.\n\nCooper, John, Ind., 1897, A.\nCooper, Oscar H,, Tex., 1894, A.\nCoover, Nathaniel, Kan., 1886, L.\n‘\nCorbett, Henry R., Neb., 1890, A.\n' Corcoran, Tressa M., Ohio, 1896, A.\nCornell Univ. Library, N. Y., 1896, A.\nCornell, Watson, Pa., 1896, A.\nCorson, O. T., Ohio, 1887, A.\nCorthell,W. J., Me., 1892, A.\nCo. Teachers’ Asso., Milwaukee, Wis., 1884, L.\nCox, Edwin B., Ohio, 1889, A.\nCox, E. Morris, Cal., 1896, A.\nCox, E. S., Ohio, 1896, A.\nCox, Henry, C., Ill.,1895, A.\nCox, Martin Luther, N. J., 1893, A.\nCoy, Emma, IIl., 1897, A.\nCoy, E. W., Ohio, 1883, L.\nCrabbe, J. G., Ky., 1897, A.\nCrabtree, J. W., Neb., 1895, A.\nCraig, Oscar, Mont., 1892, A. ‘#24\nCrane, Mrs. Chas. R., Ill., 1897, A.\nCrane, Frank, S. Dak., 1895, A.\nCrane, Julia E., N. Y., 1895, A.\nCranston, R. W., Minn., 1896, A.\n‘\n\n‘\n\nCrist, Henry M., N. Y., 1896, A.\nCrocket, May\n\nM., Ill., 1895, A\n\nCropsey, Miss N., Ind., 1891, A.\nCrosier, M. E., lowa, 1895, A.\nCross, C. R., Wis., 1895,A.\nCrossley, J. J., lowa, 1895, A.\nCrossthwait, Eliza, Tenn., 1895, A.\nCrouch, Sarah E., Mo., 1895, A.\n\nCrouse, Mrs. J. N., Ill., 1893, A.\n\nCrownover, M. B., Colo., 1897, A.\nCruikshank, James, N. Y., 1864, L.\nCulbertson, E. D. Y., Iowa, 1895, A.\n\nCulver, G. E., Wis., 1897, A.\n*Cummings, Anna A., N. Y., 1896,A,\nCummins, Mrs, M. S., Mont., 1897, A.\nCunningham, J. B.. Ala., 1895, A.\nCupples, J. W:, Mich., 1896,A.\nCurran, Ulysses T., N. M., 1866, L.\nCurry, Robert, Neb., 1884. L.\nCurtis, A. E., Mich., 1896, A.\nCurtis, C. C., Minn., 1896, A.\nCurtis, Virgil G., Minn., 1892, A.\nCurtiss, Frederick A., Conn., 1894, A.\nDafoe, Eber, Wis., 1897, A.\nDale, Jane\nE., Ill., 1897, A.\nDana, Fenella, Kan., 1895, A.\nDarrah, Estelle M., Minn., 1897, A.\nDavidson, Charles C., Ohio, 1880, L\nDavidson, Wm. M., Kan., 1890, A.\nDavis, Allan, D. C., 1895, A.\nDavis, Booth C.,N. Y., 1896, A.\nDavis, Buel T., Wis., 1894, A.\nDavis, Chas. M.,N. J., 1893, A.\nDavis, Ellen, Ill., 1897, A.\nDavis, Emma C., Ohio, 1894, A.\n\nDavis, Geo. D., N. Y., 1896, A.\n\nDavis, Geo. W., Ill., 1896, A.\nDavis, John W., N. Y., 1895, A.\nDawes, H. E., Neb., 1896, A.\nDawson, H. T., N. Y., 1895, A.\nDay, L. W., Ohio, 1888, D.\nDeahl, J. N., W. Va., 1896,A.\nDean, Flavia, Minn., 1895, A.\nDeane, Chas. W., Conn., 1889, A.\nDeatrick, W. W., Pa., 1892, A.\nDe Garmo, Chas., Pa., 1889, A.\nDelano, Edward C,, Ill., 1895., A.\nDenfeld, Robert E., Minn., 1890, A.\nDerse, J. H., Wis., 1897, A.\nDewey, James A., Pa., 1893, A.\nDewey, Melvil, N. Y., 1892, A.\nDial, S. T., Ohio, 1895, A.\nDick, Fred, Colo., 1895, A.\nDickey,C. L., Ohio, 1895, A.\nDickinson, Lizzie, Kan., 1897, A.\nDietrich, Charles H., Ky., 1891, A.\nDietrich, John, Colo., 1895, A.\nDillman, L. M.,, Ill., 1886, A,\nDillon, Josephine, Colo., 1894, A.\nDixon, B. V. B., La., 1897, A.\nDoane, Letitia L., Ohio, 1897, A.\nDobson, Pauline, Mo., 1897, A.\nDobson, W. N., Mo., 1897, A.\nDodd, Arthur A., Mo., 1885, A.\nDodd, E. E., Mo., 1896, A.\nDodge, M, Luella, Wis., 1897, A.\nDodge, Mrs, Medora, Wis., 1897, A.\nDodge, Wm, C., Ill., 1896, A.\nDodson, Mary F., Ky., 1892, A.\nDolphin, N. E., Kan., 1895, A.\nDonaldson, N. S., Wis., 1897, A.\n\nDonohoe, Mary J., N. J., 1894, A.\nDorland, James E., Ky., 1892, A.\nDoron, W, A., Iowa, 1897, A.\n\nDoty, F, E., Wis., 1897, A.\nDougherty, Mabel E., IIl., 1896, A.\nDougherty, N. C,, Ill., 1887, D.\nDouglas, R. S., Mo., 1897, A.\nDow, J. J., Minn., 1896, A.\nDownes, J. M. N., Ky., 1804, A.’\nDowning, A. S., N. vi 1891, A.\nDowns, Edgar R., Colo., 1894, A.\n\nDoyle, Marie, Wis., 1891, A.\nDozier, Melville, Cal., 1895, A.\nDraper, Andrew S.,, i., 1888, A.\n\n4\n\\\n\n"}
{"page": 1117, "printed_page": null, "text": "t\n\nINDEX\n\nTO\n\nLIFE\n\nAND\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\nFoose,\n\nPa.,\n\n1107\n\n}\n\n?\n\nDraughan,\n\n.\n5\nr.\na\n4\nod\nos\n.\n\nDucker, W. H., Ill., +895, A,\nDudgeon, R. B., Wis., 1894, A.\nDudley, Mrs. E,, Iowa, 1897, A.\nDunn, Harriet E., Cal., 1897, A.\nDunton, es Mass,, 1895, A.\nDurham, Mrs,\nC, M., Pa,, 1892, A.\nDutton, Bettie A., Ohio, 1880, L.\nDutton, S. T., Mass., 1895, A.\n\nForbes, Alexander, Ill., 1876, L.\nForbes, Ira L., Mich., 1895, A.\nFord, Lyman H., Minn., 1897, A\nForesman, H. A,, Ill., 1896, At\nForesman, Robert, Ill., 1896, A.\nForrest, J. T., Wash., 1895, A.\nFort, W. H., Mich., 1897, A.\nFoshay, James. A., Cal., 1893. A.\n\nDyer, Frank R., Kan., 1891, A.\n\n*Fowler, George R., Mass., 1895,A.\n\n‘\n\nAbbie W., Ark., 1895, A.\n\nDreher, E. S., S. Car., 1896, A.\n\na\"\n\nDyer, F. B., Ohio, 1896, A,\n\n:\n\ny\nF\n\nEakins, Mrs. Millie M., Ill., 1896, A.\nEastman, Wm. R., N, Y., 1896, A.\n\nEaston, Warren, La., 1895, A.\nEaton, Ira T., Ill., 1894, A.\n\nEaton, James F., Iowa, 1897, A.\nEaton, John, D, C., 293, A.\nEden, Philip, lowa, 1884, L,\nEdgerly, Joseph C., Mass,, 1896, A.\n\n*.\n\nEditor’s Library, N. Y., 1897, A.\n\nEdmund, Gertrude, Mass., 1897, A.\nEdson, A. W., N. Y., 1806, A.\nEdwards, H. R., Minn., 1897, A.\nEdwards, J. T., Wis., 1897, A.\n\nEggleston, Anna K., N. Y., 1895, A.\nNd Ehinger,\nll\ncs E,, Pa., 1897, Ax\nEla, Clarissa E,, Ill., 1897, A.\nElder, Ella C., N. Y., 1896, A.\nElder, E. W., Colo., 1895, A.\nElgas, Mathew J., N. Y., 1891, A.\nEliot, Charles W., Mass., 1892, A.\nElliott, Ella, S. Dak., 1895, A.\n\nEllis, john C., Il., 1887, A.\n\nEllis,\nWm, Austin, Mich., 1887, A.\nEllsworth, Henry W., N. J., 1896, A.\nElmer, Frances A., Minn., 1897, A.\nElson, W. H., Wis., 1895, A.\nElwell, Mrs. O. F., N. J., 1896, A.\nEly, Sarah Y., N. J., 1892, A.\nEmerson, Henry P., N. Y., 1893, A.\nEmery, John Q., Wis., 1884, L.\nEmery, Mrs. J. Q., Wis., 1897, A.\nEnglish, Rebecca F., Cal., 1888, L.\nEngstrom, A. E., Minn., 1895, A.\nEstee, James A., N. Y., 1896, A.\nEvans, Charles H., Mo., 1886, L.\nEvans, Chas. W., W. Va., 1896, A.\nEvans, Lawton B., Ga., 1894, A.\nEwing, A. L., Wis., 1896, A.\nFairbanks, J., Mo., 1896, A.\nFairchild, E. T., Kan., 1886, L.\nFairchild, George T., Kan., 1886, D.\nFall, Delos, Mich, 1897, A.\nFarley,D. H., N. J., 1896, A.\nFarley, Geo. L., Neb., 1897, A.\nFarnsworth, S. A., Minn., 1894, A.\nFarr, F. D., Ill., 1897, A.\nFarrand, Wilson, N. J., 1895, A.\nFarrell, Edward D., N. Y., 1890, A.\nFarrell, Mrs. E. D., N. Y., 1896, A.\nFarson, M. Elizabeth, Ill., 1897, A.\nFay, Etta J., Minn., 1896, A.\nFelker, Allie M., Cal., 1895, A.\nFell, Anna M., N. J., 1897, A.\nFendley, J. M., Tex., 1895, A\nFenton, Geo., N. Y., 1896, A.\nFernald, M. cs Me., 1890, A.\nFinley, John H., Ill., 1896, A.\nFisher, Gilman C., R. I., 1892, A.\nFisher, H. W., Pa., 1892, A.\nFisk, Mrs. Elizabeth E., Ill., 1897, A.\n\nine\n\n_\n\nFisk, Herbert F., Ill., 1891, A\nFitch, Ferris S., Mich., 1890, A.\nBitzer, bo, R., Til, 1897, A.\n\n- Fitzgibbon, T. F., Ind., 1805, A.\n\n_ Fitzpatrick, Frank A., Mass., 1884, A.\nFlagg, Laura, Kan., 1897, A.\nFlannery, M. J., Ohio, 1896, A.\n\nFlavin, John T., Wis., 1884, L\nFleming, Mary A., N. Y., 1890, A.\nFleshman, Arthur C., Ill., 1894, A.\n- Flick, W. B., Ind., 1895, A.\nFoerste, A. F., Ohio, 1896, A.\nFoos, Anna, Neb., 1897, A.\n\nL. O.,\n\n1896, A\n\nFoote, Mary'C., Ill., 2897, A.\n\nFowler, C. S., Kan., 1897, ae\n\nFowler, W. K., Neb., 1892, A.\nFox, Wm. F., Va., 1894, A,\nFranklin, Geo. A., Minn., 1897, A.\nHeres Victor, R. I., 1896, A.\nree Pub. Lib’y, Jersey City, N.J., 1897,\n\nA.\n\nFree Pub, Lib’y, Philadelphia, Pa. 1897,-A,\n\nFree Pub. Lib’y, San Francisco, Cal., 1897, A,\nFreeman,J. H., Ill., 1895, A\nFreer, H. H., Iowa, 1884, A,\nFrench, Geo. W., N. Y., 1895, A.\nFrench, Harlan P., N. Y., 1891, A.\nFrench, O. E., Iowa, 1895, A.\nFriedberg, William B., N. Y., 1892,°A.\nFriedel, Charles, Ore., 1897, A.\nFrost, H. H., Mich., 1895, A.\nFrost, J. M., Ill., 1897, A.\nFruchte, Amelia C,, Mo., 1896, A.\nFulcomer, Daniel, Wis., 1894, A.\nFulton, Robert B., Miss., 1894, A.\nFulton, W. L., Ohio, 1896, A.\nFutrall, Thomas A., Ark., 1887, A.\nGalbreath, L, H., N. Y., 1887, A.\nGamble, Geo. W., Conn., 1896, A.\nGans, W. G., Pa., 1895, A.\nGantvoort, A. J., Ohio, 1894, A.\nGardinier, Cora A., Mich., 1896, A.\nGarrett, William R., Tenn,, 1886, D,\nGarvin, John B., Colo., 1895, A.\nGastman, E, A,, Ill., 1895, A.\nGault, F. B., Idaho, 1886, A.\nGayer, Cora M., Ohio, 1897, A.\nGayhart, Walter C,, Nev., 1895, A.\nGeary, Grace, Mo., 1897, A.\nGeer, David S., Ill., 1896, A.\nGeeting, D. M., Ind., 1895, A.\nGeorge, Austin, Mich., 1895, A.4\nGettemy, Mrs, Mary E., Ill., 1892, A.\nGetz, H. L., Iowa, 1896, A.\nGibson, John A., Pa., 1896, A.\nGibson, J. W., Ill., 1897, A.\nGiffin, W. M., Il., 1895, A.\nGifford, Jennie, Ohio, 1896, A.\nGilbert, C. B., N. J., 1893, L.\nGilbert, Newell D., Ill., 1895, A.\n*Gilchrist, J. C., lowa, 1880, L.\nGilday, Mary, Mo., 1895, A.\nGill, Eliza C., Mo., 18y7, A.\nGillan, Silas Y., Wis., 1895, A.\nGillespie, Mary, II]., 1897, A.\nGillespie, Nellie, Ill., 1897, A.\nGillman, Daniel C., Md., 1896, A.\nGladding, A. E., Ohio, 1896, A.\nGlass, E.C., Va., 1894, A.\nGlenn, G. R., Ga., 1895, A.\nGlover, Nathan L., Ohio, 1889, A.\nGoodhue, Lincoln P., Ill-, 1893, A.\nGoodnough, Walter S., N. Y., 1882, A.\nGordon, Joseph C., Ill., 1897, A.\nGordy, J. P., Ohio, 1896, A.\nGoss, David K., Ind., 1895, A.\nGotwalls, Joseph K., Pa., 1892, A.\nGoudy, A. K., Neb., 1895, A.\nGove, Aaron, Colo., 1888, D.\nGowans, Margaret, N. Y., 1896, A.\nGraham, Hugh A., Mich., 1895, D.\nGrandy, Mary A., Mich., 1893, A.\nGrant, H. S., [ll., 1896, A.\nGratz, Simon, Pa., 1879, L.\n\nGraves, J. A., Conn., 1896, A.\n\n*Gray, L. A., Me., 1893, A.\n\nGray, Thos. J., Minn,, 1895, A.\nGreen, James M., N, J., 1892, A.\nGreene, John A., N, Y., 1893, A.\n\n"}
{"page": 1118, "printed_page": null, "text": "1108\n\nNATIONAL\n\nGreenlee, Ida K., Mo., 1893, A.\n\nGreenlee, L. C., Colo., 1892, A.\nGreenman, A, V., Ill., 1897, A.\nGreenwood, J. M., Mo., 1886, D.\nGregory, Benj. C., N.J., 1894, A.\nGregory, John T., Ala,, 1895, A.\nGriffith, E. W., N. Y., 1896, A.\nGriffith, George, N. Y., 1883, A.\nGriffiths, G, C., Ill., 1896, A.\nGriffiths, W. H., N. Y., 1897, A.\nGross, Otis, Wis., 1896, A.\nGrossman, John H., II!., 1895, A.\nGroszmann, M. P. E., Va., 1894, A.\nGroves, Chas. W., IIl., 1896, A.\nGuden, Anna J., N. J., 1894, A,\nGulick, M, Alice, N. J., 1894, A.\nGunnison, Walter B., N. Y., 1896, A.\nGurnea, Jennie E., Ill., 1897, A.\nGuss, Roland W., Mass,, 1895, A.\nGuttmann, Albert, Wis., 1897, A.\nHadley, Hiram, N. Mex., 1891, A.\n*Hager, Daniel Barnard, Mass,, 1864, A.\n\nHagerty, C. T.,N. Mex., 1895, A.\nHaggett, Geo, B., Ky., 1897, A.\nHaight, R. A., Ill., 1895, A.\nHailmann, W.N., D. C., 1879, A.\nHale, Geo. D., N. Y., 1891, A.\nHall, Caleb G., N. Y., 1885, D.\nHall, Dana W., Ill., 1891, A.\nHall, Frank H., Ill., 1897, A.\nHall, G. Stanley, Mass., 1891, A.\nHall, Gertrude, Mo., 1895, A\nHall, Isaac Freeman, Mass., 1895, A.\nHall, Loyal Freeman, Pa., 1893, A.\nHall, Mary F., Wis., 1893, A.\nHallam, Alfred, N. Y., 1896, A.\nHalland, J. G., N. Dak., 1897, A.\n\nHallock, Joseph A., N. J., 1894, A.\n\nHalsey, L. R., Ill., 1896, A.\nHalsey, R. H., N. Y., 1895, A.\nHamilton, James M., Mont., 1895, A.\nHamilton, R. I., Ind., 1896, A.\nHammill, W. J., Wis., 1897, A.\nHammond, Jason E., Mich., 1895, A.\nHancock, John A., Colo., 1895, A.\nHand, Laura, Minn., 1897, A.\nHand, W. H., S. Car., 1896, A.\nHanna, G.C., Ky., 1897, A.\nHannan, James, IIl., 1897, A.\nHanus, Paul H., Mass., 1895, A.\nHardy, Richard, Mich., 1894, A.\nHarper, William R,, Ill., 1895, A.\n\nHarris, Ada Van Stone, N. J., 1895, A\nHarris, Edward L., Ohio, 1894, A.\nHarris, Hanna, Neb., 1897, A.\nHarris, Henry E., N. J., 1893; A.\nHarris, Julia A., Ohio, 1894, A.\nHarris, Mary E., N. Y., 1896, A.\nHarris, T, G., Tex., 1895, A.\nHarris, Wm. T., D. C., 1876, D.\nHarrison, Elizabeth, Ill., 1895, A.\nHarrison, Miles W., Ind., 1896, A.\nHarrison, S. A., I]l., 1897, A.\nHarrison, W. B., N. Y., 1892, A.\nHart, Albert Bushnell, Mass., 1895, A.\nHartigan, Mary S. L., Ill., 1895, A.\nHartman, Mary, IIl., 1895, A.\nHarvard University, Mass,, 1895, A.\nHarvey, G, I., Mo., 1886, L.\nHarvey, L. D., Wis., 1884, L.\nHarvey, N. A., Wis., 1897, A.\nHaslup, Ida B., Colo., 1896, A.\nHatch, W. H., Ill., 1895, A.\nHaupert, Chas,, Ohio, 1893, A.\nHaupt, J. G., Neb., 1894, A,\nHaven, Caroline T.. N. Y., 1896, A.\nHawn, Linn Marie, N, J., 1895, A.\nHayden, H. D., Iowa, 1897, A.\nHayden, P. C., Ill., 1895, A.\nHayes, Frances C,, N.Y., 1896, A,\nHayes, H. E., N. Y., 1892, A.\nHays, Dudley G., Ill., 1897, A.\nHayward, Edward,N, Y., 1895, A.\nHayward, Emily A,, Ill., 1884, L.\nHeath, D. C,, Mass,, 1891, A.\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nHeemans, Josephine, Mo,, 1896, A.\nHeiermann, F. J., N. Y., 1896, A.\nHeineken, J. F. D., N. J., 1894, A.\n\nHeins, Mary, Pa., 1895, A\nHelmer, Harry, Ill., 1895, A.\n\nHenderson, Mrs, Kate A,, Ill., 1897, A.\nHendrick, Welland, N. Y., 1895, A.\nHendrix College, Ark,, 1897, A.\nHenninger, J. W., Ill., 1896, A.\nHenry, James A., Tenn,, 1896, A.\nHermanns, Ed. F., Colo., 1895, A.\nHerrig, Anna B,, Mich., 1895, A.\nHershman, W. H., Ind., 1896, A.\n\nHertel, Chas., Il] , 1895, A.\nHervey, Henry D., N. J., 1896, A.\nHervey, Walter L., N. Y., 1895, A.\nHerzog, Peter, Mo., 1897, A.\n\nHess, Wm. C., N. Y., 1896, A.\nHester, W. A., Ind., 1895, A.\nHewes, W. D., N. Y., 1896, A.\n\nHewett, Edwin C., Ill., 1884, L.\nHewitt, Amelia C,, N. J., 1894, A.\nHewitt, Mrs. P. H., Wis., 1897, A.\nHicks, Lou Alice, Wis., 1895, A.\nHicks, Mrs. Mary Dana, Mass., 1890, A.\nHill, Frank A., Mass., 1895, A.\nHill, Mary, Wis., 1896, A.\nHimes, Florence B., N. Y.,1894, A.\nHinemon, J. H., Ark., 1896, A.\nHinman, Lydia, Iowa, 1895, A.\nHinsdale, B. A., Mich,, 1884, A.\nHirsch, J. F., lowa, 1897, A.\n\nHisey, Joseph C., lowa, 1894, A.\nHitch, R. M., Ill., 1897, A\nHitte, Alice E., Neb., 1896, A.\n\n'\n\nHitz, John, D. C., 1880, L.\n\nHobbs, W. W., Minn , 1896, A.\nHobe, Augusta W., Cal., 1889, L.\nHodgdon, Josephine E., N. Y., 1882, L.\nHodgin, Charles E., N. Mex., 1895, A.\nHodgin, Cyrus W., Ind , 1895, A.\nHofer, Amalie, Ill., 1895, A.\nHoff, D. W., R. 1., 1897, A.\nHoffman, Benj. F., Mo., 1897, A.\nHoffman, Gaius, N. J.,1894, A.\n\nHogg, Alex., Tex., 1874, A.\nHollingsworth, J. L., Fla., 1895, AHolloway, J. L., Ark., 1895, A.\nHolt, H. E., Mass., 1890, A.\n\nHolton, M. Adelaide, Utah, 1896, A.\nHomans, Amy Morris, Mass., 1891, A.\nHooper, Sanford A., Wis., 1889, A.\nHoose, James H., Cal., 1879, L\nHoover, W. E., N. Dak., 1897. A.\nHopkins, J.G.. Minn., 1894, A.\nHopkins, L. Grace, Minn., 1894, A.\nHorchem, B. J., lowa, 1897, A.\nHornberger, J. A., Ill., 1895, A.\nHorne, Edwin F., Ark., 1896, A.\nHosford, Margaret, Wis., 1897, A.\nHoughan, Mrs. F. R., Colo., 1895, A.\nHouston, J. R., Ind., 1896, A.\nHoward, F. E., Conn., 1846, A.\nHoward, Geo. A., Ohio, 1895, A.\nHowe, S. B., N. Y., 1895, A.\n\nHowe, Wilbur W., N. Y., 1895, A.\nHowell, Geo,, Pa., 1896, A.\nHowell, Logan D., N.C., 1894, A.\nHoyt, Judson E., Wis., 1890, A.\nHubbard, Mrs. E, A,, lll., 1897, A.\nHubbard, F. V., Minn., 1895, A.\nHubbard, Geo. C., Minn., 1897, A.\nHufford, Geo. W., Ind., 1894, A.\n\nHughes, Mrs, Ada M.,, Can., 1895, A.\nHughes, James, Can., 1890, A.\n\nHughes, Mrs, L, W., Ohio, 1896, A,\nHuling, Ray Greene, Mass., 1891, A.\nHull, John, Wash., r89r, L.\nHull, Lawrence C,, N. J., 1893, A.\nHumke, Albert E., Ind., 1893, A.\nHunt, Lydia L., Ariz., 1895, A.\nHunt, Mary H., Mass., 1887, D. Hunter, S. J., Kan., 1895, A,\nHunter, Thomas, N. Y., 1885, L.\nHurd, Geo. B., Conn,, 1888, A.\n\noA)\n\n"}
{"page": 1119, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX\n\nTO LIFE\n\nHursh, S. B., Ill., 1897, A.\nHussey, A. W;, lll., 1897, A.\nHutton, A. J., Wis., 1884, L.\nHutton, Chas. E., Cal., 1895, A.\nHyde, C. W. G., Minn., 1895, A.\nHyde, Mary F., N. Y., 1892, A.\nIngalls, Will C., N. J., 1894, A.\nInglis, S..M., Lll., 1897, A.\n- Irwin, John S., Ind., 1880, L.\nJackman, Wilbur §S., Ill., 1895, A.\n\nJackson, Mrs. E. R., N. Mex., 1895, A.\nackson, Joseph P., Colo., 1895, A.\nackson, Wm. R., Neb., 1896, A.\nacobs, G. Ovedia, Ill., 1897, A.\nacobs, Walter Ballou, R. 1., 1894, A.\names, Henry M., Ore., 1884, L\narnette, Anna K. de, Cal., 1877, L.\n*Jay, Walter M., Kan., 1886, L.\n\nJenks, J. W., N. Y., 1896, A.\nenkins, Sara D., N. Y., 1895, A.\nenkins, Wm., IIl., 1886, A.\n\nesse, Richard H., Mo., 1892, A.\newett, A, V., Kan,, 1886, D,\nohnson, D. B., S. C., 1895. A.\nohnson, Ernest Henry, Mass., 1893, A.\nee\nIsaac T., Del., 1894, A\nohnson, J. A., Ill., 1897, A.\nohnson, S. Arthur, Colo,, 1894, A.\nee\nW. H., Mont., 1895, A.\nohnston, E. R., Ind., 1896, A,\nolley, A. R., Wis., 1897, A.\nJones, Arthur O., Ohio, 1891, A.\nJones, Daniel W., Mass., 1870, L.\nones, E. A., Ohio, 1884, A.\nones, E. C. Loyd, Wis., 1807, A.\nJones, Edward N.,N, Y., 1884, A.\nones, Emma F,, Ill., 1897, A.\nones, Frank L., Ind., 1895, A.\nones, Herbert J., Vt., 1896, A.\nones, James F., Ohio, 1897, A.\nJones, Jane Lloyd, Wis., 1897, A.\n*Jones, Joseph\nC., Ill., 1894, A.\nones, L, H., Ohio, 1889, A.\nones, Lizzie P., Mont., 1897,A.\nones, Mattie, S. Dak., 1894, A\nones, Myra, Mich., 1892, A.\nones, Nora, Colo., 1895, A.\nones, Richard, N. Y., 1894, A.\nones, Wharton S., Tenn., 1887, A.\nees W. W., Wis., 1897, A.\nordan, Chas. M., Minn., 1893, A.\nJou BC. Ni. ¥., 7896; /A.\nKamman, C. H., Ill., 1897, A.\nKane, T. F.,N. Y., 1889, A.\nKayser, Carl F., N. J., 1804, A.\nKeane, John J., D. C., 1889, L.\nKeating, J. F., Colo., 1895, A.\nKeating, Mary K., Ky., 1894, A.\nKedzie, Mrs. Nellie S., Ill., 1895, A.\nKeeler, Harriet L., Ohio, 1894, A.\nKellogg, Amos M., N. Y., 1890, A.\nKellogg, Mrs. Eva D., Wis., 1884, A.\nKelly, Mary, Kan., 1895, A.\nKelsey, David M., N. Y., 1891,A.\nKenaston, G. F., Ind., 1895, A.\nKendall, C, N., Conn., 1895, A.\nKendall, F. A., Ill., 1895, A.\nKendall, F. M., Ill., 1895, A.\n\nKenerson, Austin H., Mass., 1895, A.\nKennedy, Ella, Il., 1897, A.\nKennedy, ee W.,N. J 1894, A.\nKennedy, Joseph. N. Dak., 1896, A.\nKennedy, P. P., Minn., 1897, A.\nKenyon, Alpheus B., N. Y., 1896, A.\nKeppler. Mrs. W. S., Fla., 1894, A.\n\nKerr, William J., Utah, 1895. A.\nKeyes, Charles H.. Mass., 1895, A.\nKeyes, Mary A.. Minn., 1897, A.\nKeyser, Roland S., N. Y., 1896, A.\nKiehle, D. L.. Minn., 1880, A\nKilbon, Geo. B., Mass., 1893, A.\nKilbourne, Effie J.. Ill., 1895, A.\nKimberlin, Nettie D., Wis., 1893, A.\nKimmel, M. A., Ohio, 1893, A.\nKincannon, A. A., Miss., 1896, A.\n\nAND\n\nACTIVE\nKing,\nKing,\nKing,\nKing,\n\nMEMBERS\n\nAnna H., Ohio, 1895, A.\nF. A., Ohio, 1896,A.\nRachel, Conn., 1893, A.\nWilliam F., Iowa, 1884, A.\n\nKinsley, M. H., N. J., 1894, A.\n\nKirk, John R., Mo.,, 1891, A.\nKirk, Thos. J., Cal., 1895, A.\nKirkley, Sarah A,, Il]., 1897, A.\nKirkpatrick, E. A., Minn., 1897, A.\nKlass, Cornelia, Iowa, 1897, A.\nKleeberger, George R., Minn., 1895, A.\nKlock, J. E., Mont., 1886, L.\nKnapp, Warren E., Colo., 1890, A.\nKneil, Thomas R,, N. Y., 1895, A.\nKnispel, Henriette M., Ill., 1897, A.\nKnott, Laura A., Minn., 1897, A.\nKolbe, Isabella A., Ohio, 1897, A.\nKolbe, ie C., Ohio, 1895, A.\nKratz,\nH. E., Iowa, 1890, A\n*Kraus, John, N. Y., 1879, L.\nKraus Boelte, Mrs. Maria, N. Y., 1896, A.\nKrécsy, Bela, Hungary, 1893, A\n\nKroh, Karl J., Ill., aa A.\nKrohn, Wm, O., Il]., 1893, A.\n\nKruse, Edwina B., Del., 1891, A,\nLagomarsino, Cynthia, N. Y., 1894, A.\n\nLaird, Mrs. Ada E., Ohio, 1890, A.\nLaird, S. B., Mich., 1896, A.\nLamb, Eli M., Md., 1894, A.\nLamb, Rachel E., Md., 1894, A.\nLambert, Vashti A., Il]., 1895, A.\nLamberton, Mary J., Pa., 1892, A.\nLane, Albert G., Ill., 1884, D.\nLane, Mrs. A. G.,, Ill., 1894, A.\nLane, F. H., N. Y., 1896, A.\nLang, Ossian H., N. Y., 1891, A.\nLangley, Wm. T., Wis., 1897, A.\nLangley, Mrs. Wm. T., Wis., 1897, A.\nLapee, Louise M., N. Y., 1895, A\nLarimer, Henry G., Kan., 1886, L.\nLark, F. E., lowa, 1897, A.\nLarkins, Chas. D., N. Y., 1895, A.\nLa Taste, Lucien V., Ala., 1894, A.\n\nLathrop, Mrs. C. N., Ohio, 1893, A.\nLavers, E. C., Pa., 1892, A.\nLawrence, Isabel, Minn., 1894, A.\nLaws, Annie, Ohio, 1895, A.\nLawton, Chas. E., N. Y., 1896, A.\nLaylander, O. J., Iowa, 1895, A.\nLayton, S. Herrick, Ohio, 1895, A.\nLazenby, Wm. Z., Ohio, 1895, A\nLeach, Cephas H., lIl., 1897, A.\nLeavell, Richard M., Miss., 1896, A.\nLe Conte, Joseph, Cal,, 1895, A\nLee, James, N. Y., 1892, A.\nLee, L. B., Ill., 1897, A.\nLe Garde, Ellen, R. I., 1896, A.\nLeipziger, Henry M., N. Y., 1891, A.\nLeiter, Mrs. Frances W., Ohio, 1896, A.\nLemon, Nora H., Neb., 1897, A\nLeonard, Albert, N. Y., 1891, A.\nLeslie, Miss H. S., N. J., 1894, A.\nLeviston, Irwen, Neb,, 1895, A.\nLewellen, John O., Ind,, 1896, A.\nLewis, Leslie, Ill., 1895, A.\nLight, C. M., N. Mex., 1895, A.\nLightbody, Wm., Mich.,, 1896, A.\nLimerick, A. H., Kan., 1886, L.\nLincoln Univ., Ill., 1897, A.\n\nLing, Chas. J., Colo., 1895, A.\n\nLipscomb, Dabney,\nMiss., 1892, A.\nLittle, Clara L., Colo., 1895, A.\nLivingston, J. W., Wis., 1897, A.\nLocke, John S,, Me., 1895, A.\nLogan, Anna E., Ohio, 1896, A.\nLong, J. L., Tex., 1896, A.\nLongan, G, B., Mo., 1897, A.\nLongstreth, Emma J., Pa., 1894, A.\nLook, Frances H., Mass., 1896, A.\nLoos, Chas. L., Ohio, 1895, A.\n\nLord, L, C., Minn., 1894, A.\nLounsbery, Louise A., N. Y., 1896, A.\nLove, Nannie C., Ind., 1896, A.\nLovell. Thomas B., N. Y., 1896, A.\nLow, Seth, N. Y., 1895, A.\n\n1109\n\n"}
{"page": 1120, "printed_page": null, "text": "Li © fe)\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nLowe, J. S., Ohio, 1895, A.\nLowther, L. A., Kan., 1897, A.\nLuckey, Edwin D., Mo., 1894, A.\nLuckey, G. W. A., Neb., 1895, A.\nLuebke, Emma J., Wis., 1897, A.\nLugg, Mary L., Wis.. 1897, A.\n\nLukens, Herman T., Pa., 1892, A.\nLyman, F. A., N. Y., 1897, A.\nLynch, Chas. P., Ohio, 1894, A.\nLynch, Mary E., Minn., 1897, A.\nLynch, Wm. H., Mo., 1895, A.\nLyon, Howard, N. Y., 1896, A.\n\nLyon, Mary A., N. J., 1897, A.\nLyon, W. F., Mich., 1897, A.\nLyte, E. Oram, Pa., 1891, L.\nMacAlister, James, Pa., 1895, A.\n\nMacdona, Kate P., N. Y., 1895, A.\nMacDonald, John, Kan., 1886, L.\nMacGowan, W. L., Pa., 1896, A.\nMack, Wm. S., Ill., 1895, A.\nMackenzie, David, Mich., 1896, A.\nMackey, E., Pa., 1891, A.\nMackey, Wm. A., N. Y., 1894, A.\nMagee, Harriett C., Wis., 1897, A.\nMagovern, Mary A., N. Y., 1896, A.\nMaguire, Mrs. S. C., Mo., 1897, A.\nMaharry, S. H., Ohio, 1895, A.\nMalone, W. R., Ohio, 1891, A.\nMandeville, James M., Mich., 1896, A.\nMangum, Mantie, Iowa, 1895, A.\nMankell, Nathalie M.,N. Y., 1896, A.\nManley, R. M., Cal., 1870, L.\nManness, S. E., N. J.. 1892, A.\nMarble, A. P., N. Y., 1880, D.\nMardis, S. K., Ohio, 1895, A.\nMark, im H., Ky., 1893,A.\nMarlatt, Abby L., R. I., 1894, A.\nMarsh, C. O., Wis., 1897, A.\nMarshall, Carl C., Mich., 1895, A.\nMarshall, T. Marcellus, W. Va., 1877, D.\nMartin, E. O., R. I., 1895, A.\nMartin, George H., Mass., 1893, A.\nMartin, Mina H., Wis., 1895, A.\nMassee, J. Edman, N. Y., 1896, A.\nMassey, John, Ala., 1894, A.\nMathews, Byron C., N. J., 1892, A.\nMauck, Joseph W., S. Dak., 1892,A.\n\nMaurer, G. C., Ohio, 1895, A.\nMaxson, Henry M., N.J., 1892, A.\nMaxwell, Fred. B., Ill., 1897, A.\n1\nMaxwell, William H., N. Y., 1892, A.\nMaycock, Mark M., N. Y., 1896, A.\n\nMayne, D. D., Wis., 1894, A.\nMcBroom, Geo, O., Ky., 1892,A.\nMcCabe, C. B., Pa., 1896, A.\nMcCahan, John E., Md., 189x, A.\n\nMcCartney, Livingston, Ky., 1895, A.\nMcCheane, Sarah M., 1897, A.\n> McClintock, O. P. M., Kan., 1894, A.\nMcClung, J. S., Colo., 1895, A.\nMcClure, S. R., Pa., 1896, A.\nMcClurken, Mrs. E. G., Wis., 1896, A.\nMcConathey, W. J., Ky., 1896, A.\nMcConnell, J. J., lowa, 1895, A.\nMcCord, W. A., Iowa, 1895, A.\nMcCowen, Mary, Ill., 1897, A.\nMcCracken, Miss M.J., Pa., 1894, A.\n\nMcCulloch, Mary C., Mo., 1892, A.\nMcCullough, J. F., ll., 1896, A.\n\nMcDaniel, C. M., Ind., 1896, A.\nMcDonald, Margaret, IIl., 1896, A.\nMcElroy, E. B., Ore., 1895, A.\nMcElroy, M. R., Ohio, 1895, A.\nMcFadon, O. E., Minn., 1896, A.\nMcFarland, Geo. A., N. Dak., 1895, A.\nMcGhee, John S., Mo., 1897, A\nMcGinniss, James, Ky., 1893, A.\nMcGlynn, J, J., Lll., 1895, A.\nMcGregor. J. K., Wis., 1897, A.\nMclIntire, W. W., Ohio, 1895, A.\nMclver, Chas. D., N. C., 1896, A.\nMcKay, F. M., Ill., 1897, A.\nMcKee, J. Milford, N. Y., 1895, A.\nMcKenny, Chas., Mich., 1897, A.\nMcKinnon, J. T., Neb,, 1895, A.\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nMcLauchlin, A. L., Ill., 1895, A.\nMcLean, Geo. E., Neb., 1897, A\nMcMillan, J. V., Ohio, 1896, A.\nMcMillan, Reuben, Ohio, 1879, L.\nMcMillan, Mrs. Reuben, Ohio, 1880, L.\nMcMillen, Mary, Iowa, 1895, A.\nMcMurry, Chas. A., Ill., 1890, A.\nMcMurry, F. M., N. Y., 1895, A.\nMcMurry, Mrs. Lida B., lll., 1896, A.\nMcNaughton, James, Ariz. 1895,A.\nMcNeal, Florence, Mo., 1892, A.\n\nMcNeill, I. C., Wis., 1892. A.\nMcNeill, Mrs. I. C., Wis., 1892, A.\n\nMcNelis, N. P., Pa., 1897, A.\nMcNevin, C. F., lowa, 1896, A.\nMcVicar, Peter, Kan., 1896, L.\nMeacham, Adda V., Ill., 1896, A.\nMehan, J. M., lowa, 1892, A.\nMeland, E. C., Wis., 1897, A.\nMeleney, Clarence E., N. Y., 1896, A.\nMelhinch, Miss L. A., Ind., 1897, A\nMerica, C. O., Wis., 1897, A.\nMerica, F. M., Ind., 1897, A.\nMerrifield, Webster, N. Dak., 1895, A.\nMerrill, Chas. E., N. Y., 1894, A.\nMerrill, Edward C., N.J., 1896, A.\nMerrill, Harriet B., Wis., 1896, A.\n\nMerrill, J. A., Mo., 1897, A.\n\nMerrill, Jenny B., N. Y., 1893, A.\nMerrill, J. T., Jowa, 1893, A.\nMertz, Henry N., Ohio, 1895, A.\nMerwin,J. B., Mo., 1871, L.\nMerz, Henry, Wyom., 1895, A.\nMeserve, Alonzo, Mass., 1895, A.\nMeserve, Edna T., Neb., 1894, A.\n\nMetcalf, Robert C., Mass., 1892, A\n\nMezger, Robert, N.J.. 1895, A.\nMiami University, Ohio, 1895, A.\nMickle, Robett A., Ala., 1895, A.\nMiller, Miss A. N., Colo., 1895, A.\nMiller, C. C., Ohio, 1892, A.\nMiller, Geo. I.. Iowa, 1896, A.\nMiller, G. R., N. Y., 1896, A.\n\n7\n\nMiller, J. H., Neb., 1886, L.\n\nMiller, Lewis, Ohio, 1880, L.\nMiller, Lucia M., Minn., 1894, A.\n\nSe\nai\nde\n\nMiller,O. L., Mich., 1896, A.\n\nMilligan, Sarah J., Mo., 1897, A.\nMillis, Wm. A., Ind., 1896, A.\nMills, Joseph J., Ind., 1896, A.\nMills, Leida H., Kan., 1895, A.\nMills, T. B., Wis., 1897, A.\nMillspaugh, J. F., Utah, 1895, A.\nMilne, James M., N. Y., 1890, A.\nMilne, John M., N. Y., 1891, A.\nMilne, Wm. J., N. Y., 1892, A.\nMiner,J. Perry, Neb., 1896, A.\nMitchell, M. S., Kan., 1895, A.\nMitchell, W. R., Ill., 1897, A.\nMoldstad, John A., Tex., 1897, A.\nMonlux, J. B., Cal., 1895, A.\nMonnier, May, Ark., 1895,A.\nMonroe, E. S. Ind., 1897,A.\nMonroe, Will. S., Mass., 1893, A.\nMonsarrat, Mrs. Laura L., Ky., 1877, L.\nMonteser, Frederick, N. Y., 1894, A\nMontfort, R. V. K., N. Y., 1892, A.\nMontgomery,\nDora, Ill., 1897, A.\nMontrose,\nOtis, N. Y., 1896, A.\nMoon, A. W., N. J., 1889, A.\nMoon, Kate E., Ala., 1895, A.\nMoore, A. C., Ala., 1897, A.\nMoore, B. F., Ind., 1896, A.\nMoore, Dora M., Colo., 1895, A.\nMoores, Carrie E., Ohio, 1895, A.\nMorgan, R. T., Ill., 1897, A.\nMorgan, W. H., Ohio, 1895, A.\nMorris, Harriet N., Ill., 1882, L.\nMorris, R. Anna, Ohio, 1891, A.*\nMorrison, Andrew J., Pa., 1881, A.\nMorrison, Rose, Ohio, 1897, A.\n\nMorrison, W.L., Wis., 1896, A.\nMorse, Frank L., Ill., 1897, A.\nMorss, Charles H., Mass., 1895, A.\nMott, T. A., Ind., 1896, Az\n\na\ne\na\n\n"}
{"page": 1121, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX TO LIFE AND ACTIVE MEMBERS\nSS\n,\nSS ee\nMowry, William A., Mass., 1886, L.\nMulford, A. Isabel, N. J., 1896, A.\nMumford, Mrs. M. E., Pa., 1895, A.\nMunro, Alexander A., Neb., 1891, A.\n\nMunroe, James Phinney, Mass., 1895, A.\n\nMurlin, L. H., Kan., 1895, A\n\nMurphy, Geo. T., Mo., 1891, A.\nMyers, John A., W. Va., 1896, A.\nMyers, Will, Ind., 1897, A.\n\nNagel, J. J., lowa, 1895, A.\n~\n\nNageler, J. G., Wis., 1897, A.\n\nNeedham, O., Wis., 1897, A.\nNeet, Mrs. Mary V., Mo., 1894, A.\nNelson, Kate S., Wis., 1896, A.\nNelson, N. L. T., Minn., 1895, A.\nNelson, P. T., Wis., 1897, A\nNeumann, Theo., Conn., 1897, A.\nNewcomb, Leontine T., Cal., 1890, A.\nNewell, A. C., lowa, 1896, A.\nNewell, Miss C. S., Kan., 1895, A.\nNewson, H. D., N. Y., 1895, A.\nNichols, Fred R., Ill., 1893, A.\nNicholson, Mary E., Ind., 1885, A.\nNicol, Mary A., Ill., 1896, A.\nNightingale, A. F., lll., 1886, A.\nNoel, Alex. H., Mo., 1897, A.\nNolen, A. Eugene, Mass., 1891, A.\nNorris, E. J., Wis., 1897, A.\nN. Dak. Ed. Assoc., N. Dak., 1896, A.\nNorthmore, John, Mich., 1897, A.\nNorthrop, B. G., Conn., 1884, D\nNorton, A. W., Mo., 1893, A.\nNorton, R. C., Mo., 1895, A.\nNorville, Josephine, Mo., 1895, A.\n_ Noss, Theo. B., Pa., 1896, A.\nNunn, Janet H., Minn,, 1896, A.\nNye, Charles H., Wis., 1884, L.\nNykirk, John B., Mich., 1892, A.\nO’Brien, Mrs. Agnes, N. Y., 1894, A,\nO’Callaghan, W. F., N. Y., 1894, A.\nO’Connor, D. C., Neb., 1894, A.\nO’Keefe, Mrs. S. J., Ill., 1896, A.\nOlds, Mary L., Minn., 1894, A.\nOldt, F. T., Iowa, 1896, A.\nO’Leary, Kate S., Ill., 1895, A.\nOlin, Arvin S., Kan., 1890, A.\nOliver, Fanny E., Ill., 1897, A.\nOlmstead, Emma G., Conn., 1896, A.\nOlsen, John W., Minn., 1896, A.\nOrmsby, F. B., Ill., 1896, A.\n\nOrr, J. D., Kan., 1891, A.\nOsborn, A. S., N. Y., 1896, A.\nOsborne, Geo. L., Mo., 1889, A.\n\nOsenbaugh, C. M., Colo., 1895, A.\nOsgood, Anna M., Ohio, 1890, A,\nO’Shea, M. V., Wis., 1892, A.\n\nOstrander, Frank, Wis., 1897, A.\nOwen, E. H., Ill., 1897, A.\nOwen, Ermine, Mo., 1897, A.\n~ Owen, H. A., Ill., 1897, A.\n\nOwen, Lincoln, Mass., 1896, A\n\nOwen, W. B., Ill., 1896, A.\n. Packard, S. S., N. Y., 1892, A.\nPacker, Ella L., Iowa, 1895, A.\n\nPage, R. S., Ill., 1896, A.\n\nPalmer, A. N., lowa, 1896, A.\n\nPalmer, Charles S., Colo., 1895, A.\nPalmer, E, D., Mich., 1894, A.\nPalmer, Francis B., N. Y., 1890, A.\n\n*Palmer, Solomon, Ala., 1895, A.\n\nParker, Chas. I., Ill,, 1887, D.\nParker, Charles V., Colo., 1887, A.\nParker, C. M., Ill., 1895, A.\nParker, Francis W., Ill., 1880, A.\nParker, Henry M., Ohio, 1895, A.\nParker, W. D., Wis., 1884, L.\nParker, Mrs. W. D., Wis., 1897, A.\nParker, W. S., Mass., 1896, A.\nParkinson, D. B., Ill.. 1897, A.\nParkinson, John B., Wis., 1884, L.\nParmenter, Chas. W., Mass., 1895, A.\nParr, S. S.. Minn., 1895, A.\nParrish, Celestia S,, Va.. 1897, A,\n\nParrish, Ophelia, Mo., 1896, A.\n- Parsons, H. S., Tex., 1895, A.\n\nee\n\nIitl\n\nPassmore, John A. M., Pa., 1892, A.\nPatten, Frank C., Mont., 1897. A.\nPattengill, Henry R., Mich., 892, A.\nPatterson, B. F., Pa., 1895, As\n\n*Patterson, Susan G., Ind., 1894, A.\nPatton, Cassia, Alaska, 1895, A,\nPatton, Chas. L., N. Y., 1886, A.\nPaxson, Everett E., Mont., 1889, A.\nPayne, Bertha, I1]., 1896, A,\nPayne, W. C., Ill., 1896, A.\nPayne. William H., Tenn., 1892, A.\nPeacher, A. L., Ark., 1896, A.\nPeairs, H. B., Kan., 1897, A.\nPeak, Chas. N., Ind., 1896, A.\n\nPearce, ae R., Kan., 1895, A.\n\nPearse,\nC. G., Neb., 1891, A.\nPearson, C. W., Wis., 1897, A.\nPearson, Jennie, Neb., 1895, A.\nPease, Alvin F., Mass., 1891, A.\nPease, N. W., N. J., 1894, A.\nPeaslee, John B., Ohio, 1880, L.\nPeck, A. L., N. Y., 1897, A.\nPeet, Martha E., Iowa, 1897, A.\nPendergast, W. W., Minn., 1894, A.\nPennell, Calvin S., Minn., 1864, L.\nPerigo, J. T., N. Mex., 1895, A.\nPerrine, Lura L., N. Dak., 1895, A.\nPerry, Elizabeth H., Mass., 1891, A.\nPerry, Geo. P., Wis., 1894, A.\nPerry, W. S., Mich., 1892, A.\nPershing, Thed., Pa., 1896, A.\nPeterman, Alex. L., Ky., 1895, A.\nPeterson, J. P., Wis., 1897, A.\nPfeiffer, J. W., Ohio, 1895, A.\nPhelps, Mary A., Ill., 1897, A.\nPhelps, Neal S., Mich., 1896, A.\nPhelps, William F., Minn., 1870, D,\nPhilbrook, C. F., Ill., 1895, A.\nPhilips, Geo. M., Pa., 1879, A.\nPhillips, Hattie A., lowa, 1896, A.\n\nPhillips, J. H., Ala., 1888, A.\nPickard, Josiah L,, lowa, 1886, D,\nPierce, Edward T., Cal., 1887, A.\n\nPierce, Mrs. Ella M., R. I., 1896, A.\nPierce, Mary R., IIl., 1897, A.\nPike, Joshua, Ill., 1891, D\nPiper, Jonathan, Lll., 1895, A.\nPlace, Mrs. C. L., Cal., 1896, A.\nPlapp, F. W., Ill., 1897, A.\nPlimpton, Geo, A., N. Y., 1894, A.\nPlummer, Geo, M., Ohio, 1896, A.\nPoland, A. B., N. Y., 1892, A.\nPollock, Rosalie, N. Dak., 1897, A,\nPollock, Susan P., D. C., 1894, A.\nPosse, Baroness Rose, Mass., 1895, A,\nPowell, W. B., D. C., 1892, A.\nPowell, W. F., N. J., 1889, A.\nPower, Gussie, N. Y., 1887, A,\nPowers, James K., Ala., 1895, A.\n*Poynter, Wiley T., Ky., 1895, A.\nPratt, Mara L., Mass., 1895, A,\n\nPray, Mabel L., Ohio, 1897, A.\n\nPray, T. B., Wis., 1894, A.\nPreece, Mrs. Louise, N. Y., 1894, A.\nPrentiss, H. W., Mo., 1897, A.\n\nPreston, J. R., Miss., 1890, A.\nPrettyman, E. B., Md., 1892, A.\nPrice, Margaret, Wis., 1897, A.\nPrichard. E. H., Ohio, 1895, A.\nPrillerman, Byrd, W. Va., 1891, A,\nPrince, John T., Mass., 1891. A.\nPrincipals’ Association, Wis., 1884, L.\nPrincipals’ Asso., Milwaukee, Wis., 1884, L.\nPringle, Wm. J., Ill., 1896, A.\nPritchard, M. T., Mass., 1896, A.\nPritchett, H. C., Tex.. 1892, A.\nProudfoot, Mrs, A. B., Ill., 1897, A.\n\nPublic School Teachers, Janesville, Wis., 1884, L.\nPurdy, Henry S., N. Y., 1891, A.\nPurer, Mary I., Ill., 1896, A.\nPutnam, Mrs. Alice H., Ill., 1893, A.\nRaab, Henry, Ill., 1884, L.\nRace, S. J., Minn., 1895, A.\nRalston, James M., N. J., 1892. A.\nRamsay, Charles C., Mass., 1893, A»\n\n-.\n\n"}
{"page": 1122, "printed_page": null, "text": "T1i2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nRamsey, Geo, J., La., 1889, A.\nRankin, A. W., Minn., 1893, A.\nRankin, W. S., Wis., 1897, A.\nRaschig, H. H., Ohio, 1893, A.\nRassweiler, J. K., Ill., 1897, A.\nRaub, A. N., Del., 1892, A\nRayman, R. E., Ohio, 1895, A.\nRaymond, Andrew V. V., N. Y., 1895, A.\nReady, Geo. W., Ohio, 1897, A.\nRedfield, Jennie L., Neb., 1895, AReed, A. A., Neb., 1895, A\nReed, Geo. H., Wis., 1897, A\n\nReed, Grace, IIl., 1896, A.\n\nReel, Estelle, Wyo., 1894, A.\n\nReeves, C. E., Wash., 1896, A.\nReid, James, Mont., 1895, A.\nReiley, Cynthia E., Mont., 1895, A.\nReinhart,J. Albert, N. J., 1894, A.\nRemington, Lew. D., Mich., 1896, A.\nRennick, Louise D., Ill., 1897, A.\nRennie, Robert H., Ill., 1897, A.\nResler, Edwin D., Ore., 1892, A.\nReveley, Ellen G., Ohio, 1891, A.\nReynolds, Chas. B., Mo., 1895, A.\nRhoads, McHenry, Ky., 1891, A.\nRice, Emily A., N. J., 1892, A\n\nRice, Gratia L., N. Y., 1889, A.\nRice, J. M., N. Y.,\\ 1895, A.\nRichards, E. E., Ohio, 1894, A.\n\nRichards, Zalmon, D. C., 1864, D.\nRichardson, Frank B., Mass., 1896, A.\nRichmond, Sarah E., Md., 1876, L.\nRickoff, Andrew J., Cal., 1881, D.\nRickoff, Rebecca D., Cal., 1880, L.\nRiddle, W., Pa., 1896, A.\nRider, Andrew J., N. J., 1897, A.\nRidge, J. C., Ohio, 1897, A.\nRiley, Mrs. Matilda E., Mo., 1890, A.\nRiordon, J. E., Wis., 1897, A\nRiste, W. G., Kan., 1897, A\nRivers, W. W., Ark., 1895, A.\nRobbins, C. W., Mo., 1892, A.\nRobbins, Geo. A., Ill., 1897, A.\nRobert, James A., Ohio, 1882, L.\nRoberts, Flora, Ind., 1896, A.\nRoberts, Hester A., N. Y., 1894, A.\nRoberts, H. L,, IlJ., 1897, A.\nRoberts, J. W., lll., 1896, A.\nRoberts, L. D., Wis., 1897, A.\nRobertson, J. L., Ill., 1897, A.\nRobertson, Powhatan W., D. C., 1896, A.\nRobinson, Albert R., Ill., 1895, A.\nRobinson, Oscar D., N. Y., 1892, A.\nRobinson, W. S., Ohio, 1895, A.\nRocheleau, W. F., Ill., 1896, A.\nRocholl, L. J., Minn., 1897, A.\nRoeseler, John S., Wis., 1897, A.\nRogers, Cornelia E., Wis., 1897, A.,\n*Rogers, C. P., Iowa, 1884, A.\nRogers, Dora B., W. Va., 1896, A.\nRogers, Josephine E., N. Y., 1893, A.\nRogers, Lillian E., Mass., 1897, A.\nRogers, Rovillus R., N. Y., 1895, A.\nRood, Wilbur V., Ohio, 1896, A.\nRoof, F. M., Ala., 1892, A\nRoop, C. Y., Cal., 1886, L.\nRoot, M. A., N. Y., 1896, A.\nRose, Geo. E., Kan., 1886, L.\nRose, S. L., Ohio, 1896, A.\nRoth, Anna C., Ky., 1897, A.\nRounds, Chas. C., N. -, 1876, L.\nRounds. Katharine E., N. Y., 1894, A.\nRourke, Mary, lowa, 1895, A.\nRowe, Alex. M., Minn., 1894, A.\nRowe, Geo. W., Ill., 1897, A.\nRowe, H. M., Md., 1896, A.\nRowe, Mary\nE., Ind., 1895, A.\nRowe, W. S., Ind., 1895, A.\n\nRoyal, M. G., Ore., 1896, A.\nRoyce, Geo. H., Ill., 1897, A.\nRussell, James E., N. Y., 1895, A.\nRussell, J. A., Mass., 1894, A.\nRyan, Geo. G., N. J., 1894, A.\nRyon, C.M., N. Y., 1896, A.\nSabin, Albert R., Ill., 1884,A.\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nSabin, Ellen C., Wis., 1895, A.\nSabin, Henry Towa, 1889, A.\nSabin, Mrs.\nHenry, Iowa, 1897, A.\nSabin, Kate L.,\nWis., 1895, A.\nSage, W. V., Mich., 1896, A.\nSale, A. R., Iowa, 1897, A.\n\nSalisbury, Albert, Wis., 1887, A.\n\nSamuel, Wm. H., Pa., 1893, A.\nSanders, D. E., Mont., 1895, A.\nSanders, F. W., W. Va., 1897, A.\nSandison, Howard, Ind., 1896, A.\nSanford, F., Cal., 1897, A.\nSanford, Hen\nR,, N. Y., 1895, A.\nSanor, S. D., Ohio, 1893, A.\nSargent, Dudley A., Mass., 1896, A.\nSargent, Elisa A., N. Y., 1896, A.\nSaunders, Sara A., N. Y., 1896, A.\nSavage, Reed, IIl., 1889, A.\nSawhill, Thomas A., Kan., 1886, L.\nSawvel, Franklin B., Pa., 1894, A.\nSawyer, C. L., Minn., 1897, A.\nScarlett, Augustus, N. J., 1891, A.\nSchaeffer, Nathan C., Pa., 1887, A.\nSchauffler, Alfred T., N. Y., 1895, A.\nSchermerhorn, Jane A., N. Y., 1895, ASchiller, J. D., Mich., 1896, A.\nSchillig, J. W., N. Y., 1894, A.\nSchmucker, S. C., Pa., 1892, A.\nSchneider, Henry G., N. Y., 1895, A.\n\nSchofield, Martha, S. C., 1891, L.\n\nScholfield, Bessie, R. I., 1896, A.\nSchreiber, Mae E., Wis.. 1896, A.\nSchryver, Anna A., Mich., 1896, A.\nSchurman, J. G., N. Y., 1896, A.\nSchuyler, Aaron, Kan., 1886, L.\nSchuyler, E. H., N. J., 1894, A.\nScobey, Frank H., N. J., 1894, A.\nScott, Charles B., N. Y., 1890, A.\nScott, E. H., Ill., 1895, A.\nScott, F. N., Mich., 1897, A\nScott, Harriet M., Mich., 1896, A.\nScott, Izora, Colo., 1897, A.\nScott, James W., Ohio, 1893, A.\nScott, O. C., Iowa, 1895, A.\nScott, W. H., Ohio, 1893, A.\nScudder, Myron Tracy, Conn., 1895, A.\nScull, James F., Ind., 1895, A.\nSearing, Edward, Minn., 1895, A.\nSearle, Miss S.M., N. J., 1893, A.\nSeaver, Edwin P., Mass., 1893, A.\nSeeley, Chas. D., N. Y., 1896, A.\nSeeley, Levi, N. J., 1890, A.\nSeeley, O. C., Ind., 1897, A.\nSeerley, H. H., Iowa, 1884, A.\nSellars, D. Francis, Ill., 1896, A.\nSewall, May W.., Ind., 1897, A.\nSexton, E.\nK., N. J., 1897, A.\nShanahan, Rev. J. W., Pa., 1895, A.\n\nSharkey, J. P., Ohio, 1890, A\nShaw, A. L., Mich., 1897, A.\nShaw, Edward R., N. Y., 1893, A.\n\nShaw, Samuel, Wis., 1884, L.\nShawan, J. A., Ohio, 1894, L.\nShear, S. R., N. Y., 1895, A.\nShearer, W. J., N. J., 1895, A.\nShearer, W. S., Iowa, 1897, A.\nSheats, W. N., Fla., 1893, A.\n*Sheldon, E. A., N. Y., r89z, A.\nSheldon, William E., Mass., 1865, L.\nShelley, W. H., Md., 1895, A.\nShepard, Geo. C., Mich, 1897, A.\n\nShepard, Irwin, Minn., 1883, A.\n\nSheriff, Mrs. Chas. E., Iowa, 1896, A.\n\nShields, D. W., W. Va., 1895, A\nShinn, Josiah H., Ark., 1890, A.\nShirk, David F., Kan., 1895, A.\nShippen, Edward, Pa., 1879, L\nShoemaker, W. A., Minn., 1895, A.\nShorney, Geo. H., Ill., 1897, A.\nShrieves, Emma, Wis., 1896, A.\nShutts, Geo. C., Wis., 1896, A.\nSibley, Chas. A., Mass., 1895, A.\n\nSickel, J. F. C., Pa., 1894, A.\n\nSiefert, H. O. R., Wis., 1895, A.\nSilcox, Julia C., Ohio, 1897, A.\n\ne\na\n\n"}
{"page": 1123, "printed_page": null, "text": "Wea\nDE,\nare\na,\neee\nee\nCES\n\nINDEX\n\nTO LIFE\n\nSilke, Lucy, Ill,, 1893, A.\nSilver, Edgar O., Mass., 1894, A.\nSimerwell, E. A., Kan., 1895, B\n\nSimonds, H. A., Wis., 1895, A.\nSims, J. F., Wis., 1897, A.\n\nSinclair, S. B., Can., 1891, A.\nSinger, Edgar A., Pa., 1880, L.\nSisson, E. O., Ill., 1897, A.\nSkidmore, Sydney T., Pa., 1895, A.\nSkinner, Chas. R., N. Y., 1890, D.\nSkinner, Wm. C., Ohio, 1895, A.\nSkinner, W. H., Neb., 1895, A.\n\nSlack, H. W., Minn., 1897, A.\n\nSlade, James P.. Ill., 1895, A.\nSlaton, W. F., Ga., 1897, A.\nSlaton, W. M., Ga., 1894, A.\nSlauson,H. M.,, Ill., 1894, A.\nSmallwood, Mabel E., Ill., 1896, A.\nSmart, James H., Ind., 1877, D.\nSmiley, Wm. H., Colo., 1892, A.\nSmith, Albert L., Ill., 1897, A.\nSmith, Arthur P., Mass., 1890,A.\nSmith, A. Thomas, Pa., 1893, A.\nSmith, Anna T., D. C., 1895, A.\nSmith, Carrie J., Wis., 1895, A.\nSmith, Edwin\nR., Wis., 1897, A.\n\nSmith, E. E., Ga., 1896, A.\nSmith, E. R., Ill., 1897, A.\n\nSmith, Euler B., Ga., 1887, A.\nSmith, Geo. M., S. D., 1895, A.\nSmith, Harriet E., Wis., 1897, A.\n\nSmith, H. J., Vt., 1805, A.\nSmith, J. F., lowa, 1897, A.\nSmith,J.Mace, N. Y., 1895, A.\nSmith, J. N., Pa., 1896,A.\n\nSmith, Nellie M., Wis., 1897, A.\nSmith, S. McKee, N. Y., 1896, A.\n\nSmith, Sydney\n\nF., Colo., 1895, A.\n\nSmith, Wm. é., Minn,, 1895, A.\nSmyth, W.S., Ill., 1895, A.\nSnoboda, Dora, Ky., 1897, A.\nSnow, Miss Bonnie, Minn., 1896, A.\nSnow, Francis H., Kan., 1893, A.\n\nSnyder, E. R., Colo., 1895, A.\n\nSnyder, Henry, N. J., 1894, A.\n_ Snyder, Jessie F., Wis., 1897, A.\nSnyder, Jessie M., Ga., 1897, A.\nSnyder, J. L., Mich., 1889, A.\n\nSnyder, Lydia E., Ill., 1895, A.\n\nSnyder,\nW. R., Ind., 1895. A.\nSnyder, Z. X., Colo., 1887, A.\nSnyder, Mrs. Z. X., Colo., 1896, A.\nSoldan, F. Louis, Mo., 1877, D.\n\nSollitt, Alice E., Ill., 1893, A\n\nSoulé, George, La., 1892, A.\nSpaulding, F. E., N. J., 1896, A.\nSpaulding, Randall, N. J., 1892, A.\nee\na)\nSie\nOe\n.\nSpayd, H. H., Pa., 1892, A.\nSpeer,\nW. W., IIl., 1896, A.\noa\nbia\n\nSpencer, Pauline W., Pa., 1893,,A.\nSpencer, Robert C., Wis., 1884, L.\n\nSpencer, Mrs. Sara A., D. C., 1892, A.\n\nSpringer, Durand W., Mich., 1804, A.\na, Squire, Mary F., N. Y., 1806, A.\n\nStableton, J. K., Mass., 1892, A.\nStanford, Alma B., Minn., 1897, A.\nStanley, Edmund, Kan., 1886, L.\nStaples, Helen F.. Minn., 1896, A.\nStark, Joshua, Wis., 1884, L.\nStarrett, Mrs. H. E., Lll., 1897, A.\nState Historical Society, Wis., 1884, L.\nState Nor. School, Athen. Lit. Soc., Wis., 1884, L.\nState Nor. School, Cedar Falls, lowa, 1897, A\nState Nor. School, Ellensburg, Wash., 1897, A.\nState Nor. School, Greeley, Colo., 1897, A.\nState Nor. School, Los Angeles, Cal., 1897, A.\n\nState Nor. School, Mansfield, Pa., 1897, A.\nState Nor. School, Moorhead, Minn., 1897, A.\nState Nor. School, Oshkosh, Wis., 1897, A.\nState Nor. School, Phila. Soc., Wis., 1884, L.\nState Nor. School. Platteville, Wis., 1884, L.\nState Nor. School, St. Cloud, Minn., 1897, A.\nState Nor. School, Terre Haute, Ind., 1897, A.\nState Nor. School, Trenton, N. J., 1897, A\nState Nor. School, Winona, Minn., 1897, A.\n\nAND\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\nTir3\n\nState Teachers’ Association of II]., 18900, D.\n\nStearns, J. W., Wis.. 1884. L.\n\nSteele, Paul A., D. C., 1896, A.\nSteele, Wm, L., Ill., 1890, A.\nSteere, E. A., Wash., 1896, A.\n\nj\n\nStehman, J. H., Ill., 1897, A.\n\nStephens, H. Morse, N. Y., 1896, A.\nStephenson, Lillie S., Ill., 1895, A.\nStern, Menco, N. Y., 1882, L.\nStetson, W. W., Maine, 1895. .A.\nStevens, Moses C., Ind., 1876, L.\nStevens, Plowden, Jr, N. Y., 1895, A.\n\nStevenson, A. L., Ill., 1897, A\n\nStevenson, M. Cornelia, Minn., 1897, A.\nStevenson, Wm. C., Kan., 1890, A.\nStewart, I. N., Wis., 1884, L.\nStewart, John A., Mich., 1884, A.\nStewart, Joseph S., Ga., 1895, A.\nStewart, N. Coe, Ohio, 1892, A.\nStewart, Sarah A., N. J., 1884, L.\nStickney, Lucia, Ohio, 1893, A.\nStitt, E. W., N. Y., 1896, A.\nStockleman, Mary\nE., Ohio, 1806, A.\nStockwell, Mrs,\nHelen H., N. Dak., 1894, A.\nStockwell, Thomas B., R. I., 1891, A\nStockwell, Walter L., N. Dak., 1894, A.\nStokes, Horace A., Ohio, 1895, A.\nStone, Mason S., Vt., 1894, A.\nStoneroad, Rebecca, D., D. C., 1896, A.\nStorm, A V., Iowa, 1894, A.\nStout, Geo. H., Pa., 1884, A.\nStout, Isaac H., N. Y., 1890, A.\nStowell, Thomas B., N. Y., 1897, A.\nStrachan, Alex., S. Dak., 1897, A.\nStrader, Ellen J., Minn., 1897, A.\nStrasser, Florence L., Iowa, 1897, A.\nStratford, Emma F., Iowa, 1897, A\nStratford, W. R. J., Ind., 1895, A.\nStratton, C, C., Ore., 1888, D.\nStratton, Frederick E., Minn., 1886, A.\n\nStrong, Edwin A., Mich., 1892, A.\nStrong, James W., Minn., 1895, A.\nStubbs, J. E., Nev., 1895, A.\nStudy, J. N., Ind., 1897, A.\nStuver, E. Wyo., 1895, A.\nSudborough, Mrs. Grace B,, Neb., 1880. L.\nSullivan, Christine, Ohio, 1886, A.\nSuper, Chas. W., Ohio, 1891, A.\nSuplee, Etta, Iowa, 1895, A,\nSuplee, Fannie, Iowa, 1895, A.\nSuter, Anna, Ind., 1890, A.\nSuter, Miss H. A., La., 1894, A,\nSutherland, Margaret W., Ohio, 1895, A.\nSutton, W. S., Tex., 1895, A.\n\nSwain, Joseph, Ind,, 1893, A.\nSwan, Lizzie P., Ill,, 1897, A.\n\nSwart, Rose C., Wis., 1895, A.\n\nSwiler, J. W., Wis., 1897, A.\nSylvester, Carrie, Wis., 1895, A.\nSyphax, Carrie E., D. C., 1895, A.\nTadd, J. Liberty, Pa., 1892, A.\nTagg, Clara G., Ohio, 1896, A.\nTalmage, James E., Utah, 1895, A.\nTanner, J. M., Utah, 1897, A.\nTapley,\nWilliam W., Mass., 1892, A.\nTarbell, Horace S., R, I., 1891, A.\nTaubman, Kate, S. Dak., 1894, A.\nTaylor, A. R., Kan., 1886, D.\nTaylor, Cordie. Mo., 1895, A.\nTaylor, Edward, Ky., 1896, A.\nTaylor, Henry J., lowa, 1884, L.\nTaylor, J. F., Neb., 1896, A.\nTaylor, Joseph S., N. Y., 1894, A.\nTeachers’ Asso. of Cowley Co., Kan., 1886, L.\nTeachers’ Asso. of Riley Co., Kan., 1886, L.\nTeachers’ Association, Wis., 1884, L.\nTeachers’ Corps, Inter. and Upper Sec., Wis., 1884, L\nTeachers’ Corps, Primary Sec., Wis., 1884, L.\nTeachers’ Institute, Philadelphia, Pa., 1879, D.\n*Tear, John H., Ill., 1895, A.\nTempleton, J. C., Mont., 1894, A.\nTerrel, Harriet E., Ohio, 1896, A.\nTerry, H. 1.., Wis., 1896, A.\nTerry, Miss J. L., Wis., 1897, A.\nTharpe, F.\nD., Mo., 1891, A.\n\n"}
{"page": 1124, "printed_page": null, "text": "1114\n\nNATIONAL\n\nThatcher, J. L., Minn., 1896, A.\nThayer, Ada F., N. Y., 1896, A.\nThayer, J. B., Wis., 1884, L.\nTheilman, Louis, Mo., 1895, A.\nThiry, J. H., N. Y., 1897, A.\nThomas, D. W., Ind., 1896,A.\nThomas, Mrs. Emma A., Mich., 1896, A.\nThomas, Miss M. J. B., N. J., 1896, A.\n» Thomas, R. S., Ohio, 1896, A.\nThompson, Charles W., Mo., 1894, A.\nThompson, E, C., Mich., 1896, A.\nThompson, H. E., Okla., 1895, A.\n\nThompson, John G., Mass., 1895. A.\n\nThompson, Langdon S., N. J., 1876, L.\n*Thompson, N. B., Kan., 1895, A\nThompson, Wm. O., Ohio, 1894, A.\nThomson, Frank D., Ill., 1895, A.\nThurber, Chas. H., Il]., 1893, A.\nThwing, Charles F., Ohio, 1895, A.\nTibbets, Anna, Neb., 1894, A.\n\nTibbetts, A. C., Minn., 1895, A\n\nTiffany, A. J., Ill., 1897, A.\nTillotson, D. C., Kan., 1886, L.\nTitus, Cynthia, lowa 1897, A.\n\nTodd, Emma J., Ill., 1897, A.\nTodd, Samuel B., Wis., 1895, A.\nTollefson, Mrs. E. H., Wis., 1897, A.\n\nTolman, Henry L., Ill., 1897, A.\nTompkins, A., Ill., 1896, A.\nTower, Belle M., Mich., 1897, A.\nTracy, Frank N., Ill., 1896, A.\nTrant, Amelia Harle, N. Y., 1896, A.\nTrask, H. M., Pa., 1895, A\n\nTravell, Ira W., N. J., 1897, A.\n\nTressler, A. W., Mich., 1892, A.\nTreudley, F., Ohio, 1891, A.\nTucker, Anna M. P., Ohio, 1896, A.\nTurner, Alfred, Mass., 1895, A\nMurner, J. ., Ll.,,1895, A.\nTurner, J. M., Wis., 1897, A\nTurner, Marie L, Mo., 1895, A.\nTuttle, Albert H., Va., 1896, A.\nTutwiler, Julia S., Ala., 1882, A.\nTwichell, Hattie, Mass., 1895, A.\nTwining, Nathan, Cal., 1884, L.\nTwiss, Geo. R., Ohio, 1894, A.\n\nUnderhill, Volney, Ill., 1893, A.\nUniversity of California, 1895, A\nUniversity of Georgia, 1895, A\nUniversity of lowa, 1897,\nA.\nUniversity of Missouri, 1895, A.\nUniversity of Omaha, Neb., 1897, A.\nUniversity of State of N. Y., 1893, L.\nUniversity of Utah, 1895, A.\nVail, Henry H., N. Y., 1897, A.\nVaile, E. O., Ill., 1895, A.\nVan Aken, Mrs. Geo., N. Y., 1894, L.\nVance, Sophie, Ohio, 1890, A.\nVan Cleve, Edward M., Ohio, 1897, A.\nVandervort, C. R., Ill., 1896, A.\nVandyke, J. A., Minn,, 1896, A.\nVan Liew, Chas. C., Cal., 1894, A.\nVan O’Linda, Mary G., N. Y, 1897, A.\nVan Ostrand,B, D., Kan., 1896, A.\nVan Rensselaer, Martha, N. Y., 18094, A.\nVan Sickle, James H., Colo., 1892, A.\nVan Wie, Charles B., Ala., 1895, A.\nVaughn, W. H., Mo., 1896, A.\nVeatch, Nathan T., lll., 1895, A.\nVert, Edmund J., S. Dak., 1895, A,\nVose, L. D., Ill., 1894, A.\nWabash College, Ind., 1895, A.\nWade, Margaret I., N. J., 1894, A.\nWaite, EmmaS.,N. Y., 1896, A.\nWaldo, Eveline A., La., 1897, A.\nWalke, Matilda L., Ohio, 1892, A.\nWalker, P, R., Ill., 1892, A.\n\nWalker, Miss E., Minn., 1897, A.\nWalker, E. W., Wis., 1897, A.\nWalrath, M. H., N. Y., 1896, A.\n\nWalsh,J. H., N. Y., 1895, A.\nWalton, Geo. A., Mass., 1892, A.\nWard, Henry B., Neb., 1897, A\nWare, N. E., Ga., 1896, A.\n\nWarner, A. B., Iowa, 1894, A.\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nWarr, J. W., Ill., 1895, A.\nWaterbury, R. A., N. Y., 1896, A.\nWaterhouse, A. H., Neb., 1896, A.\nWaterman, Richard, Ill., 1896, A.\nWaters, Nora C., Wis., 1897, A.\nWatson, Edith M., Wis., 1897, A.\nWatt, W. E., Ill., 1895, A.\nWeaver. A. A., Iowa, 1897, A.\n\nWeaver, E. W., Ky., 1897, A.\nWeaver, W. D., Ind., 1895, A\nWeber, A. W., Wis., 1897, A\nWeber, Edith, Mo., 1895, A.\nWebster, C. I., N. vey 1891, A.\nWebster, W. F., Minn., 1896, A.\nWeeks, C. W., Ill., 1895, A.\nWeeks, Ellen G., Wis., 1897, A.\nWeld, Frank A., Minn., 1895, A.\nWelles, Frank E., N. Y., 1895, A.\nWelsh, J. P., Pa., 1896, A.\nWelton, Wm., Ill., 1897, A.\nWentz, Etta L., N. Y., 1896, A.\nWernick, E. V., Wis., 1895, A.\nWest, Allen B., Wis., 1897, A.\nWestcott, O. S., Ill., 1895, A.\nWestervelt, Z. F., N. Y., 1897, A.\nWeston, Mrs. O. E., Mex., 1897, A.\nWettstein, Frances, Wis., 1897, A.\n\nWheatley, Emma, Neb., 1895, A.\nWheaton, Ellen F., Minn., 1897, A.\nWheeler, Henry N., Mass., 1892, A.\nWheelock, Chas. F., N. Y., 1895, A.\nWheelock, Lucy, Mass., 1891, A.\nWhipple, H. A., Wis., 1897, A.\n\n;\n‘a\ny\na\n\nWhitcomb, Arthur K., Mass., 1892, A.\n\n.\n\nif\n\nWhite, Charles G., Mich., 1895, D.\nWhite, Mrs., C. G., Mich., 1893, A.\nWhite, Daniel A., Ill., 1895, A.\nWhite, Emerson E., Ohio, 1870, D.\nWhite, J. U., Mo., 1887, A.\nWhite, R. Mabel, Ill., 1895, A.\n\n;\n\\\n\n,\n\na\na\n\nWhite, W. J., Ohio, 1891, A\n\ni\n\nWhite, W. S., Mich., 1897, A.\n\nq\n\nWhite, W. T., Tenn., 1889, A\n\n{\n\nWhitehead, Mrs. K., N. Y., 1896, A.\nWhiteford, J, A., Mo., 1895, A.\n\n§\n\nWhitford, William C., Wis., 1884, L.\nWhitman, B. L., D. C., 1895, A.\nWhitney, Allen S., Mich., re94, A.\nWhitney, M. A., Ill., 1891, A.\nWhitney, S. Emory, Mich., 1893, A.\nWh ttemore, Henry, Mass., 1895, A.\n\nWhittle, W.R., R. I., 1896, A.\n\nWickham, Kate M., Neb., 1895, A.\nWicks, John F., Ill., 1897, A.\nWidner, Esther A., Ohio, 1880, L.\n\nWiley,\nWm. H., Ind., 1896, A.\nWilkins, A. H., Tex., 1894, A.\nWilkinson, Geo. E., Kan., 1893, A.\nWilkinson, J. J., Kan., 1896, A.\nWilkinson, J. N., Kan., 1884, A.\n\nWillard, F. E., lowa, 1896, A.\nWillett, Emma, Wis., 1897, A.\nWilliams, Mrs. Delia, Ohio, 1870, L.\nWilliams, Ella D., lowa, 1897, A.\nWilliams, J. D., Ill., 1896, A.\nWilliams, Philo J., Kan., 1886, L,\nWilliams, Samuel G., N. Y,, 1891, A.\nWilliams, T. E., Ga.. 1895, A.\nWilliams, Wm. H., Wis.. 1897, A.\nWilliams, Wm, J., Neb., 1895, A.\nWilliamson, J. E., lowa, 1895, A.\nWillis, D. M., W. Va., 1895, A\nWillis, H. B., N. J., 1892, A.\nWillis, W. A., lowa, 1884, L.\nWilson, A. H., N. J., 1806, A.\nWilson, Harry G., lll., 1895, A.\nWilson, H. E., Kan., 1895, A.\nWilson, J. Ormond. D, C., 1880, D.\nWilson, Stella S., Ohio, 1895, A.\nWilson, V. L., Iowa, 1897, A.\nWilson, William E., R. 1., 1890, A.\nWinchell, Harriet N., Ill., 1895, A.\nWing, Jessie, Colo., 1895, A.\nWinne, James, N. Y., 1892, A.\nWinship, Albert E., Mass., 1892, A.\n\n\\\n}\n\nee e\nE\ny\ne\na\n\n"}
{"page": 1125, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX\n\nTO LIFE\n\nAND\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\nT1L5\n\nWorden, Mrs. E. D., Kan., 1897, A.\nWorthington,\nJohn D., Md., 1893, A.\nWright, A. M., N. Y., 1893, A.\n\nJ. H., Ga., 1896, A.\nWitmer, Chas. en Pa., 1894, A.\n\nWright, Anna J,, Ohio, 1894, A.\nWright, Edmund W., Vt., 1889, L.\n\nWright, L. L., Mich., 1896, A.\nWright, Marion L., Wis., 1896, A.\nWright, Wm. R., N. J., 1892, A.\nWylie, Mrs. M. J. B., N. Y., 892, L.\nYerby, John D., Ala., t895, A.\nYoder, A. H., Ind., 1896, Av\n\nYoung, Geo. C., Utah, 1892, A.\n\nWoody,\n\nH. G., Ind., 1893, A.\n\nWooley, L. C., N. J., 1893, A.\n\nYoung,J. B., Iowa, 1896, A.\nYoung, J. S., Colo., 1895, A.\nYoung, Nathan B., Ga., 1896, A.\nYoung, Robert G., Ill., 1889, A.\nZillafro, Margaret C., Pa., 1896, A.\nZimmerman, Chas. F. A., Wis., 1895, A.\nZook, Mrs. Laura, Mont., 1897, A.\n\nsg\n\n"}
{"page": 1126, "printed_page": null, "text": "CLASSIFIED\n\nMEMBERSHIP\n\nBY\n\nSTATES\n\nIN THE\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nFOR THE YEAR\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n1897—(MILWAUKEE\n\nMEETING).\n\nActive Membership\n\nState or Territory\n\nTotal\nLife\n|Members\n\nActive\n|Members|\n\nActive\nMembership\n\nship\n\n39\n\n142\n\n1,674\n\n1,857\n\n53253\n\nro\n4\n2\n19\n\n24\n7\n2\n07\n\n452\n7o\n87\n939\n\n486\n8x\nQI\n3055\n\n213\n4,260\n\nEe\n\n5\n\n5\n\n7\n\nTotal,\nNorth\nSouth\nSouth\nNorth\n\nAtlantic Division,\nAtlantic Division,\nCentral Division,\nCentral Division,\n\nWestern oR\nForeign,\n\n.\n\n|\n\neiee\n\nAssociate\nMember-\n\nLife\nDirectors\n\n4\n\n12\n\n124\n\n140\n\n456\nor\n\n226\n\nNorth Atlantic ers\nMaine,\n.\nNew Hampshire,\n\nF\n\noe\na\n\nwe\n\nVermont,\nMassachusetts,\nRhode Island,\nConnecticut,\n\nA:\n2\nx\nI\n\nNew York,\nNew Jersey,\nPennsylvania,\n\n~\n\n5\n\n4\na\n\n4\nise\n\n3\n6\n\nI\n5\n\n3\n84\n14\nI4\n\n4\n89\nI5\n16\n\nII\n79°\n8\n8\n\nI\n\n201\n\n217\n\n194\n40\n116\n\n2\n6\n\nI\n\n68\n64\n\njo\n71\n\nSouth Atlantic Division.\nDelaware,\n\nMaryland,\n\na\n\n:\n\nDistrict of Columbia,\nVirginia,\n.\nF\nWest Virginia,\nNorth Carolina,\nSouth Carolina,\nGeorgia,\n\nFlorida,\n\n3\na\n\n.\n\n|\n\nSouth Central Division.\nKentucky.\nTennessee,\nAlabama,\n\n|\n|\n\\\n!\n\n2I\n\n38\n4\n4\noe\n2\n12\n\n2\n\n23\n\n25\n\n73\n\n15\n6\n9\n14\nIr\n\nI5\n6\n9\n14\nII\n\nIo\n13\n33\n27\n30\n\nin\n\nKb\n\n2\n\n16\n3\n\n118\n69\n\n13\nFe\n\n220\n132\n\nIllinois,\n\nMichigan,\n\n3\nI\n\n.\n\n|\n\n:\n\nWisconsin,\n\nansas, .\npicetern Division. |\nontana,\n\nNew Mexico,\nArizona,\n\nUtah,\n\nNevada,\nIdaho,\n\nWashington,\nei\n:\nalifornia,\nAlaska,\n.\nCanada,\n.\n\nTexico,\n\n.\n:\n\n7\n\nca\n\n.\n\n;\n\nA\n:\n\nj\n;\n\n;\n;\n\n:\n;\n‘\ns\n\nF\n;\n\n:\n\n.\n\n.\n\n;\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n¢\n\n.\n\n‘\n,\n;\n.\n$\n\nRe\n\n:\n\n@\nc\n;\n:\n;\n\nune:\n\n,\n\n,\n;\n,\n.\n‘\n\n:\n;\n\n;\n\n2\n\n16\n\n254\n\n531\n\n126\n\n165\n\n1,705\n\n2\n3\nyn\n\n86\n67\n\n4\n\n83\n62\n13\n10\n45\n\n247\n218\n40\n108\n202\n\ni\n\n38\n\nI\n\nr\n\n74\n\n62\n\n78\n13\n\n5G\n49\n\n205\n\na.\nI\n\n6\n\nks\nMe\n\nI\n\nae\no\n\né\n48\n\nX\n98\n\na.\n\nin\n\nro\n\nIo\n\n13\n\nbo\n\n3\n\n&,\n\nate\n\nae\n\nRe\nI\n2\ni\n3\n\netre\nRe\nng\n\nZ\nNe\n\n=\n\n7\n2\n2\n\n2\n\n14\n4\nI\n\n3\n\n3\n\n6\n5\n\n7\n7\n\n:\n\nia\ns\n\nte\n3\n\n8\n3\n\nm\n5\n\nos\nis\n\n:\n\nI\n\nI\n\n=\n\nee,\nee\nCa\n|\n\nTI116\n\n7\n2\n\nI\ni\n\n.\n\n»\n\n465\n\né\n46\n\narp\n\ni\n\n60\n\nee\na\nee\nL\na\n\n9\n\n240\n\nr\n\nhe\n\nQ\n\n5\n\n8\n\n3\n\nas\nI\n\n‘\n.\n:\nP\n.\n\nhits\n\n7\n\n4\n\n39\n\na\n\n:\n\n5\n\n:\n:\n\nHungary,\nMelee\napatite\nieee weR ce\nay\n\nEa\n\n2\n\nI\n\nMinnesota,\nMissouri,\nNorth Dakota,\nSouth Dakota,\n.ebraska,\n\nWyoming,\nColorado,\n\n6\n\nAL\n\nTowa,\n\n4\n\n2\n\nIndian Territory,\n\nnal, Central Division.\nio,\nIndiana, .\n\n4\n\nIo\n\n19\n6\n12\n4\n4\n18\n\n|\n\nOklahoma,\n\n4\n\n9\n\n13\n6\nII\n3\n3\n17\n\n2\n\nI\n\nMississippi,\n\nLouisiana,\nTexas,\nArkansas,\n\n4\n\n3\nre\n=\nI\nI\nI\n\n7%\n\nae\n\nI\nun\n\n:\n\ntt\n\nCOQW\nCOH\nAN\nN\nse\n\n"}
{"page": 1127, "printed_page": null, "text": "RECORD\n\nOF\n\nMEMBERSHIP\nIN\n\nNATIONAL\n\nBY\n\nSTATES\n\nTHE\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nFOR\n\nEACH\n\nYEAR\n\nFROM\n\n1884-97,\n\nASSOCIATION\nINCLUSIVE,\n\nExcepting for 1893, when no regular meeting was held.\nBold-face numbers show\nship from the state in which the meeting for the year was held.\n\nray\n\n5\nDua oi\n\n5\n\n:\n;\nState or Territory\n\nfe c el\nry\n\n3 |5\n\n“4\n\nae\nSh\n|Last)\nSel\nlets, ie cearimectid|\n\n°\n\npesen\n3\n\na |4\n\nE\nres ale o0\n\na\n\n°\n\n&\n\n8\n\n&\n\nHy\n\n|\nFt\n5\n\nmember-\n\na\n\n:\n\n:\ndp\n\nos\n\neh\ng\n\noe)\n\nss\n\nC\n\n:g\n\nZ2/alae|/Slalalajala|¢@)/aj;als|&\n+e\n\n1884]1885]\n\nTotal,\n\nPass\n\n1886]\n\n1887]\n\n1888\n\n1889]\n\n°\n\nwn\n\n1890] r89r]\n\nr892|\n\n|2\n\nnet\n\n1894]\n\n1895 | 1896] 1807|\n\n.. .| .....\n\n2,729] 625/1,197 9,115]7,216 1,984|5,474 4,778) 3,360|5,915|11,207|9,072|7,111|69,873]\n\nNorth Atlantic Division,\n\n792]\n\n406]\n\n386)\n\nSouth Central Division,\nNorth Central Division,\n\nIII}\n|1,712]\n\n19]\n176]\n\n47| 370| 216 13,074] 261| 417) 253] 460]\n899] 419] 304] 4,850|\n708)7,67|1,074|\n642|4,156 2,933]1,456|3,357| 7,211|5,082|5,325|41,496|\n\nSouth Atlantic Division,\n\nWestern Division,\nForeign,\n\nNorth Atlantic Division,\naine, .\n\n-\n\nNew Hampshire,\n\n:\n\n.\n\nVermont,\nMassachusetts,\nRhode Island,\n\nConnecticut, .\nNew York,\nNew Jersey, .\nPennsylvania,\n\n77|\n\nx6}\n\n32|\n\n773]\n\n44)\n\n803)\n\nx13)\n\n2\n7|\n25} z02!4,974|\nFil—eniewee | r55)\ngOlle\n2r\\\\,\n\n=2\n\n5|\n\n32\n\n9\n\n5\n\n7\n\n27\n\n8\n\n6|\n\n208\n\n17\n\nSe terySes\n28) 290]\n\n4|\nx24]\n\n20\n212!\n\n4\n52]\n\n13)\nxgt|\n\nX4|\n197]\n\n5}\n159]\n\n209\n2,266\n\n17\n174\n\n50}\n\nz3}-.\n\n23\n\nsea\n326)\n969}\n323]\n\n26)\n43)\n521/2,132]\n168) 179]\n437] 325]\n\n55]\n\n35]\n\n24)\n377\n411] 5,192|\nxrx0] 1,698)\n187| 2,228}\n\n23)\n\n35°\n\n29\n399\nx37\nx71\n\n3\nI\n2\nx7\n3\nFi\nSess i r3lee2rl\n\nx8}\n6\n8}\n13|\n\nx2\n6]\nx2\n22\n\n5\nSte\n\"Tol\n\n6\ne449)\neessii\n\n8\n45,\nead\n\n2]\n24\n20)\n37\nMeas |e sas\nzai)\n62\n\nTz)\nGel\n47|\n\n(xx\ncei).\n20)\n\n36)\n2x)\n49|\n52)\nBl\na\nzal © eke\n\n8\nchal\n57|\n\nWx0lh\n16]\n4\nAl\n\n66\netal\n32\n\nx47\n2090\n99\nwan\n\n6\n20\n25\n\nIr\n22\n8\n13\n\nx6!\n\n© 43/|\n16\n\n#23)\n7\n\n32\\\n4\n\n163)\n3\n\n(64\n2\n\n62|\nTol)\n\n43]\n23\n\n30]\n9\n\n499\n75\n\n38\n8\n\n98)\n947\n25) 1,325\n\n72\n102\n\n2] — 2£0||\nI\n\n33\n12\n\n2\n6\n\n8;\n5]\n\noe\n\n‘Tllinois,\n\nMichigan,\n\n.\n\nWisconsin,\n.\nlowa,\nMinnesota,\n\n.\n5\n\na\n\nMissouri,\n\n:\n\n.\n\nkota\n\nF\n\nOl.\n=\nWh\nBeg;\n22\n=)\nBel)\nos\nfe | ise\n3\nI\n\n22!\n83]\n\nxzr4|\nG07)\n\n30]\no7|\n\n57)\n124)\n\n42)\n57)\n\nz28|\nT24\n\nx76)\n66)\n\n77]\n57)\n\n45)\nrel\n7\\|\nZo)\n922)\n:\n8\n\nx23\n35\n87il)\n44\nxo|\n13]\nSo] ) zo)\n2ole\nz2))\nZe\n6\nI\n\n79s\nAZ|\n25)\n53\n34\noe\n3\n\nSn\n36)\n22)\n9}\n3g!\n%\n4\n\neet\n“Zo\n35)\n82]\n25\n4\nI\n\n4t|\n49]\n08]\n294|\n84]\n58|\n23)\n\n89] | 25)\"\n25]\n19]\n25)\n42]\n99!\n42)\n63)\n41]\nx4)\nrx\nte\n2\n\n592)\n322)\n\n565)\n250)\n\n67|\n46]\n\n582]\n418;\n\n225}\n72|\n\n60)\n80]\n\n361|\n206]\n\n355]\nx49]\n\n178/\n65]\n\n990]\n258]\n\n222]\n\n204]\n\n625|\n\n666|\n\n214}\n\n87z| 1,495|1,174|\n\n546]\n304]\n\nx8]\n18]\n\n28]\n67]\n\n443]\n572|\n\n222]\n278]\n\n933]\n\nx28}\n\n143|\n188]\n164} 1,086]\n86)\n193)\n\n413/1,870]\n578) 543\n\n16]\n\n72]\n110}\n54]\n\n68]\n\n249]\n\n320\n\n=\n\n435 its\n\nee\n\n99}\n\n32)\n\n1t\n\n83]\n\nx38)\n\n$9\n\ni\n\n132|\n\n46|\n\nBs\n\n39\n\n;\n\n16,\n\n12|\n\n20]\n\n273]\n\n9]\n\nx8] 486]\n87|z,146]\nxz} 649]\n\n57|\n96]\n58]\n\nx1)\n\n73|\n\n625]\n\n133}\n\naes\n\n40]\n\n29]\n\nx09]\n\n40\n\nIO}\n\n147|\n\n220\n\n126]\n\n127\n\n742|\n\n363)\n\n251]\n\n2,731\n\n210\n\n64]\n\n275]\n\n283}\n\n127|\n\nr21|\n\n1,172}\n\n325]\n\n187} 3,844]\n\n296\n\n2\n\nt\n\nOMe\n\na4\n\nees\n\ne724\n\n40]\n\n109\n\n8}\n\n56]\n\nArizona,\n\n5\n\nSol\n\nHel\n\nCalifornia,\n\n.\n\ni\n\n4\n\n.\n\nGants eat\n\n304\n\n124|\n\n11]\n\nOregon,\n\nae 3953\n\n960]\n\n2|\n\nd\n,\n\"i\n\n333 2,895}\nor\n\n185\n\n634\n\n<2\n\nNevada,\n‘\nIdaho, .\né\nWashington,\n\n303\n\n346\n388\n223\n\n4,504]\n5,049\n\n27\n\nil\n\n;\n\n327) 2,407)\n\n190|\n\nI2\n\nSilas\n\n8\n\n|\n\nes\n\n78|\n\n589]\n\n5\n\n.\n\n9\n\n204]\n\nxz}\n\n.\n\n.\n\n355]\n\n31/20]\n\nColorado,\n\nNew Mexico,\n\n285)\n\n346\n165\n\n658\n\n749\n\nx\n\n7\\)\n\n259]\n\n4,495\n2,147\n\n785] 8,555]\n\n5]\n\n3)\n\n&\n\n137]\n\nWyoming,\n\nWiahy\n\n40\n27\n25\n62\n36\n22\n5\n\n164|1,750|\n\n77|\n\n357|\n205)\n\n526\n349\n324\n809\n427\n87\n53\n\n43]\nx5}\n\nNebraska,\n\n‘\n\n-x5z|\n62)\n\nBi\nFO\n2\n7\\\nSi\nier\n5\n55)\nSi 7 167)\nre\na\n=\n\n33]\n\neh\n\neran\n\n2\n8\n27)\n49]\nCell\nai)\nx8)\n\nr2t}\n54|\n\n:\n\ni\n\n2|\n8\n2\n2}\n\n27\n\n354)\n\nsein paket\nKansas,\n\n3\n3\nIe\nI\n\n12a\n228)\nx12|\n99)\n\n“ee\n\n15\n\n42.\n\nAN\n29|\n13}\n23)\n\nSil\n\n79\n\nSSO\nxz7| 611)\nx6]\n65}\n76) 178]\n\nI\nI\n\n6}\n4\nr5|\n13\nahi\nas)\nPas\n\n4\n\n7\\\n\n6ox\n88\n\nae\n\n30)\n\n7\n\n*373\n3,192\n\npA\n206)\n\n29|\\\n\n24\n\n366] 7,813]\n12| 1,059\n\n979\n\n© x49\n\nerr\n\nx3)\n\n5\n\n1,933]\n\nx\n\nII\n\nrca\nIndiana,\n\n73] 1,403] 377]\n3\nB3i=\n\n172]\n\n25|\n\nGeorgia,\nFlorida,\n\nF\n\nxzo4]\nsx\noro\n\n237)\n\n23)\n\ntare\n8|\nx2)\n\nAlabama,\nMississippi, Louisiana,\nTexas, .\nis\nArkansas,\n:\nOklahoma,\n.\n5\nIndian Territory, .\n\nx96]\nO55\n\n32/30),\n\n289]\n\n|4z\n277]\n\nA\nIo\n7)\n\nsegue\nas\nTennessee,\n\n27x]\n\n3|\n85]\n\n24 Wea\nle\n30\nI\n\n5\n:\n\n309!\n\n5,375\n\nex0}m\n\nDelaware,\n.\n.\nMaryland,\n_.\n:\nDistrict of Columbia,\n\n>\n:\n\n122|\n4s\n\nx51]\n\n942/12,724|\n\n8\n145}\n\n48\n210/\n4x}\n242)\n\nth Central Division,\n\n38]\n=|\n\n1,462/2,940|\n\nGl\n\n36]\n21r|\n23)\n108]\n\nVirginia,\nWest Virginia,\nNorth Carolina,\nSouth Carolina,\n\n95)\n\n426)1,187/1.711|\n\n64\n\n23|\nor]\n35!\nrazr]\n\nF\n\n128}\n\n795}\n\n43\n310]\n\n40]\n18]\n143] 159]\n40}\n27)\n81]\n28}\n\nSouth Atlantic Division,\n\nrox}\n\nSieaccs\n\n4\n\n15]\n\n43]\n\n78]\n\n232\n\n18\n\n1x4}\n\n59]\n\n58] 1,136)\n\nx77]\n\n145\n\n13027\n\n14!\n\n2\n\n48\n\n7|_\n\nro|\n\n1x0\n\n9\n\nness\n\nan\n\n2}\n\n26\n\n2\n\nI\n\nI\n\nbe\n\n7;\n\nSi\n\neae\n\n2\n\nre\n\n26}\n\n16\n\n“6\n\n70!\n\n12\n\nae\n\nant\n\n5\n\nPAS\n\nerat\n\narab.\n\narial\n\ndee)\n\n8\n\n4\n\n89|\n\n37;\n\n22]\n\n305\n\n3z\n\nJal\nool\nEle\n\na\nleon\nscs\n\nI\nBA)\nI\n\nGiB\nidole\n3)\n\n4l oe a\nae\nKanto\n27\nI\n\n2\"\n2\n\n5\naA\nz\n\n2\n8\n\n153\n34\nae\n\nIO\n.\ns\n\neee\n\n375\n\n872}\n\n70\n\n3\n\nabu\n\nx\n\nBs\n\nwate\n\neet\n\nGives\n\nEl\n\nfe\n\nDlx\n\n4,\n\nrile\n\nII|\n\nWa\n\n204\n\ni\n\n8\n\n18 4278\n\n73\n\nfa] 2of\n\n“x|\n\nI\n\nba\n\nLoy\n\n.\n\nSer\n6|\n\n.:\n38\n\nhs\n\n2\n\n7\n\nBp\n\n5!\n\n43] 650,\n\n2\n\noa\nz\nr\n\n.\n\nin\nze\n\n14\n\n6\n\n5\n\na\n\n:\n\n$3\n\neS\n\n9\n\nz\n\n48]\n\naz]\n\n32]\n\nx4)\n\n8]\n\n15\n\n75\n\n8\n\n2)\n\n"}
{"page": 1128, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\nOF THE\nLIST OF PUBLICATIONS\nPRICE\nAND\nINVENTORY\nAT WASHINGIN THE DEPOSITORY\nEDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\nPrice per\nTON, D. C., JULY 1, 1897.\nNumber of\nPrices in\nsingle vol-\n\ncopies sets, carriage ume, carriage\nin stock not prepaid\nprepaid\nf$o.10\n$0.10\n472\n:\n\nLIST OF SUBJECTS.\n\nHISTORY\n\nPROCEEDINGS\n\nOF THE\n\nPaper covers, sa pages\n\n1891\n1892-\n\n1894\n\n237\n\nSe\n\noe\n\nctey\n\nA\n\n(\n\n:\n\n,\n\nPROCEEDINGS\n\n5\n\n3\n\nOF THE\n\nNATIONAL\n\nCOUNCIL\n\nee\nI\nSi\ngO\n1891\n1894\n1895\n\nPaper covers, 120 pages\n73\n“ee\n“\ni\nii\n98 “ez)\nfo)\nKe\nsf\nrd.\nS\nWy\n“\nSo\" sf\ns¢\nke\nSr\nwes\n\ni\n:\nre\ni\n<\n>\n4\n\nji\n\né\n\n1865,\n1866\n1869\n\nPaper covers, 117 pages\n%\n§\n40.\nyc\nes\n3\naGues <\n\n‘\nA\n:\n\nBOUND\n\n5\n:\n,\né\né\nA\n\n3\n\n-\n\n4\n\n,\n\n+\n\n;\n\n:\n\n:\n\n:\n\n5\n\n;\n\n5\ni\nfs\n\n‘\nf\n\n,\n6\n:\n\n;\né\nF\n\né\n5\n4\n:\nf\n5\nE\n\n9\ndl\n\n:\nci\n-\n\n:\n\n3\n\n3\n\n5\n\n2\n\nE\n\n:\n\n&\n\nZ\n\n5\n\n3\n5\n\n5\n'\ns\n\nVOLUMES\n\nOF PROCEEDINGS\n\nOF THE NATIONAL\n\n1871\n1872\n| 1873\n1874\n\nSt. Louis\nBoston .\nElmira .\nDetroit .\n\n3\n:\n7\nPn\n\n:\n5\nb\n:\n\n3\n:\n:\n:\n\nA\n‘\na\n3\n\n‘\n5\nA\nF\n\nr\né\nA\nA\n\n;\n:\n;\n-\n\n1875,\n\nMinneapolis\n\n.\n\n;\n\nrs\n\n‘\n\nA\n\nS\n\n;\n\n1876\n1877\n1878\n1879\n1880\n1881\n\n1882\n1883\n1884\n1885\n1886\n\nBaltimore.\nLouisville.\n» (No meeting)\nPhiladelphia\nChautauqua .\nAtlanta\n\n‘\n\n:\n5\nF\né\n5\n\n:\n@\n5\né\nfi\n\n.\n;\n.\n:\nA\n\né\nE\n5\nP\n.\n\nc\n‘\n;\na\np\n\n6\n\n3\n\nZ\n\n‘\n\n-\n\nSaratoga Springs\nSaratoga Springs .\nMadison\n4\n‘\npees Springs .\n.\n\n‘\n:\nF\nji\n\n¢\n\n\"\n\n:\n\n5\n\n2\n;\n;\n‘\n\n5\n\né\n\n5\n\n:\n\n6\n\n39\n15\n\n144\n7o\n\n$0.20\n+20\n-20\n-20\n.20\n+20\n-20\n\n$o.25\n25\n+25\n25\n25\n+25\n25\n\n4\n:\n3\n\n59\n61\n34\n\n$0.50\n50\n«50\n\n*\n*\n*\n\n254\n\n259\n120\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n*\n*\n$1.50\n1.50\n\nc\n\n:\n\ni\n\né\n\n233\n\n1.25\n\nI.50\n\n%\né\n0\n2\n\n;\n;\n:\n4\n\n‘\n;\n‘\nA\n.\n*\n\n.\n\n2\n:\n‘\n.\n\n;\n:\n:\n.\nfs\n\n323\n224\nie\n341\n284\n545\n\n1.50\n1.50\noe\n1.50\n1.50\n\n1.25\n\n1.50\n\n;\n4\n5\nd\n5\n\n;\n\n377\n\n1.50\n\nTe\n\ns\nFi\né\n3\n\n;:\n‘\na\n\na\n:\n5\n3\n\ntee\n300\n487\n517\n\noe\n1.75\n1.75\n1.75\n\nBee\n2,00\n2,00\n2.00\n\n775,\n\n1.75\n\n2.00\n\n643\n553\n430\n371\need\n\n2.00\n1.75\n1.75\n1.75\n1.75\n\n2.50\n2.00\n2.00\n2.00\n2.00\n\n°\n\n4\n\n5\n\n°\n\nA\n:\n.\n5\n\nC\n4\nA\n5\n\n4\n‘\n,\n5\n\na\n‘\né\nc\n\nToronto\n\n5\n\n:\n\n:\n\n;\n\nA\n\né\n\n:\n\n5\n\n1893\n1894\n1895.\n1896\n1897\n\n(Inter. Cong. of Ed. ) Chicago\nAsbury Park\n5\nDenver.\n;\n:\n‘\nBuffalo .\na\n5\n5\nMilwaukee (in press) F\n§\n\n.\né\n5\n.\n\nj\n‘\n:\n5\n‘\n.\n;\n4\nie\n\n;\n5\n2\n‘\n;\n\n4\n:\n\"\nr\n‘\n\n:\n‘\n5\n5\n\n:\n\n:\n\n3\n\n:\n\nB\n\n‘\n.\nA\ni\n3\n\n82\n*\n602\n68\n\n1.25\n1.25\nMe\n1.25\n1.25\n\n.\n:\n%\ni\n\nc\n\n:\n\n;\nc\n\n775\n\n:\n\nASSOCIATION,\n\n*\n*\n$1.25\n1.25\n\n:\n5\n6\n:\n\n:\n\nOF EDUCATION .\n5\n:\nsi\n2\n5\n:\n\n5\n.\n\n,\n<\n3\n\n5\n\n+30\n\n+30\n\n*\n*\n205\n316\n\ncs\n\n:\n\n$0.30\n\n+25,\n\n+25\n\n:\né\n:\n3\n\n.\n\n‘\n\n$0.25\n\n426\n\n318\n\n;\na\n(i\n:\n\nChicago\n5\np\nSan Francisco.\nNashville.\n6\nSt. Paul\nF\n,\n\nSaratoga Springs .\n\n$0.30\n\n;\n;\nA\n.\n\n1887\n1888\n1889\n1890\n1891\n\n1892\n\nopeka .\n\n:\n5\np\nf\n\n:\n:\n:\n6\n°\n\n183\n\n3\n\né\n\n3\n\n3\n\n-\n\n5\n\nfs\n\n’\n\n.\n\n5\n\n6\n\nc\n\n$0.25\n\nOF SUPERINTENDENCE.\n\nA\n\n:\n\nc\n\n.\n\n212\n\n°\n\nF\n\n;\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\n°\n\naera\n\nE. A. 1857-1891.\n©\n\nE\n\n3\n\n;\n\n2\n\n;\n\nPaper covers, 141 pages.\n\nOF THEN.\n\n'\n\n5\n\nRe\n\nom\n\n:\n\nF\n\n4\n\nC\n\n5\n\nPaper covers, 16 pages\n\n2,00\nme\n1.50\n2.00\n\n1.75\n\n:\n\nid\n*\nLe75ie\n*\n\n2.00\n\n* Stock exhausted.\n\nCopies of the reports of the Committee of Ten and the Committee of Fifteen can be obtained of the\nAmerican Book Company for 30 cents each.\nCopies of the report of the Committee of Twelve on Rural Schools will be supplied by the Secretary at\nthe following rates, vzz.. fifty or more copies, by freight at purchaser’s expense, at 15 cents per copy; ten or\n\nmore copies, by express, prepaid, at 20 cents per copy; single copies, by mail, 25 cents per copy.\nA complete Subject Index of all published proceedings of both the National Teachers’ Association and\nthe National Educational Association has been issued in a separate volume, bound in cloth, uniform with the\nvolumes of proceedings.\nThe index will be sent free of charge to those who purchase five or more volumes F\nto others it will be sent postpaid for $x, The index volume will be supplied to active members for 25 cents\nfor postage, wrapping, etc.\nThe association will be pleased to pay cash for copies of proceedings for 1871, 1872, and 1883, or will\nsend copies of any other years in exchange.\nApplication for sale or exchange should be made to the\nSecretary.\nVolumes of proceedings of past years can be obtained of the Secretary, Irwin Shepard, Winona, Minny\n\nEcstaritence should be made by Draft or P. O. Money Order.\n\\\n\n1118\n\nIrwIN SHEPARD, Secretary,\nWinona Minn,\n\n_\n\n"}
{"page": 1129, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX.\nApgoTt, Rev. LyMaAN — The Democracy of Learning,\nAccomplishment of Normal-School Purpose — Richard G. Boone,\nDiscussion:\nAlbert Salisbury,\n\nADDAMS,\n\n:\n-\n\n-\n\ne\n\n=\n\nSs\n\n:\n\n.\n\nE. A. Sheldon,\n\n-\n\n-\n\n“\n\n5\n\n2\n\n=\n\nBy\n\n2\n\nE. T. Pierce,\n\n-\n\n2\n\n3\n\n:\n\n.\n\n:\n\n‘\n\nMiss JANE — Foreign-Born Guiltrens in the Primary Grades,\n\nAddresses of Welcome,\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n:\n\n:\n\n:\n\n-\n\n-\n\nAddress of Welcome, School Administration Department\n— Charles Quarles,\nAésthetic\n\n-\n\nElement\n\nNicholson, -\n\nin Education,\n\n-\n\nThe — John\n\n=\n\n:\n\nz\n\n=\n\n:\n\n2 329, 330\n\nRichard Jones,\nF. Louis Solidan,\n\n:\n=\n\n3\nx\n\nL\n:\n\n:\n-\n\ni\n2\n\n3\n:\n\nNathan\n\nRB\n3\n\n=\n\nS\n\n2\n\ns\n\n=\n\nZ\n\n.\n\nDok. Kiehle,\n\n-\n\n-\n\n=\n\n:\n\n:\n\n5\n\n2\n\n:\n\nHenry Sabin,\n\n-\n\n-\n\n=\n\n=\n\n=\n\n»\n\n:\n\n4\n\nMary E. Nicholson,\nCoB. Gilbert,\n=\nJohn Dewey,\n-\n\n=\n:\n\n2\n-\n\n2\n5\n=\n\n=\nE\n\n\"\n2\n\n2\n3\n-\n\n4\n*\n¥\n\nS. G. Williams,\n\n-\n\n:\n\n2\n\n-\n\n=\n\n2\n\n:\n\n-\n\n=\n\n=\n\n=\n\n:\n\n:\n\nW.H.\n\nSmiley,\n\n-\n\n733) 735\n\npewey.a\\W. T. Harris, etary, 13%\n\nDiscussion:\nC. Schaeffer,\n\n=\n\nAhern, Mary E.— Discussion,\nAton, GEO. B.— The Secondary School pea Preset Metnadaunin English,\nAlgebra and Geometry in Highest Grammar Grades,\n_—_-\n\n=\n\n2\n'\n\n-\n\nAmerican History Tagen in Cross Sections or in Parallels?— James M. Greenwood,\n- Animal Life, The Study as\n=\n+s\nAppreciation and Development of the ladividwal “The — R, Aenea Morris,\n\n=\n2\n\nF\n=\n\n3\n2\n\né\n\n¥\n2\n\nArt and Literature in Our Schools — W. T. Harris,\n2\nArt Education, Department of,\n\n=\n\nE\n\n=\n\n-\n\n=\n\né\n\n2\n\ni 755-771\n\n.\n\nArnold, E. H.— Discussion,\nArnold, Sarah L.— Discussion,\n\nArt Teaching in Schools\nDiscussion :\nCale Baxter,\nee\neee\n\no\n\n:\n-\n\n=\n-\n\n2\n\n—Wm. H. Maxwell,\n\n=\n\nz\n\nz\n\na\n\n:\n\nAtmospheric Phenomena, The Study of,\nAucsBURG, D. R.— The Expression of Lines,\n\n=\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n=\n\n— Discussion,\nBaer, Clara\nBAKER, JAMES H.— The State Uaivereiey,\nDisctission,\n=\n:\n\n:\n-\n\nE\n\na\n:\n\n-\n\n2\n\n=\n\n— Discussion,\nBancroft, Jessie\n\nBarbour, O. F.— Discussion,\nBarnes, Charles R.— Discussion,\nBaxter, C. J.— Discussion,\n\n_ BEEBE, MIss Mr\n\naecine\n\n=\n2\n\n=\n\n:\n-\n\n2\n-\n\n-\n\n2\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n.\n=\n\n=\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n3\nz\n-\n\n2 Kindersarton Work and Principles in the School, -\n\n«=\nBELL, ALEXANDER GRAHAM— Education of the Deaf,\n=\nBENDER, Ipa C.— The Relations of Citizens and Teachers,\nBennett, Wm. H.—Discussion,\nANNA— How to Betaplish Goda rasieed Standatds in the\n- BrrcHarD, Miss\n4\nPublic Schools,\n=\n— High Saftoel asa peaining Place for iGatizenship,\nBisHop, J. REMSENThe\n5\n5\n2\nDiscussion,\nsi\n=\n“2\n=\nZ\nBlackweather, Mrs. I. S.— Discussion,\n\nE\nBoard of Directors for 1897, Proceedings of,\nBoard of Directors for 1898, Proceedings of,\nBooks for Rural Schools and Communities, List of,\nIlI9\n\n=\n=\n\n3\n-\n\n2\n=\n2\n\n2\n\n2\n\n"}
{"page": 1130, "printed_page": null, "text": "LI20\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\nPAGE\n\nBoonk, RicHarD G.— How May the Normal School\npose?\nLines of Growth in Maturing,\n.\n-\n\nBest yuecontp leas Its Pur2\n.\n=\n=\n4\n:\n\n721\n173\n\nDiscussion,\nBouURLAND, MARY Conpinas=Parents as Child Students)\n\n:\n-\n\na\n-\n\n- 718, 720\n859\n\nBoyd, Mrs. ‘Gaston — Discussion,\nBoyer, E. R.— Discussion,\nBoyle, Ed.— Discussion,\n\n=\nZ\n\n2\n<\n-\n\n2\nA\n-\n\n=\n777\n- 942,958\n316\n\nRural Schools:\n\n-\n\nBradbury,J.M.— Appendix\n\nZ\n\n2\n\nK, Bene on\n\nBrandigee, John E.— Discussion,\n\n-\n\n-\n\n2\n\n-\n\n- 987, 993\n\nBRIGHAM, ALBERT PERRY — Fiysteel Geography in Secondary Schools,\nDiscussion,\n\nBrooks, Miss SARAH C.— Onenios Address,\new\n\n=\n\n-\n\n+\n\n923\n\n657\n\nDepart\n\nE\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n615\n\nSupervision as Viewed by the Supervised,\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n225\n\n“The Still Hunt,”\n\n=\n\n2\n\n:\n\n-\n\n2\n\n291\n\n-\n\n-\n\nBiémearary Education\n\n-\n\niS\n\nti\n\n-\n\n-\n\n563\n\n-\n\né\n\nBrown, Miss MARION — ac aa ee Work\nin Relation to the Normal\nSchool,\n714\nBryan, Wn. L.— Eiygicne of Motor Development,\n279\nBuchanan, John T.— Discussion,\n=\n315\nBuLLockx, RoyvaL W.— Some Observations of Children’ s Reading,\n>\n1015\nBusiness Education, Department of,\n.\n- 790-824\nPresident’s Address\n— A. N. Palmer,\n793\nButler, Nicholas Murray — Discussion,\n652\nBYINGTON, S. LirL1an\n— The Development of Runyan,\n774\nCaldwell, H. W.— Discussion,\n670\n\nCalendar of Meetings, ~ California System of School\nRural Schools,\n-\n\n2\nMaintenance,\n-\n\nCANFIELD, JAMES H.— Winners\n\nof Men,\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\nCarman, G. W.— Discussion,\nCarr, J. W.— Discussion,\n\n=\n-\n\n=\n-\n\n=\n<\n\nCarroll, C. F.— Discussion,\n\n-\n\n-\n\nCarter, J— Discussion,\n\n=\n\n=\n\nDiscussion,\n\n-\n\nChamberlain, A. H.\n\n-\n\n-\n\nThe — Appendix C, Report\n-\n\nt\n-\n\nProf. Palmer,\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n505\n\n-\n\nZ\n\n-\n\n=\n2\n-\n\nZ\n2\n-\n\n4\n:\n-\n\n.\n657\nL\n235\n- 215, 233\n\n2\n\nzi\n\n:\n\nx\n\n.\n\n:\n\nZ\n\n747\n\neee Gmith,\n\n-\n\n-\n\n945\n\n2\n:\nE\n\n:\n2\n2\n\ne\n“\n\n2\nu\n\n951\n951\n951\n\n:\n\n951\n\n-\n\nChemistry as Part of a School or College Cones lee\n=\n=\n-\n\n6\n\n-\n\n-\n\n— Discussion,\n\nDiscussion:\nW. A. Noyes,\nProf. Kohlenberg,\nTeo biy ETeer,\n-\n\non\n-\n\n:\n:\n\n169\n\n-\n\n655\n\n301\n\nE\n\n=\n\nf\n\nChild Study,\nChild Study and the Rindersantene Miss Berthaa Payne,\nChild Study, Department of,\nChild Study in Class Work\n— L. H. Galorcaths ‘Child Study in Elementary Schools — James L. Hughes,\nChild Study, Theoretical and Practical, Child Study with Co-operation of Parents —C. S Van Ciew\n\n:\nZ\n:\n:\n\n:\n2\nE\nE\nX\n2\n\nz\n\nChild Voice, The —F. E. Howard,\n\nE\n\n=\n\n‘\n\n&\n\n784\n\nCitizens and Teachers, The Relations of—Ida C. Bondar\n\nE\n-\n\n2\n2\n\n:\n5\n\n789\n248\n\nClarke, O. C. — Discussion,\n\n4\n\nDiscussion :\nMrs. Emma A. Thomas,\n\n-\n\n2\n\n5\n\nf\n\n943\n\nClassification and Instruction in Rural Schools, Wm. T. eras\nCLUTE Oscar— President’s Address, The Head and the Hand,\nCobb, C. -N. — Discussion,\n\n:\n=\nx\n\n:\nL\nt\n\n121\n737\n943\n\nCollege Entrance, Report cor Coninastieennon — A. Fp Rusttinpale:\n\n:\n\ne\n\n647\n\nDiscussion:\nNicholas Murray Butler,\n\n2\n\n=\n\n278\n586\n‘ 825a\n292\nL\n288\n3\n296\n:\n204\n\n2\n\n“\n\nbs\n\n5\n\n652\n\nA. C. McLaughlin,\n\n-\n\n©\n\na\n\nts\n\nZ\n\n-\n\nx\n\n653\n\nH. Morse Stephens,\n\n-\n\né\n\ns\n\n.\n\nB. A. Hinsdale,\n\n-\n\n.\n\n-\n\n-\n\n;\n\nee\n\n-\n\n-\n\ni\n\n"}
{"page": 1131, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDE. a\n\nTole2en\nPAGE\n\nProf. Chamberlain,\nJames H. Canfield,\n\n2\n:\n\nz\n\n:\n\n4\ne\n\nZ\nuy\n\n:\n:\n\nColiege-Entrance Requirements —— Richard leces.\nCollege-Entrance Requirements and Schools in Central West — E. By Grea\nCollege-Entrance Requirements Pitched Too High,\nCoLw Bur, fa W. —\n\nElementary\n\nMathematics\n\nand Education,\n\nieominittes of Twelve on Rural Schools, Report of,\n\nSchool Maintenance, Report of Subcommittee ony)\nDistribution of School Funds,\n:\nOrganization of Rural Schools, -\n\n:\n\n=\n-\n\n:\nad\n-\n\n684\n677\n660\n\n3\n\n:\n\n637\n\n-\n\n-\n\n385\n\n.\n-\n\n399\n413\n421\n\nSupervision of Rural Schools, Report of Subcommittee on, 2\nSupervision by State Superintendent,\n:\nSupervision by County, Township, or District Supenmicnden es=\n\n:\n:\n\n434\n435\n437\n\nWork of Supervisors,\n—.\nLegal Requirements and Qualifications of Supervising\nSchool Directors,\n:\nVisitation of Schools, The,\n:\n=\nSchoolhouses and Furniture,\nSupply of Teachers, Baperboof Subcommittee on,\nTeachers,\n:\n2\n=\n=\nSchool Year,\n:\n=\n-\n\n:\n.\nZ\n\nOh ces.\n:\n:\n=\n2\n:\n2\n<\n:\n=\n\nE\n-\n\n442\n445\n440\n451\n452\n456\n456\n457\n\n:\n-\n\n=\n\n-\n\n-\n\n=\n\nz\n\nF\n\n=\n\n=\n\n458\n\nAssociations,\n2\nSummer Schools,\nInstitutes,\n=\n\n=\n\n-\n\nZ\n-\n\n:\n=\n\n-\n\n2\n:\n-\n\n2\n=\n-\n\n459\n459\n460\n\nReading Circles,\n\n2\n\n-\n\n=\n\n-\n\n-\n\n=\n\n=\n\n460\n\n2\n-\n\n=\n=\n-\n\n=\n\n5\n-\n\n461\n462\n469\n\n— -\n\n=\n\n-\n\n473\n\n-\n\n-\n\n=\n\nz\n\n480\n\n2\n\n-\n\n2\n\n-\n\n484\n\n-\n\n=\n2\n-\n\n-\n\n485\n498\n501\n\n-\n\nLibraries,\n=\nTeachers’ Training CF\nExamination and Cer tification of Teachers,\n\nInstruction and Discipline, Report of Subcommittee on,\n\n;\n3)\n;\ni\né\n\n-\n\n=\n:\n:\n\n655\n655\n\n:\n-\n\nSupervision,\n\nie\n\n-\n\n-\n\n:\nZ\n\nCourse of Study, The,\n\n-\n\nProgress of Study,\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n5\n\nRemedy for the Evils of Rural School Ss\nAppendix A.— Sociological Factors in Rural Education,\nAppendix B.— Permanent School Funds, .\n\nAppendix\nAppendix\nAppendix\nAppendix\n\nC.— The California System of Rural iain teases\n;\nD.— The County‘as a Unit of School Organization,\nE.— The Comparative Cost of Bowachip and District ES\nF.-—-Transportation of Pupils,\n-\n\n2\n\n505\n507\n508\n510\n\nAppendix\n\nG.— Enrichment of Rural School Courses\n\n-\n\n5\n\n-\n\n517\n\n{y\n\nAppendix\n\nH.-— The Farm\n\n=\n\n=\n\n=\n\n527\n\n:\n\nAppendix\n\nJI.— Lhe Country School Problem,\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n536\n\nAppendix\n\n=F—-Negro Teachers in Negro Schools,\n\n-\n\ncs\n\n-\n\n560\n\n>\n\n=\n\n-\n\n563\n\n-\n\n:\n\n=\n:\n\n564\n568\n573\n573\n\n?\n\nas the Center of Interest,\n\nAppendixK.— J. M. Bradbury,\n\n4\n4\n\nss\n\n-\n\n=\n\nAppendix\nAppendix\n\nL.— New York State School Tete\nM.— Hygiene and Health in Public Schools,\n\nAppendix\n\nN.— School Systems,\n\nPas\n\nks\n\n5\n\n=\n\n:\n\nRi\n\nOntario, :\nNew Brunswick,\n\n-\n\n=\n\n=\ni\n\n2\n=\n\n=\n-\n\n=\n\n5\nss\n\ny\n4\n\nManitoba,\nFrance, -\n\n2\n\n=\n\n=\n=\n\n=\n\n=\n5\n\n.\nS\n\n=\nP\n\n574\n575\n\n4\n\n. g\n\n;\n\nNorway, -\n\n-\n\né\n\n=\n\nAppendix O.— fe eccion hon in ara aa\n\n-\n\n>\n\n=\n\n=\n\n577\n\nAppendix P.— Institutes\n\n>\n\n=\n\nz\n\nS\n\n579\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n581\n\nin Pennsylvania,\n\nAppendix Q.— Thomas Arnold (1795-1842),\n\n-\n\nAppendix R.— Intellectual and Moral Education,\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n:\n\nAppendix S.— Continuous Sessions in Normal Schools\nCommittees of the Council of Education,\n=\n=\n\n2\n\n4\n\nCommittees\n\n.\n\n9~~\nba\nbi\nBit)\nbala\n\non Nominations\n\nand Resolutions,\n\nCongdon, C. H.— Discussion,\n\n-\n\nConstitution,\n\n-\n\n:\n>\n\nS\n\n:\n\n:\n\n575\n\n580\n582\n323\n\n-\n\n=\n\n-\n\n=\n\n:\n\n22\n\n2\n\n-\n\n5\n\ng\n\n‘\n\n(i\n\n:\n\n©\n\n;\n\n:\n\n:\n\n:\n\nConstitution. of the ‘Councl! ‘of Education,\n\nE\n\n317\n\nContinuous Sessions in Normal\n\n-\n\n=\n\n=\n\ni\n\nF\n\n582\n\nSchools,\n\n3\n\n:\n\n574\n\ne\n\n.\n\nS\n\ni\n\n"}
{"page": 1132, "printed_page": null, "text": "p22\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nPAGE\nCook, J. W.— Discussion,\nCooke, Cora J.— Discussion,\n\n-\n\nCooper, Frank L.— Discussion,\n\n-\n\n2\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\ncian 720, 721, 1028, 1032\nE\n620\n\nCornisH, R. H. -—-Laboratory Work in Bleweneary Physiography,\nei\nCorrelation of Educational Forces in the Bt\nST. Duttony\nCorson, O. T. — Educational Extremes,\n.\nCouncil of Education, — Country School Problem, The Appendix I Report on ‘Raval Schools,\n\n©\n:\n-\n\n=\n\n237\n\nCourse of Instruction tee Rural Schools,\n\n-\n\n546\n\nCriticisms, Wise and Otherwise, on Micdeten Child Study — John Dewey;\n\n-\n\n867\n\nDiscussion:\nB. A. Hinsdale, Crunden, F, M. — Discussion,\n\n7\n\nSs\n868\n- 299, 301\n\nData of Methods, James M. Green,\n\n-\n\n-\n\nDeaf, Blind, and Feeble-Minded, Application ide Department fon\n\n-\n\n=\n\n36\n\n-\n\n96\n\nDelsarte and His Contribution to ephysteal Education—Mrs. ree P: Tucker, DEMENT, Isaac S.— Shorthand,\nDemocracy of Learning, The — Uae ILyman Abbott,\n:\n-\n\n880\n801\n190\n\nDevelopment of Rhythm, The\nDiscussion :\n\nCox, Henry C. — Discussion,\nCoy, E. W. — Discussion,\n\n-\n\n-\n\n*\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n=\n\nDeaf, Education of the — Alexander Graham Bell,\n\nMrs. Gaston Boyd,\n\n-\n\n-\n\n=\n\n636\nE\n- 656, 660.\n\n:\n\n-\n\n—S. Lillian Byington,\n-\n\n-\n\nFs\n2\n\nE\n\n=\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n928\n238\n147\n317\n536\n\n67\n\n-\n\n-\n\n774\n\n-\n\n-\n\nrhe\n\nC. H. Congdon,\n\n-\n\n777\n\nDevelopment of the Will through Physical qaising? = Wm. O. Keon: -\n\n.\n\n873\n\nDEWEY, JOHN — The A‘sthetic Element in Education,\n\n-\n\n329\n\n>\n-\n\n867\n346\n585\n851\n\n-\n\n-\n\nCriticisms, Wise and Otherwise, on Modern Child eieiee\nDiscussion,\nKindergarten and Child Srady:\nDifferences of School Children\n— J. A. Haute,\nDiscussion:\nS. S. Parr,\n=\nDobson, President\n— Discussion, -\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n857\n\n-\n\n-\n\n718\n\nDouGHERTY, NEwTon C.—The Study mn History i\nin Oue Public Schools,\n\n-\n\n58\n\nDowning, A. S.— Discussion,\n\n=\n\n=\n\n698\n\nDrawing in Normal Schools— Harriet Cecil Netecer\nDrawing in the Public Schools\n— Lillie M. Godden,\nDutTTon, S. T.— Correlation of Educational Forces in the Community,\n\n.\n-\n\n758\n767\n238\n\nDiscussion,\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n=\n\nLeader High-School Reena Table, EASTMAN, W. R.— How to Make Sure of Good Books inOe\nDiscussion,\n— O. T. Com Educational Extremes\nEducational Outlook, The — William B. Powell, Education from a Pablisher Ss Standpoint—\n\nElection in General Education — Emerson E. White,\n\n:\n\n2\n\n- 943,944\n\n=\n\n-\n\n694\n1032\n1014\n147\n154\n\n=\n-\n\n=\n-\n\n=\n\n83\n\n=\n\n2\n\n:\n\n96\n942\n\n=\n\n-\n\n-\n\ni\n\n:\n\n£\n\n=\n\n:\n:\n-\n\n:\n.\n-\n\n384\n- 614-643\n637\n\nGilman He Duckers=\n\nEducation of the Deaf — Alexander Graham Bell,\nElder, E. Waite — Discussion,\n-\n\nDiscussion :\nD. L. Kiehle,\n\n=\n\nRbeariesd\n\n:\n\nA. T. Ormond, :\n:\nZ\nElementary Education, ‘Department of, Elementary Mathematics and Education — L. W. Colwell,\nDiscussion:\nW. H. Skinner, -\n\nee\n\n278\n\n384\n\ne\n\nZ\n\nElementary Methods ae) Courses of Work —W. oa Eieaissasri fe\n\n2\n\n2\n\n199\n\nEmerson, H. P.— Discussion, — Emery, J. O.—Address of Welcome,\nDiscussion, -\n\n-\n\nz\n\n“\n\n660\n39\n718\n\n-\n\n-\n\n:\n\n7907\n\n-\n\nEnglish in Business Schools — Mrs. Sara a Spencer,\n\n-\n\nEnglish Round Table— Harriet L. Keeler, Leader,\n:\nEnrichment of Rural School Courses — Appendix G, Report onRural Schotis,\n\n642\n\na\n\n684\nS17\n\n.\n\naa\n—\n\n"}
{"page": 1133, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX\n\nERRANT, J. W.— Reform in School Administration,\nEstablishment of Good Musical Standards — Miss ‘Anna Birekare’\nExpression of Lines,\nThe —D. R. Augsburg,\n.\nEye and Ear Training as Related to Sight Singing wc Fides ‘Allison a yman,\n\nFarm as a Center of Interest, The ae\n_\n\nFarrand, Wilson — Discussion,\n\nRents H, Report on Rural Schools,\n\n=\n\n:\n\nFoerste, August F.— Discussion, Ford, i H.— Discussion,\nFureign- Born Children in the Primary Gres Miss at ndduete\nFosHay, JAMES A.— Some Tendencies of Modern Education,\nFoster, Samuel M.— Discussion, Freer, H. H.— Discussion,\n.\n\nFrench, C. W.— Leader, History Round Tae 2\nFroebel’s Use of Child Study — Miss C. G. O” Grady,\nFruesdale, Prof.— Discussion, — GALBREATH, L. H.— Child Study in cis Work,\nDiscussion,\nGeneral Sessions, German System of Gymnastics, The —Carl Kroh,\nDiscussion :\nE. H. Arnold,\nGetz, H. L.—Hints on School Administration,\nPiccasson,\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n:\n\n-\n\n-\n\n2\n-\n\n:\n-\n\n=\n\nGIFFIN, WM. M.— What Z Teach and What to Weave Out,\nGILBERT, C. B.— The Kindergarten in the Public Schools,\nGODDEN, LILLIE M.— What Do the Heople Want in Pe in the Public\nSchools?\n- Good\n\nBooks\n\nGOODYEAR,\n\nin Our Wineries. Wow to Make Sure of —W: RG Bastian =\n\nSAMUEL\n\nAccounting,\n\nGOVE, eons\n\nH.— BRIE Calculation,\n\nHlementary Bacio\n\n3\n\nBusiness Practice, and igh\n5\n\nof Schoolyen)\n\nThe Proper Use of Schoolhouses, — Response to Address of Welcome,\nGray, Thos. J.— Discussion,\n:\n3\nGreek Composition in Preparatory Schools,\n\n:\n-\n\n=\n2\n-\n\n2\n\n:\n\n=\n:\n\nZ\n:\n\n3\n:\n\n-\n\n:\n\n=\n\nGREEN, E. B.— College-Entrance Requirements,\nPiaed\n\nGREEN, JAMES M.— Data of Methods,\n\n-\n\nThe Normal Method of Introducing Physiéal Training,\nGREENWOOD,\n\nJAMES M.— Introductory Address,\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n=\n\n2\n\nShall American History be Taught in Cross Becta or in Parallels ?\nGrowth in Maturing, Lines of — Richard G. Boone,\nHaILMANN, W. N.—Elementary Methods and Courses of Work,\n\nee\nmee\nMy\nos\n\nWaid\ntn\noe\n?\n\n4\nq\n\n-\n\n.\n-\n\n-\n\nDiscussion,\n-HALL, EDWIN H. — Physics as a Requirement ie Admission to College,\n\n-\n\nHALL, FRANK\n\n:\n\nJ.—Imagination in Arithmetic,\n\n-\n\n-\n\n=\n\nHALLECK, REUBEN Post, Laws of Cerebral Development and\n\nModification on\n\nChild Study,\nHalsey, R. H.— Discussion,\nHAMMOND, JASON E.—School Architecture,\nHANCOCK, J. A.— Differences of School Children,\n\n:\n:\n\n5\n-\n\nHarrington, H. S.— Discussion,\n=\n:\nHarris, W. T.— The #sthetic Brewientin Baveduon, Why Art and Literature Ought to be Studied in Our Schoo\n\n:\n=\n=\n\n=\n=\n\nClassification and Instruction in Rural Schools,\n\n-\n\nDiscussion,\n\n¢\n\n-\n\n=\n\n-\n\n=\n\n:\n:\n-\n\n:\n=\n\nHarvey, L. D.— Decision,\nHas the Heart of This People Changed foe. Its Schools pes Carroll G. Péarke:\nHead\n\nand the Hand, HED President’s Address, Industrial he oes tad\nClute,\n2\n=\n=\nR\n\nHealey, Mr.— Discussion,\n\n-\n\n=\n\n:\n\n=\n\n-\n\nOscar\nZ\n\nHENROTIN, Mrs. ELLEN M.— The Co- eperation of Woman’s Stubssin the Pablic\nSchools,\n=\n:\nZz\n=\nes\n=\n\nHigher Education, Department 6\n\n-\n\n=\n\n28\n\n=\n\n"}
{"page": 1134, "printed_page": null, "text": "1124\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nHigher Education in the South— George T, Winston,\nHigh School and the Community, The — W. J. Pringle, High School and the Home, The\n— C. C. Rounds,\n=\nHigh School\nHigh School\nHigh-School\nHigh-School\n\nas a Democratic Institution, The — Charles H. Thurber.\nas a Training Place for Citizenship, The—J. R. Bishop,Course as a, Business Preparation, The —Charles H. Thurber,\nExtension\n— James L. Hughes,\n=\n\nHigh-School Principals,\nHigh-School\n\n-\n\n>\n=\n\nRound\n\nA Voice in Selecting Aeseerne\n\nTable\n\nHINSDALE, B. A.— The\nSchools,\nDiscussion,\n-\n\n—S. T. Dutton, Leader,\n\nNeed of Enhanced\n-\n\nHints on School iAAcnttastvation — _ HH. 10S Gee\n\nHistory in High Schools, -\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n=\n5\n;\n\nPAGE\n183\n695\n695\n\n=\n=\n\n694\n696\n808\n698\n\n-\n\n660\n\n-\n\n694\n\nMaterial Support for the Rural\n:\n113\nS\n2\n2\n- 654, 868\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n963\n\n-\n\nHistory in Our Public Schools, The Study, oe\nRew of C.\n\".Dougherty, History in Secondary Schools —E. V. Robinson,\n-\n\n-\n\nHistory Round Table,\n:\nHo.tioway, J. L.— Response to Naarees of pieteeni,\nHoutcamp, Adrian — Discussion,\nHowarb, F. E.— The Child Voice,\n-\n\n2\n2\n:\n\n=\nE\n.\n\n2\n=\n-\n\n-\n\nHucGueEs, JaAMEs L.— Child Study in Eleieatery ‘Soueols!\nHigh- School Extension,\n-\n\n-\n\n.\n\n-\n\n670\n\n58\n679\n\n670\n46\n987, 1003\n784\n\n288\n698\n\nThe Twentieth-Century School,\n162\nHutchins, F. A.— Discussion,\n299, 1028\nHygiene and Health in Public Schoclees Append N, Report oneal Schools,\n568\nImagination in Arithmetic— Frank H. Hall,\n621\nINGLIs, S. M.— What Should State Superintendents Do at Sennen Tnceeaicsee 301\nInstitutes iin Pennsylvania,\n579\nIntellectual and Moral Education,\n581\nJames, Edmond J.— Discussion, 5\n213\nJones, E. A.— Discussion,\n1030\n\nJones, John B.— Discussion,\nJones, L. H.—\n\nThe\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n995\n\nProvince of the Supervisor, -\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\noper\n\nJONES, RICHARD\n— College Entrance in English,\nThe Moral and Literary Respeas\nof Librarians in Selecting Books\nfor a Public prey:\nDiscussion,\n-\n\n684\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n=\n\n:\n\n=\n\nKeeler, Harriet L.— Leader, ela Round Table;\nKiehle, D. L.— Discussion,\nKIMBERLIN, Miss N. D. Ee Pesical Tamas in\n4 Palle Scbwols:\nKindergarten and Child Study—John Dewey,\nKindergarten Education, Department of,\n=\n:\n2\nKindergarten in Public Schools, Ther-C. B. Gilbert,\n-\n\n-\n\n684\n- 345, 384\n898 E\n585\n- 584-612\n=\n603\n\nKindergarten Work and Principles in the School — Miss ESS\n\nBeebe,\n\n-\n\n604\n\n.\n\n2\n\n996\n951\n\nKALTENBACH, MiLticent—\n\n-\n\nRoom Libraries,\n\nKIRCHNER, A. H.—Schoolhouse Construction,\nKohlenberg, Prof.— Discussion,\n-\n\n-\n\n2\n\n-\n\n=\nx\n2\n\n1025\n345, 1029 .\n\n1021\n\n=\nKratz, H. E.— Fatigue and Sense Defects,\n:\n>\n280\nKROH, ‘CARL —The German System of Gymnastics,\n=\n833\nKROHN, Wm. O.— Development of the Will Through Physical Training,\n873\nLaboratory Work in Elementary Physiography\n— R. H. Cornish,\n3\n928\nLaine, Mary E.— Should Teachers Have Preparation in Theoretical od Practical Child Study ?\n:\n2\n296\nLandscape Study, Application of,\nz\n:\n- 518, 527\nLANE, ALBERT G.— Response to Address of Welcome, 49\nLatin ead Greek Round Table,\nLaws and Ethics of Business— H. M. Rowe\n\n-\n\n-\n\nLaws of Cerebral Development\n— Reuben Post Halleck,\nDiscussion :\nM. V. O’Shea,\n=\n:\n:\n:\nLeGarde, Ellen— Discussion, — =\n“\n:\nLeiter, Mrs. Frances W.— Discussion,\nLEONARD, FRED. E.— Physical Training in Colleges,\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n660\n818\n\n-\n\n:\n\n-\n\n833\n\n:\n:\n=\n-\n\n.\n:\n:\n-\n\n‘\n\n841\n904\n897\n909\n\n:\n=\n\ni\n\nO\n—\n\nee\n—_—\ne\na\n\n"}
{"page": 1135, "printed_page": null, "text": "PSN\n\nINDEX\n\nUGVAIS\nPAGE\n\nLewis, Miss — Discussion,\n\n>\n\nF\n\n:\n\n-\n\n£\n\n:\n\n2\n\n664\n\nPractical Results Obtained through the Study of Children’s Interests,\n\n-\n\n284\n\n8\n\nLibrary Department,\n1005-1043\nLibrary Round Table, — “\n:\n2\n5\n2\n299\nLindeman, A. J.— Discussion,\n- 983, 995\nLUCKEY, G: W. A.— Practical Lines of Child Study for the Avera Teacher\n~ 826\nLYMAN, FREDERIC ALLISON— Eye and Ear raining as Related to sight Sing-\n\ning,\n\n-\n\n:\n\n.\n\n:\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n:\n\n:\n\n=\n\n:\n\n- 718, ras\n\nS.— Discussion,\n\n-\n\n:\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n758\n\n:\n5\n2\nfe\n\n2\n:\n3\n\n664\n139\n268\n315\n\n:\n:\n\n755\n719\n\nMcLaughlin, A. C.—Discussion, McMorry, F. M.— Relation of the Practice School to the Neral\nMental Results from Manual Training —Edward O. Sisson,\nDiscussion:\nA. H. Chamberlain,\nMERRILL, MIss JENNIE B. — Methods of Child Study iin the en Cn\n\n:\n:\n.\n\ng\n.\n\n653\n713\n742\n\n2\n-\n\n747\n598\n\nDiscussion,\n2\nMerrill, Mr.— Discussion,\n\n¢\n\n2\n-\n\n2\n-\n\n865\n943\n\nB. Merrill,\n-\n\n:\n\n.\n\n598\n935\n\n:\n\n=\n\n-\n\n299\n\nLyte, E. O.— Discussion,\nMack, Wm.\n\nMacer, HARRIET Ceci\n\n:\n\n-\n\n=\n\n=\n\n:\n\n— Drawing iin Normal Sthocls\n\nManchester, Prof.— Discussion,\n:\nMarch of the Ideal, The — Clinton Scollard (Poem),\nMAXWELL, WM. i Art eee in Schools, Discussion,\n-\n\n2\n:\n-\n\n=\noe\n.\nZ\n\nMaycock, MARK M.— Opening Addiees. Art Department,\nMcConathey, W. J.—Discussion,\n“\n=\n\n=\n\n=\n\n:\n:\n\nZ\n\nMethods of Child Study in the Icinderearten — Mics oe\nMicroscope in the Public prnoels, The\n— W. H. Skinner,\n. Miller, J. H.— Discussion,\n\n2\n\n2\n\nMilner, Miss A. V.— Discussion,\nMinutes of Milwaukee Meeting, Modern Education, Some Tendencies of — James A. oe hay,\nae\nMorris, R. ANNA — Appreciation and Development of the Individual,\nMott, T. A.— Discussion,\nMusic Education, Department of,\nNational Council of Education,\n.\n-\n\nNational Society for Child Study, N= (Ce C Van 7 iew,\nNatural Science Instruction, Department of,\n\n-\n\n:\n\n-\n\nH. Tear.\n\n-\n\n~-\n\n869\n\n- 916-934\n\nNeumann, Theodore\n— Discussion,\nThe —John\n\n1014, 1032\n2\nPtSi\n159\n871\n657\n= 772=701\nDiy)\n\n-\n\nNegro Teachers in Negro Schools — pppendix J,Report on Raval Sebools,\nNew Arithmetic,\n\n987\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n560\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n044\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\ny 630\n\nDiscussion:\nHenry C. Cox,\n\nNew York State fiprary\n\n-\n\nAppendix L, Report on\no Rural Schools\n\nNICHOLSON, MAry T.— The Asthetic Element iin Education,\nDiscussion,\n=\n=\n=\n\n-\n\n=\n\n-\n\n==\n\n2\n\n636\n\n5\n\n=\n\n330\n346\n\nNIGHTINGALE, A. F.— Golleve:-Entrance Requirements, Peon & Committee on,\n\nCollege-Entrance Requirements,\nDiscussion,\n-\n\n.\n-\n\n:\n2\n\nNormal Department,\n\n=\n=\n\ni\n¢\n\n=\n\nNormal Method of iasoducine Physical Tamia\nDiscussion,\n\nMrs. Frances W. Leiter,\n\n-\n\nNormal Schools, Continuous Sessions in, -\n\n-\n\n2\n\n-\n\n-\n\nb\n\nObservations on Children’s Rete Reval W. “Biillock,\nOfficers and Members of the Council of Education,\n\n:\n-\n\n-\n\n3\n\n-\n\n;\n\nwa\n\n709\n\n895\n\n-\n\n710\n\n897\n\n-\n\n-\n\n=\n\ni\n\n:\n-\n\n>\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n:\n=\n=\nOfficers of N. E. A. for 1897-98, :\nO’Grady,\nMiss C. G.,\n5\n:\n5\n4\n:\nOise Wades, Elementary Department —Miss Sarah C. Brooks, — — Mark M. Maycock,\nOpening Address of President of Art Department\nzi\n—J. H. Van Sickle, Opening Remarks of Library Department\n\n647\n\n309\n659\n\n2\n\n-\n\nNoyes, W. A.— Discussion,\n\n-\n\n=\n:\n\n— J. M. Green, =\nThe\n\nNormal-School Committee, Report of — Z. X. Snyder, Chainmen,\n\nOfficers of N. E. A. for 1896-97, -\n\n=\n=\n\n564\n\n582\n\n951\n\nO15\n321\n8-11\n\nsa\nse\n=\n\n615\nHiss\n1006\n\n"}
{"page": 1136, "printed_page": null, "text": "1126\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\nPAGE\n\nORMOND,\n\nA. T.— University\n\nDiscussion,\n\nIdeals at Reacetony)\n\n-\n\n:\n\n-\n\nO’Shea, M. V.— Discussion,\n\n-\n\n-\n\n=\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n384\n\n=\n\n5\n\n841\n\n-\n\n793\n\n=\n\n917\n\n-\n\n951\n\n-\n\nPALMER, A. N.— President’s Address, Departuent of Baatiede Bddestion\n\nPALMER, CHARLES RULE\ndential Address,\n-\n\nak eb Pt atory Natural-Science\n-\n\nPalmer, Prof.— Discussion.\n\n=\n\n-\n\n2\n\n:\n\n:\n\nCurriculum,\n=\n=\n\n=\n\n-\n\n346\n\nPresi-\n\n-\n\nPapers and Discussions:\n\nGeneral Sessions,\n\n-\n\n:\n\n:\n\n:\n\n.\n\n38\n\nDepartment of Superintendence,\nNational Council,\n-\n\n—-\n\n:\n.\n\n.\n\n*-\n\n-\n\n:\n-\n\n199\n329\n\nDepartment of Kindergarten Education,\nDepartment of Elementary Education,\nDepartment of Secondary Education,\nDepartment of Higher Education,\nNormal Department,\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n.\n-\n\n584\n615\n647\n701\n710\n\n-\n\n:\n\n-\n\n-\n\n737\n755\n774\n\n-\n\n.\n\n-\n\n-\n\n793\n\n-\n\n:\n\n-\n\n-\n\n826\n871\n\n=\n\n=\n\n:\n=\n\n>\n2\n\nO17\n960\n1006\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n859\n\nDepartment of Manual and Industrial Education,\nDepartment of Art Education,\nDepartment of Music Education,\n-\n\nDepartment of Business Education,\n\n-\n\n-\n\nDepartment of Child Study, Department of Physical Education,\n\n=\n-\n\n-\n\n.\n\nDepartment of Natural Science Instruction, Department of School Administration,\nLibrary Department,\nParents as Child Students ee\n\nCodaing Bowland,\n\nDiscussion :\nJennie B. Merrill,\n\nPARKER,\n\nW.\n\nD.—Some\n\nTraining,\n\n-\n\nParr, S. S.— Discussion,\n\n-\n\n-\n\nPossible\n\n-\n\n-\n\nRelations\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\nof Normal\n\n=\n\n2\n\n-\n\nSchools\n\n-\n\n2\n\nto\n\n=\n\nManual\n\n-\n\n-\n\n865\n\n:\n\n749\n\n=\n\n857\n\nPAYNE, Miss BERTHA — Has Child Study Any Help for the Kindergarten fos\nPEARSE, CARROLL G.— Has the Heart of This People Chanece towards Its\nSchools ae\nPease, F. D.— Tixcusrees\n\n=\n=\n\nE\n\n2\n\n=\n\nZ\n\ne\nZ\n\nPermanent School Funds — Appendix B, Report on Racal Schools:\nPhysical Education, Department of,\nPhysical Geography in Secondary Schools — iver Peay Brigham,\nPhysical Training in Colleges — Fred. F. Leonard,\nPhysical Training in Public Schools, Symposium on — Miss N. D. Kinbedn)\nDiscussion:\nMiss Rebecca Stoneroad,\nMiss Jessie H. Bancroft,\n\nHenry Suder,\nEllen LeGarde,\n\n-\n\n-\n\n:\n\ne\n:\n\né\n:\n\n900\ngoI\n\n:\n\n903\n904\n906\n\n:\n\n2\n-\n\n=\n-\n\n:\n-\n\nE\n=\n2\n\n2\n\n“\nz\n3\n\n=\n\n=\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n=\n\n=\n\no\n\n907\n\nH. Hall, -\n\nE\n\n937\n\nDiscussion :\nFernando Sanford,\nE. Waite Elder,\nHarvey,\n\n2\n\nE\n\n:\n\nWwe\n\n— Edwin\n\n:\n\n:\n\ns\n\n2\nE\n\n942\n942\n\n=\n\n=\n\n942\n\n5\nB\n2\n2\n\nA\n942\n:\n943\n- 943,944\n:\n9043\n5\n943\n\n=\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\nE. R. Boyer,\nCharles R. Barnes,\nS20. Outtony. | =\nMr. Merrill,\n©: 'G, Glarke,\n=\n\n:\n\n:\n:\n-\n\nz\n:\n:\n=\n\nZ\n<\n£\n=\n\n2\nZ\nE\n=\n3\n\né\n2\n\nC. N. Cobb,\n=\n:\n*\n:\nHerbert C. Wood,\n=\n2\n2\n:\nTheodore Neumann,\n2\nPIERCE, EDWARD T.— Recognition of Dipione: of State Normal\n\nOther than the State in Wbieh They vere Issued,\n\nDiscussion,\n\n-\n\n501\n- 870-915\n923\n909\n898\n\n-\n\nPhysics as a Requirement for Admission to College\n\nTah):\n\n143\n987\n\n-\n\nMiss Clara Baer,\nGeo. Wittrich,\n\n586\n\n4\n\n.\n3\n\n:\n:\n\nes\n2\n2\n\n943\n943\n944\n\nSthocis in\n715\n2\n- 718, 735\n\n"}
{"page": 1137, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX\n\nPlant Life, The Study of, -\n\n-\n\nPOWELL, WinuiAM B.— The Baucationall Outlook,\n\n-\n\nPractical Lines of Child Study for the Average Teacher, G. W. te L ndkey,\n\nDiscussion :\nA. K. Whitcomb,\n:\n=\n:\n=\n.\nPreparatory Greek — Attic Prose or Homer?\nPreparatory Natural-Science Curriculum, Presidential Address ae Chote Skeele\nPalmer,\n.\nZ\n\nPresent Methods of English and Ceres\n\n— G. B. ton\n\nPresidential Address, The Best Education for the Masees\n\n-\n\nCharles R. arheenuce\n\nPrettyman, E. B. — Discussion, :\nPrincipals’ Round Table,\nE\nPRINGLE, W. J.— The High School in Relation to\n& the Community,\n\n:\n\n:\nzZ\n\nDiscassion,\n=\n=\nz\nProvince of the Supervisor, The\n— L. H. Jones,\n\n3\n=\n\n:\n\n-\n\n-\n\n=\n-\n\n=\n\nPsychology of Puberty and Adolescence, The— Colin AL Scott,\nDiscussion:\nA. H. Yoder,\n\n-\n\nE\n\n:\n\n-\n\n-\n\nPurdy, Henry S.— Discussion,\n\n:\n\nF\n\nE\n\n:\n\n-\n\n.\n\nQUAKLES, CHARLES —Address of Welcome, School Administration,\nQuincy, Mass., Extract from School Bore\nRankin, A. W.—Discussion,\né\nRapid Calculation, Business Practice, a Higher Accounting — Sarane H.\nGoodyear,\n\n-\n\n=\n\n-\n\n.\n\nRAUSCHENBERGER, W. Gndayess of Welcome:\n:\nRecognition of Normal-School Diplomas by Other States — Baward le Wierce\nDiscussion:\nA. R. Taylor,\n:\ne\nJe Re\n\nHY Ger,\n\n==\n\nJ. Q. Emery,\n\nB. ©. Lyte;\n\n:\n\n:\n\n:\n\nZ\n\n-\n\n2\n\n=\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n:\n\n=\n\n:\n\n-\n\n-\n\n:\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\nEdward T. Pierce,\nPresident Dobson,\nE. A. Sheldon, -\n\n:\n:\n\n2\n\n2\n2\n\n3\n\n>\n:\n\n-\n\nR. G. Boone,\nJohn W. Cook,\n\n-\n\n:\n-\n\n3\n=\n\n=\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n=\n-\n\n2\n:\n\nE. A. Strong,\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\nELIS Seemliam =\nJ. A. Thompson,\nA. Salisbury, — -\n\n-\n\n.\n=\n\n:\n-\n\n-\n\n2\n-\n\n=\n:\n\n=\nS\n\nA.R. Taylor,\n\n-\n\nThos. J. Gray,\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n5\n\n:\n\nZ\n\n:\n\n:\n\n2\n\n:\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n3\n\nz\n:\n\n>\n=\n\na\n\n=\n>\n\n3\n\nW. J. McConathey,\nE. B. Prettyman,\nC. C. Rounds,\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n=\n\n:\n\n=\n\nL. D. Harvey.\nJ. W. Cook,\n\n-\n\n-\n\n>\n\n=\n=\n\n:\n=\n\n=\n=\n\ni\n\n=\n\nREEL, Miss ESTELLE —What Not to Do,\n—J. W. Errant,\nReform in School Administration\nDiscussion:\n\n.\n-\n\n-\n\nE\n=\n\n-\n\nMrs. Benjamin F. Taylor,\n\n-\n\n5\n\nSamuel W. Foster,\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\nE\n\n:\n\nH. 8. Harrington,\nMrs. I. S. Blackweather,\n\n;\n\n3\n:\n\n;\n;\n\n:\n\n?\n\n;\n\nH. L\n\n2\n\n:\n\n7\n\nc\n\nF\n\n‘.\n\n-\n\n.\n:\n\nRelation of the Library to Art Education, The — Wi aks erly\nRelation of the School Board to the People— Mrs. Alice Bradford Wiles\nDiscussion:\n\nGetz,\n\n-\n\ni\n\nA. J.Lindemann,\nRelations bf Rommel Schools to Riamncel Training —W. D. Parker,\nDiscussion:\neel secenley, —\n=\n=\ni\ni\nReport of Board\n\nof Trustees,\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n2\n\n=\n\n982, 983\n983\n983\n983\n983\n749\n\n752\n18-20\n\n"}
{"page": 1138, "printed_page": null, "text": "1128\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nPAGE\n\nReport of Committee— N. C. Schaeffer, Discussion :\n\n-\n\n=\n\n*\n\n:\n\n-\n\n209\n\n:\n2\n\n214\n215\n\nEdward R. Shaw,\n@, ECarroll,\n=\n\n-\n\n-\n\nss\n3\n\n5\n=\n\n=\n\n>\n\nEE.\n\n-\n\n-\n\n2\n\n;\n\n:\n\n2\n\nWm. T. Harris, z\n=\nWm. N. Hailmann,\nReport of Committee of Twelve on Revd Schools,\n\n=\n-\n\n=\n=\n\n:\n:\n.\n\n2\n-\n\n216\n216\n385\n\nReport of Committee on Resolutions, General Sessions,\nReport of Nominating Committee, General Sessions,\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n:\n\n28\n25\n710\n:\n\n-\n\n44\n44\n46\n47\n49\n\nB27)\n1025\n\nWhite,\n\nReport of Normal-School Committee, Z. X. Snyder, Chairman,\nResponses to Addresses of Welcome:\nCharles R. Skinner,\nA. E. Winship,\nJ. L. Holloway,\nAaron Gove, Albert G. Lane,\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\nReport of the National fee\n\n-\n\nF, A. Hutchins,\n\n-\n\n>\n-\n\n-\n\n:\n\non School Hygiene to the Council ofEduca-\n\ntion —Wm. L. Bryan, Chairman, Responsibility of Librarians — Richard Jones,\n\nDiscussion :\nJohn W. Cook,\n\n-\n\n-\n\n215\n\n-\n\n-\n\n=\n\n-\n\n-\n\n~\n\n.\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n=\n-\n\n:\n\n1028, 1032\n=\n1028\n\nLouis H. Galbreath,\n\n—-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\nO. F. Barbour,\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n1029\n\nRichard Jones,\nA.W. Rankin,\nMr. Yust,\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n5\n\n-\n\n-\n\n:\n\n-\n\n1029\n1029\n1030\n\n-\n\n:\nz\n\n=\n=\n\n=\n-\n\n:\n5\n=\n\n=\n:\n=\n\n:\n=\nE\n\n1030\n1030\n1031\n1032\n661\n\n-\n\n=\n\n679\n\nE\n\n3\n\n1021\n\n=\n\n-\n\n695\n720, 1030\n\n=\n=\n\n=\n-\n\n278\n279\n280\n\n-\n\n284\n288\n\nE. A. Jones,\nC.C. Rounds,\nChas. R. Vandervoort,\nMiss A. V. Milner,\nRichardson, F. B.—Discussion,\n\nSe\n\n-\n\n-\n\nROBINSON, E. V.—An Ideal Course in History in Secondary Schools\n\n1028\n\nROGERS, HENRY WADE\n— State Supervision in SAAS Confers Institutions,\nRoom\n\nLibraries— Millicent Kaltenbach, -\n\nRounps, C. C.— Relation o the High School to ie one The,\nDiscussion,\n:\nRound Tables :\nDepartment of seca\naol :\nChild Study,\nHygiene and Motor Development aval eaeL. aa\nFatigue and Sense Defects — H. E. Kratz,\n-\n\n701\n\nChildren’s Interests, Practical Results Obtained from ue evady of —G.\n\nW. A. Luckey,\nChild Study in Elementary Cee\n“Still Hunt, The ”’—Sarah C. Brooks,\n\nlanes 2. Hughes,\n\niy\n\n291\n\n.\n\n292\n\nChild Study with the Co-operation of the Parents —C. (Gs Ve) Liew, Theoretical and Practical Child Study— Mary E. Laing,\nNational Teachers’ Certificates —Ossian H. Lang,\n:\n=\n\n294\n296\n207\n\nLibraries,\n\n299\n\nChild Study iin Class\n\nDiscussion :\nF. M. Crunden,\nF. A. Hutchins,\nF.M.\n\nWork\n\n-\n\n2\n\n—L. H. Galbreatks\n\n2\n\nE\n\n:\n\n=\n\n:\n\ni\n\n— -\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n=\n\n:\nz\n\nWoods,\n\n- 289, 301\n2\n299\n\n=\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n=\n\n=\n\n299\n\ndle H. Miller,\n\n=\n\n=\n\n<\n\nca\n\n=\n\n-\n\n-\n\n299\n\nA. E. Winship,\n\nZ\n\n=\n\n-\n\n:\n\n2\n\n-\n\n:\n\n299\n\nMary E. Ahern,\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\nE\n\n=\n\n=\n\n2\n\n300\n\nJ. Carter,\nAugust F. Foerste, -\n\n=\n-\n\n:\n-\n\n2\n-\n\n3\n:\n\nZ\nZ\n\nS\nz\n\n301\n301\n\nM. Inglis,\n\n-\n\n301\n\nState Superintendents :\nState Superintendents at Summer\n\nInstitutes—S.\n\n"}
{"page": 1139, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX\n\n1129\nPAGE\n\nSchool Architecture —Jason E. Hammond,\nCollege-Entrance Requirements\n— A. F, Nightingale,\nDiscussion :\nJ. G. Shurman,\nEdmond\n\n-\n\n306\n309\n\n312\n\nJ. James,\n\n313\n\nJohn T. Buchanan,\nJoseph H. Swain,\nW. H. Maxwell,\nChas. E. Shelton,\nJames E. Russell,\n\n-\n\n:\n=\n\n=\nF\n~\n\nZ\n5\nz\n\n315\n315,\n315\n315\n215\n\nEd. Boyle,\n\nE\n\n=\n\n=\n\n2\n\n-\n\n:\na\n\n316\n\nPrincipals’:\n1. Students Fitted for College at Sixteen or Seventeen Years of Age, 2. Algebra and Geometry in Highest Grammar Grades,\n3. High-School Principals a Voice in Selecting Assistants,\nLatin and Greek :\n1. College-Entrance Requirements Pitched too High, -\n\nee\n\n660.\n661\n664\n\n-\n\n670:\n\n-\n\n. History in High Schools,\n\n=\n\nW. French, Leader:\n\n-\n\nSs\n\n-\n\n-\n\n670\n\nand Schools in Central West — E.\n,\n\n¥\n\n677\n\n-\n\n-\n\n679\n\nPresent Methods of English and Composition\n—G. B. Aiton, College-Entrance Requirements — Richard Jones,\nHigh School —S. T. Dutton, Leader:\n1. High School as a Democratic Institution —C. H. Thurber, 2. High School and the Home —C. C. Rounds,\n3. High School and the Community—W. J. Pringle, 4. High School asa Training Place for Citizenship\n— J. Remon Bishop,\n5. High-School Extension\n— James L. Hughes,\n\n684\n684.\n694\n695\n695\n696\n698\n\nRowe, H. M.— Laws and Ethics of Business, Duties of Cilzensiany and. Science\nof Wealth, -\n\n818\n\nRural Schools, Classification and Ieracton in\n— Wm.\nRural Schools, Course of Instruction for,\n-\n\n-\n\n121\n546\n\n-\n\n577\n385,\n\nci\n\nB. Green,\n\nSF\"\n*\n\n-\n\n-\n\n3. History in Secondary Schools iD v. Ponies\nEnglish — Harriet L. Keeler, Leader :\n\nIe\nee\nRae\nLe\n\n-\n\n4. Preparatory Greek\n— Attic Greek or Homer ??\n\n2. College-Entrance\n\nrot,\n\n-\n\n2. Twofold Translation as a Test of Power and Proficiency,\n3. Greek Composition in Preparatory Schools, -\n\na\n\n655\n657\n660.\n\n=\n\nT. Harris,\n-\n\n-\n\nRural Schools, Extension of Work in,\nRural Schools, Report of the Committee of Twelve on, Rural Schools, The Need of Enhanced Material ‘Support for i\n\n3\n\ndale,\nRussell, James E.— Discucsiow:\n\n=\n\n5\n\nB. A. Hins=\n=\n\n3\n\n113\nSirs\n\nSABIN, ‘Henry —The Rind of Superson Most Needed:\nDiscussion,\n7\n.\nSalisbury, Albert BeWiecdesion. =\n=\nSanford, Fernando — Discussion,\n2\n5\n\nZ\n;\n5\n\ns\ncs\n‘\n\nSawyer, Principal\n— Discussion, Scarrett, Mrs. Helen\n— Discussion,\n\n‘\n\n%\ne\n\n:\n=\n\n664\n655\n\n345\n\n=\n\n2\n\n=\n\n127\n3\n345\n719, 733,735\n=\n954\n\nScHAEFFER, N. C.— Report Concerning ee and Management of Schools, Report of Committee,\n>\n:\nz\n5\n\nDiscussion,\n\n-\n\n=\n\nSCHOFIELD, EDWARD — Address of Welcome,\n\n-\n\n-\n\n7\n\nz\n\n;\n\nSchool Administration, Department of — Jason E. Hammond,\nSchool Architecture\n— A. H. Kirchner,\n- Schoolhouse Construction\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n959-1004\n306\n996\n-\n\nDiscussion:\nAdrian Houtcamp,\nSchoolhouses, The Proper Use of — Aaron Gove,\n- Discussion:\n\n-\n\né\n=\n\n:\n=\n\nji\n3\n\n;\n\n3\n\naaa\nihe\n\n2\n\n:\n\nFEE\n209\n\n=\n\nR. H. Halsey,\n\n-\n\n-\n\n=\n\n-\n\n:\n\n:\n\n=\n\nJ. A. Shawan,\n\n-\n\n=\n\n5\n\n3\n\n5\n\n:\n\nE. B. Prettyman,\n\n=\n\n_\n\n5\n\nx\n\ni\n\n39\n\noO\n253\n,\n\n57\n\na\n\n"}
{"page": 1140, "printed_page": null, "text": "1130\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nSchool Hygiene, Elementary Principles of — Aaron Gove,\n0 Rural\nSchool Organization, The Coaaty as a Unit Be lala as D, Report on\nSchools,\n5\non Rural: Schools\nSchool Systems — Nyegibs N, Report ol\nSCHREIBER, MAE E,— The Training of Teachers so that TheySei Co--oper=\n=\nate with Librarians,\nDiscussion,\n=\ns\n2\n\nSCOLLARD, CLINTON — The March of the Ideal (Poem),\nSCOTT, Coin A.— The Psychology of Puberty and Adolescenée,\nSears, R. E. — The True Function of the Public eer\nSecondary Education, Department of,\n—:\nSecretary’s Minutes :\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n—-\n\n:\n=\n:\n\n:\n=\n-\n\nDepartment of Manual and Industrial Education,\n\n-\n\n:\n\nDepartment of Art Education,\n\n-\n\n-\n\n=\n\n:\n\nDepartment of Music Education,\nDepartment of Business Education,\nDepartment of Child Study, -\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\nDepartment of Physical Education,\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\nGeneral Sessions,\n\n+\n\n-\n\n=\n\nDepartment of Superintendence,\nNational Council,\n\nDepartment\nDepartment\nDepartment\nDepartment\nDepartment\n\n-\n\n-\n\n= E\n\n-\n\nof Kindergarten Education,\nof Elementary Education,\nof Secondary Education,\nof Higher Education,\nof Normal Schools,\n\n-\n\n=\n2\n=\n2\n<\n:\n\n3\n-\n\n772\n792\n\n-\n\nDepartment of Natural Science Instruction, -.\n=\nDepartment of School Administration,\nLibrary Department,\nSEERLEY, H. H.— Variations that Exist in the United States Because of Geo\n:\n:\nlogical Locations, -\n\nDiscussion,\n\nSelection of School Bosrde = 5) H. Watlins,\nDiscussion:\n\n-\n\ns\n\n2\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\nJ. E. Brandigee, -\n\n-\n\n-\n\n2\n\n-\n\n-\n\nMrs. Alice Bradford Wiles,\n\n-\n\n-\n\n:\n\n:\n\n-\n\nH.-. Getz,\n\n-\n\nJohn B. Jones,\n\n-\n\nA. J. Lindemann,\nShaw, Edward\n\nR.— Discussion,\n\nShawan, J. A. — Discussion,\nSheats, W. N. — Discussion,\nSheldon, E. A.— Discussion,\nShelton,\n\n-\n\n988\n\n=\n\n:\n\n:\n\n“\n\né\n\n:\n\n2\n\n:\n\n=\n\n4\n\nZ\n\n-\n\nE\n\n2\n\n-\n\n=\n\n2\n\nF\n\n-\n\n-\n\n:\n\n2\n\n.\n\n-\n\n:\n=\n-\n\n:\n=\n\n:\nE\n3\n\n:\n:\n\n=\n\n-\n\n=\n\na\n\n3\n\nE\n\n:\n\n:\n\n:\n\n:\n\n-\n\n=\n\n.\n\na\n\n-\n\n:\n:\n\n-\n\n2\n\n2\n\n6\n\n-\n\n-\n\n2\n\n— Isaac S. Dement,\nShorthand\n\n-\n\nShurman, J. G.\n\n=\n\nSIEFERT, H. O. R. — Address of Welcome,\n=\n=\nSiegler, P. N. — Discussion,\nSisson, EDWARD O.— Mental Results from Manual Crainine,\nSKINNER, CHARLES R.— Farewell Remarks, — =\nResponse to Address of Welcome,\nPresidential Address,\nSKINNER, W. H.—\n\n711\n- 718, 752\n\n.\n\nCharles E.— Discussion,\n— Discussion,\n\n959\n1005\n\nThe Microscope in pe Public Schools:\n\ni\n\n=\n\n993\n995\n995\n995\n995\n214\n260\n988\n\n: 718, 734\n315\ne\n801\na\n312\n43\n\nE\n\n987\n\n-\n\n=\n=\n\n742\n29\n44\n51\n935\n\nDiscussion, =\n642\nSMILEY, W. H. >The Relaion of the Library o Art Baudation in the School: 1038\nDiscussion, 346, 657, 661\nSMITH, _Auzxanpan— The Value of Chemistry as Part of a School or College\nourse\n945\n\nSmith, G. M.— Discussion,\na\n2\n$\n3\n660, 670\nSmith, Prof. — Discussion,\n664\nSNYDER, Z. X.— What Effect Hare Nérmat Schools Had on Public Wducation? 2\n718\nDiscussion,\n2\n5\n=\n3\n=\n=\n5\n717,714\n\n"}
{"page": 1141, "printed_page": null, "text": "1131\n\nINDEX\nSSS\n\nSees ; Factors\n\nchools,_—\n\nin\n\nRural\n\n-\n\nPAGE\n\nEducation\n— Appendix\n\n:\n\n:\n\n=\n\n=\n\n:\n\nA,\n\nReport\n\non\n\n:\n2\nt\n\n2\n\nz\n\nSoldan, F. Louis —- Discussion,\n:\nSPENCER, Mrs. SARA A.— English in Business Senos,\nState Superintendents and Summer Institutes —S. M. Inglis,\nState Superintendents’ Round Table,\nes\nE\n\nRural\n\nr\n\n- 237 ae\n.\n: 707\n301\n:\n301\n\n-\n\nState Supervision and Degree- Conferring Institutions — Henry Wade Rogers, -\n\nDiscussion :\nJames H. Baker,\n=\nState University, The —James H. peakcr\nStephens, H. Morse — Discussion,\n2\n“Still Hunt, The’—Sarah C. Brooks,\n-\n\n:\n\n2\n\n.\n\n<\n\n:\n\n708\n\n:\n\n:\n\n:\n\nA\n\n¢\n\n357\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n=\n\n- 654, 676\n\n:\nStrong, E. A.— Discussion,\n2\nStudents Fitted for College at Baca. or Ses\nStoneroad, Rebecca\n— Discussion,\n\n:\n=\nZ\nYears of Age,\n\n:\n\nSubcommittee Reports:\n\n.\n5\n\n701\n\n2\n-\n\n2\n=\n\n:\n-\n\n291\n900\n\n718\n655\n\nZ\n\nConcerning the Control and Management of Schools —N. C, Schaeffer,\nVariations in Normal Schools because of Googyaphical Location\n— H. H.\n.\n:\n:\nSeerley,\n\n711\n\n‘\n\nRelation of the Practice School to the Norval\n\nE\n-\n\nKindergarten Work\nBrown,\n\n4\n\naS\n<\nA\n£\n.\n\n-\n\n-\n\n=\n\n713\n\n“\n\nMarion\naf\n\n714\n\nEffect of Nonual Schools upon Public Biacation — Z. X. Snyder, -\n\n=\n\n714\n\nz\nrae\n:\n\nF\n:\n\n233\n235\n\n=\n\n236\n\n237\n237\n238\n127\n\nin Relation\n\nto the\n\nFr M. Movin)\n\nTie\n\nNormal\n\nSchool——Miss\n\nSuder, Henry — Discussion,\n2\nE\nSuper, C. W.— Discussion,\n:\nSuperintendence, Department ee\nees, S Minutes,\nSuperintendents’ Round Table,\nE\nSupervision as Viewed by the Supervised — earah L. Brooks,\n\nDiscussion:\n\n43\n\n“4\nra\n3\n\n-\n\n:\n\n=\n\n2\n;\n\nz\n2\n\n:\n-\n\n:\n2\n\n>\n2\n\n=\n2\n\n=\nGoh. Carroll,\n5\nJ. W. Carr,\nSarah L. Arnold,\n\n4\ns\n\nFrank L. Cooper,\nF. Louis Soldan,\nA. E. Winship, -\n\nss\n2\n2\n\n:\n-\n\n2\n\n-\n\nZ\n:\n\n2\n:\n\n2\n903\n661, 664, 670\n195\nZ\n278\nP\n225\n\n:\n\ny\n\n:\n£\nz\n\ne\n2\nZ\n\ns\n:\n\n3\n:\nf\n\n-\n\n2\n\n=\n\n-\n\nSupervision Most Needed, The Kind of =e\n\na\n2\n=\nf\n\nSupport for the Rural Schools, The Need of Enhanced Material —B. A. Hinsdale,\n113\n315\n:\nE\n:\n2\nSwain, Joseph H.— Discussion,\n= 7E7O7 10\nZ\nP\n=\nTaylor, A. R.— Discussion,\nTaylor, Mrs. Benjamin F.— Discussion, =\n971\nTeachers’ Seminary at Plymouth,\n563\n\nTEAR, JoHN H.— The New Arithmetic,\nThomas Arnold (1795-1842), ~ -\n\nSabin,\n\n-\n\n630\n\nThomas, Mrs. Emma A.— Discussion, — =\n:\n.\n=\nThompson, J. T.— Discussion, — =\n:\nTHURBER, CHARLES H.—~Is the sighs School Course a Satisfactory Preparation\nfor Business ?\n=\n>\nThe High School as a Democratic ast tata\n-\n\n789\n719\n\nDiscussion,\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n:\n\n-\n\nTom and His Teachers — Bishop fons H. Vincent\n\nTownship\n\nand\n\nDistrict\n\nComparaiive\n\nThe\n\nSystems,\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\nTreasurer’s Report,\nTrue Function of the Public School, The — R. E. eee\nDiscussion:\n>\n\nZ\n\n2\n\n808\n694\n657\n\n113\n657\n\n-\n\n-\n\n=\n=\n5\n5\nW. R. Eastman, =\n=\nzi\n:\nMae E. Schreiber,\nA.V. Milner,\n« Rural Schools,\nTransportation of Pupils — Appendix By Report on\n\n-\n\n580\n\nCost of — Appendix E,\n\nTraining of Teachers to Co-operate with Librarians Bite E. Schreiber,\nDiscussion :\n\nWm. S. Mack,\n\n5\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\nReport on Rural Schools,\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\nTormey, J. A.— Discussion,\n\n<\n2\n\nZ\n\n‘\n\n_\n\n=\nPe\nee\n\n508\n\n-\n\n1008\n\n7\n\n1014\n1014\n1014\n\n.\n=\n\n=\n=\n:\n\n510\nSty\n983\n\nc\n\na\n\n987\n\n.\n\n"}
{"page": 1142, "printed_page": null, "text": "L132\n\nNATIONAL\n\nF. D. Pease,\nJ. E. Brandigee,\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n-\n\nP. N. Siegler,\nB. R. Vineyard,\nWm. H. Bennett,\n\nAdrian Houtcamp,\nW. N. Sheats,\n“Twentieth Century School, The ce\n\n;\n-\n\niW Hagees\n\nTwofold Translation as a Test of Power and Proficiency,\nTUCKER, GILMAN H.— Education from a Publisher’s Sta\nTucker,\n\nMrs. ANNA\n\ndpoiut,\n\n=\n\n=\n\nP.— Delsarte and His Contribution to Physical Beene’\n\nUniversity Ideals at Princeton—A. T. Ormond, University Ideals at Stanford — Joseph yee,\né\n\n2\n:\n\nVandervoort, Chas. R.—- Discussion,\n\nVAN LiEw, C. C.— Child Study with Co- operation of Parents,\nA National Society for Child Study,VAN SICKLE, J. H.— Opening Remarks,\n“VINCENT, BIsHoP JoHn H.— Tom and His Teachers,\nVineyard, B. R.— Discussion,\n‘Volland, Mr.— Discussion, -\n\nWARD, Henry BALDWIN\n\nW. G, Rauschenberger,\n\n-\n\n2\n-\n\n-\n\n=\n2\n\nWilliams, S. G.— Discussion,\nWinners of Men-—James\n\nM. Giffin,\n-\n\n=\nin General Education,\n\nDiscussion,\n=\n:\nWiles, Mrs. Alice Bradford = Disdistiow:\n\n-\n\nH. Canfield,\n\n2\n=\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\ne\n_\n\n=\n-\n\n=\n\n=\n\n-\n\n-\n\n=\n\n2\n\nWiwnsuip, A. E.— Response to Address of Welcome,\nDiscussion,\n\n-\n\na\na\nr\n\n-\n\nE.— Election\n\n=\n\né\n.\n\n-\n\nee\n\n=\n\n;\n\nH. O. R. Siefert,\n- Westcott, O. S.— Discussion,\nj=\nWhat Not to Do— Miss E stelle Reel,\n©\nWhat to Teach and What to Leave ans\nDiscussion:\nCora J. Cooke,\n:\nWhitcomb, A. K.— Discussion,\n=\n\n‘\n\n-\n\n— Fosloey in ee Sigh School Guvticulus,\n\nWaters, W. E.— Discussion,\nWATKINS, T. H. -— Selection of School Romas\n‘Welcome, Addresses of, Edward Schofield,\n=\nIe bs Wiwaisye, =\n=\n“\nZ\n\nWuitr, Emerson\n\n-\n\n-\n\n2\n\nWINSTON, GEORGE T.— Higher Education in the South;\nWise, H. A.— Discussion,\n:\n:\n:\nWittrich, George — Discussion, 7\nWood, Herbert C.— Discussion, :\nWoods, F. M.— Discussion,\n\nWolfe, L. A.— Discussion,\n\nWoman’s\n\n-\n\n-\n\nClubs in the Public\n\nHenrotin,\n\n-\n\nYoder, A. H.-- Deeccion:\nYust, Mr.— Discussion,\n-\n\n-\n\n=\n\n2\n\n.\n\n-\n\ne\n\nSchools, The Co-pam\n:\n\n.\n\n“\n\n-\n\nee\ne\n\nof —Mrs.\n\n5\n\nE.R. Boyer,\n\n-\n\nM.\n\n2\n\nZoidlogy iin the High- School Cabelewtutiis-- Henry Baldwia Ward,\nDiscussion—\n\nEllen\n\n:\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n=\ne\n\n"}
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{"page": 1146, "printed_page": null, "text": "Ox\nfre\niite\nmeray aise\npieSee ay\na eared\nBese\n\nmea\n\nSe\n\n:\npHi\nthie\na\n\nee\nfe\nSIE cath Lignin\n\naa\n\nsaid Me\nASSIA RST IANO\nrarpatansehisra sesahe acy hry\nhe vig My\n\n.\n\nPai\na\n3\n\nthe i\n\nJt,\n\ni\n\n1K nae\n\nx\n\n"}